BARD! VERB MORPHOLOGY - A Transformational Analysis · study of the Ba di verbal system. The model...
320
BARD! VERB MORPHOLOGY - A Transformational Analysis by Christopher Douglas Metcalfe A thesis submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Australian National University. April, 1972.
Transcript of BARD! VERB MORPHOLOGY - A Transformational Analysis · study of the Ba di verbal system. The model...
BARD! VERB MORPHOLOGY
- A Transformational Analysis
by
Christopher Douglas Metcalfe
A thesis submitted as partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy at the Australian National University.
April, 1972.
i i
Except where otherwise acknowledged in the text,
this thesis represents the original research of
the author.
T I TLE P AGE
DECLARAT I ON
TABLE O F CONTENTS
TAB LE OF CON TEN T S
P REF ACE
AB S TRA CT
MAP
l . 0 I N TRODUCT I ON
1 . 1 T h e B afd i L angu age
1 . 2 An O ve r v i e w o f t h e B a r d i
1 . 3 A i m
1 . 4 T h e o r e t i c a l App r o ach
1 . 5 P re s e n t a t i o n
2 . 0 T HE B A SE COMP ONEN T
2 . 1 B a s e Ru l e s
B . l S e n t e n c e
B . 2 P r e - S e n t e n c e
B . 3 P r e d i c a t e P h r a s e
B . 4 V e rb P h r a s e
B . 5 C o mp l eme n t
B . 6 P os tpo s i t i o n a l P h r a s e
B . 7 N o un P h r a s e
B . 8 A ux i l i a r y
B . 9 A d ve rb
B . 1 0 P o s tp o s i ti on
B . 1 1 C o njun c t i o n
Ve rb
i i i
i
i i
i i i
v i i i
x
xi i
1
5
1 0
1 0
2 1
3 0
3 3
3 6
3 9
4 5
so
5 2
5 3
5 6
5 7
6 0
6 3
L . l
L . 2
L . 3
L . 4
L . 5
L . 6
L . 7
3 . 0
T . l
T . 2
T . 3
T . 4
T . 5
T . 6
T . 7
T . 7 . 1
T . 7 . 2
T . 8
T . 8 . 1
T . 8 . 2
2 . 2
2 . 3
2 . 4
3 . 1
T h e ' Ma s t e r ' P h r a s e - ma r k er
L e x i c a l Ru l e s
N o mi n a l
Pro n o un
N o un
Ve rb N uc l e u s
T e mp o r a l Ad v e rb
A sp e c t
T e n s e
L e x i c a l E n t r i e s
T HE T RAN S FO RMA T I ON AL COMPO N E N T
T r an s f o r m a t i o n a l Rul e s
Pro n omi n a l A f f i x
S ub j e c t P ro n omi n a l P r e f ix
O b j e c t Pr o n om i n a l S u f f i x
N umbe r Pr e f i x
A c t i o n T yp e
E x t r a - a c ti on
I n t r a - a c t i o n
Pre - S t e m T r an s f o rma t i o n s
Pr e - S te m P l a c eme n t
A c t i on C h an g e
Re t ro - a c t i ve V e rb s
Re t ro - a c t i on I
Re t r o - a c t i o n I I
i v
6 6
6 8
7 1
7 1
7 4
7 9
9 9
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 0 8
1 1 5
1 1 8
1 2 0
1 2 4
1 2 8
1 3 1
1 3 5
1 3 6
1 3 7
1 3 9
1 4 1
1 4 4
T . 9
T . 9 . 1
T . 9 . 2
T . 1 0
T . 1 0 . 1
T . 1 0 . 2
T . 1 1
I r r e a l i s E xp r e s s i o ns
P o t e n t i al
N e ga t i ve
I n t e n s i ve A c t i o n
Ve r b S te m Re dup l i c a t i o n
P r e - S tem Re d up l i c a t i o n
I n t r a - a c t i on E mp ha t i c
N e ga t i ve E mp h a s i s
Ye s - N o Q ue s t i on s
I mp e r a t i ve
P o s tp o s i t i o n a l P h r a s e S u f f ix e s
A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x
Re fe r e n t i a l S u f f i x
Adve r b i a l T r a n s fo rm a t i o n s
v
1 4 5
1 4 7
1 4 9
1 5 0
1 5 1
1 5 3
1 5 6
1 5 8
1 5 9
1 6 3
T . 1 2
T . 1 3
T . 1 4
T . 1 5
T . 1 5 . 1
T . 1 5 . 2
T . 1 6
T . 1 6 . 1
T . 1 6 . 2
T . 1 7
T . 1 7 . 1
T . 1 7 . 2
T . 1 8
T . 1 8 . 1
T . 1 8 . 2
T . 1 8 . 3
T i me A d v e r b/Auxi l i a r y A g r e eme n t 1 6 7
R . l
R . 2
R . 3
R . 4
R . 5
' Th e m ' D e l e t i on
C on j un c t i o n T ra n s fo rma t i on s
S e que n t i a l C o n j un c t io n
P ur po s i ve C on j un c t i on
Re l a t e r C o n s t r u c t i o n s
T e mp o r a l Re l a te r
E mb e dd e d N o m i n a l Re l a t e r
P r o n om i n a l S u f f i x Re l a te r
3 . 2 Re a l isat i o n R u l e s
S ub j e c t P ro n omi n a l Pre f i x
A ux i l i a r y
1 6 9
1 7 0
1 7 3
1 7 7
1 7 9
1 8 1
1 8 6
1 8 8
Ob j e c t /As s o c i a t i ve P ron omi n a l S u f f i x 1 9 2
N umb e r P r e f i x
Re f e r e n t i a l S u f f i x
1 9 4
1 9 5
v i
4 . 0 THE P H ON O LO G I CAL C OMP ONENT
4 . 1 P h o n o l og i c a l P ro c e s s e s 197
4 . 2 O th e r F a c t o rs 2 0 0
4 . 3 Mo rp hopho n e m i c Ru le s 2 0 2
M . l S ub j e c t P re f i x Mo d i f i c a t i o n 2 0 3
M . 2 E x t r a - a c t i o n M a rke r De l e t i o n 2 0 8
M . 3 .!l P re f i x De l e t i on 211
M . 4 P l ur a l Ma rke r D e l e t i o n 2 1 3
M . 5 C l a s s M a rk e r D e le t i o n 2 1 5
M . 6 V e rb S t ern V o w e l Mo rp hophonerne s 2 21
M . 7 Ep e n t h e t i c Vowe l 2 24
M . 8 Cla s s M ark e r A s s i mi l a t i o n 2 2 8
M . 9 0 P re c e d e n c e 2 3 0
M . 10 r_- F i n a l Ve rb S t e rn 2 3 1
M . 11 P ro n om i n a l S u f f i x Mod i f i c a t i o n 2 3 2
M . 12 S u f f i x Vowe l A dju s tme n t 2 3 8
M . 1 3 S u f f i x C o n s o n a n t A dju s tm e n t 2 4 2
M . 14 + - Re mo va l 24 3
5 . 0 RU LE O UT P UT
5 . 1 Comp l e t e V e rb D e r i vat i o n s 244
5 . 2 V e rb P a r a d i g m s 2 5 0
P . l �- C l a s s Ve r b s 2 5 1
P . 2 b- C l a s s V e r b s 2 54
P . 3 a- c l a s s V e rb s 2 5 7
P . 4 .9.- C l a s s V e r b s 2 6 0
v i i
6.0 APPE NDICE S
6 . 1 I r re�u l a r V e rb s 2 6 3
6 . 2 V e rb Mo rpheme L i s t 2 6 6
6 . 3 T e x t 2 7 0
7 . 0 B I B L I O G RAPH Y 2 8 0
v i i i
P REFA CE
T h i s s tu dy wa s c arr i e d o u t un d e r a r e s e a r c h g r a n t f rom
the Aus t r a l i an Inst i t ute of Abo r i g i n a l S t u d i e s , ( A . I . A . S ) , ahd
und e r th e d i r e c t i o n o f the L i n g u i s t i c s D e p a r tme n t o f the
Re s e a r c h S c hoo l of P a c i f i c S t ud i e s , A u s t r a l i an N a t i o n a l
Un i ve r s i ty . Ap a r t f ro m the b a s i c g r a n t , t h e I n s t i tu te
f i n a n c e d two p e r i od s o f f i e l dwork : o n e i n D e rby , W . A . , from
M a y , 1 9 6 9 , to Ap r i l , 1 9 7 0 , a nd t h e o the r on S u n da y I s l a nd
from O c t ob e r , 1 9 7 0 , t o F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 1 . T o t h e C o un c i l a n d
S t a f f o f t h e A . I . A . S . I wi s h t o r e c o r d a s i n c e r e w o r d o f
app r e c i a t i on .
I h a ve be n e f i t t e d g re a t ly f rom i n te r a c t i o n w i t h c o l l e ag ue s
wi th i n the L i n g ui s t i c s D e p a r tme n t , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r from the
H e a d of th e Dep a r tme n t , P r o fe s s o r S . A . Wu rm , and f rom my
s up e r v i s o r s , D r T om D ut t on an d Dr Da ry l T ry on . P r o f e s s o r
Bob D i x o n a n d D r Jo hn H a i m a n f ro m t h e S ch o o l o f Ge n e r a l S t ud i e s'
L i n g u i s t i c De p a r tme n t a l s o p ro v i de d e n c o u r a g eme n t a n d i n s t r u c t
i o n wh i c h w a s g r e a t l y app r e c i a t e d .
O n t h e f i e l d , I w a s g i ve n we l c ome a s s i s t an c e i n the e a r ly
s t age s by be i n g a l l owe d f u l l use of r o u gh f i e l d - n o t e s o n B a f d i
comp i l e d b y A la n a n d V a l Re e s , H o w a r d C o a t e a n d Wi l f ed D o ug l a s .
T he L omb ad i n a M i s s i o n s t a f f 1 t h e B rown f am i ly o f Cyg n e t B a y
a n d L o u a n d E l a i n e H i l l s f r om t h e C ape L e v e q u e l i g h t h o u s e
g e n e r o u s l y p r ov i d e d ho s p i t a l i ty an d a s s i s t a n c e i n c i r c um
s t a n ce s wh i c h we r e , at t i me s , e x t r e me l y t r y i n g .
ix
Mr D a v i d Dry s d a l e wh o , wi th h i s wi f e , has ' g i ve n ' h i m s e l f
i n e v e r y s e n s e t o th e s u c c e s s o f the B afdi p e op le i n the i r C o -
op e r a t i ve ve n t ur e , a s s i s t e d m e i n eve ry way p o s s i b l e . I c a n
o n l y e xp r e s s my d e e p th ankf u l n e s s fo r h i s he lp , e n c o u r a g e me n t
an d c omp a n i o n s h i p .
W i tho u t the un c omp l a i n i n g s upp o r t o f my wi f e a n d f a mi l y
a n d the i r r e a dy r e a d j u s tme n t t o f i e l d s i tu a t i o n s , th i s pr o j e c t
c o u ld n o t h a ve be e n c a r r i e d t h r o ugh .
M y d e ep e s t d e b t mu s t r e ma i n w i th t h e B a f d i p e op le a n d ,
in p a r t i c u l a r w i th my p r i m a r y i n f o rm a n t , M r T ud o r E j a i .
The s e won de r f ul p e op l e s o wi l l i n g l y a l l owe d me to s h a r e some
th i n g o f t h e i r c oun t r y , t h e i r way o f l i fe , t he i r hop e s an d
p ro b l ems a n d a l i t t le o f th e i r l an gu ag e .
x
BARD I VE RB MO RP H O L OGY
- A Tr a n s fo rma t i o n a l A n a lys i s
AB S T RAC T
The B a�d i Abo r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e i s spok e n b y s ome th r e e h u nd r e d
a n d s i x ty p e op l e l o c a t e d p r i ma r i l y a t D e rb y , S und ay I s l and
and Lomb ad i n a in t h e K i mbe r l ey d i v i s i o n of N o r th - we s t e r n Aus t-
r a l i a . I t i s ch a r a c t e r i s e d , a s wi th many A u s t r a l i an Ab o r -
i g i n a l l an g u age s , b y a c o mp l e x s y s t e m o f ve rb a l a f f i x i n g .
The twe n ty- two s e t s o f a f f i x e s wh i c h , w i t h f r e e fo rm s, m a y be
c o n s t i t ue n t s of the ve rb p r o d u c e an ama z i n g l y c omp l e x v a r i e ty
o f ve rb a l fo rms m a n y o f wh i ch c an s t an d a l o n e a s c o mp l e t e
s e n t e n c e s . S u ch h i g h l y a g g l u t i n a t i ve l a n g u a g e s p re s e n t
c o n s i d e r ab l e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n an a l y s i s and d e s cr i p t i on , a s a
l i n e ar l i s t i n g o f ve rb c o n s t i t u e n t s b e c ome s e x t r e me l y c o n f u s -
i n g i n i ts i n t r i c a c y . F u r th e r p r ob l e m s a r i s e c o n c e rn i n g the
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s of the a f f i x e s and the w i d e r re l a t i o n s b e t
we e n ve rb mo rph o l o g y a n d s ynt a x .
A mo de l o f ' g e n e r a t i ve t r a n s fo rma t i o n a l ' g r amm a r h a s p ro v e d
to b e a mo s t e f f i c i e n t and r e ve a l i n g a n a l y t i c a l d e v i c e i n the
s t udy of the B a �d i ve rb a l s y s t em . T h e mo d e l ut i l i s e d h e r e
i s o n e mo d i f i e d f r o m N o a m C h o m s k y ' s A spe c t s o f the Th e o ry o f
S y n t ax and f ro m d e v e l opme n t s w i th i n t h i s mode l . Th i s f r ame -
work has p roved mo s t app rop r i a t e b e c au s e o f i t s p r i m a r y c on c e rn
w i th s y n t ax and b e c au s e i t s g e n e r a t i ve b a s e p ro v i d e s a s e t o f
e xp l i c i t r u l e s whi ch a c c ou n t f o r th e c omp l e x mo rph o l o gy . I n
t h a t many ve rb c on s t i t ue n t s and the i r i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s c an
b e d e l i n e a t e d w i t h i n t h e t r a n s f o rma t i o n a l compo n e n t , the d e s
c r i p t i o n o f the mo s t i mp o r t an t p a r t s o f th e ve r b i s c o n s i d e r -
x i
ab l y s imp l i f i e d . The B a{di v e rb i s , in e s s e n c e , a ' s e nt e n c e -
i n -m i n i a tu r e ' s o tha t t h e mo rpho l o g i c a l/ s y n ta c t i c r e l a t i on sh ip
i s o f pr i m a r y con c e r n . M u c h o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s d e vo te d
t o the exp l o r a t i on a nd d e s c r i p t i on o f th i s r e lat i o n sh ip w i th i n
a g e n e r a t i v e , t ran s f o rm a t i o n a l f r amewo r k .
Th i s s tu dy h a s a n exp l a na to r y e mph a s i s t h r o u g ho u t , w i th t h e
at t emp t t o d emo n s t r a t e t h e p ro c e s ses i n vo l ve d i n th e d e r i v
a t i on o f t h e s ur fa c e f o r m s o f Ba;d i v e r b s f rom th e i r u n d e r
l y i n g bas e s t r u c t u r e a n d t o r e lat e t h i s bas e to i t s w i d e r
g r amm a t i ca l c o n t e x t .
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SCALE 1 7 S t a t u t e M i l e s t o the I n c h .
1
1 . 0 I N T RODUCT I ON
1.1 T h e B a r di L an g u ag e
B a�d i i s a n A u s t r a l i an Abor i g i n a l l an g u ag e s p ok e n i n the
Kimbe r l e y d i v i s i o n of N o r t h - we s t e rn A u s t r a l i a by some t h r e e
hu n d r e d a n d s i x ty p e op l e, 9 0 % o f whom l i ve in a n d a r o u n d
De r by, Sun d ay I s l a n d, B r o o m e a n d Lomb a d i n a .1
( c . f . Map , p a g e xii)
I t i s a me mbe r o f wha t C ap e l l ( 1 9 6 3 : K . l ) c a l l s t h e
' D amp i e r L a n d ' 2
comp l ex o f l a n g ua g e s whi c h a r e c l a s s i f i e d
1 M r M . V . Ro b i n s o n, who s e f o r t h c om i ng d i s s e r t a t i on w i l l p r o v i d e
a mo r e g e n e r a l a n d c omp r e he n s ive d i s c u s s i o n o f b a c k g r o u n d f a c t
o r s, ha s k i n d l y s up p l i e d t h e fo l l o w i n g p op u l a t i o n f i g u r e s o b
t a i n ed by a s u rve y c a r r i e d o ut du r i n g 1 9 7 1 .
De r b y a n d Sun day I s l an d
Lomb adin a
B r oome
B e ag l e B a y
1 7 0
1 0 0
5 0
1 2
O th e r C e n t r e s ( Mo w a n j u m, Wyndh am, P o r t H e d l a n d , 3 0
P e r t h, e t c . )
T OTAL 3 6 2
Ow i n g t o the d i f f i c u l t y o f t r a c i n g a l l B a�di p e op l e a n d b e c a u s e
o f t h e h i g h mobi li t y o f t h e p e op l e , i t i s to be s t r e s s e d t h a t
the s e f i g u r e s a r e o n l y a n e s t im a t e a t a pa r t i cu l ar po i n t o f
t ime .
2 The o t h e r ' D amp i e r L an d ' l an g u a g e s a r e : D j ab e r d j ab e r , N j u l -
n j u l , Nima n b ur u , D j awi , D j u g a n, Jau o r a n d N g o rmba l . T he s e
a r e t h e ' N y u l ny u l a n ' f am i l y o f l a ng u ag e s in t he c l a s s i f i c a t i on
o f O ' G r a dy , Wurm an d H a l e ( 1 9 6 6 ) a l t h o u g h the y a dd Warwa a n d
N y i g i n a . Ke r r ( 1 9 6 9 ) p r e s e n t s a c ompa r a t i v e 5 3 8 - w o r d l i s t fo r
a l l t he s e l an g u a g e s tog e th e r w i t h o n e f o r G a r a d j a r i .
2
mo r e g e n e r a l l y a s 'pre f i x i n g , n o n - c l a ss i f y i n g ' 1 l a n g u ag e s
( Cap e l l 1 9 4 0 : 4 1 1 ) .
C h a r a cte r i st i c o f t he p r e f i x i n g no n - c l a s s i fy i n g l a n g u ag e s
o f th e Kimbe r l e y divis i o n i s the i r comp l e x mo r pho l o g y and h i gh
d e g r e e o f v e r b a l a f f i x i n g . T he p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s i s c o n f in ed
to B a r d i v e r b mo rpho l o g y a n d i t s r e l a t i on s h i p to the wi d e r
s y n t a x . T h e s t ud y i s ba s e d p r im a r i l y up on a n i n te n s i ve
sur vey o f s ome f o ur h und re d v e r b s a nd f o u r h un d r e d a n d f i fty
pag e s o f te x t mate r i a l .2
T h e r e h a s be e n n o p r e v i o u s pub l i s he d 'de pth' study o f
B atd i , a l t h o u g h qu i t e exte n s i v e re f e r e n c e h a s be en ma d e t o
d i f f e r e nt a sp e cts o f B a r d i l a n g u a ge a n d c u ltu r e i n a nth r o p -
1 h . T at lS, 'no n - c l a s s i f y i n g' i n n ot p o s s e s s i n g n o u n c l a s s e s ,
a n d 'p r e f i x ing' i n t h a t the v e r b ' e x p r e s s e s s ub j e c t . and o b j e ct
by p r e f i x e s, wh i l e te n s e , moo d a n d a s p e ct a r e exp r e s s e d by
s u f f i x e s . ' (C ap e l l 1956 : 2 6 ) I n f a ct , B a r d i doe s n ot c omp ly
e nti re ly w ith th i s 'g e n e r a l pr i n c i p l e ' in th at th e bo u n d
p ro n om i n a l ob j e ct s a r e exp r e s s e d by s u f f i x e s to t h e ve rb stem .
2 T o obv i ate the n e c e s s i ty o f a c o n t i n u a l r e p e t i t i on o f s u c h
p h r a s e s a s ' o n t h e pr e s e nt e v i d en c e' a n d 'a s f a r a s i s kn own ' ,
g e n e r a l i s e d c l a im s a n d p r i n c i p l e s p r e s e nte d i n th i s study a r e
va l i d with r e f e re n c e t o the s e v e r b s an d t e x t s . F o r i n sta n c e ,
i t i s sta te d o n p a g e 81 t h at the r e a r e no T - i n i t i a l v e rb
ste rn s . T h i s is to s a y th at n o n e h a ve be e n f o u nd , b u t i t
does not claim that instances of such stems cannot ex i s t .
A c k n ow l e d gme n t i s r e c o r d e d he r e o f t h e c o n c o r d a n c e a n a l y s i s
o f 18,000 wo r d s o f B a r d i t e xt m a t e r i a l c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e
C omp u t e r P r o g r amm i n g S e ct i o n o f t h e J o i n t S c h o o l s ' S e r v i c e s ,
A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , C anb e r r a .
1 . d l' . i l' 1
o ogica l a n 1n g u1s t c i te r a t u r eo
3
T he s e m a te r i a l s , and
p a rtic u l a r l y N e k e s and Wo rms (19 5 3 ) wh i c h con t a i n s a c on s i d -
e r ab l e b o d y o f B afd i m a t e r i a l , we r e o f be n e f i t i n t h e e a r l y
s t ag e s o f fieldwo rk a n d , wh e r e r e l e va n t , we r e che c k e d and
in co rp o r a te d i n to t h e a n a l y s i s .
T he re i s a re l a t i ve l y s up e r f i c i a l d i v i s i on o f the B a fd i
i n t o two g r o up s the ' I s l a n d e r s ' and the ' M a in l a n d e r s•2
T e r r i t o r i a l c on t i g u i ty a n d in t e rm a r r i a ge h ave be en t h e p r i m a ry
f a c to r s l ea d i n g t o a D j a w i i n f l u e n c e up on the I s l an d e r s and
a N y u l n y u l i n f l ue n c e upo n t he M a i n l a n d e r s .3
T h i s p r e s e n t
1 P e r ip h e r a l s o u r c e s o f l a n gu ag e d a t a we r e : Wo rm s ( 1 9 3 8 ,
1 9 4 2 , 1 9 4 4 , 1 9 5 0 a , 1 9 5 0 b , 1 9 5 2 , 1 9 5 7); N e ke s ( 1 9 3 9);
C ap e l l a n d E l k in ( 1 9 3 7); C ap e l l ' s c omp a ra t i ve a n d c l a s s -
i f i c a t o r y a r t i c l e s ( 1 9 3 7 , 1 9 40 , 1 9 5 6) 1 E l k i n ' s a n t h r o p -
o l og i c a l a r t i c l e s , pa r t i c u l a r l y ( 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 3 5); K e r r ( 1 9 6 9) .
2 O n e o f t h e s i g n i f i c an t l i ng u i s t i c d i s t i n c t i on s be twe en t h e
two g r o up s c o n c e rn s f i n a l vo we l s . A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f B afd i
sp e e c h i s the d e - vo i c i n g o f f i na l vowe l s b u t t h i s i s l e s s p r o -
n o u n c e d w i th t h e I s l a n d g roup . N e ke s a n d Wo r m s ( 1 9 5 3 ) , wh o
c on c e n t r a t e d o n t h e ' M a i n l and ' g roup a t Lomb a d i n a , r e c ogn i s e
c omp a r a t iv e l y f e w f i n a l vowe l s .
3 I t s e em s p r o b ab l e th a t , ove r the n i n e t e e n th c e n tu r y , c on t i n -
u a l t e r r i t o r i a l p r e s su r e w a s b e i n g a pp l i e d t o t h e B a f d i b y
the mo r e s o u t h e r n ' t r i b e s ' i n p a r t i cu l ar , t h e N y u l ny u l ,
who w e r e t h e i r clo s e s t n e i g hbou r s . Towa r d s t h e end o f t h e
c e ntu r y , th e Ba fd i o c cup i e d th e n o r th e r n t ip o f t h e D amp i e r
P e n i n s u l a . A t t h i s t im e , t h e i s l an d s i n t h e m o u t h o f K i n g
S o un d , and e sp e c i a l l y S und ay I s l an d , we r e i n h ab i t e d b y t h e
D j awi p e op l e ( c . f . C ampbe l l a n d B i r d 1 9 1 4 : 5 2 ) . T h r o u gh ou t
t h e p r e s e n t c e n tu r y , t h e B a f d i i n c r e a s i n g ly i n te r a c te d a n d i n t e r
m a r r i e d wi t h the D j aw i , f in a l l y dom i n a t i ng t h e i s l an d c omp l e x .
4
study i s b a s e d uvo n m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d f rom t h e I s l and group .
T h e sh i f t in f i e l dwo r k l oca t i on f r o m D e r b y t o Sun d ay
I s l and ( s e e P r e f a c e) fo l l o we d f r om a m o v em e n t among t h e B afd i
pe op l e wh i c h wi l l a f f e c t p r o fo und l y t h e f u t u r e o f t h e i r
l an g u age , s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d c u l t u r e . U n t i l t he b e g i n n ing
of 1 9 7 0 , S un d ay I s l a n d h ad r ema i n e d un i n h a b i t e d s i n c e be i n g
va c a t e d by t h e B a f d i in 1 9 6 4 . I n 1 9 7 0 two o f the o l d e r m e n
d e t e rm i n e d o f t he i r own a c c o r d t o r e tu rn t o t h e I s l and .
F rom t h i s be g i n n i n g , a n d w i t h t h e j u d i c i o u s and be n i f i c en t
a s s i s t an c e o f a r e t i r e d E u ro p e a n c oup l e , M r a nd M r s D a v i d
D r y s da l e , th e r e h a s be e n fo rme d a f u l l y r e g i s t e r e d c o - op e r a t i ve
ve n t u r e und e r the t i t l e o f ' T h e B a r d i Co - op e r a t i ve So c i e ty ' .
F r om f o r t y to s i x t y p e op l e n ow l i ve on Su nd ay I s l a nd o r t h e
s u r r o und i n g i s l a nd s a n d , w i t h t h e d ev e l opm e n t o f v i ab l e in du s t
r i e s , th i s n um b e r s hou l d g r ow an d s t ab i l i s e .1
I n th i s c a s e ,
i t i s c e r t a i n tha t t h e B afd i l an gu a g e wi l l b e r e v i t a t i s e d and
t ha t i t s u s e as t h e pr ima r y l an gu age of t h e p e op l e wi l l con -
t i n u e f o r a c o n s i d e ra b l e p e r i o d .
1 . A n ew s p ape r r e po r t , ( th e We s t Au s t r a l i a n , We d n e s d a y , J a n u a r y
19, 1972) which has been confirmed from other i n fo rm a l s o u r c e s ,
g i ve s de ta i l s o f a d e ve l opme n t whi c h cou l d a f f e c t p ro f o un d l y
t h e f u t u r e o f t h e Co - op er a t i ve . I t s t a t e s th a t , ' a b i g
Sy dn ey - b a s e d f i s h i n g c om p a n y ha s o f f e r ed t h e B afd i A bo r i g i n e s
o f S un d a y I s l an d t he e qu i pm e n t t h e y h a v e b e e n s e e k i ng t o s t a r t
a f i s h i n g i n du s t ry i n K i n g Sou n d . ' T h e e qu i pm e n t h a s be e n
supp l i e d fo r a n i n i t i a l two - mo n t h t r i a l .Pe r i o dr a n d the i n du s t ry
wi l l op e r a te f rom ' B a{d i t e r r i t o r y ' on the m a i n l and .
5
1 . 2 A n Ove r vi ew o f t h e B a r d i V e rb
T h e p ur p o s e o f t h i s s e c tion i s t o p r e s e n t a p r e l i m i n a ry
o ve rvi e w o f t h e fr e e a n d bo und mo rphe me s t ru c tu r e o f t h e
B a{d i ve rb . T h i s w i l l prov i d e a g e n e r a l ba c k g r o un d t o
e n s u i n g d i s c u s s i o n a nd w i l l f o r e s h ad ow s ome o f t h e prob l e m s
i n vo l v e d in a c c ou n t i n g a de qu a t e l y f o r a c omp l e x mo rpho l og y
s u c h a s i s e x h i b i t e d b y B afd i .1
B afdi p o s s e s s e s twen t y - two p o s s i b l e s e t s o f a f f i x e s wh i ch
fo rm the in f l e c t e d v e r b, p l u s f o u r ' f r e e ' p r e - ve r b e l em e n t s .
O n ly a l i m i te d n umbe r o f t h e s e a f f i xe s c a n be found in any
one ve rba l exp r e s s i o n . T e n a f f i x e s t o a s te m wa s the l a r g -
e s t n umbe r e n c o u n t e re d a n d the ' n o rm ' i s f o u r to s i x p e r s t e m .
T h e b a s i s f o r the c omp l e x i ty o f B a fd i v e rb mo rpho logy
i s the f a c t tha t a l mo s t e ve r y f r e e s e n t e n t i a l e leme n t h a s ,
o r may h a ve , a c o r r e s p o nd i n g e l e me n t a f f i x e d t o the ve rb
s tem .
1 C ap e l l { 1 9 6 7 : 4 3 ) po i n t s up the p ro b l e ms in the an a ly s i s o f
s u ch l a�g u ag e s wi t h p a r t i c u l a r r e fe r e n c e t o t h e A u s tr a l i a n
Abo r i g i n a l f i e l d . H e s ay s : ' I n many A u s tr a l i an l an g uag e s ,
e sp e c i a l l y t ho s e i n the f a r n o r th o f the c on t i n e n t , ve rb al f o rms
c an be come e x tr e me l y c omp l e x . The b a s i c Au s t r a l i an l a n g u a g e
typ e i s a g g l u t i n a t i ve , b u t the d e g r e e o f ag g l ut i n a t i on va r i e s
g r e a t ly f rom r e g i o n t o r e g i o n . ' C ap e l l ' s a n a l y s i s i s m ad e
wi th p a r t i cu l a r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e T i wi l a n g ua g e i n th e N o r th e rn
T e r r i to ry i n wh i ch t h e ve r b ro o t c a n t a k e c omb i n a t i o n s from
n i n e t e e n ' r an k s ' of a f f i xe s .
C omp l e x mo rpho l o g i e s a r e , o f c o u r s e , w i d e l y r e p re s e n t e d ou t -
s i de A u s t r a l i a .
o th e r e xamp l e s .
Ho c k e t t ( 1 9 5 8 : 2 8 6) a n d E l s o n ( 1 9 6 4) pro v i d e
H o c k e t t l i s t s l a ng u ag e s wh i ch h a ve mo r e
t h an s ix ty ' po s i t i on a l c l a s s e s ' .
6
The fol low i ng i s a s i mp l e lin ear l i s t i n g o f f re e an d
b oun d ve rb mo rp he me s p r esented, at th i s s t ag e , wi th n o
attemp t t o exp l a in the mo r p h e m e 8 l a be l s ' o r t o fo rm ul a t e
co-oc c u r r e n ce r e s t r i c t io n s , i n te r r e l a t i on s h ip s o r po s i t i on
l im i t a t i o n s . T h e mo rpheme s a r e numb e r e d fo r l a t e r r e fe r e n c e .
