English Syntax

Basic Concepts and Clause Structure

Profs. Adriana Tenuta and Ana LarissaFALE/UFMG

Module 2: linguistic forms and syntactic functions

Syntactic categories and relationships

DOWNING, Angela; LOCKE, Philip. A university course in English grammar. London, New York:

Routledge, 2006.

Unit

any stretch of language which constitutes a semantic whole and which has a recognized pattern that is repeated regularly in speech and writing.

Rank of units

units can be divided into classes arranged on a rank-scale and are composed of elements.

rank-scale: order of magnitude

clause group word morpheme

each unit consists of one or more of the rank below it.

Classes of ClausesA. Finite and non-finite clauses

Finite:He is over-qualified for this job

Non-finite:I regret not doing the job.

The non-finite verb forms are: the infinitive; the to-infinitive; the present participle (-ing) gerund (-ing) and the past participle form (-en)

B. Independent and dependent clauses:

IndependentThe complacency of the present

government amazes me.

Dependent/ subordinate: adverbialI’ll let you borrow the tapes provided you

bring them back soon.(adverbial)

embedded: noun and adjective clauses

Everybody knows that he loves her.(nominal)

The letter she wrote never arrived.(adjectival)

Verbless:– lacking all or part of the Mood element (subject and finite):

Although tired, she came.

Abbreviated clauses:He possibly will.

Classes of words

Words are classified grammatically according to traditional terminology as:

- noun- verb- adjective- adverb- preposition- pronoun- article- conjunction

The concept of unit structure

Language has structure.

The term ‘structure’ refers to the relationships that exist between the small units that make up a larger unit.

Example: Table – its elements only constitute a structure when they are related to each other as a horizontal top supported by four vertical legs.

Any structure (unit) is composed of elements (configuration of units).

Each function is in turn realized by a unit, which is, at least potentially, composed of elements (configuration of functions).

UNIT - clause

COMPONENTS / FUNCTIONS

REALIZATIONS / UNITS - groups

COMPONENTS / FUNCTIONS

REALIZATIONS / UNITS - words

REALIZATIONS BY LEXICAL EXPONENTS

Clf S P Od A Components NG VG NG AdvG Realizations d m h o h d h h Components det noun noun aux v det noun adv Realizations The bus strike will affect many people tomorrow Realizations by lexical exponents

Syntactic elements of clauses

Clauses have the greatest number of syntactic elements of all classes of a unit

Subject (S) Fog is dangerous on motorways.

Predicator (P)The elections ended today.

Direct Object (Od) Ted has bought a new motorbike.

Indirect Object (Oi) They sent their friends postcards.

Prepositional Object (Oprep)You must allow for price increases.

Subject Complement (Cs)She is too tired to provide a response.

Object Complement (Co)We consider the situation alarming.

Locative/Goal Complement (Cloc)We flew to Moscow.

Circumstantial Adjunct (A)The news reached us on Tuesday.

Stance Adjucnt (A)Unfortunately, it was too late.

Connective Adjunct (A)However, other friends were there.

Classes of groups

According to the class of word operating as the main or head element:

Nominal Group (NG): TheyThey were the anti-terrorist laws.

Verbal Group (VG): They were studying when you arrived.

Adjectival Group (AdjG):He is powerless to make any changes.

Adverbial group (AdvG):He speaks very slowly indeed.

Prepositional Group (PrepG)He will come within three hours.

Endocentric – Groups which center around one element which prototypically cannot be omitted. The main element can replace the whole group.

NG, VG, AdjG, AdvG

Exocentric – The group does not center around one element. Neither the preposition nor its completive can have the same

syntactic functions as the whole unit. PrepG

Syntactic elements of groups

NG, AdjG and AdvG are composed of threeprimary elements:

- a pre-modifier (m),- a head (h) - a post-modifier (m), which follows the head

NG - also contains the determiner (d)which specifies the head in terms of definitions, quantity and possessiveness, etc.

These are the (d) anti-terrorist (pre-m) laws (h) of that country (post-m).

Syntactic elements of groups

The VG is composed of:

the lexical verb (main element) (v), whichfunctions alone in finite or non-finite forms,or is preceded by auxiliaries (x). The first (or the only) auxiliary is called theoperator (o), which contributes toinformation about tense, modality, numberand person.

They might (o) have (x) been (x) doing (v) the exercise.

Syntactic elements of groups

The PrepG is composed of

- the prepositional head (h)- the completive (c)

- an optional pre-modifier (pre-m)

She lives right (pre-m) across (h) the road (c).

Expanding linguistic units

Linguistic units can be expanded:

Unit complexes

One way to expand a unit is to repeat thatunit, producing a unit complex.

parataxis (+): (coordination – elements of

equal grammatical status)

hypotaxis (x): (subordination - elements of unequal grammatical status)

embedding: a unit of the same rank or a unit of a higher rank realizing a unit’s element.

- a noun clause functioning as direct object of a clause. - a relative clause functioning as post modifier in a noun group (clause as element of a group).

Ellipsis of parts of a unit may occur.Can you do it? Yes, I can.

Recursion (repetition of units) may occur.I saw the man that lives in the house that has the garden that produces tulips that are sold in the market that…

Both paratactic and hypotacticrelationships may be realized

syndetically (by a conjunction) She gets up, and she goes to school.

asyndetically (without a conjunction – by a comma or a pause)

She gets up, she goes to school.

Embedded clauses – noun and adjective clauses

Everybody knows that he loves her.The letter she wrote never arrived.

superordinate + embedded clause

Subordinate or dependent clauses- adverb clauses

I’ll let you borrow the tapes provided you bring them back when I need them.

independent clause + dependent clause