Basic Approaches to Leadership

Basic Approaches to LeadershipBasic Approaches to Leadership

Define Leadership, Trait Theories, Behavioral Theories, Contingency Theories, Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory, Decision Theory: Vroom and Yetton's Leader-

Participation Model, Inspirational Approaches to Leadership, Authentic

Leadership: Ethics and Trust are the Foundation of Leadership, Contemporary leadership Roles, Challenges to the leadership Construct, Finding and Creating Effective leaders.

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Chapter Learning ObjectivesChapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

– Define leadership and contrast leadership and management.

– Summarize the conclusions of trait theories.

– Identify the central tenets and main limitations of behavioral theories.

– Assess contingency theories of leadership by their level of support.

– Contrast the interactive theories (path-goal and leader-member exchange).

– Identify the situational variables in the leader-participation model.

– Show how U.S. managers might need to adjust their leadership approaches in Brazil, France, Egypt, and China.

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 12-2

What Is Leadership?What Is Leadership? Leadership- It is a process as well as property Process of influence people to

direct and coordinate the activities of member of an organized group towards the accomplishment of group activities.

Property- It is the set of quality and characteristics attributes to those who are perceived to successfully employ such influence.

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What Is Leadership?What Is Leadership?

Leadership (core point)– The ability to influence a group

toward the achievement of goals-

– Influencing

– Leading

– Commanding

– Guiding

– Change behavior through non coercive mean

– It changes behavior with the objective of achieving shared goal

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What Is Leadership?What Is Leadership?

Management– Use of authority inherent in

designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members

Both are necessary for organizational success


Difference Between Leaders and ManagersDifference Between Leaders and Managers

Leaders Managers

Innovate AdministerDevelop MaintainInspire ControlLong-term view Short-term viewAsk what and why Ask how and whenOriginate InitiateChallenge the status quo Accept the status quoDo the right things Do things right

Difference Between Leaders and ManagersDifference Between Leaders and Managers John Kotter feels that management is about coping

with complexity. • Good management brings about order and consistency by

drawing up formal plans, designing rigid organization structures, and monitoring results against the plans.

• Leadership is about coping with change.

• Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of the future; then they align people by communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles.

Robert House of Wharton basically concurs: • Managers use the authority inherent in their designated formal

rank to obtain compliance.

• Management consists of implementing vision and strategy, coordinating and staffing, and handling day-to-day problems.

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Difference Between Leaders and ManagersDifference Between Leaders and Managers We define leadership as “the ability to influence a

group toward the achievement of goals.” • The source of this influence may be formal. A person may

assume a leadership role simply because of his/her position.

• Not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers’ leaders.

• Non-sanctioned leadership—the ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organization—is often as important as or more important than formal influence.

• Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment to lead a group.

• Organizations need strong leadership and strong management for optimum effectiveness. Leaders must challenge the status quo, create visions of the future, and inspire organizational members.

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A Conceptual Framework for Understanding LeadershipA Conceptual Framework for Understanding Leadership

Theories of LeadershipTheories of Leadership

Trait theories: Is there a set of characteristics

that determine a good leader?– Personality- energy, physical appearence, good health

– Dominance and personal presence?

– Charisma?

– Self confidence, intellegence, decision making ability

– Achievement?

– Ability to formulate a clear vision?

Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non leaders

Theories of LeadershipTheories of Leadership Trait has 2 qualityInner- God gifted, by birth (physical, intelligence)Acquirable- emotional stability, human relation, empathy,

objectivity, motivational skill, human skill, social skill, communication skill, technical skill

Different author suggested different traits to become a successful leader.

ExampleStogdill- Intelligence, self confidence, sociability, will,

dominance, surgency (talkative, cheerful, alertness, orignality, expressiveness)

Ghiselli- supervisory ability, achievement motivation, self actualisation, intelligence, self assurance, decisiveness.

Trait Theories of LeadershipTrait Theories of LeadershipThe media has long been a believer in trait theories of leadership. Research

efforts at isolating leadership traits resulted in a number of dead ends. A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits.

The trait approach has at least four limitations:Big Five personality framework provided some breakthroughs. Most of the dozens of traits that

emerged could be subsumed under one of the Big Five traits.

Extraversion is the most important trait of effective leaders—More strongly related to leader emergence than to leader effectiveness.