P RE - V E RB
( F r e e Mo rpheme s )
N e g a t i ve N e g a t i v eEmpha s i s Q u e s t i on P r e s tem
l 2 3 4
I N FL E C T E D V E RB
( Bo u n d M o r p h em e s )
S ub j e c t - A c t i o n T y p e - T e n s e - P o t e n t i a l - Numb e r -
5 6 7 8 9
Re t roA c t i on I - C l a s sM a rk e r - I n t e n s i ty - I n f i n i t i ve ! -
1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3
STEM - I n f i n i t i ve ! ! - R e t roA c t i o n I I - A sp e c t - T e n s e -
1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8
E mph a t i c - A s s o c i a t i v e Su f f i x - Qu e s t i onM ar k er -
1 9 2 0 2 1
S e q u en ti a l Con j u n c t i on - O b j e c tP r o noun - R e f e r en ti a lP ro noun -
2 2 2 3 2 4
D i T r a n s i t i veP r o n ou n - Re l a te r
2 5 2 6
7
The fo l l o wi n g e x amp l e s s h ow som e th i ng o f the m a n n e r in
wh i ch the s e morpheme s c an b e c omb ined a n d u t i l i se d w i th i n the
h i g h ly e xp r e s s i ve Bafdi ve r b a l s y s te m . T h e f i r s t two a r e
e x amp l e s w i t h a l im i te d n umbe r o f mo rpheme s , whi l e t h e r ema i n d e r
1 ar e mo r e c omp l ex v e r b s .
E x . l
9 a - n - m a - n a -@
5 - 6 - 1 4 -18 -2 3
I - E x t r a A c t i o n - p u t - P r e s e n t - i t
' I am pu t t i n g i t ( the s to r y down )
E x . 2
m i - n - a - a r a l a - n
5 - 6 - 1 1 - 1 4 - 1 8
Y o u - In t r aA c t i o n - C l a s s - r un - P r e s e n t
' Y o u a r e r u n nin g . '
E x . 3
i - m - b - a n i - n - a 9 a r
5 - 6 - 1 1 - 1 4 - 1 8 - 1 9
I t - I n t r aA c t i o n - C l a s s - f in i s h - P re s e n t- Empha t i c
' I t ( t he s t o r y ) i s a b s o l u t e l y f i n i s he d . '
E x . 4
i - 9 - g - a l g - a l g a m a - n a - n a
5-6-11-12- 14 -17-18
I t - I n t r aA c t i o n - C l a s s - I n t e n s i t y -move - D ur a t - D i s tan tP e r f e c t
' I t k e p t on m o v i n g abo u t v i g o r o u s l y . '
1 E x . l to E x . 4 a r e T e x t V e r b s 1 , 6 2 , 8 9 and 49 r e sp e c t i v e ly .
E x . 5
a r a
1
g u - 1 - u r u - m - u g u l - i n a i - n a - o a n
5 - 8 - 9 -10-14 - 16 -18-2 4
8
N e g a t i v e You - P o t e n t i a l - P l u r a l - Re t r oA cti o n I - b r e a k - RetroA c t i o n I I
M i dd leP e r f e c t- f o r me
' You wer e n o t b reak i n g y o u r s e l v e s ( b e d e ep l y c o n c e r n e d ) f o r
me . '
E x . 6
u g - g - i r i - g u - g u r - a - a a n i r
5 - 7 - 9 -12-14-18-25
Th ey - F u t u r e -P l u r a l - I n t e n s i ty -m a k e c a t am a r a n - F u t u r e - f o r me t h em
' T h e y wi l l s u r e l y m a k e them ( the two s e c t i on s of a c a t ama r a n )
f or me . '
F ro m th i s ve ry l i m i t e d o ut l i n e o f the d a t a t o b e a c c o u n t e d
f o r i n a s t ud y o f B afd i ve rb mo rpho l ogy , s e ve r a l p rob l e m a r e a s
a r e b r o u g h t i n t o f o c u s :
1. T h e v e rb c a n i n c o rp o r a t e wi t h i n i t s s t r u c t ur e many
of the c on s t i t uen ts whi c h wo u l d be e xp r e s s e d by n on - ve rb a l
mo rp heme s i n many o t he r l an g u ag e s . E a c h o f the ve rbs i n
the e x amp l e s ab o ve c a n s t and a s a comp l e t e s e n t e n c e . An
a d e q u a te s t udy of a l an g u ag e e xh i b i t i n g a h i gh ly a g g l ut i n a t i ve
v e rb a l s y s t e m mu s t , t he n , e xp l o re the i n t e rd ep e n d e n c e o f mo rph
o l ogy and s yn t ax .
2. T h e ve r s a t i l i ty a n d c omp l e x i ty o f the B afd i ve rb
g i v e s r i s e t o a n a lmo s t e n d l e s s a r r a y o f p o s s i b l e s ur f a c e
fo rms . Th u s , t h e r u l e s o f a g r amma t i c a l de s c r ip t i on s ho u l d
be fo rmu l a t e d wi th th e a i m o f p r o du c i ng th i s a r r ay .
3 . N o t on l y m u s t th e t r eme n d o u s v a r i e ty o f ve rb a l fo rm s
9
be e n c omp a s s e d wi thin an a d e quate d e s c rip tion b u t fo rm s wh i ch
a r e un a c c ep t ab l e to B afdi sp e ak e r s mu s t b e e x c l u d e d . Mo rph -
e me in t e r r e l a tio n sip s a n d r e s t ri c tio n s o f o c c u r r e n c e a n d c o -
o c c ur r e n c e mu s t be s ati s f a c t o rily c o n t r o l l e d . Fo r in s t an c e ,
o n ly t r an si tive v e r b s c a n e xp r e s s r e f l e xive a n d r e c ip ro c a l a c t -
i o n .1
I f O b j e c t a n d Re f e r e n t i a l p ro n omin a l s u f fix e s o c c ur
wi thin the s ame B a r di ve rb , t h e y m u s t be re p l a c e d b y t h e D i -
t r a n si tive p r o n omin a l fo rm , a s in E x amp le 6 . I f t h e E mp h -
a tic s u f fix o c c ur s , i t fo l l ows a n i n t r a n si t i v e ve rb o n l y
a n d i t mu s t o cc ur w o r d- fin a l l y , a s i t doe s i n E x amp l e 3 .
Some ve rb s t e m s c a n o c c u r o n l y in a r e s t r i c t e d e n vironm en t .
I mp e r s o n a l v e rb s c an n ot t ak e f i r s t o r s e c on d p e r s on s u b j e c t s .
T h e v e rb ' to m a k e a c a t am a r a n ' i n E x amp l e 6 m u s t t ak e a p l ur a l
o b j e c t a s t he r e a r e a lw a y s t h e two p a r t s t o a c a t am a r a n r e -
f e r r e d t o wh e n t h i s ve r b i s u s e d . I f r e f e r e n c e i s m a d e t o
t h e m a k i n g o f j u s t o n e comp o n e n t o f the c r a f t , t h e n a d i f f e r e n t
v e r b i s u t i l i s e d .
4 . T h e lin e a r l i s t i n g o f ve rb mo rph e m e c l a s s e s o n
p a ge 6 b rin g s in t o fo c u s t h e v e r y p r a c t i c a l p ro b l em o f
p ro v i din g a s a tis f a c t o ry de s c r ip tiv e a n d a n a l y t i c a l f r am e wo r k
wi t h i n whic h to o rg anis e t h i s c on s i d e ra b l e r an g e o f p o s s i b l e
a f f ix e s a n d fr e e e l em e n t s .
Th e s e , t he n , a r e s om e o f the k e y p r o b l em s a n d a r e a s o f
i n te re s t wh i c h h a ve b e en s u g g e s te d t h ro u gh this s umm a r y ove r
v i e w o f t h e B afd i ve r b , a n d i t i s t o the s e a r e a s t h a t t he m a i n
a t t e n ti on o f th i s t h e s i s i s d i re c t e d .
1 Re f l ex i ve a n d r e c ip r o c a l e xp r e s s i o n s a re s ub s ume d u n d e r t h e
mo r e g e n e r a l t e rm ' Re t ro - a c t i o n ' . ( Se e p a g e 131) T h a t i s ,
' r e tro ' i n t h e s e n s e o f ' a c t i n g b a c k w a r d s ' up o n t he Sub j e c t .
1. 3 A i m
10
T o anal y s e and d e s c r ib e t h e Bafd i Abo r igi n al v e rb sys t em
and t o e xp lo r e t h e i n te r d ep e n d e n c e be t we e n v e rb mo rphology and
t h e w i d e r s yn tax .
1.4 T h e o r e t i cal Appr o ac h
1 . 4 .1 T h e p r i mar y c o n c e rn o f th i s s tu d y i s Ba;d i v e rb
mo rpho l ogy . D e sp i t e t h i s emp i r i cal l im i t , prac t i cally
e ve ry asp e c t o f a mo r e comp r e h e n s i v e grammar i s i n t ro d u c ed
w i t h i n t h e anal y s i s . Mo s t par t s o f sp e e c h ar e i n vo l v e d i n
s o m e way w i th ve rbal agr e eme n t an d go v e r nme n t . Many s e n t -
e n c e and c lau s e ' t yp e s ' can b e e x p r e s s e d b y v e rb i n f l e c t i on s o
t hat t h e ru l e s f o rmu l at e d t o comp r e h e n d mo rph o l o g i cal pro c e s s e s
al s o p r o v i d e t h e bas i c s tr u c t ure f o r th e majo r i ty o f expre s s -
i o n s wh i ch wou l d b e i n c l u d e d i n a f u lle r grammar . F u r t he r ,
s y s t e m s o f c o nju nc t i o n and r e c u r s i on mu s t b e d i s c u s s e d be cau s e
c e r tai n o f t h e s e p ro c e s s e s can b e op t i onally e xp r e s s e d t h ro ugh
b 1 f f. . 1 ve r a a 1x1ng . T h rough t h e d i s cu s s i on , a nd by t h e u s e o f
f o o t no t e s , t h e mai n bo dy o f t h e rule s , wh i c h hav e be e n i n clu d e d
o n ly a s t h e y ar e r e l evan t t o t h e v e rb , w i l l be s e t i n t h e
broad e r c o n t e x t o f o th e r language co n s t i t u e n t s an d a f ulle r
grammat i cal d e s c r ip t i o n .
1 5 l' . . 1 . ome 1ngu1sts view Re at i v isa t i on , Complemen t a t i on a nd Co-
o r d i nat i on as th e o n l y t h r e e bas i c r e c u r s i ve p ro c e s s e s i n language al l o th e r c omp l e x s e nte n c e s b e i ng d e r i v e d f rom th em . ( R . Lako f f 1968:74 and T ay l o r 1970:17) I t i s a n
i n d i cat io n o f t he ve r sat i l i t y o f t h e Ba;d i ve rb t h a t all th r e e pro c e s s e s can b e expr e s s e d t h r o ugh v e rbal af f i x i ng .
1 1
Re c e n t l i n g u i s t i c t he o ry , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r g e n e r a t i ve ,
t r a n s f o rma t i o n a l t h e o r y , h a s te n d e d t o n e g l e c t t he a r e a o f
1 mo rp ho l o g y . Y e t t h i s i s the area o f c r i t i c a l i mp o r t an c e
t o t h e un de r s t a n d i n g o f ma n y o f t h e l an g u age s o f t h e wor l d ,
e sp e c i a l l y tho s e l a ng u a g e s w h i ch a r e c omp le x l y a g g l u t i n a t i ve .
O n e o f t h e p r i m a r y p r o b l e m a r e a s w i th s u c h l an g uage s i s
s i mp l y th e p r e s e n t i n g o f a c omp l e t e de s c r ip t i o n o f the po s s -
i b l e r a n g e o f a f f i xe s a n d t h e i r in t e r r e l a t i o n s . V a r i o u s
s y s t e ms h ave be en p r o p o un d e d . A f f i xe s h ave be e n l i s t e d i n
c l a s s e s w i t h a n e xp l a n a t i o n c on c e r n i n g the i r r e l a t i on s h i p s ,
a s i n S ap i r a n d H o i j e r ' s wo r k o n N a vaho ( 1 9 6 7 : 8 5 ) ; some
s t u d i e s h ave u s ed the ' d e c ad e n o t a t i o n ' , s u c h as G a r v i n ( 1 9 4 8 ) ;
H yme s ( 1 9 5 5 ) a n d o th e r s h ave ut i l i s e d ' mo rp h e m e o r d e r c h a r t s ' ;
H o c k e t t ( 1 9 5 8 : 2 8 6 f ) u s e d t h e n o t i o n o f ' po s i ti o n s ' ; t a g-
m e m i c f o rmu l a e h a ve b e e n e mp l o y e d as in B o l t e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 1 :
9 7 f f ) ; s t i l l o the r s tu d i e s h ave pr e s e n t e d t h e a f f i xe s by
me a n s of a ma t r i x wi t h l i n e s i nd i c a t i n g po s s i b l e s e q u e n c e s o f
h ( . ) 2
morp eme s E l s o n , 1 9 6 4 : p a s s im . H owe ve r , t h e s e a n d o th e r
me tho d s h ave b ro ugh t i n t o fo c u s c e r t a i n are a s o f d i f f i c u l ty i n
t h e d e s c r ip t i on o f c omp l e x mo rpho l o g i e s . T h e re i s t h e d i f f-
i cu l t y o f p re s e n t i n g a n i n t e g r a t e d a n d c omp r e h e n s i ve a c c o u n t o f
a l l po s s i b l e a f f i xe s wi t h o ut t h e d e s c r ip t i o n be comi n g con f u s i n g
i n i t s i n tr i c a cy ; th e re i s t h e d i f f i c u l ty o f d e f i n i n g ,
1 Lyo n s ( 1 9 7 0 : 9 6 ) s t a te s , i n h i s i n t ro d u c t i o n to M a t t h ew ' s a r t-
i c l e o n ' Re c e n t D e ve l opme n t s i n Mo rpho l og y ' , t h a t , ap a r t f r om
M a t t h e w ' s ar t i c l e s , ' s o f a r t h e r e h a s be e n no c omp re he n s i v e
t r e a t me n t o f mo rpho l o gy w i t h i n a g e n e r a t i ve f r amewo r k . '
2 C . f . P e r lmu t t e r ( 1 9 7 0 : 2 5 0 ) fo r a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n·o f va r ious.
me t h o d s o f p r e s e n t i n g c omp l e x mo rp ho l o g i e s .
1 2
s a t i s f a c t o r i ly , occur r e n c e a n d c o - o c c u r r e nc e re s tr i ct i on s o f
aorph e me s; a n d the r e is t h e pr obl e m o f p r e ve n t i n g the a n a l y -
s i s f rom be c om i n g t oo d i vo r c e d f rom t h e a c t ua l sp oke n l an gu a g e .
A s e c o n d ma j o r prob l e m a r e a i n the a n a l y s i s o f a gg l u t i n -
a t i ve l a n g ua g e s c on c e rn s t he ve ry s t a t u s o f t h e mo rpho l og i c a l
' l e ve l ' a n d i t s re l a t i on s h i p t o o the r compo n e n t s o f g r amm a r .
M a t th e w s ( 1 9 7 0 : 1 1 1 ) q ue s t i o n s the t r a d i t i on a l bo un d a r y be twe en
mo rpho l og y an d sy n t ax whe n he s a y s : ' M any l i n gu i s t s h a v e d e -
c l i n e d t o t r e a t morpho l ogy a s a " l e ve l " o n a p a r w i th pho n o l -
1 o gy and s y n ta x . ' H owe ve r , th e p l a c e o f mo rpho l ogy w i th i n
l i n g u i s t i c theo ry an d a n a ly s i s i s a qu e s t i o n wh i c h ha s p la g u e d
mo de l s o f t r a n s fo rma t i o n a l g r a mm a r i n p a r t i c u l a r . An a r t i c l e
b y c . s . D i k ( 1 9 6 7 ) i s ve ry m u c h t o t h e p o i n t he r e . T h e t i t le
g i ve s a f a i r s umma r y o f i t s purp o s e : ' S ome C r i t i c a l Rem a rks
o f the T re a tme n t o f Mo rpho l o g i c a l S t r u c t ur e in T r an s f o rm a t i on -
a l G e n e ra t ive G r a mm a r . ' A g o o d d e a l o f the p a p e r s e ems t o
be b a s e d on a mi s un d e r s t a n d i ng o f C ho ms ky o r i s t ake n up w i th
r a the r unp r o d u c t i ve di s c u s s i on s o n C ho msky ' s p s y c h o l i ng u i s t i c s .
Howe ve r , s o me s i gn i f i c a n t p o i n t s a r e r a i s ed . D i k po i n t s o ut
t h a t t r a n s fo rma t i o n a l the o ry h a s n o t g i ve n a s a t i s f ac t o ry
a c c o un t o f mo rpho l og i c a l / s yn t a c t i c r e l at i on s o r o f s o me a s pe c t s
o f mo r pho l ogy e sp e c i a l l y i n r e g a r d t o i n f l e c t i o n a l an d
d e r i vi t i ve p ro c e s s e s . H e a l s o qu e s t i o n s t h e d e g r e e o f ' p ro d -
u c t i ve n e s s ' o f c e r t a i n typ e s o f t r a n s fo r m a t i on a l ru l e s . The
p rob l e ms c on c er n i n g mo rph o l og y and s y n t a x we r e r a i s e d i n L e e s '
1 Lyo n s ( 1 9 7 0 : 2 3 ) , sp e a k i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s b e twe e n pho n o l og y ,
mo rp h o l ogy , s y n t ax a n d s em an t i c s , s t a t e s t h a t m a n y l i n gu i s t s
' wi l l n o t u s e the t e r m " mo rp ho l ogy " a t a l l a n d w i l l appo r t i o n
i t s s ub j e c t ma t te r b e twe e n p ho n o l o g y a n d s yn t ax . '
1 3
rev i e w ( 1 9 5 7 : 4 0 4 ) o f Syn t act i c S t ructure s wh i c h D i k c i te s a s
s uppo r t f o r h i s c o n t e n t i o n tha t a s e p a r a t e mo rph o l og i ca l c orn-
pon e n t is n e c e s s a ry . T h i s i s obv i o u s l y o f co n c ern t o C h om-
s ky an d h i s a s s oc i a te s . The bulk o f the f o o tn o te i n C h om s ky
and H a l l e ( 1 9 6 5 :1 1 6 , fn 1 3 ) i s wo r t h re p e a t i n g he r e :
' I n t h e s a me p l a c e ( L e e s , 1 9 5 7 ) , Le e s a l s o s u gg e s te d t h a t
a n i n d ep e n d e n t s ub- g ramm ar mi gh t be n e c e s s a r y to accou n t
f o r n o n - t r a n s f o rma t i o n a l mo rpho l og y . . A s d i s t i n c t
f ro m t h e q ue s t i o n o f ' pho n o l og ic a l g r a mma r ' , th i s pr o b -
l e m s e e m s t o u s ve ry m u c h op en . Fo r s ome i n c o nc l u s i ve
d i s cu s s i o n s e e C h om s k y ( 1 9 6 5 : C h ap t e r 4 ) '
I n Asp e c t s ( 1 9 6 5 : 1 7 4 ) , C h o m s k y g i ve s a s t he prim a r y re a s o n
f o r the ' i n c on c l u s i ve ' n a t ure o f h i s d i s cu s s i o n t h e f a c t tha t
' s o f e w a t t e mp t s ' h a ve be e n ma d e a t t ra n s fo rma t i o n a l an a l y s e s
o f i n f l e c t i o n a l s y s t e m s . T he re h a s be e n l i t t l e a t temp t
s i nce t o c l o s e t h i s a dm i t t e d g ap i n t r a n s f o rma t i o n a l the o ry
a n d l i n g u i s t i c de s c r i p t i o n .1
Th e s e , t h e n a re the two p ri m a ry a re a s o f d i f f i c u l t y re g ard -
i n g c omp l e x m o rp h o l o g i e s t o wh i c h the a t t e n t i o n o f t h e p re s e n t
s t udy i s d i re c te d the p ro b l e m o f p ro v i d i n g an ad e qu a t e
l i n g u i s ti c d e s c rip t i o n o f t h e a f f i x e s o f a h i gh ly a g g l u t i n a t i ve
l an g u age , an d t h e p rob l e m o f i n te g r a t i n g s u c h a mo rp h o l o g y
wi th th e s y n t a c t i c , s e ma n t i c a n d ph o n o l o g i c a l c omp on e n ts .
I t i s t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f th i s s t udy t h a t , a t le as t wi t h
re f e r e nce to the comp l e x mo rph o l og y o f the B a�d i ve rba l s y s te m ,
l Th ' '
b f f . 1 1 e re a r e an in c r e a s in g n um e r o tr an s o rm a tio n a an a y s e s
o f l a n g u a g e s w i th comp l e x v e rb a l s t ru c ture s b u t f ew h ave be en
p ub l i s h e d a n d tho s e wh i ch a re ava i l ab l e ( C . f . , f o r Ame r i n d i an
s tu d i e s P o s t a l , 1 9 6 2 ; M a t th e w s , 1 9 6 5 ; S t an l e y , 1 9 6 9 a n d
F r an t z , n . d . ) g i ve l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o mo rph o l o g y i n i t s r e l a t
i o n s h i p w i th the o th e r g r amma t i ca l compo n e n t s .
1 4
the r e i s n o j u s t i ficat i o n f o r a fo u r th mo rpho l ogic al c o mpo n e n t
pa ·ra l l e l w i th t h e synt a c tic, s e man tic a n d p h o n o logical c ompon -
en�s a n d t h a t morpho l og y i s mo s t s atis f a c t o r i ly i n t e rp r e t e d
b y i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o syntactic c a te go r ie s .1
1. 4. 2 T h e i n te r r e l a t i on s h i p s be twe en B atd i ve rb mo rp h o l ogy
a n d it s w i d e r s y n t ax p re s e n t o n e o f t h e c e n t r a l c on c e r n s o f
th i s d i s s e r t at i o n , a s w a s e xp r e s s e d i n the ' A im ' .
1 P e r l mu t t e r , i n h i s d i s c us sio n o f ' s ur f a c e s t r u c t u r e c o n -
s t r a i n t s ' a s e v i d en c e d by S p a n i s h c l i t i c p r o n o u n p l ac eme n t ,
pa r a l l e l s th e typ e o f ru l e wh i ch he i s s ug g e s t i n g w i t h r u l e s
whi ch o rd e r ver b a l a f f i x e s . H e c o n t i n u e s ( 1 9 7 0 : 2 4 9 ) :
' P a r a l l e l s o f this s o r t c a l l i n t o que s t i o n the tr ad i tio n a l
d i vi s i o n be twe e n mo rph o l ogy a n d s yn t ax an d s ug g e s t t h a t some
of t h e s ame g ra mma t i c a l d e v i c e s may a c c o un t for both s yn t a c t i c
and mo rp ho l ogica l p h e n ome n a . '
L o n g a c r e ( 1 9 6 4 : 3 6 ) p r e s e n t s a n i n t e r e s t i n g , n o n - t r a n s fo rm-
a t i o n a l a t te mp t t o r e l a t e mo rpho l og y and s y n t ax . I n i l l u s t -
r a t i n g h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f l an g uage s in wh i c h an i n f l e c t e d v e rb
c an s t an d a s a ' c l au s e - i n - mi n i a tu r e ' , he r e p ro du c e s Fo x ' s p r e s -
e n t at i on o f a Q u i c h� s e n t e n c e . T he s e n t e n c e w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n
i s g i ve n f i r st , a n d t h e n i t s d i a g r ama t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n :
ma n ue l ke b u l uk?am J-2l r i s i l a eke .22. r i ha ca n i m
' M an u e l br i n g s hith er the cha.irs fo r into the house immed ia tely ' them
S ub j e c t P r e d i c a te O b j e c t I n d i r e c t R e f e re n t Lo c a t i o n T i m e
P re d i c a t e T a gm eme :
-
-- /
A sp e c t/T ime O b j ec t
( p r e s e n t ) ( t h em )
-k-e -
- / /
/ / / /
S ub j e c t
( he )
- u - l u -k?am I ok / .......... .......... \ ........ ..........
\ ........ .......... ........ ..........
\ ........
B e n e f ac t i ve s tem D i re c ti o n a l
( fo r ) ( b r i n g ) ( th i s way )
1 5
T o c a r r y o u t this aim , a ge ne r a tive trans f o rmatio n a l
mo d e l h a s be e n u ti lis e d . Mo r e sp e c ific a l l y , it i s a m o d-
i fie d , p r a c tic a l app li c a tion of N o am Choms k y ' s A s pe c t s o f
the The o ry o f S y n t ax ( 1 9 6 5 ) , an d d e v e l opme n t s wi thin this
f r ame wo r k .
A g e n e r a tive app r o a c h be c ome s ve ry re l e v a n t wh e n s e t
a g ain s t the p r a c tic a l l y in finite a r r a y o f ve rb a l e xp r e s sio n s
po s sib le within t h e B a f di l a ng uage . That is , s u c h an app -
r o a ch r e c ognise s t h e ' c r e a tive ' a s p e c t o f l a ng u ag e which c a n
' g e n e r a t e ' an in d e fini te l y l a r g e n umbe r o f s e n t e n c e s a n d ,
f ur t he r , p r o vide s an exp licit s e t o f r u l e s whic h e n n ume r a t e s
this a r r ay o f p e rmis sib l e 1
s e n t e n ce s .
The t r an s fo rma tion a l c omp on e n t o f t h e mo de l h a s two p r im-
ary fun c tion s in vie w of t h e a i m o f this s t udy . Fir s t l y ,
i t simp lif ie s the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e comp l e x r a n ge o f po s s -
i b l e v e r b a f fix e s , the p rob l em poin t e d up b y t h e ' o ve r vie w '
o f t h e B a�d i ve rb o n p a g e 5 . T h e ma j o rity of v e r b a l a f f i xe s
d ep e nd f o r t h e ir e xis t e n c e up o n a r e l a t e d fo rma tive in t h e
under l yin g ' d e ep ' s e n te n c e ( t h e p ro n omin a l a f f ixe s , fo r examp l e )
o r up o n a wide r s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n s hip ( a s in th e c a s e o f
1 T h e s e two c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s o f g e n e r a tive g r amma r a re e mp h a s
i s e d , f o r e x a mp l e , i n t h e w ri t i n g s o f C h o m s k y a n d J o h n Ly on s .
Ly o n s ( 1 9 7 0 : 2 4 ) sp e a k s , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , o f the ' pro du c t i ve '
o r ' c r e a t i v e ' n a t u r e o f l a ng ua g e i n v i e w o f which a ge n e ra t i ve
grammar is a 'formali sed ' or 'expli c i t ' s e t o f r u l e s ' wh i ch
sp e c i f i e s p r e c i s e l y wh a t c omb i n a t i o n s o f the b a si c e l eme n t s
a r e pe r mi s s i b l e , o r we l l - f o rm e d . ' C ho m s ky s t r e s s e s t h e
' c r e a t i ve a sp e c t o f l an g u a g e ' ( 1 9 6 6 : 3 f f ) ; an d t h a t •t h e
n o rm a l u s e o f l an g u a g e i s i n n o va t i ve . ' ( 1 9 6 8 : 1 0 ) . ' A g r amm -
a r mu s t • c on t a i n a f i n i t e s y s t e m o f r u l e s t h a t ge n e r a te s
i n f i n i te ly many d e ep a n d s ur f a c e s t ru c t ure s , app r op r i a te l y r e
l a t e d . ' ( 1 9 6 8:1 5 )
1 6
r e f l e x i ve and r e c ip ro c a l c onst r u c t i o n s ) . T h a t is , these
se ts o f a f f i x es d o n o t c h an g e me an i n g a n d may b e i n t ro d u c e d
ste p b y s t e p w i th i n t h e t r a ns f o rma t i o n a l c ompon e n t , th us simp l
i fy i n g consi d e r ab l y the i n i t i a l p r ese n t a t i on of mo rpheme stru c t -
u r e .
The se c o nd m a j o r f un c t i o n o f the t r a ns f o rma t i o n a l comp o n -
e n t i n th e a n a lysis o f B a f d i ve rb mo rpho l og y i s t h a t o f r e l a t
i n g t h is mo rpho l o g y t o syn t a c t i c c a t e go r i es . T h e B ase R u l e s
and the L e x i c o n p ro v i d e t h e esse n t i a l ' c o r e ' o f the v e r b .
B y re l a t i n g th is c o re to o the r syn t a c t i c c a te go r i e s , the t rans-
fo rmat i o n a l r u l e s b u i l d up , po i n t by p o i n t , t h e r a n g e o f poss-
i b l e mo rp heme se ts a nd t h e i r p e rmiss i b l e se que n c es .
I n t h is r e l a t i n g o f mo rp ho l og y to syn t ax , a n Asp e c ts- typ e
mo d e l h as b e e n f o u n d to p r ov i d e a use f u l a n d r e ve a l i n g t h e o r -
e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n . F e w wo uld d isp u t e i ts a pp l i c ab i l i ty in
th� r e a lm o f syn t a c t i c str u c t ur es .1
A f u l l a c c o un t h as b e e n t ak e n o f o th e r app r o a c h e s and
th e i r poss i b l e r e l e v an c e wi l l b e i nd i c a t e d t h r o ugho u t the
dis c ussi on . ' C ase g r amma r ' h as b e e n app l i e d i n a t l e ast
two s t u d i e s o f Austr a l i an Abo r i g i n a l l an g u a g e s ( S h arp , 19 7 0
a n d S omme r , 19 7 0 ) . H o w e v e r , i n v i e w o f the p ro l i f e r a t i o n
1 B r e c k le , f o r e x amp l e , i n p ro p os i n g a se ma n t i ca l l y-o r i e n t at ed
b ase c ompo n en t as a n a l t e rn a t i ve to the C homsk y a n b ase , st a t es
t h a t the re aso n fo r the p ropos a l ' is n o t to b e sou gh t w i t h i n
t h e pur e l y sy n t a c t i c doma i n o f g r amm a r . O n t h e c on t r a r y , i t
is ass ume d t h a t the syn ta x o f a l an g u ag e d es c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g
t o t he p r i n c ip l es l a i d d own e . g . i n C homsk y ' s Asp e c ts c an b e
sa i d t o b e a d e q u a t e l y d esc r i b e d i nso f a r a s th e g e n e r a t i ve a n d
t r a nsfo rm a t i o n a l p r o c esses l e a d i n g t o we l l - f o r me d syn t a c t i c
sur f a c e -st r u c tur es a r e c o n c e rn e d . ' ( 19 6 9 : 8 0 )
1 7
o f B ard i ' s ur f a c e ' c a s e s a n d t h e dif f i c u l ty o f ' f i t ' be twe e n
t h e m and F i l lmo r e ' s ' d e e p ' case . h' 1
r e l a t i o n s i p s , s uc h a
f r amewo rk w a s n o t f ou n d t o be op t imum f o r t h e purpo s e s o f
t h i s s t udy .
T h e c h a r g e o f t h e ' g e n e ra t i ve se man t i c ists ' tha t t h e
sy n t a c t i c c omp o n e n t o f a Chom s k y a n f r am e wo rk c a n n o t sa t is f a c t-
o r i l y fo rm t h e b a s is fo r s e m ant i c se l e c t i on and i n t e rp r e t a t i o n
h a s ye t t o be c on v i n c i n g ly c o u n t e r e d . Howe ve r , desp i te the
c r u c i a l impo r t an c e t o l i ng u i s t i c the o r y of the p r ese n t d is-
cu s s i o n c e n t r e d in s e m a n t i cs , a ' g e n e r a t i ve sem a n t i c ' app r o a c h
p re se n t s c on s i d e r ab l e d i f f i cu l t y i n i t s app l i c a t i on to a f i e l d
s u c h a s B ard i mo rpho l og y . P r e se n t th e o r e t i c a l de ve l opme n ts
a r e i n a c on f u s i n g s ta t e o f f l ux and the t r e nd tow a r ds e ve r
mo re ab s t r a c t an a ly s e s m a k e s pr a c t i c a l use o f s u ch a mo de l
i n c re a s i n g l y d i f f i cu l t i n r e f e r e n c e t o a l an g u a g e o f w h i ch o n e
i s n o t a ' n a t i ve ' sp e a k e r . F u r the r , th e f i e l dw o rk up on
wh i ch th i s the s i s is b a s e d was n o t o r i e n t a te d tow a r ds a ' g e n e r-
a t i ve seman t i c s ' app ro a c h .
1 T h e c on c l us i o n s o f S h a rp a n d S omm e r p o i n t up o n e o f the p r o b -
l e ms i n he r e n t i n a ' c a s e g r amm a r ' an a l ys is . S h a rp c on f i rms
f o u r o f t h e d e ep c a s e s p r opo s e d by F i l l mo r e a s l an gu a g e un i -
ve r s a l s . S h e h a s n o t c o n f i rm e d , howe ve r , h i s ' F a c t i t i ve '
and i s un c e r t a i n as to whe the r t o de a l w i th t h e ' Lo c at i v e ' i n
the Mo d a l i ty o r t h e P roposi t i o n c onst i t u e n t . On t h e o th e r
h an d , sh e su gg e s t s th a t a P u rpo s i v e a n d a B e n e f a c t i ve m ig h t b e
necessary to account for all surface cases. Sommer also
f i n ds i t n e c ess a r y t o p ropose two a dd i t i on a l d e ep c ases . H e
s u gg ests a P ur posi v e and a C ausa l . T h e p rob l e m r a ise d he r e
is th a t , w i t h a lmost e v e r y app l i c a t i on o f F i l lmo r e ' s f r ame w o r k
to ano t h e r l an gu a ge , n e w de e p c ase r e l a t i o n sh i ps a r e b e i n g
p rop ose d . I n a dd i t i o n to t h i s , t h e u n i v e rsa l i ty o f some o f
h is own p rop o s e d c ase r e l a t i o nsh ips i s b e i n g quest i on e d .
1 8
S i m i l a r c omme nts c ou l d b e m a d e w i th r e f e re n c e t o t h e p o s s -
i b l e u s e o f a n 'ab s t r a ct s y n t ax' o r 'u n i ve r s a l b a s e' . The r e
i s the d i f f i c u l ty o f app l y i n g s u ch a f r am e wo r k e f f e c t ive l y to
th e ve rb mo rpholo g y of a n agg l u t i n a t i ve l an gu age ; the r e i s
the p r e s e n t d i ve rg e n c e o f op i n i o n a s t o the v i ab i l i ty o f th e
'Un i ve rsa l B a s e H yp o th e s i s' a s c u r r e n t l y f o rmu l a t e d ; and
the re is the p r o b l e m of a l a c k of a 'n a t i ve' s p e ake r's c omp e t
e n c e i n th e po s i t i n g o f di f f i cu l t c on c ep t s s u ch a s 'ab s t ra c t
ve rb s' .
T h u s , de sp i t e th e c h a l l e n ge b e i n g l a i d d own on m a ny fron t s
t o an A sp e c t s - typ e mo de l , i t s t i l l app e a r s w i th mo d i f i c a t -
i on s to pr o v i de t h e mo s t s a t i s f a c t o ry f r ame wo r k w i th i n
wh i c h to a c c oun t f o r the c omp l e xi t i e s o f a n a gg l u t i n at ive
morpho l og y i n i t s re l a t i on to t h e s y n t ax of the l an g u ag e .
1 . 4 . 3 Mo d i f i c a t i o n s h ave b e e n me n t i o n e d . T h e A sp e c t s
mod e l h a s b e e n s ub j e c t e d t o i n te n s e s cr u t i n y an d v a r i o u s
f a c e t s h a ve be e n mo re a c c e p t ab ly and adeq u a te ly fo rmu l a t e d .
Me n t i on c o u l d b e made he r e i n p a r t i c u l a r o f 's ur f a c e s tr u c t ur e
c on s tr a i n t s ' , s e l e c t i o n a l f e a tu r e s an d t h e 'e x t e n de d l e x i c a l
hyp o th e s i s' a r e a s wh i ch w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a s they b e c ome
re l e v an t to th e an a l y s i s .
O the r mo d i f i c a t i o n s a re i n t rod u c e d to s i mp l i fy th e p r e s
e n t a t i on o r t o c on f o r m t o th e r e s tr i c t e d s c op e o f the s t udy .
I n s ta n c e s o f s i mp l i f i c a t i on a r e the u s e o f p a r a d i gm s i n the
p l a ce of a mu l t i p l i c i ty o f r u l e s o f l ow p r o du c t i v i ty an d the
i n c l u s i o n of th e 'Re a l i s a t i o n' s ub - c omp on e n t . T h e r e s t r i c t -
i o n o f t h e an a ly s i s t o ve rb mo rp ho l og y h a s l e d to a mo d i f i e d
app r o a c h i n o th e r a r e a s o f t h e g r a mm a r . F o r i n s t an c e , the re
i s n o a t te mp t t o c a r ry th r o u g h a g e n e r a t i ve an a ly s i s o f the
1 9
p h on o l ogy . T h e phon o l og i c a l compon e n t is d e s c r i be d i n t e rms
of p h on em i c un i t s and mo rphopho n e m i c p ro c es s es . L i t t l e
a t t e n t i o n wi l l be p a i d to o t her a r e a s s u ch a s sub c a te go r i a l
r e dun d a n c y , st r u c t u r e s 'highe r ' t h an t h e se n t e n c e su ch a s
p a r a g r aph a n d d isc o ur s e , a n d the de r i va t i on o f o n e p a r t o f
sp e e c h f rom ano the r .
1 . 4 . 4 A s t h e A i m s t a t e s , t h i s s tu dy i s b asi ca l l y a d e s c r ip-
t i ve a n a lys i s o f t h e Bard i ve rb . I n v i e w o f th i s mo r e
p r a c t i c a l o r i e n t at i o n , mos t o f t h e c l a i ms m a d e f o r t h e app-
r o a ch are o n the l e ve l of t h e app l i c ab i l i ty o f a ge n e ra t i ve
t r a ns fo rma t i o n a l mo de l to t h e p rob l e m o f r e l a t i n g a n agg l u t -
i n a t i ve mo rp ho l og y to wi d e r s yn t ax , r a the r th a n t o wa r d s
c l a im s o f mo re ' un i ve r s a l ' r e l e va n c e . Howe ve r , i n u s i n g a
tr ansfo rma t i o n a l f ramewo rk a s an e xp l an a t o ry d e v i c e , the re i s
a l s o e n t a i l e d a n e mp h as i s up o n p ro c e ss a n d ge n e r a l i s a t i o n .
T h e se t t in g o f t h e d i s cu ss i o n o f t h e B a f d i m a t e r i a l i n a
w i d e r c o n t e x t is l i m i t e d by t h e f a c t a l re ad y n o t e d t h a t s o
f e w g e n e ra t i ve s t u d i e s h a ve b e e n c a r r i e d o u t o n v e r b s yst e m s
o f h i g h l y a g g l ut in at i ve l an g u ag e s . I n the A u s t ra l i an f i e l d
the p r a c t i c a l app l i c a t io n o f t r a nsfo rma t i o n a l the o ry t o Abo r i g-
i n a l l a n g ua g e s i s e x tr e me l y l i m i te d , a p a r t f rom s tu d i e s by
1 D i x on , H a l e , S h a rp and S o mme r ( B i b l i o g r aphy , v a r i o u s d at e s ) .
D e sp i t e the s e f a c t o r s , g e n e ra l isa t i o n s i nt e rn a l and
e x te r n a l t o the th e si s w i l l b e s t a t e d an d d i s cu s s e d wh e n -
ev e r the y a r e f u l l y s upp o r t e d b y t h e r e l e va n t e v i d e n c e .
O n l y s uc h va l i d g e n e r a l is a t i on s a t a l l l e ve ls w i l l a l low c orn-
p a ra t i ve stu d i es t o p r o du c e c umu l a t i ve r e s u l t s .
1 . 1 C om p ar i s o n s w i th a n umb e r o f e x c e l l e n t n on-t r a n s f o rm a t i o n a
an a ly s e s o f Aboriginal l a n g u a g e s a re m a d e t h r o ug h o u t the s tudy .
2 0
T h e Austr a l i an f i e l d is , i n f a c t , o n e wh i c h c o u l d pro ve
o f gre a t si gn i f i c an c e i n the d eve l opme n t of c omp a r ison thro ugh
g e n e r a l isa t i on . D e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t the r e a r e some two
hund r e d mut ua l l y un i n te l l i g i b l e ' l an g u a g e s ' s t i l l sp o k e n w i th-
i n A us tr a l i a an d t h a t these ' l a n g u a g e s ' e xh i b i t an ama z i n g
var i e ty o f su r f a c e f o rms , t h e r e e x is t , n e ve r th e l e ss , c e rt a in
b asi c un i f y i n g f a c t o rs . Most e v i d e n t l y , the re is a b asi c
p hon et�c s t ru c t u r e , wi th m i n o r var i a t i o ns , c ommon to a lmost
a l l l an g uages . ' I t h as f o r som e t ime se eme d p ro b a b l e t o a
n umbe r o f scho l ars t h a t a l l A ustr a l i an l an g u a g e s a r e d es c e nd ed
f rom a c ommo n a n c esto r . ' ( D i x on 1 9 6 9 : 4 4 ) 1 M i l l e n i a o f
l e x i c a l r ep l a c eme n t h a ve r e n d e r e d t r ad i t i o n a l me t h ods o f c orn-
p a r ison e sp e c i a l l y on the wo r d l e ve l o f l imi t e d va l u e .
D i x on ( 1 9 6 9 ) , i n c o mp a r i n g c e r t a i n t r a ns f o rma t i ons u nd e r ly i n g
two Aus tr a l i a n l an g u a g e s , po i n ts t h e w a y to a po te n ti a l l y m o r e
sign i f i c an t a n d pr o du c t i ve appro a c h i n c omp a r a t i ve stu d i es .
H e c o n c l u des : ( p a g e 4 4 )
1
' T h a t G umb a i � g a r an d D j i rb a l show suc h si m i l a r i t i e s ,
a l though sp ok e n 1 , 0 0 0 m i l es a pa r t wi th se v e ra l do z e n
o th e r l an g u a g e s se p a r a t i n g t h e m , suggests t h a t syn t a c t
i c c omp a r ison m i g h t p ro ve r e ve a l i n g o ve r t h e who l e
A us t r a l i an f i e l d , a n d mi g h t pro v i d e sup p o r t fo r the
hyp o th e s is o f a s in g l e A ust r a l i an an c est o r l an g u a g e . '
F o r f u r t h e r d is cussi o n on A ust r a l i an Abo r ig in a l l in gu ist i c
pr e - h is t o r y , c . f . i n p a r t i cu l a r , W u r m ( 1 9 7 0 ) and C ap e l l (19 5 6 ) .
I n ano the r a r t i c l e , C ap e l l c omme n ts : ' I t se e ms q u i t e p ossi b l e
t o e xp l a i n th e m u l t i p l e f o rms o f l an gu a g es i n A ust r a l i a on the
b asis of a si n g l e o r i g i n a l . ' ( 1 9 6 5 : 2 1 ) S e e a lso D i x o n ' s
d isc uss i on o f ' l e x i c a l d i f f usi o n i n Aust r a l i a ' ( 1 9 7 0 : 6 5 2 f f )
1 . 5 P r ese n t a t i on
2 1
Ma t t e rs o f p r e se n t a t i on d i s c usse d he r e c ov e r mo re g e n e r a l
p r o c e d u r es which a r e r e l e v a n t t o th e th e s is a s a who l e and
wh i ch app l y t o e ve ry c ompo n e n t . O th e r mo r e sp e c i f i c p o i n ts
o f p re se n ta t i o n w i l l be o u t l i n e d i n th e i n t ro du c t i o ns to
e a ch s e c t i on .
S e c t i o n 2 . 0 , wh i c h fo l l ows th is I n t ro d u c t ory se c t i on ,
p re se n ts th e B ase Compo n e n t , c onsist i n g o f th e B ase , o r
P h r ase - S t r u c tu r e Ru l es a nd th e L e x i c o n .
S e c t i o n 3 . 0 is th e T r a nsfo rm a t i o n a l C omp o n e n t c ons ist i n g
o f T r a ns f o rma t i o n a l Rul e s a n d Re a l isa t i on Ru l es . T h e
Re a l i s a t i o n sub-compo n e n t p ro v i de s t h e mo r p h em e s wh i ch c o r r es
po n d to const i tu e n ts in som e w ay d e p en d e n t upon t ra ns fo rma t i on
a l p ro c esses .
S e c t i on 4 . 0 , t h e P h o no l o g i c a l Compon e n t , d is c usse s
pho n o l o g i c a l p ro c esses i n B a ; d i a n d p re se n ts Mo rphopho n em i c
Ru l es wh i c h a c t upo n t h e o u tp u t o f t he fo r e go i ng comp on en ts
t o g i ve phon e m i c a l l y - i n te rp r e t e d su r f a c e fo rms .
S e c t i o n 5 . 0 d emonst r a te s th e O u tp u t o f t h e v a r i o us
C ompo n e n ts . I t i l l us t r ates t h e o v e ra l l op e r a t i o n o f t h e
compon e n ts f rom B ase fo rm a t i ve s t h r o ugh t o sur f a c e r e a l isa t i on
an d i t p re se n ts r e p r e se n t a t i ve v e rb p a r a d i gms .
S e c t i o n 6 . 0 c onsists o f va r i o us App e n d i c es . T h e y
c on c e r n I r r e g ul ar V e rbs , a V e rb Mo rph em e L ist a n d , th i rd l y ,
a Text with inte r l i n e a r a n d f r e e t r a ns l a t i o ns .
S e c t i on 7 . 0 is t h e B i b l i o g r ap h y .
2 2
1 . 5 . 1 O rg an i s i ng p r i n c ip l e s . I n t h e d i s c u s s i on o f the
t he o r e t i c a l app r o a ch on pa g e 1 9, th e po i n t w a s s t re s s e d tha t
t h i s s tudy i s e s s e n t i a l l y a ' des c r ip t i v e a n a ly s i s ' o f t he
T h i s ' mo r e p r a c t i c a l o r i e n t a t i on ' i s one o f
t h e m a i n d e term i n i n g f a c t o r s i n r e g a r d to t h e pr e s e n t at i on
o f th e ma te r i a l . An o th e r f a c to r i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e
g re a t e s t p ro b l em c o n f ro n t i n g t h e wi d e r app l i c a t i on e sp-
i a l l y to non - I n do - E urop e a n l an g u age s a n d appr e c i at i on
of t h e i n s i g h t s and c on t r i bu t i on s of t r a n s f o r ma t ion a l the o ry
i s the p ro b l e m o f �ommun i c a t i on . I n l i n e w i th th e s e f a c t-
o r s , the th e s i s w i l l b e p r e s e n te d upo n the fo l l ow i ng p r i n
c i p l e s :
1 . T h e r e wi l l b e a n a t t emp t t o p ro v i de a d e q u a t e exp l an
a t i o n a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n of the r u l e s , p r o c e s s e s a n d c on c ep t s
i n t r o du c e d i n to t h e d i s c u s s i on . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e B a se
R u l e s a r e s e t ou t e n b l o c i n i t i a l l y and a r e t h e n t ak e n s in g ly .
T he y a r e r e - s ta t e d i n wo rd s a n d p r e s e n te d a s ph r a s e -m a r k e r s .
The re fo l low s an expl a n a t i o n o f t h e i r s ig n i f i c an c e , w i t h
i l l u s t r a t i on o f t h e r e l e v a n t p ro c e s s e s i n vo l ve d .
2 . Abb r ev i a t i on s w i l l b e k ep t t o a m i n imum a n d w i l l b e
a s s e l f - e xp l a n a t o ry a s p o s s i b l e . A c a te go ry wh i ch i s o f
o n l y p e�iphe r a l s i g n i f i c an c e t o t h e s cop e o f th e d e s c r ip�i on
a n d i s o f o n l y ve r y re s t r i c te d o c c u r r e n c e w i l l be g i ve n i n
f u l l . D e sp i t e th i s , a c on s i d e r ab l e n umb e r o f abb r e v i a t i on s
have b e e n n e c e s s a r y a n d a f u l l l i s t i s g i ve n , c omme n c i n g o n
p age 2 7 , b e l ow .
3 . A l thou gh the r u l e s have b e e n p r e se n te d c ompo n e n t b y
compo n e n t , the s tu dy w i l l s e e k t o a vo i d t ig h t c omp a r tme n t a l -
i sa t i o n . M o s t o f t h e e x amp l e s w i l l i l l u s t r a t e a p ar ti c u l ar
23
rul e or p ro c e s s but1 f rom t im e to tim� , t h e d e r ivations o f
ve rb s a n d a s s o c i a ted e l emen t s w i ll be p r e s e n ted from the
Base Ru l e s r ig h t through to t h e po i n t u n d e r d is c u ssi on .
1 . 5 . 2 T h e t e rm de r i v ation i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t o i n c l u de a ny
p ro c e s s wh i ch i s op e r a t i v e i n the ' d e r i v i n g ' o f sur f a c e fo rms
f rom B ase fo rm a t i v e s a n d , i n p ar t i cu l a r , o f v e rb a f f i x es f r om
w i d e r s yn t a c t i c c a t e g o r i e s .
1. 5 . 3 A g e n e r a l s y s t em i n t he pr ese n ta t i on o f E x a mp l e s
is use d t h r o ug h o ut . T h e B afd i m a t e r i a l i s g i v e n f i rst ,
an appro x im a t e g l oss f o r e a c h s i g n i f i c a n t mo rph e m e o r wo r d
app e a r s o n the s e con d l i n e un d e r w h i ch i s g i v e n a f r e e t ra ns-
l a t i o n o f t h e exp r ess i on i n s i ng l e quo t e s .
Ex . 3 0 ( c )
ba r u l u i 9 a r - a n d i - g a l n i d i
C a t- f i s h t h e y - c a t ch - d i d Q ua n t i t
'T h e y h a d c a u g h t m a n y c a t - f ish . '
T o i l l ust r a t e :
T h e r e are d ep a r t u r es f r om t h is b as i c p a t t e r n :
1 . T he p r ese n t at i on i s m o d i f i e d a cc o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e
o r p ro c e ss b e i n g i l l u s t r a t e d . F o r i nst a n c e , i n t h e i l l ust -
r at i o n o f t h e B a s e R u l e s , ma ny o f t h e ex amp l es h a ve a n i n i t i a l
l i n e wh i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e c a t eg o r i e s i nvo l v e d . T h e p r ese n t-
a t i on o f e x amp l e s i n t h e T r a ns f o rm a t i o n a l C ompo n en t is o f t en
se t wi t h i n a ' t r e e ' d i a g ram c o n te x t .
2 . Wh e n th e B afd i e x p r e ss i on c o n c e r n e d t a k es up mo r e
t h a n o n e l i ne , t h e f r e e t ra ns l a t i on i s n o t g i v e n u n d e r each
l i n e b u t i t i s wr i t te n as a who l e at the end of the ex amp le .
3 . Whe r e a n e xp l a na to r y note i s n e c e s s ar y i n the f r e e
t r a n s l a t i o n , i t i s e n c l o s e d w i t h i n p a r e n t h e s e s .
4 . Mo rpheme b r e a k s which a r e r e l eva n t to the po int
be i ng i l l u s tr a t e d a r e i n d i c a ted by a h yph e n . H oweve r ,
wh e n d e r i va t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s a r e b e i n g empha s i s e d , the
mo r p h em e s a re c o n j o i ne d by a p l u s s i g n .
E x a mp l e 9 ( b ) il l u s t r a t e s m o s t o f t h e s e po i n t s :
[ N P , S ] VP [ NP , P r e dP ]
i g a ra - m a-n a n a - r
T h ey - p u t - u s e d to - t h e m
' T he y u s e d to p u t them ( i n the t r e e - c o f f i n ) . '
l . 5 . 4 W i th i n t h e disc u s s i o n o f th e B a s e Ru l e s' o n l y , t h e r e i s
de l i b e r a t e r e f e r e n c e t o m a t e ria l c o n t a i n e d i n the � ' a s
g iven i n S e c t i o n 6 . 3 , p ag e 2 7 0 . T h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e :
1 . To p ro v i de the r e ad e r w i th a mor e comp l e t� b o dy o f
B a f d i m a t e r i a l to wh i c h t o r e fe r , e sp e c i a l l y i n r e g a rd t o no n -
v e r b a l c a t e go r i e s . T h i s i s p ar t i c u l a r l y r e l ev a n t to t h e B a s e ,
o n e o f th e f un c t i ons o f wh i ch i s t o s e t th e v e rb w i t h i n i t s
f u l l e r g r amma t i c a l c o n t e x t .
2 . T h e T e x t p ro v i des a sou r c e f o r t h e s a mp l e o f L e x i ca l
E n t r i e s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 2 . 4 , p a g e 1 08 . I t i s e s s e n t i a l
th a t s u ch e n tr i e s b e s e e n i n the i r g r amma t i ca l co n t e x t pa r t
i cu la r l y t o demon s t r a t e m a t t e r s o f a g r e em e n t a nd c o - o c c ur r e n c e .
1 . 5 . 5 A Re f e r e n c e a n d c ro s s - r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m i s app l i e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e d isse r t a t i o n . E a ch r u l e i s p r e f ix e d w i t h
the i n i t i a l l e t te r o f i ts C om p on e n t . T h u s , a l l B a s e Ru l e s
a r e p r e f i x e d w i th th e l e t t e r ' B ' a nd a l l R e a l i s a t i on Ru l e s
wit h t h e l e t t e r ' R ' . T h i s a l l ow s imm e d i a t e i d en t i f i ca t ion
25
of th e C ompon e n t o f any ru l e . T h e c onve n t i on h a s b e e n
ex t e nd e d to i n c l u d e r efe r e n c e to Le x i ca l E n t r i e s ( LE ) a n d
Pa r a d i g m s ( P ) . T h e dis c u s s i on u n d e r a n y ru l e i s li k ewi s e
pre f i x e d s o t h a t re f e r e n c e m a y b e m a d e , no t o n l y t o a r u l e ,
but to a p a r t icu l a r po i n t i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f tha t ru l e .
Fo r i nst an c e , th e po i nts i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f B a s e R u l e 2
wou l d b e n umbe r e d B . 2 . 1 , B . 2 . 2 , e t c .
C r oss-re fe r e n c e be twe e n t h e r u l e unde r r ev i e w a n d o the r
re l a t e d r u l e s a n d s ub- s e c t i on s i s p r ovid e d by a r e f e r e nc e k e y
se t out opposi t e the h e a d i ng o f that ru l e . T h e und e r l ining
is con t i nu e d away f r om th e t h e wo r d RE FE RE NCE thu s ind i c a t ing
t he p o i n t r e a che d i n the d i s c u s s i o n . P r e v i o u s ke y r e f e r e n c e s
a r e p l a c e d a bove th e l i n e a n d l a t e r r e f e r enc e s b e low the l i ne .
T h e Comp o n e n t r e f e r e n c e i s f o l lowe d by a s l a s h and th en the
p a g e n umbe r o f the r e f e r e nc e . An i l lu s t r a t i on i s p rovi d e d
i n t h e d i s c u s s i on o f th e c a t e go ry 'T ense' on p a g e 56 .
B . 8 . 2 T e n s e RE FE RENCE : B . 4/ 45
L . 7/ 101 T . 16 . 1/ 167 R . 2/ 18 8 M . 1 2/2 3 8
1 . 5 . 6 A l l B a�d i m a t e r i a l i s p r e s e n t e d i n a p ho n em i c o r tho-
1 g raphy . T h e C o n s o n a n t a n d Vowe l p ho n eme s a r e s e t o u t i n
t h e fo l l ow i ng c h ar t s :
1 S e e M e t c a l fe ( 1 9 7 1 ) fo r a f u l l e r d i s c u s s i o n o f B af di phonem e s .
2 6
CO NSONA NT CH A RT
POI NT OF ARTICUL ATION
MOD E OF B i - Api c o- L ami na- Api c o- Do r s o- Lami n o-A RTICUL A TIO N l a bi a l a lveo l a lveo l dom a l ve l a r pa l a t a l
STOPS b d a Q g
(V o i c e l e ss )
N AS ALS m n n I) r)
( V o i c e d )
L AT E RALS I T 1
( Vo i c e d )
VIB RA N T r
( V o i c e d )
S E M I-CONSO N AN TS w r y
( V o i c e d )
VOW EL CH A R T
F RO N T C E N TRAL B A CK
( U n ro u n de d ) ( Un r o u n d e d ) ( Ro u n de d )
( C l ose ) f I f : u/u: HIGH
( Op e n )
MID
( C l ose ) 0 LOW
( Op en ) a/a:
1. s. 7
Assoc
Aux
B .
c
Com i t a t
Co n j
C o n t e mp
D ist
D i t r a ns
D u r a t
EA
Emp h
Emp h a t
E p V
E x .
E x e
I A
Imme d
I mp e r a t
I mp e r f
I mp e rs
I n c
I n f
I n s t rum
I n t e ns
L ist o f Abbre v i a t i ons
A s s o cia tive (Su f f i x )
Aux i l i a ry
B ase ( R u l e )
A n y C o n s o n a n t
C om i t a t i ve
C o n j u n c t i o n
C o n t e mp o r a r y
D i s t a nt
D i - t r a n s i t i ve
D u r a t i ve
E x t r a - a c t i on
Emp h asis
Emp h a t i c
E p e n th e t i c V ow e l
E x amp l e
E x c l us i v e
I n t r a - a c t io n
I mm e d i a t e
I mp e r a t i v e
I mp e r f e c t
I mp e rso n a l
I n c l us i v e
I n f i n i t i v e
I ns t r um e n ta l
I n te ns i v e
2 7
L .
LE .
M .
M i d
N
NP
N e g
Norn
O b l i g
O b l i g Re t ro
Opt
Pax:t Re dup
Pe r f
Pl u r
Postpos
P ostp osP
Po t
P r e dP
Pr e S
P ro
P ro A f
P ro j
P urp
Quan t i t
R .
RA
Re f e r
Relat
L e x i c a l ( R u l e )
L e x i c a l E n t r y
M o r phopho n em i c (Rule)
M i d d l e
N o u n
N o u n P h r ase
N e g a t i v e ..
N om i n a l
Ob l i g a to r y
O b l i g a to r i ly Re tr o - a c t i v e
O p t i o n a l
P a ra d i g m
P a r t i a l R e dupl i c a t i on
P e rfe c t
P l u r a l
P ostposi t i on
P os tp osi t i o n a l P hr ase
P o t e n t i a l
P r e d i ca t e P hr ase
P r e - S e n t e n c e
P ro n o u n
P r o n om i n a l A f f i x
P roje c t e d
P u rp osi v e
Qu a n t i ta t i ve
Re a l isa t i o n ( Ru l e )
Re t ro - a c t io n
R e f e r e nt i a l
28
s
s.c.
S.D.
S e qu
S i n g
T .
T e mp
T r an s i t V
TV
v
VbN u c
VbS
VP
S e n t e n c e
S t r u c tu ra l C h a n g e
S t r u c t u r a l D e s cript i o n
S e qu e n t ial
S i ng u l a r
T r a n s f o r m a t i on a l ( Ru l e )
T emp o r a l
T r a n s i t i o n a l Vow e l
T r a n s i t i o n a l V ow e l
A n y Vo w e l
V e rb N u c l e u s
Ve rb S t em
Ve rb P h r a s e
29
3 0
2 . 0 THE BA S E C OMP ONE N T
2 . l B ase Ru l es
T h e fo l l ow i ng se c t i o n w i l l t ak e the B ase Ru l e s i n o rd e r
e xp l a i n i n g , e l ab o r a t i n g upo n and i l l u s t r a t i n g t h em . T h e
d is c uss i o n wi l l be g o v e r n e d by the se a ims and p r i n c i p l e s :
1 . I n l i n e w i th th e r es t r i c t e d a i m o f th e study , o n ly
th ose r u l es th a t a r e r e l e v a n t to v e rb m o rph o l o g y a n d i ts r e -
l at e d syn t a x a r e i n c l ud ed . W i th i n the d is c ussi o n a n d b y
m e ans o f fo o t n o t e s , t h ese r u l es a r e pl a c e d i n a wi d e r g r amm-
a t i c a l con t e x t and i n d i c a t io ns a r e g i v e n o f wh a t wou l d be i n -
vo l ve d i n a comp l e t e d es c r ip t i o n o f B a fd i . Fo r i nst an c e ,
b e c ause o n l y S e q u e n t i a l , T emp o r a l a n d P u rp osive C o n j un c t i on s
a re r e l e van t t o ve rb a l st r u c tu r e , th ese a r e t h e o n ly o n e s
l iste d i n t h e r u l e d e a l i ng w i th co n j un c t i o n t yp e s ( B . 1 1 ) .
H o we v e r , t h e o th e r c o nju n c t i o ns wh i c h o c cu r i n B a r d i a r e
a lso l iste d i n th e e l ab o r a t i o n upon th e r u l e . T o i l l u s t r a t e
f u r the r , t h e ' he a d ' o f a N o u n P h r ase i s t h e o n l y c o n s t i t ue n t
n e c essa ry f o r ma t t e rs o f v e rb a l a g r e em e n t a n d se l e c t i o n , a n d
so Ru l e B . 7 si mp l y r e - w r i t es th e N o u n P h r ase a s a n o b l i g a to r y
N o u n a n d an op t i o n a l S e n t e n c e . I t i s n e c essa r y to i n c l ud e
t h e r e c u rsi v e S e n te n c e t o a l l o w f o r th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
R e l a to r a f f ix ( T . 1 8 . 2 , pa g e 1 7 9 ) . A g a i n , o th e r p o ssi b l e
cons t i t ue n ts su c h as A d j e c t i v es , D e te rmi n e rs , I n t e r ro g a t ive s
a n d N um e r a ls w i l l be l is t e d i n t h e d is c uss i on .
2 . T h e d i s c us s i on w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e i n th e m a i n upo n
mo r e g e n e r a l c o n c ep ts a n d c a t e go r i es , r a t h e r t h a n p ro c e s s e s
a n d c o nst r u c t i o ns . F o r i nst a n c e , N e g a t ive a n d P o te n t i a l
exp r essi ons a r e e l abo r a t e d upo n a n d i l l ust r a t e d un d e r B ase
3 1
Ru l e 3 . H o we v e r , t h e p ro c e s s e s i nv o l v e d i n t h e i r c o n s t r u c t -
i o n a r e n o t o u t l i n e d u n t i l d i s c u s s i o n o f the i r r e s p e c t i v e
t r a n s f o r ma t i o n s .
3 . I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e B a s e p r e s e n t s d i f f i c u l t i e s a s
the C ompo n e n t o n ly d e a l s w i th t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f pr e - t e r m i n a l
fo rma t i v e s a n d c o r r e s p o n d i ng l e x i c a l i n s e r t i o n . T h e output
of the B a s e d i f f e r s c on s i d e r a b l y i n f o r m f r om i t s s ur fa c e r e a l -
i s a t i o n . A t th i s s t a g e , l a n g ua g e m a t e r i a l no t d i r e c t l y be i ng
d i s c u s s e d w i l l o f te n be wr i t t e n i n i t s s u r f a c e fo rm . Whe r e
sur f a c e fo rms a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e r u l e un d e r d i s c u s s i o n , the s e
wi l l be r e l a t e d to t h a t r u l e a n d to t h e s e q u e n c e o f Ba s e fo rm
a t i v e s wh i c h un d e r l i e s th em b y i n c l ud i ng , a s t h e i n i t i a l l i n e
i n the E x amp l e s , t h e r e l e v a n t fo rm a t i v e s .
T a ke , fo r ex amp l e , t h e fo l l ow i ng v e rb .