Conscientiousness and openness to experience strong, consistent relationships to leadership

Agreeableness and emotional stability weren’t as strongly correlated with leadership. Recent studies suggest that Emotional Intelligence, may be associated with leadership.

Empathy is the key. There needs to be more rigorous investigation in this area. Traits do a better job at predicting the appearance of leadership than in actually

distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.

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Theories of LeadershipTheories of Leadership Merit

1. If leadership trait could be identified then selection of leaders will become far more easier.

2. Leaders are born not made- is still a very popular concept.3. Personality trait review that leaders are more dominant, more

extrovert, masculine, more conservative and have great interpersonal sensitivity than non leader.

Limitation1. List of personality trait do not follow consistent pattern2. How many trait a successful leader should have is not clear. Also

certain psychological trait can not be quantified.3. Many people who have certain same trait as a leader but still

they are not good leader.4. Contrary to this theory assumption other than personality many

other variables are equally important to determine leaders effectiveness like- Situation, task, follower characteristics.

Behavioral Theories of LeadershipBehavioral Theories of Leadership Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders

from non leaders. (Leadership depends more on person’s act than his trait)

Researchers began to wonder if there was something unique in the way that effective leaders behave. The behavioral approach would have implications quite different from those of the trait approach.

Trait and behavioral theories differ in terms of their underlying assumptions.

Trait- Leadership is basically inborn; therefore we could select the right leaders. Behavioral approach assumption: suggests that we could train people to be

leaders. We can design programs to implant behavioral patterns. If training worked, we could have an infinite supply of effective leaders.

– Behavioral theory: leadership is a skill set and can be taught to anyone, so we must identify the proper behaviors to teach potential leaders

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Behavioral Theories of LeadershipBehavioral Theories of Leadership

4 basic elements effect leaders behavior -

1. Leader

2. Follower

3. Goal

4. Environment (situations)

Out of above some react to favorable behavior or non favorable behavior to leadership.

Important Behavioral Studies Ohio State University University of Michigan (Blake and Mouton’s managerial

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Important Behavioral StudiesImportant Behavioral Studies Ohio State University

Found two key dimensions of leader behavior:• Initiating structure – the defining and structuring of roles, it refers to

behaviour that defines and organise the group task, assign the tasks to employee and supervises their activities.

• Consideration – job relationships that reflect trust and respect. Example- friendliness, respect, supportiveness, openness, trust, concern for welfare of the follower.

Both of above are important. The leader may be low on 1 dimension and high on other or may be high on both or low on both dimension.

Example

Democratic leader is high on initiation as well as consideraton. They tend to achieve high followers performance and satisfaction. But at the same time high initiation from leader may lead to greater rate of grievances, absenteeism, turnover and low job satisfaction for worker performing routine task . Also high consideration may not be good for leader who has rate performance of followers

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Ohio state study-Leader Behaviors and Leadership Styles (Four Key Leader Behaviors)Ohio state study-Leader Behaviors and Leadership Styles (Four Key Leader Behaviors)

Initiating structure behavior

Democratic LeaderHuman relation

Important Behavioral StudiesImportant Behavioral Studies University of Michigan

– Also found two key dimensions of leader behavior:• Employee-oriented – emphasizes interpersonal relationships and is the

most powerful dimension. It measures people factor- personal commitment towards goal achievement, self esteem maintenence, responsibility based on trust, satisfying internal personal relationship.

• Production-oriented – emphasizes the technical aspects of the job. Like initating structure it measure work orientation. It is an attitude of leader towards quality policy, decision procedure, process, creativeness of research, work efficiency, volume of output, quality of staff services.

– The dimensions of the two studies are very similar-

Draws on both studies to assess leadership style– “Concern for People” is Consideration and Employee-Orientation

– “Concern for Production” is Initiating Structure and Production-Orientation

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University of Michigan- Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®University of Michigan- Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid® Style is determined by position on the graph

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Country Club Management

Authoritity Obediencetype

Impoverished Management

Team Management

Organizational Man Management

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®

The grid identifies 5 leadership style based upon 2 factors-

(1,1)- Minimun affort is required to get work done and to sustain the organization morale.

(1,9)- Thoughtful attention is needed to lead people in friendly and comfortable organisational atmosphere and work tempo.

(9,1)- Efficiency results from arranging work in such a way that human element has little effect. This leader believes in getting work done at all costs.

(5,5)- Adequate performance through balance of work requirements and maintaining satisfactory morale. Leader has moderate concern for both.