N P I N TE N S VbN u c A u x N P
i g u r u - l u l u r u - n u - � n u r u
T h e y I n t e n s l i g h t d i d i t f i r e
' T he y l i t a l a r g e f i r e . '
T h e op e r a t i o n s o f t h e B a s e C ompo n e nt a r e f u r t h e r i l l u s t
r a t e d i n t h e s umm a r y d e r i v a t i on s g i v e n i n t h e o th e r C omp o n e n t s
( S e e , fo r ex amp l e , E x . 7 0 , p a g e 1 2 7 a n d E x . 8 3 , p a g e 1 3 8 ) a n d
pa r t i cu l a r l y b y t h e c omp l e t e d e r i v a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i on
5 . 1 , p ag e s 2 4 4 f f .
4 . E a c h B a s e Ru l e h a s a s s o c i a t e d w i th i t a p hr a s e m a r k e r
T h e m a rk e r s w i l l b e c umu l a t i ve l y d e v e l o p e d a n d d r awn tog e th e r
i n t h e fo rm o f a ' ma s t e r ' P -m a r k e r , g i v e n o n p a g e 6 6
b r o k e n l i n e s i n d i c a t e a n o b l i g a to r i l y r ewr i t t e n c a t e go r y ,
wh i l e o p t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s a r e i n d i c a t e d b y b ro k e n l i n e s .
U n -
2 . 0
2 . 1
B . l
B . 2
B . 3
B . 4
B . 5
B . 6
B . 7
B . 8
B . 9
B . 1 0
B . 1 1
T HE BASE C OMP ON E N T
T h e B a s e R u l e s
s ..... ( S C o n j ) ( P r e S ) NP
Q u e s t i o n P r e s { }
I MP E RAT
N E G ( E MP H ) P r e d P > ( { } ) VP ( {
P O TE N T I AL
VP ( I NTEN S ) VbN u c Aux
C omp l e
P o s tp o s P
N P
Aux
Adv e r b
P o s tp o s
Co n j
1 ( P o s tpo s P f Adv e rb )
---->-• N P P o s tp o s
N om ( S )
--��- A s p e c t T e n s e
( Tim e I Qu a n t i t ) 1
C o m i t a t
I n s t rum
D a t i v e
Ab l a t iv e {S e qu } P urp
T emp
J 2
P r e dP
NP } ) ( C omp l e )
EMPHAT
1 L i n ke d p a r e n th e s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t a t l e a s t o n e c a t e g o r y m u s t be
cho s e n .
3 3
B . l s ( S C o n j ) ( P r e S ) NP P r e dP
s
[;3� / / / , ' / \'' " �
S C o n j P r e S NP P r e dP
B a s e Ru l e 1 r e wr i t e s a · S e n t e n c e a s an op t i on a l S e n te n c e
pl u s a C o n j un c t i on , a n op t i o n a l P r e - S e n t e n c e con s t i t u e n t , a n
ob l i g a to r y N o u n P h r a s e a n d a n ob l i g a t o ry P r e d i c a t e P h r a s e .1
B . l . 1 T h e o b l i g a to ry con s t i t ue n t s N o u n P h r a s e a n d P r e d i c a t e
P h r a s e t o g e t he r fo rm t h e e s s e n t i a l b a s i s fo r p r a c t i c a l l y a n y
B a f d i ve rb a l exp re s s i o n . T h e NP i n t r o d u c e d by Ru l e B . l i s
the S ub j e c t N o un P h r a s e a n d i s i d e n t i f i e d , whe r e n e c e s s a ry ,
a s [ N P , S ] . Th roug h t h e e x pa n s i o n o f t h e P re d i c a te
P h r a s e b y Ru le B . 3 , a s e c on d N o un P h r a s e may be in t r o d uc e d
1 T . h i s wo u l d n o t be the f i r s t r u l e i n a c omp l e te g ra mm a r a s
con s t i t ue n t s s u c h a s E x c l am a t i on s a n d I n te r j e c t i o n s d o n o t
a f f e c t ve rb mo rpho l o gy a n d n e e d n o t be i n t r od u c e d i n t o t h e
B a s e . S uc h a r u l e a s t h e fo l l owi ng wo u l d be r e q u i r e d :
I n i t i a l s . Vo c a t i ve ( E x c l am a t i o n 1 Re s pon s e l {
8 } ) T h e l i nk e d p a r e n t h e s e s i nd i c a te th a t a t l e a s t o n e c o n s t i tu e n t
mus t be c ho s e n . T h i s r u l e w o u l d un d e r l i e s u c h expr e s s i o n s a s :
E x . 7 rp ya w .!_ : g u l i I i rp r � g a I a
E x c l ama t i o n Re s p o n s e S
rp ya w ( u )
H u r r a h
' H u r ra h !
i : g u I i I i r p r - � - g a I a
A f f i rm a t i v e t u r t l e t he y - sp e a r - j u s t d i d
Y e s , t h e y j u s t s p e a r e d a t u r t l e ! '
3 4
wh i ch f u n c t i o n s a s th e O b j e c t o f t h e v e rb a n d i s i d e n t i f i e d a s
[ N P , P r e dP 1 • T h a t i s , the b a s i c s tr u c t u r e f o r b o th T r an s i t i v e
a n d I n t r a n s i t i ve expre s s i o n s i s e n c o mp a s s e d b y t h e S ub j e c t
N o u n P h r a s e a n d the P r e d i c a t e P hr a s e . B o th t yp e s o f a c t i on
w i l l b e i l l u s t r a t e d in o u t l i n e h e r e b u t a f u l l e r d i s cu s s i on
wi l l b e t a k e n up i n S e c t i on T . 5 , whe r e t h e who l e m a t t e r o f
B a f d i ' A c t i o n T yp e ' w i l l be e l a b o r a t e d upon . ( P ag e 1 3 1 )
B . 1 . 2 . I n tr a n s i t i v e e x p re s s i on s , w h e r e t h e o p t io n a l N P i n
t h e exp an s i o n o f t he P re dP h a s n o t be en c ho s e n .
a )
b )
E x . 8
Q a n a a r a l a ga l ( T e x t
[ NP I s ] P r e dP
a a r a l a - g a l 1
g a n -
I - r a n - j u s t
' I j u s t r a n . I
g i n i gg i n a a l g u n a
[ N P , S ] P r e dP
g l n i gg i n - a a l g u - n a
H e h e - bo r n - wa s
' H e w a s b o r n . '
V e r b 8 8 )
d i d
B . 1 . 3 T r a n s i t i v e e xp r e s s i on s , whe r e a n N P i s cho s e n i n t h e
exp a n s i o n o f B . 3 .
a )
1
( T e xt V e r b 2 )
E x . 9
i r;i arama n a n a r
[ NP , S ] P re dP
i 9 a r a - m a - n a n a -
[ NP , P r e dP ]
r
T h e y - p u t - u s e d t o - t h em
' Th e y u s e d to p u t t h e m ( in the t r e e - c o f f i n ) . '
V e r b mo rphem e s a r e l i s t e d i n S e c t i on 6 . 2 , p a g e 2 6 6 .
b ) g u r - n i m g u Q a r a Q a y i d i ma n a m u d u a r u d u
[ N P , S ] P r e dP [ N P , P r e dP ]
g u r - n i m Q a y i d i m a - n a - m u d u a r u d u
3 5
Y o u - A ge n t y o u- P l ur a l - h i t - d i d
' Y o u a l l h i t u s . 1
u s u s ( E x c l u s i ve )
T he f r e e f o rm s o f the s ub j e c t and ob j e c t wou l d , i n mo s t
c a s e s , be de l e te d i n s u r f a c e s e n t e n c e s a s th e y a r e b o t h o b l i g -
a t o r i l y r e p r e s e n t e d by a f f i x e s t o t h e ve rb s t e m . W i t h the f r e e
c on s t i t uen t s d e l e t e d , t he a g g l u t i n a t i ve n a t u r e o f t h e B a fd i
ve r b a n d i t s a bi l i ty t o s t an d a l o n e a s a c omp l e t e s e n t e n c e
b e c ome e v i d en t .
B . 1 . 4 S e n t e n t i a l C on j u n c t i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u gh Ru l e B . l ,
b u t wi l l n o t be d i s c u s s e d u n t i l the r e v i e w o f C on j un c t i on typ e s
u n d e r Ru l e B . 1 1 , p a ge 6 3 . T h e s e c ond op t i o n a l e l e me n t
P re - S e n t en c e w i l l n ow b e t ak e n up t h ro ugh i t s e xp a n s i o n
i n B . 2 .
B . 2 P r e S Q u e s t i o n
___ ,.. { } l M P E RAT
P r e S [ B l 2 ]
Q u e s t i o n { }
I M P E RAT
3 6
B y B a s e R u l e 2 , the P r e - S e n t e n c e c a t e g o r y i s r ewr i t t e n a s
e i t he r Q u e s t i o n o r I M P E RA T I VE .
B . 2 . 1 Th e P r e - S e n t e n c e i n t ro d u c e s s e n t e n ce - t yp e m a rk e r s
re le va n t t o ve rb m o rp h o l og y wh i c h a c t o n t h e b a s i c ve rb s t r u c t -
u r e a s p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i on B . l . I t wi l l be n o te d tha t
' I MP E RAT IVE ' i s the f i r s t o f a n umbe r o f c a t e go r i e s w i t h i n th e
B a s e Ru l e s wh i c h ha v e be e n c ap i t a l i s e d . C ap i t a l i s a t i o n d e -
n o te s th a t t h e c a t e go r y i s a ' d umm y ' s ymbo l wh i c h a c t s a s a
' t r i g g e r ' fo r a t r a n s f o rma t i o n a l p ro c e s s .
B . 2 . 2 Que s t i o n RE FE RE N C E :
L E . 1 / 1 0 9 T . 1 3 / 1 5 6
I f ' Q ue s t i o n ' app e a r s a s a fo rma t i v e i n a t e rm i n a l s t r i n g ,
i t de n o t e s a ' Y e s - N o ' Q u e s t i o n s e n t e n c e typ e . I t i s expr e s s -
e d e i t h e r b y th e f r e e p r e - ve rb m o rp h e m e p l u s the In d i c -
a t i ve , o r the b o un d mo rpheme � s u f f i x e d t o the ve rb .
� i s i n t ro d u c e d t h r o u g h t h e op e r a t i on o f Ru l e T . 1 3 a nd
wi l l be d i s c u s s e d t h e r e . f) a n a a i s p r o v i d e d by t h e Le x i c o n ,
s im p l y r e p l a c i n g t he fo rma t i ve ' Q u e s t i o n ' ( L ex i c a l E n t ry l ) .
A s i t i s i n c o r r e c t s e qu e n c e a n d i t do e s n o t mo d i f y the fo rm
of the f o l l ow i n g ve rb , n o t r a n s fo rma t i o n i s n e c e s s a ry t o a c c ou n t
3 7
f o r i t a nd i t n e e d n o t , t h e r e fo r e , app e a r c a p i t a l i s e d i n t h e
Bas e . ( B ut s e e foo tno te co n c e rn i n g i n to n a t i on o n p a g e 3 8 . )
E x . 1 0 Th e a f f i rma t i ve a n d t h e n the c o r r e sp o n d i n g i n t e r rog -
a t i ve w i l l be s e t ou t , u s i n g t h e f r e e mo r p h e me 9 a n a a :
a )
b )
i 9 a r a - m a - n a - r 9 a n a a i l) a r a - m a - n a - r
T h e y - p l a c e - d i d - t h em Q u e s t i on t h e y - p l a c e - d i d - t h em
' T h e y p l a c e d t h e m ( t he r e ) ' ' D i d th e y p l a c e t h em ( t h e r e ) ? '
9 a r:i g - i d - a 9 a rrn - i d - a
I - go - s h a l l Q u e s t i o n I - go - s h a l l
' I s h a l l go . ' ' S h a l l I go ? '
E x . 1 1 The a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r ro g a t i v e s , u s i n g the bound
mo rpheme �
i l) a r a - m a - n - a d a - r
T h e y - p l a c e - d i d - Qu e s t i o n - t hem
' D i d t h e y p l a c e t h em ( th e r e ) ? '
l) a l) g - i d - a d a
I - go - s h a l l Q u e s t i o n
' S h a l l I g o ? '
B . 2 . 3 I mp e r a t i ve RE FE RE NC E :
L . 7 . 2 / 1 0 2 T . 1 4 / 1 5 8
I mp e r a t i ve i s t h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e t yp e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e
1 P re - S e n t e n c e . I t s s t a t u s , i n de p e n d e n t o f t h e I n d i c a t i v e ,
c o u l d b e q ue s t i o ne d b ecaus e , as w i th many A u s tral ian lan g uag e s ,
the r e i s n o s u r f a c e d i s t i n c t i o n be twe e n i t a n d wh a t w i l l l a t e r
l T h . d . . f t h
' d I e i n i c a t in g o s e ti t e n ce y p e s , s u e a s Q u e s t i o n a n mp e r -
a t i ve , t h r o u g h a P r e - S e n t e n c e c o n s t i t u e n t v a r i e s l i t t l e f rom
the c o n ve n t i o n p u t fo rw a r d by K a t z a n d P o s t a l ( 1 9 6 4 : 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 )
an d a d op t e d b y C hom sk y ( 1 9 6 5 : 1 3 2 ) .
b e t e r m e d t h e ' P ro j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t '
a n a a l a c o u l d me an : ' L o o k a t i t ! '
( F u t u r e )
3 8
1 t e n s e . T h u s ,
o r a Y o u wi l l s e e i t . '
Howe ve r , a numb e r o f f a c to r s m a k e i t n e c e s s a r y to g i ve I mp e r -
a t i v e a d i s t i n c t i v e s t a tu s . On e i s e mbo d i e d w i th i n t h i s
R u l e B . 2 . Th a t i s , t h a t I mp e r a t i ve a n d Q u e s t i o n a r e mu tu a l ly
ex c l u s i ve , wh i l e Q u e s t i o n m a y o c c u r w i th the P ro j e c t e d I mp e r fe c t .
A s e c on d f a c to r i s t h a t I mp e r a t i v e s a r e o b l i g a t o r i l y m a r k e d
fo r P ro j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t t e n s e ( c . f . R u l e T . 1 4 ) . T h i r d l y ,
I mp e r a t i ve s may m a k e u s e o f a n Ab s o l u t e P ro no un i n a n emp h a t i c
s e n s e .
E x . 1 2
A n e x amp l e i s g i ve n i n L i n e 2 7 o f t h e T e x t :
r u w i a n a a u b a d ( a )
Go you y o u o f f
' Y o u go o f f ! '
T h e r u w i I i s a P r e - S t e m ( t o b e d i s c u s s e d ) s uppo r t e d b y
the a nc i l l a r y ve rb a n a T h e a u i s u s e d a s an emph a t i c
p r o n o u n .
1 T h e s tat e m en t s conce rni ng th e non- d i s t inc t i v e ne s s o f Q u e s t -
i o n a n d I mp e ra t i ve s ur f a c e fo rm s a r e m a d e w i th r e f e r e n c e to
ve rb mo rpho l o g y a l o ne . B o t h th e s e s e n t e n c e - ty p e s a r e d i s -
t i n g ui s h e d f ro m t h e I n d i c a t i ve b y a n I n t o n a t i o n pa t t e rn .
Howe ve r , a d e t a i l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f I n to n a t i o n i n B a f d i i s
o u t s i de th e s cop e o f th i s s t u dy .
B . 3 P r e d P
N E G {
N E G ( E M P H ) { { } ) V P
N P ( {
P O T E N T
P r e dP
/ ....... ,,,,. ,,,,.. \ ' ..... ,,,,.,. "" \ ..... .......
E M P H A T
,,,,.,[ B �2 '
/ \ ..... (E M P H ) V P N P ' C omp l e
} { } P O T E N T E M P HA T
3 9
} ) { C omp l e )
B y B a s e Ru l e 3 , t h e P r e d i c a t e P h r a s e i s r e w r i t t e n a s
e i th e r a n o p t i o n a l N e g a t i v e m a r k e r o r a n op t i o n a l P o t e n t i a l
m a r k e r , w i t h a n o p t i o n a l E m p h a s i s f o l l o w i n g t h e N e g a t i v e ;
a n o b l i g a t o r y V e r b P h r a s e ; e i t h e r a n o p t i o n a l N o u n P h r a s e
o r a n op t i o n a l E mp h a t i c m a r k e r ; 1
a n d a n o p t i o n a l C omp l e m e n t .
1 A l t ho u g h t h e r e i s a n ' e x i s t e n t i a l ' v e r b ' t o b e ' i n B a � d i ,
t h e r e i s n o c op u l a v e r b ' t o b e ' . A f u l l g r a mm a r , t h e r e f o r e ,
wo u l d h a ve t o i n c l u d e a s a n o p t i o n a l e xp a n s i o n o f B . 3 a t y p e
o f N o m i n a l P r e d i c a t e t o e xp r e s s E q u a t i o n a l ( N o u n a l P r e d i c a t e )
o r S t a t i v e ( A d j e c t i v a l P r e d i c a t e ) c o n s t r u c t i o n s . T h i s i s
n o t i n c l u d e d i n B . 3 a s i t i s i r r e l e v a n t t o v e r b m o r p h o l o g y .
E x amp l e s f o l l ow o f a n ' e x i s t e n t i a l ' e xp r e s s i o n , t h e n E qu a t i o n
a l a n d S t a t i v e e xp r e s s i o n s .
E x . 1 3
a ) E x i s t e n t i a l b u g u n i n - i n
I n s i d e h e - i s
' H e i s i n s i d e . '
b ) E gu a t i o n a l g i n i g g i m a b u d i d i n a b o
H e w o m a n ' s n am e h e r s o n
' H e i s M a b u d i ' s s o n . I
c ) S t a t i v e i r b a w a l u g a l - g i a
T h o s e c h i l d r e n b a d - I n t e n s i f i e r
' T h o s e c h i l d r e n a r e v e r y n a u g h ty . I
4 0
R u l e B . 3 h a s a p o s s i b l e 2 4 - w a y e xp a n s i o n w i th e ve r y
e xp a n s i o n p r o v i d i n g a p o t e n t i a l b a s e f o r a s u r f a c e v a r i a n t .
N o t e ve r y e x p a n s i o n w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a n d i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h i s
s e c t i o n . T h e O b j e c t N o u n P h r a s e , [ N P , P r e d P ] , w a s i n t r o d u c e d
i n to t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t r a n s i t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s o n p a g e 3 3 .
T h e c a t e g o r y C o mp l e m e n t w i l l b e e l ab o r a t e d up o n wh e n i t i s
e x p a n d e d b y R u l e B . 5 , p a g e 5 0 , t h e c a t e g o r y V e r b P h r a s e
w i l l b e m o r e f u l l y d e a l t w i t h u n d e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f B . 4 ,
p a g e 4 5 a nd , t o p r e v e n t p r e m a t u r e c omp l i c a t i o n s , d i s c u s s i on
o f N e g a t i ve E mp h a s i s w i l l b e l e f t u n t i l i t s r e l e v a n t t r a n s -
f o rm a t i o n i s f o rm u l a t e d ( T . 1 2 , p a g e 1 5 3 ) .
D i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l c e n t r e up o n P o t e n t i a l
a n d N e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s a n d t h e E m p h a t i c .
B . 3 . 1 N e g a t i v e RE FE RE N C E :
T . 9 . 2 / 1 4 7 R . 2 . 3 / 1 8 8 M . 1 . 1 / 2 0 3
T h e N e g a t i v e i s e xp r e s s e d b y t h e op e r a t i o n o f t h r e e p r o -
c e s s e s a c t i n g up o n t h e A f f i r m a t i ve . T h e r e i s t h e p l a c i n g o f
t h e f r e e f o r m o f t he N e g a t i ve , wh i ch i s a l s o t h e N e g a t i v e r e s -
p o n s e , b e f o r e t h e v e r b ; t h e p r e f i x i n g o f t h e P o t e n t i a l mo r -
p h e m e wh i c h c a u s e s t h e d e l e t i o n o f a c l a s s o f t h e a f f i rm a t -
i ve p r e f i x e s ; a n d a mo d i f i c a t i o n t o t h e T e n s e /A sp e c t s y s t e m .
E x . 1 4 T h e A f f i rm a t i ve w i l l b e g i v e n f i r s t t o i n d i c a t e
th e mo d i f i c a t i o n s i n t r o du c e d t h r o u g h t h e f o rm a t i o n o f th e
N e g a t i v e :
a ) N P VP N P N E G N P V P N P
f 9 a r - a l a - n a - r i a r a u l a r - a l a - n a n a - r i
T he y - s e e - d i d - y o u N e g t h e y - s e e - d i d - y o u
' T h e y s aw y o u ' ' T h e y d i d n o t s e e y o u . '
b ) N P V P
f) a y- a ya - n a
I - l i mp i n g - am
' I a m l i mp i n g . 0
N E G N P V P
a r a f) a l - a y - a
4 1
N e g I - l i mp i n g - a m
' I a m n o t l imp i n g . v
I t i s i n t h e N e g a t i v e t h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g d i v i s i o n o f
t e n s e i n to I mp e r f e c t a n d P e r f e c t b e c om e s mo r e app a r e n t o
T h e r e i s o n e f o r m o f t h e N e g a t i ve wh i c h c o v e r s b o th I m p e r f e c t
t e n s e s t h a t i s , P r e s e n t a n d P r o j e c t e d a c t i o n . F o r i n -
s t a n c e , i n t h e N e g a t i v e e xp r e s s i o n o f E x . 1 4 ( b ) a bo v e ,
a r a 9 a l a y a m e a n s e i t h e r ' I am n o t l i mp i n g ' o r ' I s h a l l n o t
l imp . I T h e N e g a t i ve a u x i l i a r y i s d i s c u s s e d i n f u l l i n
S e c t i o n R . 2 . 3 . 1 / 1 9 1 .
B . 3 . 2 P o t e n t i a l RE FE RE N C E :
T . 9 . 1 / 1 4 5 R . 2 . 3 / 1 8 8 M . 1 . 1 / 2 0 3
T h e N e g a t i ve a n d t h e P o t e n t i a l1
a r e l i n k e d c l o s e l y w i t h -
i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l r u l e s . T he r e i s a s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i on ,
b e c a u s e t h e P o t e n t i a l i s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e f o rm a s t h e N e g a t i v e
e x c e p t t h a t t he f r e e p r e - v e r b N e g a t i v e m o r p h e m e a r a i s
a b s e n t . T h u s , t a k i n g t h e N e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f E x . 1 4 ( a ) ,
a r a u l a r a l a n a n a r i
i s u l a r a l a n a n a r i
m e a n s , ' T h e y d i d n o t s e e y o u . ' T h e P o t e n t i a l
, m e a n i n g , ' T h e y s h o u l d h a ve s e e n y o u . '
T h e r e i s a s t r o n g s e m a n t i c a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o
mo d e s o f e x p r e s s i o n . I n i t s p r e v a i l i n g u s e , t h e P o t e n t i a l
h a s t h e f o r c e o f e x p r e s s i n g a n a c t i o n w h i c h a p e r s o n s h o u l d
1 N e k e s a n d Wo r m s ( 1 9 5 3 : 1 7 3 ) u s e t h e t e r m ' P o t e n t i a l ' f o r t h i s
c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d d e a l w i t h i t a n d t h e N e g a t i ve i n - t h e s am e
s e c t i o n .
4 2
h a v e d o n e ( u s i n g a P e r f e c t f o rm ) o r s h o u l d d o ( u s i n g t h e I mp e r f ·
e c t f o r m ) . T h e r e i s a s t r o n g n o t e o r o m i s s i o n o r i mp l i e d
n e g a t i v e .
T h e n t h e r e i s a s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n i n t h a t t h e N e g a t i v e
a n d P o t e n t i a l a r e mu t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e i n o c c u r r e n c e . T h e
w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n c o u l d we l l b e s e t w i t h i n a Re a l i s / I r r e a l i s
1 f r am e w o r k . T h e I r r e a l i s w ou l d c omp r e h e n d t h e N e g a t i v e a n d
P o t e n t i a l mo o d s . H o w e v e r , i t h a s n o t b e e n u s e d h e r e a s a
c a t e g o r y t i t l e a s t h e I r r e a l i s i n vo l v e s c o n s i de r a b l y mo r e t h a n
t h e s e mo o d s . F o r i n s t a n c e , s om e a s p e c t s o f t h e P r o j e c t e d
t e n s e , a n d C o n d i t i o n a l c o n j u n c t i o n w ou l d a l s o b e p a r t o f t h e
I r r e a l i s . E x am i n a t i o n o f t h e P o t e n t i a l w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t
u n d e r t wo t yp e s o f e x p r e s s i o n s Om i s s i v e a n d H yp o t h e t i c a l .
1 A s i t i s i n C a p e l l a n d H i n c h i n t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f M a u n g , a
N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y A b o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e .
p a r a l l e l h e r e b e t w e e n B a f d i a n d M a u n g .
T h e r e i s a c l o s e
T h e y s a y , o f M a u n g
( 1 9 7 0 : 6 7 ) : t h e e n d i n g o f t h e I r r e a l i s m a y a l s o em b r a c e
t h e p o t e n t i a l a n d t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l , o n l y t h e n e g a t i v e p a r t i c l e
m a r i g b e f o r e t h e v e r b b e i n g o m i t t e d . ' A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e
c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n v e r b s t r u c t u r e f o r i n s t a n c e ,
i n M a u n � mo o d s ' a r e i n d i c a t e d c h i e f l y b y s u f f i x e s , t h e p r e f i x e s
s e r v i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h e t e n s e s w i t h i n t h e m o o d s ' wh e r e a s , i n
B a � d i , t h e o p p o s i t e i s t r u e t h e fo l l o w i n g M a u n g e x amp l e s
s h o w t h e p a r a l l e l w h e n c omp a r e d w i t h E x . 1 5 ( O v e r pa g e ) . T h e
M a u n g e x amp l e h a s b e e n r e a r r a n g e d .
P r e s e n t R e a l i s N e g a t i ve P r e s e n t I r re a l i s
1) £ j a n m a r i g 1) £ j a n d i 9 e: j a n d i
• I s e e h i m . ' ' I c a n n o t o r w i l l n o t s e e h i m . ' ' I c a n s e e h i m '
4 3
( i ) Om i s s i ve expr e s s i o n s . Om i s s i ve exp r e s s i o n s a s s ume
t h a t the a c t o r h a s f a i l e d or om i t t e d to do s ome a c t i on . Two
s e t s of e x amp l e s w i l l be g i ven i l l u s t r a t i n g P e r f e c t a nd I mp e r f -
e c t t e n s e s r e s p e c t i ve l y .
E x . 1 5 The A f f i rma t i ve , t h e N e g a t iv e a n d t h e Om i s s i ve
f o r m s w i l l be g i v e n fo r c omp a r i s on . T h e D i s t an t P e r f e c t
te n s e i s u s e d .
a )
b )
a )
b )
c an
A f f i rm a t i ve N e g a t i ve Om i s s i ve
Q a n - a i d i - n a a r a g a - 1 - i d i - n a n a 9 a - l - i d i - n a n a
I - g o - d i d N e g I - P o t- go - d i d I -P o t - g o - d i d
' I we n t . 0 ' I d i d n o t go . ' ' I s hou l d h ave go n e . '
i n - i m b i - n a - r i a r a u - 1 - i - n a n a - r i u - 1 - i - n a n a - r i
H e - h i t - d i d - yo u N e g he - P o t - h i t - d i d - you He -P o t - h i t - d id - you
' H e h i t y o u . ' ' H e d i d n o t h i t y ou . ' ' H e s hou l d h a ve h i t
y o u . '
E x . 1 6 U s i n g I mp e r fe c t t e n s e s :
a g g i - n i m u - 1 - a l a l - a n - @ a i b a g a l ga r a
I n t e r rog a t i ve -Ag e n t h e - P o t - c a r e fo r -w i l l - h e r th i s w i dow
' Wh o s h o u l d be lo o k i ng a f t e r th i s w i dow? '
g a - 1 - a l - a a a l f) g a g u r u d u l i
I - P o t - s e e - w i l l d o c to r s o o n
' I s hou l d s e e t h e do c t o r s o o n . '
( i i ) H yp o t h e t i c a l expr e s s i on s . T h e I m p e r f e c t P o t en t i a l
b d t . . ' t t ' 1 e u s e o exp r e s s a n imag i n a r y s i u a i on . T h e ' imp l i e d
1 T h e ' H yp o th e t i c a l ' , t h e t e rm u s e d b y C ap e l l a nd H i n c h ( 1 9 7 0 : 6 7
i s a typ e o f C o n d i t i o n a l s im i l a r , i n f a c t , t o t h e - a nc i e n t
G r e e k ' Co n d i t i o n c o n t ra ry t o fa c t ' c l au s e t yp e .
4 4
n e g a t i ve ' s e n s e i s appa r e n t i n the Hypo the t i c a l a s i t i s on l y
u s e d o f a c t i o n s wh i ch de f i n i t e l y h a ve n o t t a k e n p l a c e .
E x . 1 7 The fo l l o w i n g c omp l e x s e n t e n c e i s t a k e n f rom a
n a r r a t i v e c o n c e rn i n g some m y s t e r i o u s c a ve p a i n t i n g s wh i c h , a s
i t t ra n sp i r e d , n o l i v i n g p e r s o n s e em s a c t u a l l y t o h a ve s e en .
T h i s f a c t o r a dd e d t o t h e h yp o the t i c a l , ' i r r e a l ' n a t u r e o f t h e
s t o r y .
m i - l u - l) u l a r - a - f6 9 a - I u - l) u l a r - a - f6 f) a y u - n i m
Y o u- P o t- w i p e o f f - w i l l - i t I - P o t - w i p e o f f - w i l l - i t I - Ag e n t
� b i l a d a r a l u - 1 - o l - a
still a g a i n c om e o u t i t - P o t - com e - w i l l th a t - s ame one
' I f you s hou l d w ip e it o f f ( o n e o f t he c av e p a i n t i n g s d r awn by
t h e ' f) a : r i ' sp i r i t - be i n g s ) , o r i f I s ho u l d w i p e i t o f f , t h a t
s ame on e wo u l d s t i l l c o m e ou t ag a in . '
B . 3 . 3 E mp h a t i c I n t r an s i t i ve RE FE RE N CE :
T . 1 1 /1 5 1
B . 3 s t a t e s t h a t th e Ob j e c t N P a n d th e E MP HAT I C m a rk e r
a r e mu t u a l l y e x c l u s i ve . T h e Ru l e h a s b e e n fo rmu l a te d i n
th i s m an n e r to e xp r e s s th e f a c t t h a t t h e E mph a t i c app l i e s
o n ly to I n t r a n s i t i ve e xp r e s s i on s . The E mph a t i c i s re a l i s e d
t h ro ugh R u l e T . 1 1 b y t h e mo rph e me s i r o r � ·
a )
E x . 1 7 ( T e x t V e rb s 6 1 a n d 7 1 )
i 9 i i r m a n l r
N P VP E MP H AT
i I) i - I i r m a - n - i r
The y - c a l l - d i d - E mp h a t
' T h e y c a l l e d l ou d l y . '
b ) i m b a n i n a l) a r
N P VP
i m - b a n i - n -
E MP HAT
a g a r
I t - f i n i sh - i s - E mp h a t
' I t i s r e a l l y f i n i s he d . '
B . 4 VP ( I N TE N S )
VP
VbN uc A ux
/,. -- --[�� I N TE N S VbN u c Au x
4 5
B y B a s e R u l e 4 , the V e rb P h r a s e i s rewr i t t e n a s a n op t i o n -
a l I n te n s i ty m a rke r , an ob l i g a to ry V e rb N u c l e u s a n d an ob l i g a t -
o r y A ux i l i a ry .
B . 4 . 1 T h e V e rb N u c l e u s REF E RE N C E :
L . 4 /7 9 M . 5 /2 1 5 M . 6 /2 2 1 M . 7 /2 2 4 M . 8 /2 2 8
T h e V e rb N u c l e u s d e n o t e s t h a t p a r t o f t he i n f l e c te d ve rb
wh i c h , w i th the A ux i l i a ry , c anno t be d e r i ve d th ro ugh th e
t r an s fo rm a t i o n a l c ompo n e n t . T h e N uc l e u s e n c omp a s s e s t h e
C l a s s m a rk e r and V e rb S t e m fo r a l l ve r b s a n d a l s o p ro v i d e s
i n fo rma t i o n c on ce rn i ng T r an s i t i o n a l Vowe l s ( f o r a lmo s t e ve ry
ve rb ) , P r e - S t e m s wh e r e t h e y o c c u r a n d a n y o t he r f e a t u r e s p e e -
u l i a r t o t h e ve rb un d e r que s t i on . T h e s e e l e me n t s w i l l no t be
ex ami n e d h e r e as a f u l l ac cou n t i s g i v e n wh e n the Ve rb N uc l e u s
i s di s c u� s e d a s a comp l e x s ymbo l i n S e c t i on L . 4 . Two v e r b s
w i l l be g i ve n a s i l l u s t ra t i on o f t h e m a i n compo n e n t s o f t h e
V e r b N u c l e u s . T he c omp on e n t s w i l l s imp l y be i d e n t i f i e d h e r e
w i thout e l aboration .
E x . 1 8
E x . 1 9
T e x t V e rb 4 9 :
N P
C l a s s M a r k e r
i r;i g a l g a l ga m a n a n a
T r a n s i t S t em Vo we l
i Q - g - a l g - a l ga m - a - n a n a
4 6
I t I n te n s - mo ve D ur a t i v e /D i s t a n t P e r f
' I t k ep t mov i n g abo ut v i g o r o u s l y . '
I I · d · a 1 u 1 r g a . 1 n
N P V P
P re S t em M a rk e r S te m
T ra n s i t Vow e l
g a d
E n te r t h e y e n te r
n a
P r e s e n t I mp e r f
' T h e y a r e g o i n g i n s i de . '
l h ' T i s E x amp l e a l s o i l l u s tr a te s the d i f f i cu l t i e s i n he r e n t i n
u s i ng s u r f a c e fo rms a s e x amp l e s o f B a s e Ru l e s . F i r s t ly ,
mo rp h eme s m u s t app e a r , s u c h a s t h e S ub j e c t p ro nom i n a l p re f i x e s ,
wh i ch a r e no t i n t ro d uc e d u n t i l t h e t ra n s fo rma t i o na l c ompon e n t .
S e c o n d l y , co n s t i tu e n t s s u c h a s t h e ' m e a n i n g - s h a r i ng ' P re - S t e m
lJ:LL ( s e e p a g e 8 8 ) a r e i n c lu d ed w h i c h h ave no t b� e n d i s c u s s e d .
T h i rd l y , t r a n s fo rma t i on a l p ro c e s s e s , s u c h a s p e rmu ta t i o n o f
P r e - S t e ms , h a ve be e n a nt i c ip a t e d .
B . 4 . 2 The Aux i l i a ry RE FE RE N CE :
4 7
B . 8/ 5 6 L . 6 / 1 0 0 L . 7 / 1 0 1 T . 1 6 . 1 / 1 6 7 R . 2 / 1 8 8 M . 1 2 / 2 3 8
T he ob l ig a t o r y Aux i l i a r y i s i t s e l f r ewr i t t e n by two
o b l i g a t o ry f o rma t i ve s by Ru l e B . 8 . T h e re a s on s f o r i n c l u d -
ing i t a s a s e pa r a te c a t e go r y a r e f i r s t ly , th a t i t u nde r l in e s
t he b a s i c i n te r d e p e n d e n c e o f A sp e c t an d Te n s e a n d , s e c o n d l y ,
i t f a c i l i t a t e s the fo rm u l a t i on o f S t r uc tur a l D e s c r i p t i o n s i n
t h e t r a n s f o r ma t i o n a l ru l e s a n d the c on t e x t s o f t h e r u l e s o f
o th e r c ompon e n t s . The s e po i n t s w i l l be t a k e n up a n d a f u l l
d i s c u s s i o n o f the A ux i l i a r y g i v e n in t h e S e c t i o n s i n d i c a t ed by
th e Re fe r e n c e Ke y above .
B . 4 . 3 I N TE N S I TY RE FE RE N CE :
L . 4 . 5 / 9 2 T . 1 0 / 149
The I N TE N S I TY ma r k e r b r i n g s Ru l e T . 1 0 i n t o op e r a t i on .
I t exp re s s e s i n t e n s i ty o f a c t i o n i n th e ve rb a n d c an o c c ur
w i th t r a n s i t i ve or i n t r a n s i t i v e exp re s s i on s . I t s s u r f a c e
m a n i fe s t a t i on i s a r e dup l i c at i on e i th e r o f t h e ve rb s tem o r
o f the P r e - S t em wh e r e on e o c cu r s .
E x amp l e s o f a s imp l e i n te n s i f y i n g o f the a c t i on wi l l be
g i ve n f i r s t a n d the n mo d i f i c a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d by i n t e n s i ty
w i l l be c on s i de r e d .
E x amp le 1 8 i gg a l g a l ga m a n a n a d i sp l ay s s imp l e I n t e n s i ty .
A n o th e r i n s t a n c e i s :
4 8
E x . 2 0 m I n a u g u lu g u I I n a r
NP P r e d P
I N T E N S V bN u c Aux
M a r k e r S t em
m i n a u g u l u g u l n a r
Y o u I n t e n s - b r e a k D i s t - t h em P e r f
' Yo u r e a l l y br o k e t h em up . '
I n s om e c a s e s t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n l e a d s to a mo d i f i c a t i on
of the verb m e a n i n g .
( i ) I n t e n s i ty i n i n t r a n s i t i ve ve r b s o f t e n a c t s b a c k on
t h e S u b j e c t . ( E x amp l e s p r e s e n te d i n s umm a r y f o rm )
E x . 2 1 T e x t Ve r b 1 9 : d a g a d a g i l) i r i n i
d a ga - d a g i g i r i - @- n i
I n te n s - s l e ep t h e y - � - D i s t P e r f
' T h e y a l l s l ep t . '
I n t h i s ex amp l e t h e v e r b s tem i s a z e r o mo rpheme a n d i t s
s e ma n t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e h a s b e e n n e u t r a l i s e d b y t h e P r e - S tem
( s e e page 86 for d i s c u s s i on ) .
( i i ) I n t e n s i ty c a n r e f e r p r i m a r i l y t o t h e O b j e c t .
E x . 2 2 T e x t V e r b 8 : l l) u r u l u l u r u n u n u r u
_i __ 9r...u_r_u_-_l_u_-___ l_u_r_u_-_n_u_-___ �_ n u r u
T h e y - I n t e n s - l i g h t - D i s t - i t f i re P e r f
' Th e y l i t a l a r g e f i r Q . '
4 9
( i i i ) I n t e n s i t y w i l l o f t e n c a u s e a s e m a n t i c mod i f i c a t i on .
F o r i n s t a n c e , the ve rb s t em a l me a n s 'to l oo k a t , s e e' .
the r e dup l i c a te d s t em
c a r e f o r' . T h e s t em
a l a l ha s the me a n i n g 'to loo k a f t e r ,
me a n s ' to e n te r' wh i l e the i n t e n-
s i ve fo rm ill.2_ i s mo d i f i e d to m e a n ' t o go i n a n d o u t' .
B . 5 Comp l e .. n n ( P o s tpo sP I Adve rb )
C o mp l e [ B""' 5 ] / ' �
/ \ / \ / n \ n
P o s ipo s P A dv e r b
5 0
B y B a s e Ru l e 5 , t h e C omp l e me n t i s r e wr i t te n a s e i the r a
P o s tp o s i t i on a l P h r a s e o r a n A dve rb , o r b o t h . H o we ve r , a s
i n d i c a t e d b y th e l i nk e d pa r e n the s e s , o n e a t l e a s t mu s t be
cho s e n . T h e s up e r s c r ip t n
s i g n i f i e s t h a t mo r e t h an o n e o f
e a ch c at eg o r y m ay o c c ur i n a s e n t e n c e .
Mo r e de t a i l e d ex am i n a t i o n o f t h e Comp l em e n t e l e me n t s w i l l
b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t he s e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e Re f e re n c e K e y
be l ow :
B . 5 . 1 P o s tp o s i t i on a l P h r a s e
B . 5 . 2 A dve r b
RE FE RE N CE :
RE FE RE N CE :
B . 6 / 5 2 B . 1 0 / 6 0 LE . 2 / 1 0 9 T . 1 5 / 1 5 9
B . 9 / 5 7 LE . 3 / 1 0 9 T . 1 6 / 1 6 7
Su r fa c e e x amp l e s o n l y w i l l be g iv e n be l o w t o i n d i c a t e
s ome t hi n g o f t h e o c cu r r e n c e o f C omp l eme n t c a t e go r i e s .
E x . 2 3
E x . 2 4
5 1
Te x t L i n e 6 6 : i o a r a r g i n a b a Q a b a l i - g a n
N P
V P NP A A dve rb P o s tp o sP
i 9 a r - a rg i n a - e b a I i - g a n
T h e y - b r o u g h t - h i m away c amp - t o
' T h e y t oo k h im o f f t o c amp . '
b a n a gg a r a - g f o i r a l g a l n f d i b i g i b i g i g u r 9 u l - o n d a r
N P P r e dP
b a n a 9g a r a - g f a f r - a l ga l n i d i b i g i b i g i 9 u r 9 u l - o n d a r
N o w- I n t e n s i f i e r th e y - we r e Q u an t i t p i g s m a n g rove s - i n t o
' J u s t now a l l t h e p i g s we r e i n t h e m a n g r o v e s . '
B . 6 P o s tp o s P N P P o s tpo s
P o s tp o s P [ B 6 ]
N(\p o s
5 2
B y B a s e Ru l e 6 , a P o s tp o s i t i o n a l P h r a s e i s r ewr i t te n a s
a n ob l i g a t o ry N o u n P h r a s e a nd a n ob l i g a t o r y P o s tp o s i t i on .
B . 6 . 1 N o u n P h r a s e RE F E R E N CE :
B . 1 / 3 3 B . 3 / 3 9
B . 7 / 5 3
T h i s i s t h e th i r d o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e c a t e g o ry N P i n the
B a s e Ru l e s . I t i s d e f i n e d f un c t i o n a l l y a s th e h e a d o f a
P o s tp o s i t i on a l P h r a s e a n d i de n t i f i e d a s [ NP , P o s tp o sP ] whe r e
ne c e s s a ry . T he fo l l owi n g s e n t e n c e c on t a i n s t h e thr e e N o u n
P h r a s e typ e s :
E x . 2 5 i n a r g i n a 9 a y u a a l - o
[ N P , S ] V bN u c Aux [ N P , P r e dP ] [ N P , P o s tp o sP ] P o s tp o s
i n - a rg i - n a - 9 a y u o a l - 0
H e - p i c k up - d i d - m e b e a c h - fr om
' H e p i c k e d me up f r om t h e b e a c h . '
B . 6 . 2 P o s tp o s i t i on RE F E RE N C E :
B . 1 0 / 6 0 LE . 2 / 1 0 9 T . 1 5 / 1 5 9
P o s tp o s i t i on s r e l e va n t t o v e r b mo rpho l og y w i l l b e d i s -
cu s s e d und e r Ru l e B . 1 0 .
B . 7 N P --�,., ... N orn
5 3
( S )
B y B a s e Ru l e 7 , a N o u n P hr a s e i s r ewr i t t e n a s a n o b l i g a t -
1 o r y N om i n a l a n d an op t i o n a l S e n te n c e .
B . 7 . 1 N o m i n a l RE FE RE NC E :
B . 1/ 3 3 B . 3 / 3 9 B . 6 / 5 2
L . 1 / 7 1 LE . 5 / 1 1 0 T . l / 1 1 8 T . 2 / 1 2 0 T . 3 / 1 2 4
T h e te rm ' N om i n a l ' h a s b e e n ut i l i s e d a s a mo r e g e n er a l
c a t e go ry t o c ov e r b o th N o u n s and P ro n o un s , b y wh i c h i t i s r e -
wr i t t e n i n the L e x i c o n . I t s m o r e ge n e r a l i s e d re f e re nc e i s
imp o r t a n t i n v i e w o f the f a c t tha t the p r o n om i n a l a f f i x e s
i n t r o d u c e d t h r o ug h T r an s f o rm a t i o n s 1 to 3 m a y be d e r i v e d f rom
e i the r N o un s or P ro n o u n s .
I n E x amp l e 2 6 , t h e thr e e f u n c t i on s o f t h e N o u n P h r a s e a r e
r e p r e s e n te d , a n d a l l a r e r e wr i t t e n a s Nomi n a l b y B . 7 . I n the
c a s e of t h e [ NP , S ] , t h i s is a P ro n oun wh i l e w i t h the [ NP , P r e dP ]
a nd t h e [ NP , P o s tp o sP ] , the Nomi n a l s a re N o un s .
1 I n a comp l e t e g r amma r , t h e NP r ewr i t i n g ru l e wo u l d i n trodu c e
a n umb e r o f mo d i f i e r s t o t h e N om i n a l a t l e a s t a s e t o f De t -
e rm i n e r s a n d N um e r a l s a nd a n A d j e c t iv e P h r a s e c on s t i tu e n t .
C e r t a i n o f t h e ' wh - ' I n t e r ro g a t iv e s wou l d a l s o be p a r t o f the
expa n s i o n .
E x . 2 6
l r - n f m
5 4
i r- n i m g i r g i r J r a n a ill o u m b a r a d i - g
s
VP NP C omp l e
P o s lp o sP
I\ N[ P o s tp o s
N om N om
ill_ o u m b a r a d i - 9
T he y -Ag e n t c u t t i n g t h e y - � - P r e s f i sh k n i f e - I n s t r um
' The y a r e c u t t i n g up t h e f i sh w i t h a kn i f e . '
B . 1 / 3 3 B . 7 . 2 T h e Re c u r s iv e S e n te n c e RE FE RE N C E :
T . 1 8 . 2 /1 7 9
T h e op t i ona l S e n t e nc e , in - c on j un c t i o n wi t h a N om i n a l ,
a l l ow s f o r t h e op e r a t i o n o f t h e Ru l e T . 1 8 . 2 t h e E mbe d d e d
Nominal R e l a to r t r a n s f o rm a t i o n . Th i s i s the B a rd i con s t r uc t-
i on c omp a r ab l e to the E n g l i s h r e l a t iv e c l au s e and it invo l ve s
v e r b m o r p ho l o g y i n t h a t t h e Re l a to r mo rpheme b a ( s e e pag e 1 7 6 )
b e c om e s a f f ix e d t o t h e ve rb .
T h e t ra n s f o rm a t i o n i s a c t iva t e d wh e n a p ro n oun o r n o un
of the r e c u r s i v e S e n t e n c e is c o - r e f e r e n t i a l w i t h a p ro n o un
or n o un o f t h e pr i m a r y S e n t e n c e . T h i s R e l a to r c o n s t r uc t io n
wi l l b e i l l u s t ra t e d i n o u t l i n e he r e b u t f u l l e r t re a tme n t i s
.r e s e rv e d f o r t h e di s c u s s i on o f Ru l e T . 1 8 . 2 .
5 5
E x . 2 7 g l n i r)Q i g a : r i i n a a 1 i a a r r) a y u b u g u n - b - i n i n
Th i s c omp l e x S e n t e n c e i s co n s t r u c t e d f r om t h e two S e n t en c e s :
g l n l 9g i 9 a : r l i n - o a 1 r a - a r 9 a yu a n d g i n i r)Q i 9 a : r i b u g u n I n - I n
T h a t sp i r i t h e - s aw - m e T h a t sp i r i t i n s i d e he - i s .
Be c au s e the two su b j e c t s ar e c o - r e f e r e n t i a l , T . 1 8 . 2 app l i e s .
B y i t , the s u b j e c t o f t h e embe d d e d ��ri t e n c e i s d e l e t ed a n d the
R e l at e r ba i s pr e f i x e d to t h e s e e o n d v e r b , p r o du c i ng the Re l -
a t ive con s t ru c t i o n . A t r e e d i a g r am wi l l i l l u s t r a t e f u r th e r :
sl
N� dP
/\ VP N P
N o rn s2
N orn
g i n i r) g i 1 a - a r r) a yu
P r� VP C o mp l e
N orn A d v e rb
g l ii i 9 g i g�n - l n b u g u n
App ly T . 1 8 . 2 : g l n l 9 g i g a : r i i n a a 1 i o a r 9 a y u b u g u n - b - i n i n
' T h a t sp i r i t , wh i c h l i ve s i n s i d e , s aw me . '
5 6
B .. 8 Aux ��-•� A s p e c t T e n s e
A ux
)\ A sp e c t T e n s e
B y B a s e Ru l e 8 , t h e A ux i l i a ry i s re w r i t t e n a s a n ob l i g a t o ry
A sp e c t fo rma t i ve a n d a n o b l i g a t o r y T e n s e fo rma t i v e .
The r e a r e s e v e n t e n s e s i n B a f d i and e a ch T e n s e h a s two
A sp e c t s . T he s e wi l l b e f u l l y d i s c u s s e d an d i l l u s tr at e d i n
t h e S e c t io n s i n d i c a t e d b e l ow , p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r t h e Le x i c a l
Rul e s .
B . 8 . 1 A sp e c t RE F E RE N C E :
B . 8 . 2 T e n s e
E x . 2 8
NP
l r b
RE FE RE N CE :
l r b a n d a n d a ma n ga l o
I N T E N S VbN u c
a n-d · a n d a m
l\ A spj c t T e nre
n g a l e
B . 4 / 4 5
L . 6 / 1 0 0 R . 2 / 1 8 8
B . 4 / 4 5
L . 7 / 1 0 1 T . 1 6 . 1 / 1 6 7 R . 2 / 1 8 8 M . 1 2 / 2 3 8
T h e y - C l a s s - I n te n s - s tumb l e - D ur a t - I mm ed i a t e P e r f e c t
' Up t o n ow , the y h ave b e e n c o n t i n ua l l y s t a g ge r i n g a round . '
B . 9 Adverb ( T ime l Q uan t i t )
Adve r b [ B A9 ]
I \
/�\ I \
T i'm e Q u a h t i t
5 7
By B a s e Ru l e 9 , the c a t e g o ry Adve rb i s r e w r i t t e n a s e i the r
T i me o r Q uan t i t a t i ve o r bo th , b u t o n e mu s t be c ho s e n .
T h e s e t wo adve rb i a l typ e s mu s t be i n c l u ded fo � the i r r e l -
e va n c e to ve rb morpho l ogy . A f ul l g r amma r wo u l d a l s o i n c l ud e
the f o l l ow i n g typ e s he r e o r t h r o ugh t r an s fo rma t i on a l de r i va t i on :
Man n e r , L o c a l , A f f i rma t i ve , C o n t i n u a t i ve a n d D i re c t i o n a l .
B . 5 /5 0 B . 9 . 1 T h e T ime Adve rb RE F E RE NCE :
L . 5 /9 9 LE . 3 . 1 /1 0 9 T . 1 6 . 1 /1 6 7
T h e r e l ev a n c e o f T ime a d ve r b s t o th e p re s e n t s t udy i s t h a t ,
i n man y i n s t an c e s , th e y g o ve rn a p ar t i c u l a r t e n s e o r r a n g e o f
t e n s e s i n the v e r b a ux i l i a ry . The L e x i con de f i n e s the con -
te x t s whe r e th i s g o v e rn me n t w ou l d t a k e p l a c e and wo u l d a s s i gn
to the a d v e r b i t s app r op r i a t e t e n s e m a rk e r . T h i s wou l d ha ve
to co r r e sp o n d w i t h the t e n s e o f the re l a t e d ve rb to e n s u r e an
a c c ep t ab l e s e q u e n c e . Fo r i n s t an c e , the T i me a dv e r b m l I o n
i n L i n e 2 o f the T e x t wou l d b e m a r k e d , w h e n u s e d i n the s e n s e
o f the ' be fo r e ' t i m e s o f l o n g ago : [ + D i s t ] t h a t i s , D i s t -
an t P e r f e c t , a n d t h e t e n s e o f t h e ve rb w ou l d h a ve to co r r e spon d .
S ome T ime adve rb s d o n o t go ve r n t e n s e a nd o th e r s l o s e th e i r
te n s e - s i gn i f i c an c e i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s . T h e s e w o u l d be
m a rk e d : [ - T e n s e ] . F o r i n s tan c e , m u y u n i n T e x t L i n e 2 0 ,
5 8
b e c a u s e i t i s be i n g u s e d i n a n a r r a t i ve , d o e s n o t g o v e r n a
p a r t i c u l a r t e n s e i n the v e r b . T h e t e n s e i s d e t e rm i n e d by
the t ime d ep th at wh i c h the repo r t e d e ve n t a c t u a l l y o c c ur r e d -
th a t i s , the D i s t an t P e r f e c t . H owe ve r , i f m u y u n i s u s e d
i n d i r e c t sp e e c h , i t wou l d b e m a r k e d to g o ve rn t h e N e a r P e r f e c t
t e n s e , a s wi th E x . 2 9 :
E x . 2 9 m u y u n a n - a a r m i - g a l o
T i me Adve rb D ua l - r o s e - N e a r P e r f e c t [ + N e a r ]
' E a r l y ( th i s mo r n i ng ) y o u a n d I a ro s e . '
Go ve r nme n t i s s a fe g u a r d e d t h r o u g h R u l e T . 1 6 . 1 .
B . 5 /5 0 B . 9 . 2 T h e Q uan t i t a t i ve Adve rb
T h e Q ua n t i t a t i ve adve r b n i d i
ve r b o r to a s s o c i a t e d n o u n p h r a s e s .
RE FE REN CE :
LE . 3 . 2 /10 9 T . 1 6 . 2 /1 69
c an r e f e r e i t h€ r t o th e
I f i t a c t s upo n the
ve rb , it f un c t i o n s as a n i n t e n s i f i e r ; i f i t a c t s up o n a noun
p h r as e , it e xp r e s s e s q u an t i t y . I t s p a r t i cu l a r re l e v a n c e to
ve rb mo rpho l o gy is t h a t , whe n i t s r e f e r e n c e is t o a n obj e c t
N P , t h e c o r r e sp o n d i n g O b j e c t p ro n o m i n a l s u f f i x i s ob l i g a t o r i l y
1 de l e te d by Ru l e T . 1 6 . 2 .
E x amp l e 3 0 p r o vi de s i l l u s t r a t i on o f t h e Q u an t i t a t i ve a d -
ve r b , where i t s p r i m a r y r e f e r e n c e i s ( a ) t o t h e ve rb , ( b ) to
the s ub j e c t , a n d ( c ) to t h e ob j e c t .
1 Be cau s e t h e mo rph e m e fo r t h e t h i r d p e r s o n p l u r a l p ronom i n a l
s u f f i x ( th e O b j e c t s u f f i x i n vo l v e d i n t h i s t r a n s fo rm a t i on ) i s
n o t prov i d e d u n t i l a f t e r t h e T ra n s f o rmat i on a l C ompon e n t , T . 1 6 . 2
i s i d en t i f i e d b y u s i n g t h e E n g l i s h p r o no u n . T h a t i s ,
" T hem" - D e l e t i on .
E x . 3 0
a ) T e x t L i n e s 2 1 t o 2 3 :
5 9
i 9 a r - a l a - n a - @ n t d I b a n i ---
b u r i ga r - a l a - n a - @ ·
The y - l oo k a t - d i d- i t Qu a n t i t th i s way s e e th e y � l o o k a t- d i d - i t .
a r a - g l a u l a r - a l a - n a - @ n i d i ·
N e g - I n te n s i f i e r t h e y - s e e - d i d - h im Q u an t i t
' T hey l o o k e d a t i t c a r e f u l l y a nd t h e r e the y s aw i t . The r e
w a s a b s o l u t e l y n o s i g n o f h i m a t a l l . ( Th a t i s , t h e ' s ha dow-
ma n ' ) . '
b ) T e x t L i n e 5 8 :
u l u m a n - a l n i .9lJ:. u l a r - a l a - n a n i d I
O l d wome n - g roup l i ve t h e y - w a l k - d i d Q ua n t i t
' N o t a f e w ( f rom p r e v i o u s l i n e ) o f t h e o l d e r wome n we r e l i vi n g
( the r e ) • '
c ) ( F o r f u 1 1 e r c o n t e x t , s e e E x .6 3 , p a ge 1 O 5 . )
b a r u l u l ga r - a n d l - g a l n i d i
C a t - f i s h t h e y - ca t ch - d i d Q u a n t i t
' T h e y h ad c a ugh t many c a t - f i s h . '
I f t he n i d i d i d no t o c c u r i n t h i s s e n t e n c e , the ve rb
wou l d be :
i g a r - a n d i - g a 1 - a 1 r
T h e y - c a t c h - d i d- t h em
' T h e y had c a ugh t t h em . '
Howev e r , n i d i c a u s e s t h e d e l e t i on o f t h e p r o n om i n a l
O b j e c t s u f f i x t h r o u g h Ru l e T . 1 6 . 2 .
B . 1 0 P o s tp o s
C o m i t a t
I n s t rum
Da t i ve
Ab l a ti ve
P o s tp o s [ B 1 0 ]
C o m i t at
I n s t r um
D a t i ve
Ab l a t i ve
6 0
B y B a s e Ru l e 1 0 , P o s tp o s i t i o n i s r ew r i t te n a s any one o f
C om i t a t i ve , I n s t r um e n t a l , D a t i ve o r Ab l a t i ve .
The r e a r e , i n f a c t , s ome twe n t y - f i ve B a fd i pos tp o s i t i on s
b u t o n l y th e s e fo ur n e ed app e a r i n t h e B a s e . Comi t a t i ve and
I n s t r ume n t a l p o s tpo s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s m ay op t i on a l l y i n tr o d u c e
th e A s s o c i a t i ve S uf f i x ( T . 1 5 . 1 ) , wh i le D a t i ve and Ab l a t i ve may
i n tr o d u c e the Re f e re n t i a l P r o n om i n a l S u f f i x e s ( T . 1 5 . 2 ) . N o
d e t a i l e d a c c oun t w i l l b e g i ve n o f the s e po s tpo s i t i on s a s they
are ou t s i d e th e ma i n s c op e of the s t udy . T h e fo l l ow i n g e x -
amp l e s a n d c omme n t s w i l l g i v e a n i n d i c a t i on o f the i r u s e an d
w i l l s e t t h e n e c e s s ary b a ck g ro u n d f o r the d i s c u s s i on o f th e
r e l e v a n t tr a n s fo rma t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s .
B . 1 0 . 1 T h e C om i t a t i ve REF E RE N CE : B . 6 /5 2
LE . 2 . 1/1 0 9 T . 1 5 . 1 /1 5 9
T h e C om i t a t i ve po s tp o s i t i o n n a r e xp r e s s e s ' w i th ' i n t h e
n on - I n s trume n t i v e s e n s e th a t i s , ' i n c omp any w i th ' , ' i n
p o s s e s s i o n o f ( an i n a n im a t e ob j e c t ) ' T h e fo l l ow i n g p h r a s e s
6 1
i l l u s t r at e i t s us e :
E x . 3 1
m a l a r - n a r ' w i t h a wi f e ' .
f) a y u - n a r ' w i t h me ' .
a i r m i - n a r ' w i t h s i n g i n g ' .
m i l i m i l i - n a r ' po s s e s s i n g C i t i z e n s h i p R i g h t s ' .
m a r g a - n a r ' w i t h a s h i e l d ' . ( i n po s s e s s i on o f )
B . 6 /5 2 B . 1 0 . 2 T h e I n s t r ume n t a l RE FE RE N CE :
LE . 2 . 2 /1 0 9 T . 1 5 . 1 /1 5 9
. T h e I n s t r um e n t a l p o s tp o s i t i o n { .!l } �
e xp r e s s e s ' w i th , by
me an s o f ' .
E x . 3 2
g u r u r - 9 a ' w i t h b l o od ' ( t h e y we t h i m ) .
a i w a - 9 a ' wi th a bo ome r a n g ' .
' w i th a g un ' . ( E n g l i s h : ' k i l l - a - m an ' ) .
' w i th a c up ' ( s h e h i t h i m ) .
9 a y - a m b a l a - 9 ' my - f e e t - by m e an s o f ' ' I we n t by fo o t ' .
I n d e s c r i b i n g th e b u i l d i n g o f the r o a d o v e r the F i t z roy
R i ve r , t h e i n fo rma n t to l d of how the y c on s t r uc t e d i t :
b a Q a g a - 9 b a d a g a - � � g u l b u - � g u l b u - 9
L og s - wi th l o g s - w i t h a n d bo u l d e r s - w i th bo u l d e r s - w i t h
' W i t h many l o g s a n d many bo u l d e r s . '
B . 1 0 . 3 T h e D a t i ve RE F E RE N CE : B . 6 /5 2
LE . 2 . 3 /1 0 9 T . 1 5 . 2 /1 6 3
T h e D a t i ve p o s tpos i t i o n � e xp r e s s e s two ma i n c on c ep t s .
I t i s u s e d t o e xp re s s mo t i o n t ow a rd s , a n d i t a l s o e xp r e s s e s
6 2
purp o s e a d u a l f un c t i o n p a ra l l e l e d i n many o the r l an g u a g e s .
E x . 3 3 I l l u s t r a t i n g mo t i on t ow a r d s :
a a r i n a n - 9 a n ' t o Lomb ad i n a ' .
i w a n u - g a n ' t o S un d ay I s l a n d ' .
b a l i - 9 a n ' t o c amp ' . ( T e x t L i n e 1 9 )
!) a n o i n - 9a n ' t o the t r e e - c o f f i n ' . ( T e x t L i ne 6 5 )
a a n a m - b u r u - 9 a n ' wh i ch - p l a c e - t o = whe r e ? ' ( T e x t L i n e 5 1 )
E x . 3 4 I l l u s t r a t i n g p u r p o s e :
E x amp l e s o f t h i s u s ag e a r e t a k e n f rom a n a r ra t i ve c on c e r n -
i n g a d r un k e n man . H e s e nd s ' fo r l i q u o r ' o l a - 9a n
H av i n g d r un k t h a t , he s e ek s o u t h i s w i f e ' fo r mo n e y '
g u l b u - Q a n . Up on r e fu s i n g h i m , she i s k n o c k e d down a n d
s e a r c h e s ' fo r a s t i ck ' b a d a g a - 9 a n , w i t h wh i c h to d e f e n d
he r s e l f .
B . 1 0 . 4 T h e A b l a t i ve
The Ab l at i ve po s tp o s i t io n
RE F E RE N C E : B . 6 ;5 2
LE . 2 . 4 /1 0 9 T . 1 5 . 2 /1 6 3
e xpr e s s e s mo t i o n f r om .
E x . 3 5 T h i s e x amp l e con t a i n s two i n s t an c e s o f t h e �b l a t -
i v e a n d o n e D a t i ve :
a a l - o m i n l n - a r g i - n a - o a y u b a d a i n - a 9g a - n a n a - 9 a y u
B e a c h- f rom T emp he - p i c k up - d i d - m e a w a y h e - t a k e - d i d -me
g u l o u ma n - rJ a n · g u l o u m a n - 9 0
C ap e L e ve que - t o . C ap e L e ve que - f r o m .
' T h e n he p i c k e d me up f rom t h e b e a c h a n d t oo k me o f f to C ap e
L e v e q u e . F rom C ap e L e ve qu e .
B . 1 1 C o n j
{S e q u} P u r p
T e mp
C o n j [ B i l l ] {S e qu} P urp
T e mp
6 3
B y B a s e Ru l e 1 1 , C o n j u n c t i on i s r e w r i t t e n a s o n e o f t h e
f o l l ow i n g : S e que n t i a l , P u rp o s i ve o r T emp o r a l .