(9.9)- High concern for both. Ideal approach to leadership

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Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®But the belief that one style of leadership style is better than other is

contrary to the contingency approach. (9,9) style may be appropriate for organization experiencing difficult growth rate, different labor relation, competition.

Based on the findings of Blake and Mouton, managers were found to perform best under a 9,9 style, as contrasted, for example, with a 9,1 (authority type) or 1,9 (liaises-faire type) style. Unfortunately, the grid offers a better framework for conceptualizing leadership style than for presenting any tangible new information.

LimitationBehavioural theory had moderate success in identifying consistant

relationships between leader’s behavior and group behavior, but it fails to take consideration of situational factor that influence success or failure.

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The Path-goal Theory of Leadership

Contingency TheoriesContingency Theories

While trait and behavior theories do help us understand leadership, an important component is missing: the environment in which the leader exists

Contingency Theory deals with this additional aspect of leadership effectiveness studies. It says that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between leadership style and degree to which situation gives control to the leader.

Three key theories:– Fielder’s Model

– Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

– Path-Goal Theory12-23

Fiedler ModelFiedler Model1. Identify (static) leadership style

2. Define the situation (variable)

3. Matching leadership style with situational factor

Identify (static) leadership style-

As pr this theory there are 2 Style—

1. Relationship orientated (high score)

2. Task oriented

Manager would either be relationship orientated or task oriented.

Now how to find the manager’s leadership style. This is done on the basis of Least preferred co worker (LPC) questionnaire which contains set of 16 contrasting adjective like-

Relationship orientated (high score) Task oriented Pleasant- unpleasent Efficient inefficient Open- guarder Supportive- hostile

Respondent were asked to rate their co worker on 1- to – 8 scale on the basis of each question.. 80% respondent either gave low or high LPC score, only 20% would give mid score.

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Fiedler ModelFiedler ModelBased on score individual leadership style was determined which as per Fiedler leadership style is constant (leaving mid score). As per this theory Style was determined based on scores—

1.Relationship orientated (high score)

2.Task oriented (low score)

Define the situation (variable)

After identifying LPC, Fiedler analyse situation factor that determine leadership effectiveness.

The situational factors are-

1.Leader member relationship- degree of confidence, trust, respect to leader

2.Task structure- degree to which job is structured or non structured

3.Position power- influence of leader over power variables such as- hiring, firing, discipline, promotion, salary increase etc.

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Graphic Representation of Fiedler’s ModelGraphic Representation of Fiedler’s Model

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Used to determine which type of leader

to use in a given

situation

Fiedler ModelFiedler Model The Fiedler model proposes matching them up to achieve maximum leadership

effectiveness. Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations

that were very favorable to them and in situations that were very unfavorable. » Fiedler would predict that when faced with a category I, II, Ill, VII, or VIII

situation, task-oriented leaders perform better. » Relationship-oriented leaders, however, perform better in moderately favorable

situations—categories IV through VI. Fiedler has condensed these eight situations to three. Task-oriented leaders

perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations.

Given Fiedler’s findings, you would seek to match leaders and situations. Because Fiedler views an individual’s leadership style as being fixed, there are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness.

» First, you can change the leader to fit the situation. » The second alternative would be to change the situation to fit the leader.

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Fiedler ModelFiedler ModelMerit

1.It gives importance to the leader subordinate and situation.

2.Leader match is a programmed learning technique that trains leaders to modify situation to fit their personality.

Demerit

1.LPC score not stable.

2.LPC scale –ve task oriented, +ve relation oriented. There is no explanation why –ve is task & +ve is relation

3.Many terms are not clear an introduce error like structured and unstructured are relative term.

4.It lacks theoretical explanation. Why particular trait is more desirable than other in particular situation.

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Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource TheoryFiedler’s Cognitive Resource Theory

A refinement of Fiedler’s original model:– Focuses on stress as the enemy of rationality and creator of

unfavorable conditions

– A leader’s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to that stress

Research is supporting the theory.

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Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational LeadershipHersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership This theory focuses on followers. Effective leadership style depends upon

selecting right leadership style depending upon level of followers readiness.

A model that focuses on follower “readiness”

– Followers can accept or reject the leader Followers readiness is the extent to which people have willingness and

ability to accomplish a specific task.