I n B a s e Ru l e 1 , S C onj wa s p l a c e d t o t h e l e f t of t h e
ob l i g a t o r y e l em e n t s to f a c i l i t a t e t h e op e ra t i o n o f t h e t r a n s -
fo rma t i o n s r e l a t ed t o t h e o c c ur re n c e o f t he s e t h r e e C on j u n c t -
i on s . ( T . 1 7 a nd T . 1 8 )
O t he r C on j u n c t i on type s n o t r e l e v a n t t o ve rb mo rpho l o g y
a r e C a u s a l , C on t i n ua t i ve , C on s e c u t i ve , C o nd i t i o n a l a n d L og i c a l .
The s e C o n j un c t Lon s f un c t i on i n a s t r a i gh t - fo rw a r d m ann e r ,
s i mp i y c oo r d i n a t i n g two s e n te n c e s w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g ve rb
s tr u c t ur e . The t h r e e C o n j un c t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the B a s e
c an c a u s e m o d i f i c a ti o n s t o ve rb a l a f f i x i n g .
B . 1 1 . 1 S e qu e n t i a l C o n j un c t i o n RE FE RENC E : B . 1 / 3 3
LE . 4 . 1 / 1 0 9 T . 1 7 . 1 / 1 7 0
T h e S e q u e n t i a l C o n j u n c t i o n { a m b a } a a m b a o c c u r s w i t h c on s i d -
e r ab l e f r e qu e n c y , e sp e c i a l l y i n a ny c o n n e c t ed n a r r a t i ve o r
d i s c ou r s e . I t s f u n c t i o n i s to emp h a s i s e s e qu e n c e w i t h i n a
s e r i e s o f s e n t e n c e s . A s w i th o th e r B a � d i p a r t s o f sp e e c h
a n d p a r t i c l e s , i t c an o c c u r i n a lmo s t a ny p o s i t i on i n the
s e n t e n c e , i n c l ud i n g w i th i n t h e ve r b a s a s u f f i x .
6 4
E x . 3 6
0 l r a - m a - n - o a m b a - @
C on j t h ey - p u t - P re s - S e qu - h i m b a r k - o n t h e y - t i e up - P r e s - h im
� g i n i 9 g · g o b i n - m a r a m b a a i r i r · i r - a - n - Cf a m b a - s6
b a r k th a t . C o f f i n - l i k e S e qu to th e m . T h e y - t a k e - P r e s -Sequ-h.im
b a d a n u n __,.__ i r a - m a - n - a a m b a - e a i r o r - o n ·
away the r e th e y - pu t - P re s - S e q u - h im tomb- i n .
' T h e n t h e y p u t h i m ( the d e a d ma n ) o n t h e b a r k a n d t i e h i m up
in th� t b a r k . I t i s l i k e a c o f f i n fo r t hem .
t ak e h i m away a n d p l a c e h im t he r e i n a tomb . '
B . 1 1 . 2 P u rp o s i ve C o n j unc t i o n RE FE RE N C E :
T h e n t h e y
B . 1 /3 3
LE . 4 . 2 /1 0 9 T . 1 7 . 2 /l 7 3
T h e P urpo s i ve C o n j u n c t i o n a r i n a i - 9 a n o r a t t im e s s imp l y
a r i n o l c an be r ep l a c e d t h r o u g h the op e r a t i on o f T . 1 7 . 2 by an
' I n f i n i t i ve of P urp o s e ' c on s t r uc t i o n .
E x . 3 7
a ) s 1
l n a - m a r - i a - @
C o n j
m a y a l a a r i n a i - 9 a n i n - a ! - i o - @ a l a - n i m o i n
H e - c oo k - di d� i t go a n n a P u rpo s i v e H e - e a t - d i d - i t s o n -Agen t h i s
' H e c oo ke d th e go a n n a f o r h i s s o n t o e a t . '
b ) s 1 C o n j
g i n i 9g g u l b u - b a - o i b i n a - m a - n a - @ a r i n o
T h at s tone- Re l at- t here he - p l a ce- d i d - i t P u r p o s i v e
5 2
i 9 i - m i J 9 - i n o i - n a n u : n a i
H e - p rove - Re f l e x - d i d a l i v e
6 5
' T h a t i s t h e s to n e wh i c h h e s e t u p the r e i n o r d e r t h a t he
m i g h t p ro ve h i m s e l f t o be a l i ve . '
B . 1 1 . 3 T e mp o r a l C o n j u n c t i o n RE FE RE N C E : B . 1 / 3 3
LE . 4 . 3 I 1 0 9 T . 1 8 . l / 1 7 7
T h e T e mp o r a l C o n j u n c t i o n i s { m a r a b } m a r a b a I t i s u s e d t o
re l a t e b o t h co n c u r r e n t and s ub s e qu e n t ac t i o n s . B y T . 1 8 . 1 ,
t h i s + e l a t i on c a n a l s o be exp r e s s e d by t h e Re l a t e r b a
s u f f i x e d ve r b - f i n a l l y .
E x . 3 8
a ) s 1
i 9 - g a Q i - n a
C o n j s 2
m a r a b b a n i 9 a r a - m a - n - @ a m b a - n i m
H e - go i n - d i d D i c k i e T emp B a n g the y - pu t - d i d - h i m m e n - Ag e n t
' A s D i c k i e d i ve d i n , t h e m e n s ho t a t h i m . '
C o n j
!) a n - i b i - n a - @ m a r a b a g u r u r - g u d u I i n a a - n i m
I - d r i n k - di d- i t T e mp b l o o d - k i n d P o l i c e - Ag e n t
i 9 a r a - m - a - 9 a y u b u g u n
t h e y - pu t - d i d-me i n s i de
' A f t e r I d r a nk the w i n e , t h e p o l i c e l o c k e d me up . '
2 . 2 T h e ' M a s t e r ' P h r a s e - ma r k e r
6 6
T h i s c omp l e t e s the d i s c u s s i o n o f the B a s e R u l e s a s t h e y
� r e r e l e v a n t t o ve r b mo r p ho l o g y , a l tho u g h t h e y wi l l be c o n t i n -
u a l l y r e - appl i e d t h r ou ghou t t h e d i s c u s s i o n . T h e fo l l ow i n g
pag � pr e s e n t s a ' m a s t e r ' phr a s e - m a r k e r c h a r t i n g t h e r e wr i t i n g
r u l e s o f t h e B a s e . I t i s c o n s t r u c t ed s i mp l y by t h e p u t t i n g
t og e the r i n the o n e P -m ar k e r , a l l t h e i n d i v i du a l ru l e t r e e s
whi c h h a ve be e n d r a wn s e c t i o n b y s e c t i o n , thu s p r ov i d i ng a n
a l l - i n c lu s i v e b a s e u p o n wh i c h t h e t r an s f o rm a t i o n s c a n op e r a t e .
A l l ' S t r uc t u r a l D e s c r ip t i o n s ' wh i c h a c t i v a t e t r an s f o r ma t i o n s
mu s t con fo rm i n a c t u a l c on s t i tu e n t s a n d i n the i r o r d e r t o i t s
p r e - te rm i n a l s t r i n g o f fo rma t i ve s . A t t ime s , f o r e c onomy
and to p r e s e rve a wi d e r g e n e r a l i s a t i on , the fo rma t i v e s wi l l be
s ub s um e d u n d e r the u s e of a ' h i g he r ' n o de l abe l � Fo r i n -
s t an c e , i t i s g e n e r a l l y mo r e c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d c o n ve n i e n t to
r e fe r t o the A ux n o de i n S t r u c tu r a l D e s c r i p t i o n s r a th e r than
A s p e c t p lu s T e n s e . T h i s i s be c a u s e ve r y f e w r u l e s app l y t o
A sp e c t o r T e n s e i n d i v i du a l l y a nd , wh e r e t h e y fun c t i o n a s a
un i t , the r e i s n o po i n t i n l i s t i n g the m b o th .
Fo r e a s i e r r e f e r en c e , t h e R u l e numbe r s a r e g i v e n i n
s e qu e n c e d own t h e r i g h t - h a nd ma r g i n .
s
s [ B -
- - -- /
- - / c On"j P r �s
Con j [ B,1 1 ]
[ B 2 ]
\ \ S {Sequ} Que s t i on Nom s
{ } P ur p T e mp
I MP E RA T
P r e d P
- - ............ - -- -���- - - -
- - ............ - -- - ............ - - -N E G { E M P H ) V P N P C omp l e
{ } [ B 4 ] { } P O T EN T I A L
,, ,,.
"'
"'� E M P HAT
I N T E N S VbNuc A u x Comp l e [ B� ] A >.--._
/�? "'-...
.......... /
P o s tpo s P A d ve rb
Aux
A A spec t T e n s e N E G { E M P H ) I N T E N S V bNuc { }
P O T E N T I A L
/\ N P N P P o s tpo s [ B \7 ] [ B
\7 ] \
\ \ P o s tp o s A d e rb \ \ \ [ B 11 0 ] [�]
� \ / \ \
N orn s N orn s {Comi t a tJemp Quan t i t { } I n s trum
EMP H AT D a t i ve Abl at iv
B . l
B . 2
B . 3
B . 4
B . 5
B . 6
B . 7
B . 8 B . 9 B . 1 0 B . 1 1
2 . 3 Lex i c a l Rul e s
6 8
The p r e s e n t a t i on o f the L e x i c a l Ru l e s wi l l b e s imi lar to
that of the B as e Ru l e s . Th a t i s , the ru l e s wi l l be s e t out
en b l o c in i ti a l ly and then taken one by one and d i s cu s s e d and
i l l u s t r a te d . Aga i n , the o rg an i s a t i on i s b a s i c a l l y Chomsky an
in tha t non - ve rb a l Comp l e x S ymbo l s wi l l be spe c i f i e d by con
te xt - f r e e s e l e c t i on a l f e a tu r e s whi l e the C omp l e x S ymbo l ' Ve rb
N uc l e u s ' wi l l be spe c i f i e d by bo th s e l e c t i on a l f e a ture s and
s tr i c t s ub- c a te go r i s a t i on r u l e s .
T he Comp l e x S ymbo l s t r e a t ed in the Lex i c a l Ru l e s a r e tho s e
forma t i ve s whi ch have come down in t o the p re t e rmin a l s tr ing o f
the B a s e a s un exp anded c at e g o r i e s .
Ve rb N uc l e u s , A spe c t and T e n s e .
The s e a re : N omi n a l ,
L . l
L . 2
L . 2 . 1
L . 2 . 2
L . 2 . 3
L . 2 . 4
L . 2 . 5
L . 2 . 6
L . 2 . 7
L . 3
L . 4
L . S
L . 6
2 . 3 L e x i c a l Rul e s ( L . )
6 9
N orn ---•- + N
- N ... [ aP e r s o n , $N umbe r ]
N umbe r • ! S i n g
P e r s on + I
- I + I I
- I I + I I I
[+ I
.+ I I
] + S i n g
+ D ua l
[+ I
] [+ I I
] + S i n g - S i n g
... + I n c l u s i ve
+ I [+ S i n g
] + I I I + E x c l u s i v e
+ N [ y F e a tur e , ( ! S i n g ) ]
VbN u c ( + P r e - S t em ( + A c t i o n C h an ge ) ) ,
+ C l a s s , ( + P a r t Re dup ) , + VbS ,
{ + T r an s i tV ) ,
{ + Ob l i g Re tr o ) ,
{ + I mp e r s ) ,
{ + I r re g : n ) ,
+ N : + N : --- ---
T e mp o r a l Adv e rb ! T e n s e ]
A sp e c t ! Dur a t ]
7 0
L . 7 Te n s e + P e r f -
L . 7 . 1 -P e r £ ,, + P re s
L . 7 . 2 -P r e s + P ro j
L . 7 . 3 + P e r f + De f i n i te -L . 7 . 4 + D e f in i t e :con temp
L . 7 . 5 + C on temp + I mme d -
L . 7 . 6 - I mme d +N e a r
L . 7 . 7 - C on temp +Mid
L . 7 . 8 - M i d + D i s t
L . l N orn +N REF E RENCE :
7 1
B . 1 /3 3
B . 3 /3 9
B . 6 /5 2
B . 7 /5 3
LE . 5 /1 1 0
T . 1 /1 1 8
T . 2 /1 2 0
T . 3 /1 2 4
By Lex i c a l Ru l e 1 , the C omp l e x S ymb o l ' N omin a l ' i s r e -
wr i t t e n a s p l us o r mi nu s No un .
The c l o s e int e r dependen c e o f Noun s [ + N ] and P ron oun s [ -N ]
in the i r re l a t i on t o the pronom i n a l a f f i xe s o f th e verb i s
pr e s e rve d un de r the common nod e ' N omi n a l ' .
L . 2 -N [ a P e r s on , 6N umbe r ]
L . 1/7 1 REF EREN CE :
LE . 5 . 1 /1 1 0
1 L e x i c a l Rule 2 in tro duc e s the s e t o f f r e e pronoun s .
Lex i c a l E n t ry 5 . 1 pre s e n t s the pa r a d i gm o f the P e r s on a l pro -
nouns ac cord i n g to the i r N umbe r a n d P e r s on spe c i f i c a t i on s .
The va r i ab le s a and are n e c e s s a ry for the ind i ca t ion
o f ag r e ement be twe en f re e p ron oun s on the one hand and the i r
pronom in a l a f f i x e s and o the r ve rb con s t i tu en t s on the o th e r .
An i n s t an c e of agr eemen t be twe e n p ronoun s and the i r corr e spond-
i n g a f fi x e s is prov id ed in the f i r s t tr an s f o rma t i on . By i t ,
the p ronomi na l a f f i x i s p rodu c e d co r r e spond i n g to e ve r y sub j e c t
or obj e c t noun or p ronoun and a g r e e i n g w i th i t s ante c e d e n t i n
P e r son and N umbe r . An in s t anc e o f a g r e emen t w i th o the r
1 S e e N e k e s ( 1 9 3 9 } fo r a fu l l e r a c c oun t o f th e pronoun s y s tem of D amp i e r Land l anguag e s .
7 2
ve rb mo rpheme s i s g i ve n b y t h e ' N umbe r ' p r e f i x , the r e a l i s a t ion
of wh i ch is dep e nd e n t upo n the N umbe r of the sub j e c t pronom i n a l
pr e f i x invo lve d ( T . 4 , page 1 2 8 a n d R . 4 , p a g e 1 9 4) .
L . 2 . 1 N umbe r �S i ng
L . 2 . 2 P e r s on + I -
L . 2 . 3 - I + I I -
L . 2 . 4 - I I + I I I
The s e sub - r u l e s i n tro du c e the conve n t i o n s for in d i c a t in g
f i r s t , s e c on d and th i r d p er son , s i n gu l ar and p lura l . The
b i n a ry p r e s e n t a t ion is con s i s t en t w i th th e b i n ary n ature of
the D ua l , I n c l u s i ve and Ex c lu s i ve now to be d i s cu s s e d .
L . 2 . 5 ---•- + D u a l
Th e B a; d i Dua l pron ou n i s u s e d when th e spe a k e r [ + I , + S i n g ]
i s a s so c i a te d wi th a s i n g ul a r addr e s s e e [ + I I , + S i n g ] that
i s , ' th e two of us ' . How eve r , the Dua l f un c t ion s a s a s i n g-
u l a r ra th e r than a s a p lu r a l e n t i ty , a s i t doe s n ot take the
mo rpheme ind i c at i n g a p l ur a l sub j e c t , ( that i s , the pr e f ix
It wou l d , the r e f o r e , be be t t er cha r a c t e r i s e d as ' I a nd you
( S i ngu l ar ) '
L . 2 . 6
L . 2 . 7
[ + I + I I + S i ng ] [ + S i n g ]
+ I [ ] + I I I + S i n g
+ I n c l u s i ve
+ E xc l u s i ve
F i r s t p er s o n p l u r a l forms of the f r e e P e r so n a l pronoun
r ) .
a r e i n e i the r th e E x c l u s iv e o r the I n c l u s i v e . The I n c l u s ive
i s us e d whe n the sp e ak e r [ + I , + S i ng ] i s a s s o c i a t e d w i th mo r e
th an o n e a ddre s s e e [ + I I , - S i n g ] . T h a t i s , ' I a nd you ( p lur-
7 3
a 1 ) ' o r ' we a 1 1 ' • Th e E x c l u s i ve i s u s e d whe n the sp eak e r
i s a s s o c i a te d w i th o the r p e r s o n s o r ano the r p e r son ( a s the
+ I I I i s un spe c i f i e d as to Numbe r ) not be ing a ddr e s s e d and
whe r e the add r e s s e e or a ddr e s s e e s a r e exc lude d . P e r s o n a l
pronoun s , i n th e i r f re e forms , a l on e d i sp l ay a sur f a c e d i s -
t i n c t i o n be twee n I n c l u s ive a nd E x c l u s ive .
af f ix e d forms do n o t make thi s d i s t in c t i o n .
P o s s e s s i v e and
The f r e e p ronoun s are not mark e d for ge nder and c a s e ,
so that the on e fo rm i s us ed fo r bo th sub j e c t and ob j e c t .
The s e th r e e typ e s o f pronoun s a l l re l a te d to the f i r s t
p e r s on s i n gu l a r wi l l now be i l l u s tr a t e d i n out l i n e .
Ex . 3 9 The Dua l :
a r a • a r) - g a n a i - g a l n u n u · g a g i n - o n a yu - n i m
E x c l ama t ion D ua l - f org e t- j u s t d i d the r e . C ave - i n Du a l -Ag e n t
a o w a b a w a b a l i l ·
P o s s e s s i ve Dua l boy in i t i a t ion s t age
' Oh no ! You and I j u s t fo r go t about h im the r e . We two
( l e f t ) our ' ba l i l ' - boy in the cave . '
The s e t t i ng o f thi s i l lu s tr at ion i s that mo the r , f a the r
and son had go n e f i sh i n g . The boy we n t to s l e ep i n a c ave
and ha d be e n l e f t the r e by h i s par e nt s . I n sp e ak i n g to e a ch
o th e r , the pa r e n t s u s e d the Dua l fo rm o f the pronoun s and
pronom i n a l pr e f i x .
E x . 4 0 The I n c l u s i ve :
i n - a - n - a m b a - m u d u - �
H e - g i ve - di d- S e qu- I n c - h im
a l a g i n i r)g i - a i n a a r i d i l � 9 a n b u n a a
s o n h i s - own I nc - fo r a l l
' An d H e gave H i s own S o n fo r u s a l l . '
7 4
T h i s i s pa r t o f a Go s p e l s e rmon g i ve n by a Ba r d i man and
hi s u s e o f th e I nc l u s i v e i s s e e n her e to good e f fe c t , supp l e -
me n t e d by th e b u n o a I a 1 1 I •
Ex . 4 1 The E x c l us i ve :
a a w a l g i n i 9 g i b a w - a r a - b - a 9 a r - a l a - n a - n a a r u d u
S t ory thi s chi l d - t ime - Re l a t - E x c - wa l k - Dura t - d id Ex e
' Th i s s tory i s about wh a t w e u se d t o do i n ou r ch i ldho od . '
The e l d e r l y in fo rman t wa s re l a t i ng to me an in c i de n t
from h i s ch i ldhood . I , th e addre s s e e , wa s o f c our s e ex c luded
from the a c t i on of the na r r a t i ve .
L . 3 +N [ y F e atur e , <-: s i ng ) )
Noun s are no t i n f l e c t e d fo r numbe r , g e nd e r or c a s e .
Ap a r t f rom th e spe c i a l i n s t a n c e o f Vo c at i ve s 1 , wh i ch ar e out -
s id e the s c op e of th i s s tudy , N ou n s ar e a s s ume d to be inhe ren t-
ly marked [ + I I I ] fo r P e r s on .
1 Th e l abe l ' VOCAT I VE ' was i n tr o du c e d i n the foo t - n o t e on page
3 3 as a ca t e go ry wh i ch wou l d have to be i n c l ud ed w i th i n a ful l g r amma r . I t i s c ap i t a l i s e d to fo r e sh adow a tr an s fo rmat-
ional pro c e s s wh i ch wou l d c ove r the matter of ag r e e me n t be t we e n th e pa r ty addr e s s e d and th e ' vo c a t i v e ' , tha t i s , s e co n d p e r s on v e rb a l a f f ix .
s e n t e n c e :
E x . 4 2
a m b - o y i
An e xamp l e of th i s i s g ive n in the
a n a - 8 a y i d i m � a - � b i g i b i g i
Man-E x c l am a t i on you-h i t - P ro j - i t p i g
' H ey , man ! H i t the p i g ! '
7 5
H ow� ve r , i t i s n e c e s s ary t o i n c lude a n op t i on a l f e a tur e
f or nouns to e xp re s s N umber . Thi s i s be c au s e some nouns
are inhe r e n t l y s i ng u l ar an d s ome inhe r e n t ly p l ur a l and th i s
fac tor has t o b e a c c oun t e d fo r i n th e L e x i c on t o s a f e g ua rd
corr e c t agr e eme n t be twe e n s u ch a noun and i t s corre spon d ing
pron omi n a l a f f i x . The wo rd fo r ' p eop l e ' a m b u r i ii i s
a compound f rom a m b a and 0 r a n tha t i s , ' man ' and ' woman '
an d i t mu s t a lway s be ma rk ed as [ - S i n g ] . N o t i c e the ag r e e -
me n t in E x . 4 3 f i r s t wi th ' p e op l e ' a s the ob j e c t o f the ve rb
' to f i ght ' , an d s e c ond a s s ub j e c t o f the ve rb ' t o put ' :
E x . 4 3 T e x t L in e 6 3 :
a m b u r i n i n - a m b a n i - n a - r g i n i 9 g - a m b a i 9 a r a - m a - n a - @ ·
P e op l e he - f i gh t - d i d- th em tha t - i s why they-put - d id - h i m .
' H e fought w i th tho s e p eop l e , tha t i s why the y put h im .
I f a noun i s unmark e d for Numb e r then i t can be u s e d
gramma t i c a l l y w i th e i th e r s i n gu l ar o r p l ura l pronomi n a l a f f ixe s .
Fo r i n s tan c e , � c an s i g n i fy e i the r ' woman ' o r ' wome n '
a s i n the s e n t e n c e s of E x . 4 4 :
E x . 4 4
a ) S ingu l a r :
i n - g - a J a r b u - n a - @ o r a ii - n i m
S he - C l a s s - w i n now-P re s - i t woman -A g e n t
' The woman i s wi nnowi n g i t . '
b ) P l ura l :
i r - a l a r b u - n a - @ o r a ii - n i m
They -w i nnow- P r e s - i t wome n-Age n t
' The women a r e wi nnowing i t . '
7 6
The o the r mark e r u s e d t o spe c i fy noun s i s y Fe a tur e ] .
Th i s i s an at t emp t to comprom i s e be twe e n , on th e one hand ,
the inhe r e n t d i f f i cu l t i e s and the pr a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s of a
' C homsk yan ' 1 s y s tem o f fe atur e s and g on the o th e r hand ,
a c c ep t e d un i ve r s a l c a te go r i e s ve r su s l an g uag e part i c u l ar n e e -
e s s i t i e s . Th e A sp e c t s s y s t em h a s be en c onv i n c i n g l y qu e s t-2 ione d , and the re i s a r e c e n t t e n d en c y to ab andon i t a l to g e the r .
Howe ve r , in comi n g down to the pra c t i c a l i t i e s o f a n a l y s i n g a
part i c ul ar l anguage and i n s e e k i n g to p r e s e n t rul e s wh i ch wi l l ,
a s far a s po s s i b l e , pro duc e on l y the ' a c c ep t ab l e ' s equ en c e s ,
some so r t o f fe atur e s y s te m be c ome s e s s e n t i a l . A l though
in B afd i the r e is not the s ame mu l t i - r e f e r e n t i a l prob l em
hi gh l i gh te d , fo r i n s tanc e , in Bo l i n ge r ' s tre a tme n t o f E ng l i sh
1 Mo di fyin g an A sp e c t s mod e l fo r synta c t i c f e atur e s , the s e , o r
s im i l ar ru l e s wou l d have to be ad d e d und e r Ru l e L . 3 :
( i ) +N � [ � Common ] ( i i ) +C ommon � [ �Count ] { i i i ) +Count ---+ [ ± Con c re t e ] { i v ) - Common � [ �P e r son a l ] { v ) + Co n c re t e--+- [ �An imate ] { vi ) +An imate ----+- [ +H uman ] ( vi i ) -Count ___....,. [ :Abs tra c t ]
2 No a t t empt wi l l be made t o out l i n e the r e l evant l i t e r ature , wh i c h i s n ow con s i d e r ab l e . Two impo rtant s tud i e s w i l l be me n t i on ed on l y . Bo l i ng e r ( 1 9 6 5 ) ex ami n ed the mar k e r s y s t em
and i ts deve l opme n t e sp e c i a l l y i n Kat z and F o do r ( 1 9 6 3 ) , and showed up s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s inhe r en t i n i t s l og i c a l app l i c -
a t io n . Mcc aw l e y ( 1 9 6 8 a a nd l 9 6 8b ) , a nd the ' ge ne r a t i ve s em-
ant i c i s t s ' g e n e ra l ly c l a im that Chomsk yan s e l e c t i o n a l f e ature s
have no p l ac e i n the B a s e but a r e s eman t i c in n atur e and c anno t
be d e t e rm i n ed through s yn t ac t i c r e l a t i o n s h ip s . S.e e Lang ( 1 9 7 1 :
S f f ) for a comp re h e n s ive d i s cu s s i on o f ' fe a tur e s ' .
7 7
wor d s su c h a s ' ba che l o r ' o r even ' s oup ' ( 1 9 6 5 : 5 5 5 f f ; 5 6 6 f )
the r e a r e c omp l ex probl em s i n oth e r a r e a s .
prov i d e d by two a r e a s o f B ar d i s a c r e d l i f e
I l l u s tra t ion i s
age - g r ad e s and
c e r emo n i a l danc in g . Through the ag e - g r ad e s y s tem , Abo r ig in -
a l you ths a r e g radu a l ly i n t ro duc ed in t o the s a c r e d and s e c r e t
be l i e f s , p r i vi l e g e and p a r t i c ipa t i on . To e n sur e c or re c t
re l at i on s h i p s be twe e n age nt and a c t ion , f o r i n s t anc e , age
g r ad e name s and ve r b s d e n o t i ng a c t i o n s ac c ep t ab l e fo r th a t
a g e - g r ad e wou l d hav e to be mutu a l l y marked to a l l ow approp-
r i a t e l e x i c a l in s e r t ion . W i th re f e r e nc e to c e r emo n i a l danc -
i n g , d i f f e r e n t ve r b s fo r ' to danc e ' are used a c c o rd ing to the
c e r emo ny be i n g p e r f o rme d . Furthe r s t i l l , e a ch ma j o r c er emony
has i t s own p e cu l i a r ve rb d en o t i n g the c omme n c eme n t of da nc i n g .
Ove r the r�nge of the who l e l anguag e , th e numbe r o f spe c i a l i s e d
mark e r s wou l d be l e g ion a n d i t wou l d be a lmo s� a n impo s s i b l e
t a s k to de l im i t eve r y on e a nd pr e s e n t i t w i th i n a un i f i e d
f ramewo rk . Th i s ha s l e d to the compromi s e s ugge s te d by
Ru l e L . 3 , whe re the noun i s ma r ke d , s imp ly , [ y F e atu r e ] . Y
i s un sp e c i f i e d and po t en t i a l l y i n f i n i te in range . Howeve r ,
the y marke r s o n any i n t e rd ep end e n t noun and ve rb sequ en c e
mu s t co r r e spond . S u c h fe a tur e s wou l d be in t ro du c ed in to the
l e x i c a l e n tr i e s whe r e v e r they be c om e n e c e s s a r y . Fo r i n s tanc e ,
the Le x i c a l E n tr y 6 . 5, pag e 11 2 g i ve s a h i gh l y r e s t r i c t ive y
fe atur e . The ve r b l u r ' t o l i ght a f i r e ' i s mark ed ,
[ + ���N : n u r u ] . Th a t i s , i t mus t tak e an obj e c t and that
ob j e c t c an on ly be the noun n u r u ' f i r e - woo d ' . I hav e no
r e co rd e d c a s e whe r e
owi n g th i s ver b .
n u r u doe s n o t o c c u r i n the s u r fa c e fo l l -
I n f a c t , t h e g r e a t ma j o r i ty o f s e qu en c es c an be adequat e ly
con t ro l l ed by an A sp e c t s s y s tem a s s e t ou t in the foo t - n o te t o
7 8
pag e 7 6 and th i s sy s t em i s ut i l i s e d w i th th e L e x i c a l E n t r i e s .
S uch a s e t o f f e a tur e s i s mor e or l e s s a c c epte d a s l a nguag e
un ive r s a l and thu s n e e d not be s t a t e d i n the d e s cr ipt ion o f
eve ry sp e c i f i c l anguag e . The y marker wou l d then repr e s -
e n t l anguage par t i cu l a r requ i r eme n t s .
7 9
L . 4 VbN uc ( + P r e - S tem ( + A c t i on Chang e ) ) ,
+ C l a s s ( + P a r tRe dup ) +VbS
( + T r an s i tV ) ,
( + Ob l i g Re tr o ) ,
( + I mp e r s ) ,
( + I r r e g : n ) ,
+ N : + N :
By Rul e L . 4 , the Comp l e x S ymbo l Verb N uc l e u s i s sp e c i f i e d
by the fo l l owi n g f e a t ur e s :
I t i s ob l i g a to r i ly spe c i f i e d by i t s C l a s s , the Ve rb S tem
[ + VbS ] , th e noun or c l a s s of noun s wh i ch may o c c ur a s i t s s ub-
j e c t [ + N : _�_ ] , an d the p r e s e n c e or abs e n c e of an ob j e c t noun
or c l a s s o f nouns [ + N : ] . I t m ay a l so be sp ec i f i ed by ---
a P r e- S tem , i n wh i ch c a s e the fe ature [ + A c t i o n Chan ge ] may
fo l l ow ; by a fe a tur e T ran s i t i o n a l Vowe l [ ( + T r an s i tV ) ] ; by
a f e a t ur e Ob l i g a to r i l y Re t ro - a c t i ve [ ( +Ob l i g Re tro ) ] ; by a
fea tur e I mp e r s o n a l [ ( + I mp e r s ) ] ; and by a fe a tur e I rr e gu l ar ,
whi ch i t s e l f i s i de n t i f i ed by a nume r a l [ ( + I r r e g : n ) ] .
Th i s app e a r s to be a comp l ex ru l e but , i n f a c t , a l l the
non - ob l i g a t o ry f e a t ur e s to g e the r wou l d on l y invo lve a sma l l
propo r t i on o f Ba r d i verb s . The componen t s w i l l be t a k en
one by one and d i s cu s s e d , comme n c i n g wi th the ob l i g a t o ry
f e a tur e s .
L . 4 . 1 The Ve rb S te m REFE RE NCE : B . 4 / 4 5
LE . 6/ 1 1 2 M . 6/ 2 2 1
The Ve rb S t em expr e s s e s the me an i n g con t en t o f the a c t i on
expr e s s e d , exc ept in some c a s e s whe r e a P r e - S t em ha s n e u tr a l -
8 0
i s e d the s emant.i c s i gn i f i c a n c e o f the anc i l l a r y S t em ( s e e pa ge
86 ) • The de r i v a t i o n o f a l imi t e d n�mbe r o f S tem s i s appa r -
e n t , but i t doe s not s e em po s s i b l e to trac e the or i g i n of the
gre at ma j o r i ty . Some a r e f o rme d f rom o the r roo t s . The
S te m fo r ' t o be c ome bog g e d ' � almo s t c e r ta i n l y come s f rom
the roo t s a l ' t o go ' and � ' t o go in s i de ' . The S t em
fo r ' t o cook ' i s m a r wh i l e the S te m 9 ::J y i - m a r me a n s ' t o
coo k in a bush o ve n ' , a l though the me an ing of the roo t �
i s un c e r t a i n . The common wo rd fo r ' me a t ' i s � and th i s
can b e wid e n e d in re f e r e n c e t o b e u s e d a s a g e ne r i c te rm fo r
' food ' . The re l a t e d ve rb ' t o e at ' ha s the S te m � .
Two typ e s o f Ve rb S tem s e xh i b i t pe c u l i ar i t i e s w i th reg ard
to the i r vowe l s y s tems . S ome b - an d �-C l a s s S te ms have
the mo rphophon eme s { c ap i t a l i s e d ) U and A . F o r e xamp le ,
g+ U d A I ' t o l o s e ' , and b + u ' t o sp e ar , to g i ve n e ed l e s ' .
Th i s dev i c e i s to b r i n g i n to op e r a t i on the phon o l og i c a l r ul e
M . 6 , whi ch con tro l s the a l te rn at i o n be twe e n th e vowe l s a
u , and ::J
O th e r S t ems d i sp l ay the mo rphophon eme
membe r s o f the o - C l a s s . F o r in s tan c e ,
I but th e y a re
a + Ig u r ' t o make a
ca t ama r a n ' ' and a + r d u r ' t o knock a c c i de n t a l l y . The mo rpho-
pho n eme I a c t i va t e s the Ru l e M . 6 , wh i ch contro l s a l t e rna t i on
be twe en the vowe l s u and
Apa r t f rom verb c l a s s e s den o t e d by the four C la s s mark e r s
{ a s d i s cu s s e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ) , V e rb S tems c an be d iv i d e d
i n t o T ran s i t i ve and I n tran s i t i ve typ e s . G e n e r a l l y , the two
typ e s of S tems ar e group e d in mutua l ly ex c lu s iv e s e t s . Tha t
i s , the S t em fo r the Tr a n s i ti ve v e rb ' t o f r i g h t e n ' � is
qui t e d i f fe r e n t in f o rm f rom the I n t r an s i t ive verb ' to be
f r i gh t e n e d ' � · { S e e d i s cu s s i o n o f A c t i on Typ e , pag e 1 3 1 )
L . 4 . 2 C l a s s REFE RENCE :
8 1
B . 4 / 4 5
M . 5 / 2 1 5 M . 6 / 2 2 1 M . 8 / 2 2 8
Ev ery ve rb h a s a C l a s s marke r . The r e ar e four mark er s ,
on e o f wh i ch i s r e a l i s e d a s a z e ro mo rph eme . I t i s pos s i b le
wi th the ma j o r i ty o f Verb S te ms to pr ed i c t whi ch C l a s s mark e r
the y wi l l tak e a s mo s t r e l a t i o n s a r e phon o l og i c a l l y de f i n ed .
Howev er , the numbe r o f unp r e d i c t ab l e mark e r s i s s i gn i f i c an t
e nough to fo r ce a l i s ti n g of them as the f i r s t ob l i g a t o ry
fe a tur e p r e c ed i n g the Ve rb S tem . I n vi ew o f th i s deg r e e o f
unp re d i c t abi l i ty a n d the f a c t that t h e di f fe r e n t C l as s mark e r s
do no t have any pa r t i cu l ar s emant i c s i gn i f i c anc e , t h e four
marke r s , i n e f f e c t , fo rm the ba s i s fo r the d i v i s i o n o f the
S te ms i n to four c l a s s e s : � - C l as s , !?_- C l a s s , a -c l a s s and
g- C l a s s .
The fo l l ow i n g p r i n c ip l e s d e t e rmi n e the C l a s s fo r the
ma j o r i ty o f ver b s :
1 . A l l c on s on an t- i n i t i a l S t ems a r e t-C l a s s .
i n tr an s i t i ve t- C l a s s S te m s are con s on an t- i n i t i a l .
A l l
Howe ve r ,
some 1 5 % o f t ra n s i t i ve £- C l a s s S te m s a r e vowe l - in i t i a l , and
it i s impo s s ib l e to p r e d i c t the i r c l a s s on a phono l og i c a l o r
seman t i c · b a s i s . Fo r i n s t an c e , a n d ' t o p i c k up ( an obj e c t ) '
i s £- C la s s , whe r e a s the homomo rph a n d ' t o s cr a t ch ' , i s
s_- C l a s s . � ' to p i ck up ( a p er s o n ) ' i s &- C l a s s , wh i l e
£1.9. ' t o b e f ri g h t e ne d ' is an in tr ans i ti ve a -C la s s S te m .
i r i I a ' t o wave ' i s t-C l a s s and i r i l ' t o f l y ' i s b - C l a s s .
A l though the �-C l a s s i s l arge r than any o f the o th e r
C l a s s e s , o n ly a l im i t e d r ang e o f con s o n an t s 1 � ' · .!l. and r. h ave be e n found to comme n c e S tems . The S tem
8 2
f o r ' to take up ' i s , b u t th i s con s onan t doe s not comme nc e
any o ther S tem . The re a s o n s f o r much o f th i s re s t r i c t i on
are appa r e n t in that non e o f the con s on an t s wh i c h can o ccur
a s con t i g uou s pr e f i x e s to the S tem are ut i l i s e d S tem- i n i t i a l l y .
Thu s the C l a s s marke r s , the p lura l Numbe r mo rpheme r , and
the semi - co n so n a n t s w and y_ ( s e e Ru l e M . 5 . 4 , page 2 1 9 )
h ave not been found t o comme n c e a Verb S t em .
2 . a -c l a s s S tems comme n c e wi th a o r u , but not
w i th o .
3 . Wi th two e xcep t i o n s , b - C l a s s trans i ti ve S tems comm-
e n ce wi th the mo rph ophonem e s A or U . The e x cep t i o n s are
b + i I i r ' t o ro ck to and f ro ' , and the z e ro S tem b - C l a s s ve rb
me an i ng ' to h i t ' . Furthe r , the ma j or i ty o f in t r an s i t i ve
S tems o f th i s C la s s comme n c e wi th A o r U , but �- , i - an d
u - in i ti a l S tems are f o un d . F o r i n s t an c e , u m a r ' t o s h i ve r ' ,
a l a l ' t o s qu at ' and _!J__g_ ' t o b l ow , o f wi n d ' .
4 . The pr e d i c tabi l i ty p rob l em a r i s e s wi th r e f er e n ce to
the morphophoneme- i n i ti a l S tem s due to the f a c t tha t �-C l a s s
S tem s a l s o f requen t ly comme n c e wi th A o r U .
comp are b + u l 9A r ' t o dr ag ' wi th the S tem g+ U I A [
F o r in s ta n ce ,
I tO f i 11 I I
and , fur the r ,
' to come out ' .
g + u l u r b ' t o an swe r a ch a l l enge ' w i th b + U I
N o �-C l a s s S tem commen c e s wi th an , and eve ry i n t r an s -
iti ve �-Cla s s S tem , wi th o n e ex cept i on , i s a - i n i t i a l . The
e xcep t i on is � ' to we a r ' .
Thi s d i s cu s s i o n po i n t s up the n e e d to i n c l ud e the C l a s s
marker a s a f e a ture i n the Lex i c a l E n tr i e s o f a l l verb S t em s .
F o r pr ac t i c a l p urpo s e s , ver b s wi l l be i de n t i f i e d by s ta t i n g
the i r C l a s s marke r p l u s the i r S te m , excep t i n the c as e o f
8 3
--C l a s s verbs whi ch wi l l b e id e n t i f i e d s imp ly by s ta t in g the i r
S tem . Thus a n d i s ' to p i ck up ( an ob j e c t ) ' wh i l e g+ a n d
i s ' t o s c r a t c h ' ; m a l i s ' t o be bur n e d ' , a + a l i s ' t o s e e '
and � i s ' to wa l k j .
B . 4/ 4 5 L . 4 . 3 The Tr an s i t i o n a l Vowe l REFE RENCE :
M . 1 2 . 3/ 2 4 0
W i th e i gh t ex c ep t i on s , V e rb S t ems end i n a con s on an t .
E very con sonan t - f i nal S t em , apar t f rom tho s e end i n g w i t h r I
i s fo l l owe d by a Tr an s i ti on a l Vowe l i n the L ex i c a l En try o f
the verb , a l though th i s may b e l at e r de l e t e d b y Ru l e M . 1 2 . 3 .
L- f i n a l S tems a s s imi l a te to the fo l l ow i n g con son an t o f the
Aux i l i a ry ( s e e Ru l e M . 1 0 ) , mak i n g a Tr an s i ti on a l Vowe l unn e c e s s -
a ry .
A s wi th the C l a s s marker s , th e T r an s i t i o n a l Vowe l s ar e
pre d i c t ab l e phono l og i c a l l y i n th e ma j o r i ty of c a s e s . B ut
aga i n , the re are e nough ex c e p t i o n s to make i t n e c e s s ary to
in c l ud e the Vowe l as a f e a ture in th e v e rb L ex i c a l E n tr i e s . 1
1 P re c e d e n t for thi s typ e o f f e a t ur e c an be found in Chomsky and
H a l l e { 1 9 6 8 : 3 9 ) whe r e a c l o s e l y pa ra l l e l En g l i sh anoma l y i s
d i s c us s e d . I n v i e w o f the de r i vat i o n a l pa i r s : proverb
p roverbla l ve r s u s habi t- h ab i t u a l and temp e s t - t empe s t�ou s ,
the author s s ay : ' Th e unde r l y in g f orms mus t be r ep re s e n t ed
i n th e l e x i c o n i n s u c h a w a y a s t o i n d i c a te th a t th e y t ak e the s tem- f o rm i n g augme n t [ i ] o r [ u ] in the i r d er i ve d f o rms . A
n a tura l , and appa r e n t l y th e s imp l e s t , propo s a l i s to e n te r
the s e wor d s i n the l e x i con i n t h e f o rm pro f e s s o r + i , habi t +
u , e tc .
8 4
T he r e a r e c e r t a i n p h on o l o g i c a l p r i n c ip l e s up o n the b a s i s
o f wh i c h some 7 5 % o f the T r a n s i t i on a l V owe l s c an b e p r e d i c t ed .
T h e s e w i l l n ow be g i v e n a n d ex c ep t i o n s t o t h e m d i s c u s s e d :
1 . b - f i n a l S t em s t a k e u a s th e i r T r a n s i t i o n a l Vowe l .
T h i s r e l a t i on s h i p i s p hon o l o g i c a l l y exp l i c ab l e i n t h a t t he
s e que n c e f rom a b i - l ab i a l con s o n an t t o a r o u n d e d vowe l o c c u r s
f r e q u e n t l y . F o r i n s t an c e , ma j a m b + u ' t o c h i p wi th a tom a -
h awk ' a + a y i b + u ' t o a s k fo r ' a n d 9 u n b + u ' to s i nk down ' .
2 . S t e m s e n d i n g i n t h e ap i co - d oma l s .2. , l I n ..._
a n d the
b i - l ab i a l a n d d o r s o - ve l ar n a s a l s m and Q t ake a a s the i r
T r a n s i t i on a l Vowe l . T he r e l a t i o n sh i p be twe e n the s e c on s o n a n t s
a n d t he l ow , op e n , c e n t ra l , un ro u n d e d v owe l a i s c on s i s te n t
pho n o l o g i c a l l y . F o r i n s t a n c e , g + a l a g + a ' t o b e b og g e d ' ,
g + a l a l + a ' t o fo l l ow ' , b +A I Am+ a ' to m i x up ' a n d b + u l u 9+ a
' t o come i n , o f t i d e ' .
3 . S t em s e n d i n g i n t h e l am i n o - a l v e o l a r s a , n I l a n d the ap i c o - a l v e o l a r s d , � r a n d t h e do r s o - v e l ar
.9. t ak e a s th e i r T ra n s i t i o n a l Vowe l . A g a i n , the p h en o l -
og i ca l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e twe e n t h e h i gh , c l o s e , fro n t , u n r o u n d e d
and t h e a l v eo l a r con s o n a n t s i s p r e d i c t ab l e . H owe ve r ,
the .9.±J_ s e q u e n c e c a n n o t b e so a c c o un t e d f o r . I t i s we l l
a t te s t e d a s i n t h e v e r b s a + a r g+ i 1 t 0 be f r i g h t e ne d ' I b + i I g+ i
' to b l ow , o f w i nd ' , b + A Q g + i ' to c l a im ' , m i r) g+ i ' t o c ho k e '
a n d a + a l g+ i ' t o h i de ' . E x amp l e s o f the a lv e o l a r c on s on a n t
f i n a l S tem s are : r) a n + i ' t o refuse ' , m i r o n a + i ' t o exp l a i n ' ,
b + A r d a d + i ' t o d i s t r u s t ' a n d a + u g u l + i ' t o b r e ak ' .
Many o f the T r a n s i t i o n a l Vowe l s wh i c h do n o t c o n f o rm to
the abo ve p r i n c i p l e s h ave b e e n a f f e c te d b y two f a c t o r s i n
p a r t i c u l a r :
8 5
1 . Vowe l H a rmo ny . I n many o f th e s e ve r b s t h e T r a n s -
i t i o n a l Vowe l c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e vowe l o r vowe l s o f the S t em .
Fo r i n s t an c e , r i m b + i ' t o l a n d ' ,
g + a o d a r + a ' t o r o l l , o f wav e s ' ,
2 • De r i v at i o n a l H i s t o ry .
b + u d u g + u ' t o s t amp o f f ' ,
a n d a + i I i I + i I t o 1 i c k ' .
I n a sma l l numbe r o f c a s e s
i t s e e m s p r o b ab l e th a t a ve rb S t em h a s be e n de r i ve d f r om a n -
o t h e r p a r t o f sp e e c h a n d t n e T r a n s i t i o n a l Vowe l h a s b e e n c a r r -
i e d o ve r i n t o t h e Ve rb N u c l e u s . T he ve rb ' t o e a t ' app e a r s
to have b e e n de r i ve d f r om the n o un f o r ' me a t , foo d ' , a I i -----
T h e S te m i s a l a n d the h a s be e n r e t a i n e d a s the T r an s -�
i t i on a l Vowe l aga i n s t t h e p ho n o l og i c a l pa t te rn . T h e s ame
p ro c e s s pr o b ab l y op er a t e s w i th the ve rb g + a Q + i ' t o e n te r ' ,
whi ch s e e m s to h a ve b e e n de r i ve d f r om the n o u n fo r ' c ave ' ,
g a Q i n i
H owe ve r , t he r e s t i l l r e ma i n s a s m a l l s e t o f ve rb S te m s
wh i c h t ak e T r a n s i t i on a l Vowe l s f o r wh i ch n o e xp l an a t i on c a n
b e o f f e r e d a t p r e s e n t .
b + a r i n + a ' t o fa l l '
L . 4 . 4 T h e P re - S t e m
a n d
F o r i n s t a n c e , a + a r g + u ' t o s h a ve ' ,
r i n + a ' to i n s t r u c t ' .
RE FE REN C E : B . 4 / 4 5
T . 2 / 1 2 0 T . 7 / 1 3 7 T . 1 0 . 2 / 1 5 0
T h e P r e - S te m i s o n e o f t h e mo s t i n te r e s t i n g f e a t u r e s o f
the B a ;rdi ve r b . App r o x i ma t e l y o n e t h i r d o f a l l v er b s e mp l oy
a P re - S t e m a n d e v i d e n c e wi l l b e p r e s e n te d t o s u g ge s t t h at the y
r e p r e s e n t the mo s t dy n am i c a n d f a s t e s t g ro w i n g a re a o f B a� d i
sp e e c h .
L . 4 . 4 . 1 The P re - S t e m mo d i f i e s , sh a r e s o r c omp l e � e l y c a r r i e s
the me a n i n g o f the ve r b a l expr e s s i o n i n wh i c h i t o c cu r s .
8 6
Ap a r t f r o m r e dup l i c a t i o n , i t i s i n v a r i a b l e i n f o rm . I t
o c c ur s a s a f re e f o rm a n d i s fo l l owe d by a ve rb S t e m whi c h i s
i n f l e c t e d i n t h e • n o rma l ' 1
m a nn e r . T h e a f f i x - c a r r y i n g v e r b
S te m wi l l b e r e f er r e d t o a s t h e ' A n c i l l a r y ' v e rb . T h e r e l -
a t i o n s h i p b e twe en the P r e - S t e m a n d i t s an c i l l a r y ve rb f o r m s
the b a s i s f o r a t h r e e - fo l d d i v i s i on o f P r e - S t em type :
1 . T he M e an i n g - be a r i n g P r e - S t e m
I n thi s type , wh i ch i s by f a r t h e mo s t c ommo n , t h e s e ma n t -
i c f o r c e i s c a r r i e d e n t i r e l y b y t h e P r e - S t e m a n d t h e s e ma n t i c
s i g n i f i c an ce o f the a n c i l l ar y ve rb i s c omp l e t e l y n e u t r a l i s e d .
Wi th the s e e xp r e s s i on s , the a nc i l l a r y s imp l y a c t s a s an a f f ix
be a r e r t h u s a l l ow i ng the s ame ve r s a t i l i ty t o t h e P r e - S t em
ve r b s a s to the ' s imp l e ' ve r b s . S i x o f t h e mo s t c ommo n o f
B a f d i ve r b s a c c o un t f o r a b o u t 9 0 % o f the a n c i l l a r y e xp r e s s i on s .
T h e s e a r e t he ve r b s m+ a ' to p l a c e ' , n + a 1 t 0 t a k e Up 1 1
g+ @+ a ' t o c a r r y ' , a + I ' t o s a y ' , Q + i d + i I to g o 1 W a l k and 1
s urp r i s i ng l y , ' t o l o o k fo r l i c e ' . T h e f i n a l an c i l l a ry
is s o out of c h a r a c te r t h a t an o b s o l e t e homomo rph mu s t be
p o s i t e d .
T h e f o l l ow i n g s e t o f P r e - S t e m ve r b s g i ve s e x amp l e s o f the
u s e o f e a c h o f the s e m a i n a n c i l l a r i e s . A s c an be re ad i l y
s e e n f rom t h e g l o s s e s , th e P r e - S t e m b e a r s t h e me an i n g o f the
exp r e s s i o n s . T he me an i n g s o f the P re - S t e m s a n d , th e r e f o r e ,
o f the wh o l e v e r b a r e g i ve n a l on g w i t h the me an i n g s wh i c h t h e
an c i l l a r i e s wo u l d c a r r y i f t h e y we r e s t a n d i n g a l o n e . I n f l e c t -
e d e x amp l e s s how the a f f i x - be a r in g f un c t i o n o f anc i l l a r ie s :
1 C . f . s i mi l a r s t r u c t u re s i n Yo u n g ( 1 9 6 4 : 7 1 , 7 8 ) & c o a t e (19 7 O: 54 ff).
B o l t , e t a l ( 1 9 7 1 : 4 2 , 8 8 f f ) d e s c r i b e a c l o s e p a r a l l e l i n the
N g a l i wur u Ab o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e . T he y sp e a k ( p a g e 8 8 ) o f ' th e
use of a prep o s e d p a r t i c l e wi th a c on j u g a t e d v e r b wh i c h .
a s s u me s t h e f un c t i o n o f a n a ux i l i ar y . ' ( E mph a s i s m i n e )
a )
b )
c )
d )
e )
f )
E x . 4 5
P re - S tem
r a w i n
W a l k
A n c i l l a ry
g u 9 - a r a - m a - n a - n a
y o u - P l ur - p l a c e - Dur a t - d i d
' Y o u a l l k ep t w a l k i n g . '
a i n b a ga n g i - n - a - a i n - @
Avo i d we apon I - t a k e up -wi l l - f rom h i m- i t
' I wi l l a vo i d h i s we apon . '
ill P a s s
a n - a rm - i a ... i r
D u a l - c a r ry - d i d - t h e m
' Yo u a n d I p a s s e d t h e m . '
g u d g u d i n - a u - n a - n a
C ro u c h he - s ay - D ur a t - d i d
' H e w a s c ro u c h i n g . '
d u l i r - o i d i - n o
Dump , o f w av e s the y - w a l k - a r e
' T he wave s a r e dump i n g . '
a u I a n - a r - a
8 7
Kn e e l y o u - l o o k f o r l i c e ( ? ) - I mp e r a t i ve
' Kn e e l down ! '
F r om t h i s p o i n t on , n e u t ra l i s e d a n c i l l a r y ve rb S t em s w i l l
b e g l o s s e d a s � - F o r i n s t an c e , ve r b ( f ) abo ve , wo u l d app e ar :
f ) a u 1
Kn e e l
' Kn e e l down ! '
a n - a r - a
y o u - flS - I mp e r a t i ve
2 . T h e Me a n i n g- mo d i f y i n g P r e - S t ��
8 8
W i th th i s type , t h e P r e - S t e m mo d i f i e s o r s upp l eme n t s the
me a n i n g of the an c i l l a r y s o t h a t the me an i n g of the t o t a l ve r b
i s re l a t e d t o t h a t o f t h e a n c i l l a r y b u t i s a d e v e l opme n t f r om
i t . F o r e x amp l e s , the r e fo l l o w a nu mbe r o f onoma topo e i c
P r e - S t e m s wh i c h d e s c r i b e va r i o u s n o i s e s and wh i c h t a ke a s
the i r a n c i l l a r y t h e ve rb a + I ' t o s a y ' .
a )
b )
c )
d )
e )
E x . 4 6
P r e - S t e m
d u m b u I d u m b u I
T ur t l e h i t t i n g wa t e r i n l o ve - p l ay
A n c i l l a ry
i n - a u - n a - n a
i t - s a y - D ur a t - d i d
' T he t u r t l e wa s h i t t i n g t h e w a t e r i n l ove - p l ay . '
d u d u l i n - a u - n a - n a
Kn o c k i n g n o i s e i t - s a y - D ur a t - d i d
' I t k ep t o n ma k i n g a kn o c k i n g no i s e . '
d a l a r i n - a u - n a - n a
L i gh t n o i s e o f r a t t l i n g i t - s ay - D u r a t - d i d
' I t k e p t u p a l i g h t ra t t l i n g n o i s e .
a a m b a I a a m b a I i n - a u - n a - n a
S m a c k i n g n o i s e wh i l e e a t i n g he - s a y - D u ra t - d i d
' H e w a s m a k i n g a s m a c k i n g so und wh i l e he w a s e a t in g . '
d a d u r d a d u r i n - a u - n a - n a
C r un c h i n g n o i s e wh i l e c h e w i n g he - s ay - D u r a t - d i d
' H e w a s m a k i n g a c r un c h i n g s o u n d wh i l e h e wa s c h e w i n g . '
3 . T h e M e an i n g - s h a r i n g P r e - S t e m
H e r e t h e a n c i l l a r y ve r b s h a r e s t h e s ame o r s i m i l a r me aning
to the f u l l P r e - S t em exp r e s s i o n w i t h t h e P r e - S t e m -r e i t e ra t in g
o r sp e c i f y i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e a n c i l l a r y :
E x . 4 7
a ) T h e v e r b � me a n s ' to e n t e r , t o dr own ' . When p r e -
c ed ed by the P r e - S te m I u I the me an i n g o f ' e n t e r i n g ' i s
sp e c i f i e d .
b ) T h e ve r b � can me an ' t o w a l k abo ut 1 o r ' t o l i v e ' .
I f i t i s a s s o c i a t ed wi th t h e P re - S t em a a m a l i t be a r s the
fo rme r me an i n g , b u t if a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ..9..L!:_ it be ar s the
l a t t e r .
c ) The ve rb a + a l me an s ' to s e e , l o o k ' . H o we v e r a t t i me s
i t i s p r e c e d e d by th e P r e - S t e m � w i th l i t t l e appa r e n t
c h an g e i n me a n i n g .
L . 4 . 4 . 2 A l t ho ugh the o r i g i n o f s ome o f the P re - S te m s i s n o t
app ar e n t , t h e s o ur c e o f m a n y o t he r s i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o tr a c e .
F o r i l l u s t r a t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i on , t h e P r e - S t em w i l l be g i ven
fo l l owe d by t h e C l a s s an d S t e m o f t h e a n c i l l ar y v e rb .
1 . M an y a r e o n oma t opoe i c .
E x . 4 8
a u b u l a u b u l a + r e xp r e s s e s t h e a c t i o n o f ' s l o sh i n g '
th rough sh a l l ow w a t e r .
de s c r i b e s some o n e ' c homp i n g ' on c ap s i cum � r
some s i m i l a r fo o d .
b i T b i T g +a l i s the ' sk ip p i n g ' o f f i s h a c ro s s t h e
wa te r .
b u r u j b u r u j a r -·
me an s the ' bo i l i n g ' of w a t e r .
d i I a r a d i I a r a a + r i s t h e ' r i n g i n g ' o f be l l s .1
1 S e e Wo rms ( 1 9 3 8 : 1 6 4 f f ) f o r f u r the r e x amp l e s o f - o nom a t opoe i a .
'j u
2 . P r e - S te m s a r e the s o u r c e . o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f ve rb a l
n'e o l og i sm s .
E x . 4 9
b u l a w a y i a + r g a l a w a y i a + r
i s t o ' pu l l away ' i n r owi n g .
b u l a y i a + r d i : I a + r b a n m
i s
i s
i s
i s
t o
to
to
t o
' s k u l l away ' .
' p l ay ' ( e sp e c i a l l y c a r d g ame s ) .
' d e a l ' c a rd s .
d i s ch a r g e ( ' b a n g ' ) a f i r e a rm .
E x . S O I n one hi gh l y An g l i c i s e d s t o r y c on c er n i n g a mo t o r
j o ur n e y , th e f o l l ow i n g s e t o f n e o l o g i s m s wa s r e c o r d e d :
f i x - i m- up m ' to r e pa i r '
pa s s - i m
p u sh - i m
l i f t - i m
� ' to o v e r t a k e '
m ' to p u s h '
m
c u t- i m- up n
' to l i f t up '
' to c u t up '
E a c h o f the s e a n c i l l a r i e s w a s approp r i a t e l y i n f l e c t e d .
3 . N ou n s ma y a c t a s P r e - S tems .
E x . 5 1
An i n t e r e s t i n g c ompo un d , whe r e the me a n i n g i s d e r i v ed
f rom b o th c on s t i t u e n t s , is the ve rb ' t o m i s s ' ( w i t h a sp e a r ,
r i f l e , e t c . ) . T he P r e - S te m i s � me an i n g ' g roun d ' ,
wh i l e t he an c i l l a r y i s the ve rb 8 a y i d i m , wh i ch me a n s ' to h i t '
T h u s ' to m i s s ' i s , q u i te approp r i a t e l y , ' t o h i t the grou n d '
o l a me a n s ' w a t e r ' .
� i t me an s ' t o r a i n ' .
Whe n f o l l owe d b y the a n c i l l a r y
I i y a n s i gn i f i e s ' th e s e a t o f th e emo t i on s ' , wh i l e i n
c o n j un c t i on w i th th e an c i l l ar y n i t me an s ' t o d e s i r e ' .
4 . A d j e c t i ve s c a n a c t a s P r e - S t e m s .
<_,, J
E x . 5 2
g � r n a i s ' g o o d , w e l l ' ; g � r n a a + r i s ' t o f e e l h ap p y ,
t o b e i n g o o d sp i r i t s ' .
� m e a n s ' b a d , w e a k ' ;
t o b e b e a t e n ' .
� a + I i s ' t o f e e l w e a k ,
b u d a me a n s ' c o r r e c t , p r o p e r ' ; b u d a b u d a m i s ' t o
c o r r e c t , t o f i x up ' .
5 . A dv e r b s ma y b e u t i l i s e d a s P r e - S t e m s a s d i s t i n c t
f ro m t h e i r ' p r im a r y ' f u n c t i o n o f mo d i f y i n g v e r b a l a c t i o n .
E x . 5 3
w a w i i s ' a c r o s s '
� i s ' a w a y '
m e a n s ' t o g o a w a y ' .
w a w i m i s ' t o c u t a c r o s s ' .
� p l u s t h e a n c i l l a r y d + r ' t o s a y '
m e a n s ' i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n ' , b u t w i t h t h e a n c i l l a r y
m i t s m e a n i n g i s ' t o t ur n a r o u n d ' .
T h e f a c t t h a t n e o l o g i s m s , o n o m a t o po e i c e x p r e s s i o n s a n d
a lm o s t a n y p a r t o f s p e e c h c a n f u n c t i o n a s a P r e - S t e m m a k e s
P r e - S t e m v e r b s t h e mo s t d y n a m i c , c r e a t i v e a n d r a p i d l y e xp a n d
i n g a r e a o f t h e B a f d i l a n g u a g e .
L . 4 . 4 . 3 A c t i o n C h an g e RE F E RE N C E :
T . 7 . 2 / 1 3 9
T h e mo s t c omm o n P r e - S t e m e xp r e s s i on s a r e , i n t h e g r e a t
ma j o r i t y o f c a s e s , i n t r a n s i t i ve a n d m a n y a r e v e r b s o f mo t i o n
a n d s t a t e . T h i s r a i s e s a d i f f i c u l t p r ob l e m i n t h a t t h e m a i n
a n c i l l a r y v e r b s a r e a l l t r a n s i t i ve w h e n t h e y s t a n d a l o n e , a n d
t h e m a t t e r o f t r a n s i t i v i t y d e t e r m i n e s a p a r t o f t h e d e r i va t i o n
o f th e i n f l e c t e d v e r b . ( T h i s who l e m a tte r w i l l b e f u l l y
t a k e n up i n t h e d i s cu s s i on o f R u l e T � 7- 2 . T o s a f e gu a r d t h e
corre c t de r iv a t i o n o f t h e a n c i l l ar y w i th s u ch i n tr an s i t i ve
P r e - S t e m s , t h e f e a t u r e [ +A c t i on C h an g e ] m u s t b e i n s e r t e d a s
p a r t o f t h e L e x i ca l E n t ry o f t he p a r t i c u l a r v e r b .
B . 4 . 3 / 4 7 L . 4 . 5 P a r t i a l Re d up li c a t i on RE FE RE N CE :
T . 1 0 / 6 0
S om e ve r b s m u s t b e m a r k e d ' P a r t i a l R e d up l i c a t i o n ' be c au s e
on l y p a r t o f t h e i r S te m i s r e p e a t e d to e xp r e s s i n t e n s i ty o f
a c t i o n . Re d up l i c a t i on i s a g a i n p r e d i c t ab l e i n mo s t ca s e s .
T h e fo l l ow i n g p r i n c ip l e s go v e rn p r a c t i c a l l y a l l . r edup l i c a t i on :
( N o te th a t t h e r ep e a t e d e l eme n t i s p r e f i x e d t o t h e S te m . )
1 . P re - S t e ms a r e a lw a y s fu l l y r e d up l i c a te d . P a r t i a l
r e dup l i c a t i on , the n , app l i e s o n l y t o ve rb S t e m s .
2 . T wo - p hon eme S t e ms a r e fu l l y r e d up l i c a t e d . T h e s e
wo u l d b e e i the r V ( owe l ) C ( o n s on an t ) o r C V s y l l ab l e p a t t e r n s .
V e rb
g+ a m
b + A I
m i
d u
V e r b
g+ a n b
� a + i n b
M e an in g
' t o l augh '
' t o m a k e ( a sm a l l o b j e c t } '
' t o l oo k a r o und f o r '
' t o t u r n o ve r '
3 . VCC S t ems a r e f u l l y r e dup l i c a t e d .