Follower unable + unwilling = task oriented

Follower able + willing = relationship oriented

The relationship moves through 4 phases, a kind of life cycle is made around subordinate development and maturity and leader needs to use different style with each phase.

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Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational LeadershipHersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership

A paternal model: – As the child matures, the adult releases more and more

control over the situation

– As the workers become more ready, the leader becomes more laissez-faire

An intuitive model that does not get much support from the research findings


The Situational Theory of Leadership

House’s Path-Goal Theory (contingency model)House’s Path-Goal Theory (contingency model)

Builds from the Ohio State studies and the expectancy theory of motivation

The Theory: According to this theory leader’s job is to use structure, support and rewards to create a favorable environment that helps employees reach the organization’s goals.– Leaders provide followers with information, support, and

resources to help them achieve their goals– Leaders help clarify the “path” to the worker’s goals– Leaders can display multiple leadership types

Four types of leaders:– Directive: focuses on the work to be done– Supportive: focuses on the well-being of the worker– Participative: consults with employees in decision-making– Achievement-Oriented: sets challenging goals

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Path-Goal ModelPath-Goal Model

Two classes of contingency variables:– Environmental are outside of employee control– Subordinate factors are internal to employee

Mixed support in the research findings 12-34

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) TheoryLeader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

A response to the failing of contingency theories to account for followers and heterogeneous leadership approaches to individual workers

LMX Premise:– Because of time pressures, leaders form a special

relationship with a small group of followers: the “in-group”

– This in-group is trusted and gets more time and attention from the leader (more “exchanges”)

– All other followers are in the “out-group” and get less of the leader’s attention and tend to have formal relationships with the leader (fewer “exchanges”)

– Leaders pick group members early in the relationship

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LMX ModelLMX Model

How groups are assigned is unclear– Follower characteristics determine group membership

Leaders control by keeping favorites close

Research has been generally supportive 12-36

Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton ’s Leader-Participation Model Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton ’s Leader-Participation Model How a leader makes decisions is as important as what is decided

Premise:– Leader behaviors must adjust to reflect task structure

– “Normative” model: tells leaders how participative to be in their decision-making of a decision tree

• Five leadership styles• Twelve contingency variablesGood or bad decision making will effect the effectiveness of leader in long run.

Also how the decision has been made (participative, autocratic) effects participants job satisfaction, productivity, stress turnover etc., thus the manner in which leader handle their issue can be crucial in determining their effectiveness. Structure and un structure companies - policy procedure, norms will direct the leaders how to make decision.

Research testing for both original and modified models has not been encouraging – Model is overly complex

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Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton ’s Leader-Participation Model


Leader-Participation Model In 1973, Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a leader-

participation model. Recognizing that task structures have varying demands for routine and non-routine activities, these researchers argued that leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure.

The model was normative—it provided a sequential set of rules that should be followed in determining the form and amount of participation in decision making, as determined by different types of situations.

The model was a decision tree incorporating seven contingencies and five leadership styles.

Leadership style-

Autocratic I- Solves problems using information readily available.

Autocratic II- Obtains additional information from subordinate and then solves problems

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Leadership style-

Consultative I- shares problems, obtains ideas from subordinates, then choose solutions from idea obtained.

Consultation II- Final decision may or may not reflect subordinate input.

Group- Leader –subordinate behave like a group, leader acts as chair person, who focuses and direct discussion but does not imposes his will on group.

.

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Victor vroom identified 7 question to be answered to determine appropriate style.

1. Does problem poses quality requirement.

2. Does leader have sufficient information to make quality decision.

3. Is the problem structured.

4. Is acceptance of decision by subordinate is imp. For effective implementation.

5. Is leader reasonable certain that if he makes decision it will be acceptable by subordinate.

6. Do subordinate share the enterprise goals to be attained in solving this problem,

7. If conflict over subordinates over prefered solutions likely.

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More recent work by Vroom and Arthur Jago revised this model.

– Retaining the same five alternative leadership styles but adds a set of problem types and expands the contingency variables to twelve.

The twelve contingency variables. Research testing both the original and revised leader-participation models has

been encouraging. Criticism has focused on variables that have been omitted and on the model’s

overall complexity. Other contingency theories demonstrate that stress, intelligence, and experience

are important situational variables. The model is far too complicated for the typical manager to use on a regular basis. Vroom and his associates have provided us with some specific, empirically-

supported contingency variables that you should consider when choosing your leadership style.

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Basic Approaches to Leadership

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