M e an i n g
' t o vom i t '
' t o p i ck up ( a p e r s o n } '
' to t h i n k '
Re d up l i c a t e d S te m
a m - a m
A l - A l
m i - m i
d u - d u
Re dup l i c a t e d S te m
a n b - a n b
a r g - a r g
f n b - i n b
4 . CVCC S te m s a r e f u l l y r e dup l i c at e d , w i th th e T r an s -
i ti on a l Vowe l c om i n g b e twe e n t h e r ep e a t e d e l e me n t and t h e S t em .
Ve rb
l a n d
m i n a
l u l m
V e rb
M e a n i n g R e d up l i c a t e d S t em
' t o s i t , s t a y , a n c ho r ' l a n d - a - l a n d
' t o r e c e i ve ' m i n a - i - m i n a
' t o p u t r i gh t ' l u l m - u - l u l m
5 . Mo s t VCVC S t e m s a r e f u l ly r e d up l i c a t e d , a s w i t h :
M e an i n g Re d up l i c a t e d S t e m
a + a y i b ' to a s k , e sp e c i a l l y a q u e s t io n ' a y i b - a y i b
a + u I u g ' t o w a s h , c l e an ' u l u g - u l u g
H owe ve r , t h i s i n n o t a lw ay s t h e c a s e , a s w i th t h e fo l l ow-
i ng v e rb s in whi ch on l y the f i r s t s y l l ab l e i s r e p e a te d :
a + i d i g ' t o t o u c h , f e e l ' i d - i d i 9
g + Ud A I ' t o d i s app e ar ' U d - U d A I
6 . Mo s t e v e S t em s a r e fu l l y r e dup l i c a t e d , a s w i th :
V e r b M e a n i n g Re dup l i c a t e d
� ' t o b u i l d ' m a d - a - m a d
Q a n ' to re f u s e ' 9 a n - i - r;i a n
I u m I t O app ro a c h ' I u m- a - I u m
S t e m
H owe ve r , a s ma l l n umb e r o f ve rb s r e d up l i c a t e on l y the
f i r s t C V , as w i t h :
m u r --&.. ' t o w a s t e ' m u - m u r
7 . A l l CVCCVC a n d C V C VC S t e m s a r e r e d up l i c a te d f u l l y
ap a r t f rom t h e f i n a l c onson a n t .
V e rb Me an i n g R e d up l i c a t e d S t em
I i n g a n ' t o t ry o u t ' I i n g a - 1 i n g a n
ma n ga d ' t o l e ave ( a p e r s on ) ' m a n g a - m a n g a d -
m i g a r ' t o m i s s , n o t f i n d ' m i 9 a - m i 9 a r
8 . I n two - s y l l ab l e d S te m s whe r e the f i r s t s y l l ab l e i s
VCC a n d t h e s e c o nd c o mm e n c e s w i th a vowe l , on l y t h e f i r s t
s y l l ab l e i s r e d up l i c a te d . T h e s e ar e mo s t l y o f the p a t t e r n
VC C + V C , a l t h o u g h o n e i n s t an c e w i l l b e g i ve n o f a VCC +VCC S t em :
Ve r b M e a n i n g Re d up l i c a t e d S t em
b + A n d A m ' t o s t op , e s p e c i a l l y a f i g h t ' A n d - A n d A m
u n d u r ' t o c u t a c ro s s ' u n d - u n d u r
a l g a m ' t o mo ve ' a l g - a l g a m
b +A r gA n d ' t o w r ap , t i e I r o l l up ' A rg - A r 9A n d
A d e ve l opme n t o f th i s pr i n c i p l e i s s h o wn i n the t r i - s y l l -
ab l e d S t em a r a r b a l ' to drop ' , wh i ch h a s the r e dup l i c a t e d
f o r m a r a r b - a r a r b a l H o we ve r , S t ems t h i s c omp l e x a r e ra r e .
9 . T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s c o ve r mo s t v e r b S t ems . H o w e ve r ,
b e c a u s e o f the unp r e d i c t ab i l i t y o f s o me S t em t yp e s a n d the
c omp l e x i ty o f t h e p r o c e s s e s , a n y p a r t i a l r e d up l i c a t i on w i l l
b e e n t e r ed a s a fe a t ur e t o t h e p a r t i cu l a r v e r b . A fur the r
comp l i c a t i on i s a dd e d by t h e f a c t th a t a sm a l l n umbe r o f v e rb s
do n o t s e e m t o fo l l ow a n y p a t t e rn i n the i r r e dup l i c a t i on .
F o r i n s t a n c e , g a y i d i m ' t o h i t ' be c ome s
� ' t o b e b o g g e d ' be c ome s a l a d - a d .
. d . . d . 1 l) a y 1 1 m - a y 1 1 m a nd
L . 4 . 6 Ob l i g a to r i ly Re t r o - a c t i ve V e rb s _R_E_F_E_R_E_N_C_E_: _______ _
T . 8 / 1 4 1
A sma l l s e t o f v e r b s m u s t b e m a rk e d ' Ob l i g a t o r i l y Re t r o -
a c t i ve ' . T h e s e a r e t h e ve rb s wh i ch a lw a y s app e a r i n t h e
f r ame [ + N1
__ _ wh e r e th e [ N P , S ] an d [ NP , P r edP ]
a r e i de n t i c a l . T h u s , t h e y mu s t un de r go the Re tr o - a c t i on
1 Th i s S tem i s p rob ab l y f r o m the E ng l i s h I '( �_y_) h i t ( J..2_) h i m ( .!_�) .
( Re ci p ro c a l o r Re f le x i ve ) tr a n s fo rmat i on , T . 8 , and n ev e r o c c ur
in tran s i ti ve forms .
L . 4 . 6 . 1 The f o l l ow ing ve rb s mus t be mark e d ' Ob l i g a t o r i l y
Re tro - a c t i ve ' b e c au s e they are a lw ay s Re f l e x i ve :
b + i n d ' t o put one s e l f fo rw a rd , pu s h one ' s own i n te r e s t s an d
impor tan ce ' .
i I b i r ' t o e cho ' .
g+ U d A I ' to d i s app e a r ' . L i te r a l ly an d app rop r i a te l y ' to l o s e
one s e l f ' .
L . 4 . 6 . 2 The f o l l ow in g are e xamp l e s o f verb s wh i ch a lway s
e xpre s s Re c ip ro c a l a c t i o n :
m a n d ' t o embr a c e ' .
E..:!:_!_[ ' t o copu l a t e ' .
m a l ' t o even a s c ore , to h i t i n r e t urn ' .
L . 4 . 7 I mp er s o n a l Ve rb s
A l i m i te d s e t of ve rb s mus t be marke d ' I mpe r s ona l ' .
The s e are v e r b s wh i c h app e ar i n the f r ame [ +N : -H uman ] .
That i s , verb s wh i c h canno t ta k e a human S ub j e c t . I f the
S ub j e c t i s n o t human , where ' human ' i n c l ude s be i n g s wh i ch
share human f a cu l t i e s ( s u ch a s spi r i t be i ng s or the ' sh a dow
men ' r e f er r e d to in the T ex t ) , then i t c an on l y appe a r in the
th i rd pe r s on .1
1 Th i s i s re f e r r i ng to ' r e a l wo r l d ' c a t e go r i e s . Whe n pr e s s e d ,
f o r i n s tan c e , one i n f o rman t gave f i r s t and s e cond pe r son f o rm s
for th e me t e o r o l o g i c a l v e rb ' to b l ow , o f wi n d ' . H owe ve r , th i s was on the ba s i s o f an i ma g i n ary s i tu a t i o n o f a per son i f i e d
w i n d ' sp e ak ing ' . The r e i s a l so a l e g e n d con c e rn i n g some p e op l e wh o we r e chang e d i n to d ugon g s wi th human f a c u l t i e s .
.) '.J
Ap a r t f ro m the c a s e o f P a s s i ve I mp e r s o n a l s ( s e e be l o w ) ,
i mp e r s on a l ve rb s a l s o app e a r i n t h e f r ame
i s , the y a re i n tr a n s i t i ve v e r b s .
T h e r e a r e f o ur ma i n c a t e go r i e s :
[ - N ] • ---T h a t
L . 4 . 7 . 1 T h e r e are me t e o r o l o g i c a l v e r b s . F o r i n s t an c e :
' t o b l ow , o f w i nd '
' to r a i n '
' to f lo od '
' to r o l l , o f w a ve s '
b + i I g
;) l a a r -- __.._
b + u r g
g + a n Q a n d a r
T h i s i s by f a r the r i c he s t s o u r c e o f I mpe r s o n a l v e rb s .
L . 4 . 7 . 2 T h e r e a r e i n a n i ma t e s o ur c e v e r b s .
' t o r i c o c he t '
' t o e c h o '
b i r b a d a + i d
i I b i r
T h e v er b ' t o e c ho ' i s a l s o i mpe r s o n a l and w o u l d h ave t o
be m a r k e d w i th b o t h [ + O b l i gRe t r o ] a n d [ + I mp e r s ] .
L . 4 . 7 . 3 The r e a r e an i ma l - ag e n t v e rb s .
' to c ome up f o r b r e a t h , o f d u g o n g s '
' t o f l y , o f b i r d s a n d ae rop l ane s '
' to ho ve r , o f b i r d s '
' to c a s t o f f the s k i n , o f s n a k e s '
m a d
b + i r i I
b a l b a l n
b + u n u g
T h e f i n a l e x amp l e w o u l d a l s o b e f e a t u r e d [ + O b l i g Re tro ,
+ I mp e r s ] , a s i t i s exp r e s s e d Re f l e x i v e l y .
L . 4 . 7 . 4 T he r e a r e p a s s i ve i mp e r s o n a l ve r b s .
T h e r e i s n o s ur f a c e p a s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n B a f d i and
th i s i n t e r e s t i n g s e t of ver b s i s t h e c l o s e s t app r o a c h to a
p a s s i ve . T he r e i s a ' dummy ' e l e me n t i n th e S ub j e c t N P
wh i .ch f un c t i on s a s a n i mp e r s o n a l s o ur c e o f the a c.t i o n .
9 1
The r e c ip i e n t o f t h e a c t i o n i s s p e c i f i e d e i the r by the O b j e c t
p ro n om i n a l s uf f i x o r t h e Re f e r e n t i a l p r on o m i n a l s uf f i x .
E x . 5 4 The v e r b ' t o c ho k e ' i s � . T o exp r e s s ' I
w a s chok i n g ( ye s t e r d ay ) ' t h e B a f d i wou l d s ay : ' S om e t h i n g w a s
chok i n g m e y e s t e r d ay '
ver b mo re c l o s e l y :
i n i - m i 9 g i n - a a r � a y u . A n a l y s i n g t h e
[ N P , S ]
i n i
VbN uc
m i 9g
Aux
i n a
[ N P , P r e dP ]
a a r 9 a y u
I mp e r s S o u r c e c h o k e D ur a t /M i d P e r f me
' S o me th i n g wa s chok i n g me ( y e s t e r da y ) . '
I n s ome c a s e s t h e i mp e r s o n a l s o ur c e i s i d e n t i f i e d a s wi th
th i s ve rb : i r i - m i 9g i - n - a 1
T h e y - chok e - P r e s - yo u
' Y ou a r e b e i n g c ho k e d b y the m ( s o me p i e c e s o f me a t ) .
E x . S S T h e ve rb S te m b +A n p ro v i d e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e .
When u s e d t r an s i t i ve l y , i t s i mp l y me an s ' to f i n i sh o f f , t o
c o mp l e t e an o b j e c t ' . Whe n u s e d i n t r a n s i ti ve l y , i t be c ome s
an i mp e r s o n a l v e r b a n d u s u a l l y me a n s , ' t o f i n i s h a n a c t i v i ty ' .
I t i s u s e d , f o r i n s t an c e , t o e xp r e s s t h e c on c l u s i on o f a c e r e -
mo n y b u t i t i s f r a me d i n a p a s s i ve s e n s e . ' T h e y f i n i s h e d '
i s e xp r e s s e d , ' i t f i n i s h e d f o r the m ' , w i th the a c t o r s be i n g
sp e c i f i e d by a Re f er e n t i a l p ro n omi n a l s uf f i x . T h e fo l l ow in g
e x a mp l e p o i n t s u p t h e d i s ti n c t i on . ' I w i l l f i n i s h t h e m
( s ome ob j e c t s ) t omo r row ' , i s c o n tr a s te d w i th I I w i l l f i n i sh
( an a c t i v i ty ) t omo r ro w ' : rp n go n a r ve r s u s u r;ig o n a o a n
a } [ N P , S ] VbN u c A ux [ NP , P r e dP ]
go n g o n a r
I f i n i s h w i l l t h e m
' I w i l l f i n i s h t h e m ( s o m e o b j e c t s ) . '
9 8
b ) [ N P , S ] VbN uc Aux Re f e r e n t i a l S u f f i x
u f) g o n a a a n
I mp e r s f i n i sh w i l l f o r me S o ur c e
I I wi l l f i n i s h up ( t omo r ro w ) . I
L . 4 . 8 I r r eg u l a r Ve r b s
S ome o f t h e mo s t c ommo n B a �d i ve rb s e x h i b i t a l i mi t e d
r an ge o f i r r e g u l a r i ty , m a in l y i n t h e f o rm o f a b b r ev i a t i o n s
o f the ' r e g u l a r l y ' d er i v e d s t r u c t u r e s . S u ch ve rb s a r e
m a r k e d [ + I r r e g : n ] . A l l t h e mo s t c ommo n i r r e g u l a r ve rb s
a re s e t o u t i n S e c t i o n 6 . 1 , p a g e 2 6 3 , a n d t h e ' n ' r e f e r s t o
t h e n umbe r o f t h e ve r b i n t h i s S e c t i on .
L . 4 . 9 T h e S ub j e c t F r a me
Th e fe a t u r e [ +N : spe c i f i e s the c l a s s o f n oun s wh i ch ---
c a n f u l f i l t h e [ NP , S ] f un c t i o n f o r th a t ve rb . The co l o n
i n d i c a te s th a t t h e n oun i s s p e c i f i e d a c c o rd i n g t o the c o n ve n t -
i on s pr e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n L . 3 , c on c e r n i n g t h e n oun f e a t u r e
s y s t em . A l mo s t a l l S ub j e c t N P n ou n s wi l l be m a r k e d [ + H uman ]
o r [ + An i ma te ] , wh e r e t h e v e rb c an t a k e an an i m a l S ub j e c t .
L . 4 . 1 0 T h e O b j e c t F r ame
Th e f e a t ur e [� ___ N : sp e c i f i e s b o th the typ e o f a c t i on
an d t h e type o f n o un wh i c h c an f u l f i l th e [ N P , P r e dP ] f un c t i on .
T h e f e a t ur e [ + N : i nd i c a t e s tr an s i t i ve a c t i on , wh i l e ---
[ - N ] i n d i c a t e s i n tr an s i t i ve a c t i o n .
B . 9 . 1 / 5 7 L . 5 T e mp o r a l Adve rb [ :!: T e n s e ) RE F E RE N C E :
T . 1 6 . 1 / 1 6 7
Ru l e L . 5 ad d s e i th e r t h e f e a tur e [ + T e n s e ] o r th e f e a t ur e
[ - T e n s e ] t o t he T emp o r a l Adve rb .
I f i t i s n e g a t i ve l y m a r k ed , th e a d v e r b h a s n o e f f e c t up on
ve rb mo rp h o l o g y . I f i t i s p o s i t i ve l y sp e c i f i e d f o r T e n s e ,
i t gove r n s t h e s ame t e n s e i n the ve rb auxi l i a r y .
Th i s m a t t e r o f g o v e r n me n t was f o r e s h ad owe d a n d i l l u s t r a te d
i n o u t l i n e un d e r Ru l e B . 9 . 1 an d w i l l b e t ak e n up i n f u l l e r
d e t ai l wh e n t h e r e l e van t ag r e e m e n t ru l e , T . 1 6 . 1 , i s i n tr o d u c e d .
L . 6 A s p e c t + D u r a t RE F E RE N C E :
1 U U
B . 8 / 5 6
T . 9 / 1 4 5 R . 2 / 1 8 8
E v e r y t e n s e h a s t w o A s p e c t s , e x p r e s s i n g e i t h e r D u r a t i v e
o r n o n - D u r a t i v e a c t i o n . T h e D u r a t i v e mo r p h e m e i s n wh i c h
i s s u f f i x e d t o t h e v e r b S t e m , i mm e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h e T e n s e
m a r k e r . T h i s i s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e M i d d l e P e r f e c t
a u x i l i a r y w h e r e t h e D u r a t i v e m a r k e r i s i n f i x e d w i t h i n t h e
t e n s e mo r p h e m e . T h e n o n - D u r a t i v e m a r k e r i s a z e r o mo r p h e m e .
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a mp l e s , D u r a t i v e a n d n o n - D u r a t i v e
a c t i o n w i l l b e c o n t r a s t e d .
E x . 5 8
a ) N o n - D ur a t i v e D u r a t i v e
g a n g - a r b - a - r l g a n g - a r b u - n - a - t r l
I - s e n d - P r o j e c t e d - y o u I - s e n d - D u r a t - P r o j e c t e d - y o u
' I w i l l s e n d y o u ( o n c e ) ' I w i l l k e e p o n s e n d i n g y o u . '
b ) T h e v e r b b + U n d A r m e a n s ' t o b i t e ' w i t h t h e n o n - D u r a t i v e
A s p e c t . H o w e v e r , i n t h e D u r a t i v e , a n d u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h I n t e n s i t y o f a c t i o n , t h e v e r b m e a n s ' t o c h e w ' . T h i s
e x a mp l e u s e s t h e M i d d l e P e r f e c t t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i n f i x i n g o f
t h e D u r a t i v e m o r p h e m e .
N o n - D u r a t i v e
a n - a m b - u n d a r - 1 a - @
D u a l - C l a s s - b i t e - M i d d l e - i t
' Y o u a n d I b i t i t ( y e s t e r d a y ) '
D u r a t i v e
.----, a n - a m b - u n d - u n d a r - 1 - n - a - @
D u a l - C l a s s - I n t e n s - b i t e - M i d - D u r a t · i t
' Y o u a n d I w e r e c h e w i n g i t . '
I f a n A u x i l i a r y i s u n m a r k e d f o r A s p e c t , t h a t i s , i f o n l y
a T e n s e f e a t u r e i s g i v e n , t h e a c t i o n i s n o n - D u r a t i v e .
1 0 1
L . 7 T e n s e + P e r f -
L . 7 . 1 - P e r f ,. + P r e s
L . 7 . 2 - P re s ,. + P r o j
L . 7 . 3 + P e r f ,. + De f i n i t e
L . 7 . 4 + De f i n i te � C o n t e mp
L . 7 . 5 + C o n t e mp + I mme d -
L . 7 . 6 - I mme d + N e a r
L . 7 . 7 - C o n t e mp +M i d
L . 7 . 8 -M i d .. + D i s t
B . 8 / 5 6 L . 7 T e n s e REFE RE NC E :
T . 1 6 . 1/ 1 6 7 R . 2 / 1 8 8 M . 1 2/ 2 3 8
A s i nd i c a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , B a f d i T e n s e c an b e d i vi d e d i n to
e i th e r P e r f e c t or I mp e r f e c t [ - P e r f ] a c t i on comp l e t ed ve r s u s
un c o mp l e te d a c t i v i ty . T he re a r e two I mp e r f e c t Te n s e s ,
P r e s e n t an d P r o j e c te d , a n d f i v e P e r f e c t T e n s e s , I n d e f i n i t e ,
I mme d i a te , N e a r , M i d d l e a n d D i s t an t . T h e P e r fe c t T e n s e s
c o ve r a t i me d ep t h f ro m the re mo t e t i me s o f c r e a t i o n and the
an c e s t r a l b e i n g s r i g h t up t o a c t i o n s wh i ch h a v e j u s t be e n c om-
p l e t e d a t t h e po i n t o f sp e ak i n g .
T h e r e l a t i on s h i p wh i ch e x i s t s be twe e n the P r e s e n t I mp e r f -
e c t a n d the P ro j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t T e n s e s i s i n d i c a te d i n t h a t
they s h a r e t h e s ame N e g a t i ve a n d P o t e n t i a l f o rms a n d t h a t they
a re ma r k e d , i n the Re a l i s , by t h e same Tense su f f i xes ( s e e
Ru l e R . 2 ) , be i n g d i s t i n gu i s h e d by t h e i r p r e f i x e s .
L . 7 . 1 T h e P r e s e n t I mp e r f e c t
A s w i th many lan g u a g e s , t h e B a f d i P r e s e n t T e n s e i s i n
1 0 2
a lmo s t e ve r y i n s t an c e D ur a t i ve i n A sp e c t . T h e fo l l ow i n g
examp l e i s ma d e u p o f ex e rp t s f ro m a n a r r a t i ve c on c e r n i n g
t h e s o c i a l e v i l s o f d r i n k i n g a n d g a mb l i n g , a lmo s t a l l o f
whi ch w a s r e l a t e d i n t h e P r e s e n t D u r a t i v e ( g l o s s e d a s ' d o ' )
E x . 5 9
� l u ga l o l i r i - n a - n - e · g a l u r - g u d u ·
S ome b a d w a t e r t h e y- t ak e - d o - i t . F r o t h - k i n d = be e r .
a r a ga g u r u r o l i r i - n a - n - @ . �
O t he r s b l oo d w a t e r = wi n e t h ey - t ak e - do - i t . F e e l
l n - d a - n n - a l ma · g i n i r) g i - yu n u o l a · g u l b u .a.L2.i. i t- � - do e s h i s - he ad . T h at - f ro m l i qu o r . M o n e y t h e n
i - w a n i - n - a i r · i r - g a o b u - n o i - n
i t - f i n i sh - do e s - f o r t he m . T h e y - g r ow l - R e c ip r o c a l - do •
i l l
' S ome pro c u re b a d l i qu o r b e e r . O t h e r s t ak e t o w i n e .
H i s he ad f e e l s i l l f ro m t h a t l i qu o r . T h e n t h e i r mo n ey
come s t o an e n d . T h e y g r o w l a t e a c h o th e r .
L . 7 . 2 T h e P ro j e c t e d I mp e r fe c t R E F E RE NC E : M . l / 2 0 3
T h e t e rm ' P ro j e c t e d ' h a s b e e n p r e f e r r e d t o a mo r e spe c i f i c
t e rm b e ca u s e t h i s t en s e e xp re s s e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e r a n ge i n
me an i n g .
a )
a c t i on .
b )
I t e xp r e s s e s :
F u t u r i ty . S imp l e s t a t eme n t s o f e xp e c t ed f ut u r e
D e t e rm i n a t io n . T h e s e m i - o b s o l e te d i s t i n c t i o n i n
E ng l i sh b e twe e n f u t ur i ty - ' I s h a l l go ' - a n d d e t e rm i n a t io n -
' I w i l l go ' i s e xp r e s s e d b y t h e s ame f o rm i n B a fd i .
c ) T h e D e s i d e ra t i ve . ' I wi s h , d e s i r e , h op e t o g o ' .
l J J
d ) T h e I mp e r a t i ve � T h i s w a s d i s cu s s e d on p a g e 3 7
whe r e i t w a s p o i at e d o u t tha t , a l th oug h the r e i s on l y o n e
au� f a c e f o rm , the I mp e r a t i ve h a s t o be e x t r a c t e d t r a n s f o rma t
ion a l ly form t h e o th e r P r o j e c t e d a c t i o n me a n i n g s be c au s e i t i s
d i s t i n gu i s h e d i n i t s w i de r s y n t a c t i c re l at i on s f ro m the m .
T h e s e typ e s o f P ro j e c t e d a c t i o n a r e a l l r epr e s e n t ed i n
t h e f o l l ow i n g e x amp l e t a k e n f r om a t a p e r e c o r d e d me s s a ge
c on c e r n i n g a p r o j e c t e d t r ip to do w i th a n i n i t i a t i o n c e r e mo n y :
E x . 6 0
F r i d ay -� u n g i - n - a - @ � · g i n i g g - a m b a w a y i d
F r i da y - t ime h e -p i c k up - P ro j - i t p a y . T h a t - i s wh y wa i t
a n - o - a - o a d a g o r o r o a l m i d a n t ax i
y o u- � - P ro j - fo r u s we - p i c k up - P ro j - i t i f a n y w a y t a x i
� a g g a r - a y- a - m b a - @ b a w a ·
the r e we - t ak e - P ro j - S e qu - h i m bo y .
· Q a n g- a l - a - m b a - g u r ·
I - s e e - P ro j - S e qu - y o u
' O n F r i d a y , h e ( my y o u n g e r b ro t he r ) wi l l p i ck up [ F u t u r i ty ]
h i s p a y . T h a t i s wh y y o u mu s t w a i t f o r u s [ I mp e ra t i ve ] .
I f , s ome h ow , we c an p i ck up a t ax i , we wi l l t ak e [ D e te r mi n a t i o n ]
the b o y t h e re . I hop e to s e e y o u a l l [ D e s id e r a t i ve ] . '
L . 7 . 3 T h e I n d e f i n i t e P e r fe c t
T h e f i r s t d i v i s i o n o f t h e P e r f e c t T e n s e s i s be twe e n the
I n d e f i n i t e [ - D e f i n i te ] P e r f e c t a n d t h e D e f i n i te P e r f e c t s .
T h e I n d e f i n i t e h a s o n l y o n e f o rm , m a r k e d by t h e s u f f i x a .
I t i s u s e d t o e xp re s s any c omp l e t e d a c t i o n i n wh i ch t h e t ime
dep th i s u n k n own , doub t f u l o r i r r e l e v a n t .
T h e f o l l ow i n g i l l u s tr a t i o n i s t a k e n f ro m a h u n t i n g s t o r y
wh i c h an i n f o rman t w a s a s k e d t o i n ve n t . F o r t h e f i r s t t e n
11.) 4
s e n t e n c e s , h e appa r e n t l y h a d n o t d e c i d e d up o n t h e t ime d ep t h
o f t h e i ma g i n a r y i n c i de n t a n d th i s s e c t i o n i s r e l a t e d i n t h e
I n d e f in i te P e r fe c t . F ro m t h e n on h e r e c ou n t e d t h e s t o ry a s
i f i t h ad h app e n e d t ha t d a y and , b e c a u s e o f th i s c ho i c e , he
c on s i s t e n t l y u s e d the N e a r P e r f e c t .
Ex . 6 1
i n - o a r m - a - a a n n u n u i n u - 9 u l - a - 9 a y u ·
H e - c ame up - I n d e f i n i te - f o r me t h e r e h e - l e f t - I n d e f i n i te -m e .
b i n d a n a ·
B u s h .
n a l a b i n - o a r a l - a
T he r e h e - r a n o f f - I n d e f i n i t e
' H e c ame up fo r me ( i n the c a r , s o me t i me i n the p a s t ) a n d l e f t
m e the r e i n t h e b u sh . F r om t h e r e , h e r an o f f .
L . 7 . 4 T h e C o n t e mpo r a r y P e r f e c t s
T h e D e f i n i t e P e r fe c t i s s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o C o n t e mp o ra r y
a n d n on - C on te mp o r a r y T e n s e s . T h e r e a r e two C o n t emp o r a r y
P e r f e c t s wh i c h c o r re s p o n d i n th a t t h e y b o th r e f e r t o a c t i o n
wh i ch h a s t a k e n p l a c e o n t h e d ay o f sp e ak i n g a n d i n tha t t h e y
a re b o t h m a r k e d by t h e s am e s u f f i x T h e two T e n s e s -
I mme d i a t e a n d N e a r - a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by t h e i r p r e f i x e s .
A s wi th t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e twe e n P r e s e n t a n d P ro j e c t e d I mp e r fe c t
fo rms , th i s i l l u s t r a t e s t h e f a c t t h a t T e n s e , i n B a fd i , i s
i n d i c a t e d b y b o t h s u f f i x e s a n d p r e f i x e s .
L . 7 . 5 T h e I mme d i a t e P e r f e c t
T h e I mme d i a t e i s a t r a n s i t i o n ar y t e n s e i n b o t h me an i n g
a n d f o rm .
c omp l e t ed .
I t d e s c r i b e s a c t i o n s w h i c h h a v e o n l y j u s t b e e n
T h u s , i t i s a P e r fe c t t e n s e i n t h a t t h e a c t i on
1 0 5
has a ct ua l ly c e a s e d . H o w e ve r , b e c a u s e o f i t s i mm e d i a c y , i t
i mp i � g e s up o n t h e P r e s e n t a n d , i n th i s w a y , p e r f o rm s a l i n k i n g
f un c t i o n be twe e n t h e P e r f e c t a n d t h e I mp e r f e c t . I n f o rm ,
the I mme d i a t e s h a r e s mo rph e me c l a s s e s w i th b o th P e r f e c t a n d
I mp e r f e c t t e n s e s . I t s p r e f i x i n g s y s t e m i s i d e n t i c a l t o tha t
o f the P r e s e n t , wh i l e i t s a ux i l i a ry s u f f i xe s a r e i d e n t i c a l to
tho s e of the N e a r P e r f e c t . I n E x . 6 2 , i t c an b e s e e n t h a t
t h e I mme d i a t e s h a r e s t h e p r e f ixes a + r w i th t h e P re s e n t , a n d
t h e s u f f i x � w i th t h e N e a r .
E x . 6 2
a - r - u l u g u - n a - flS
W e - P l ur - w as h - P r e s i t
' We a r e w a s h i ng i t '
a - r - u l u g u - g a l -@
W e - P l ur - w a s h - I mme di t
' We j u s t w a s h e d i t '
L . 7 . 6 T h e N e ar P e r f e c t
a Q - u r - u l u g u - g a l - flS
W e - P l ur - w a s h - N e a r - i t
' W e w a s he d i t e a r l i e r '
T h e N e a r e xp re s s e s a c t i o n wh i ch h a s t ak e n p l a ce e a r l i e r
o n dur i n g t h e s ame d a y . T h e i l l u s t r a t i on i s t ak e n f ro m a
h un t i n g s to ry . T h e n a r r a t o r i s de s c r i b i n g how he c ame up o n
a f i s h i n g p a r ty and , h e r e , he l i s t s th e i r c a t ch f o r t h a t d ay :
E x . 6 3
a a b i a r) i r:i i r i - n a - g a l - 9S a r a · __,___
b a r u l u i Q a r - a n d i - g a l
S aw- f i sh the y - t ak e - N e a r- it o n e . C a t - f i s h t h e y - c a t c h - N e a r
n i d i · o a m b a g u w i y a r a b a r a ma n d i i r:i u r u - l u Q - g a l - i r ·
Q uan t i t a t i ve . S e que n t i a l two b a r amun d i t h ey -p u l l i n - N e a r them .
d a f) g a n a r a --&-..
b a r a ma n d i i - n a - g a l - 9S ·
D un c a n a n o t h e r b a r amun d i h e - t ak e -N e a r - i t .
' T h a t d ay t h e y h a d t a k e n o n e s aw- f i s h . T h e y h a� c au gh t
ma ny c a t - f i s h . Fur t h e r , t h e y h ad p u l l e d i n two b a r amund L
1 0 6
D un c an h a d t a k e n a n o t h e r b a r amun d i . '
L . 7 . 7 T h e M i d d l e P e r f e c t
T h e n o n - Co n t empo r a r y t e n s e s a r e t h e M i dd l e a n d D i s t an t
P e r fe c t s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p ro v i d e an y e x a c t d i vi s i on
i n t im e d ep t h b e twe e n t h e s e two te n s e s . A l l t h a t c a n be
s a i d is th a t th e M i d d l e e xp r e s s e s a c t i on s wh i ch h a ve t ak e n
p l a ce f ro m ' y e s te r d ay ' b a c k t h r o u g h re c e n t we e k s a n d t h a t t h e
D i s t an t i s u s e d o f a c t i on s i n r e c e n t we e k s b a c k t o t h e ' be g i n n -
i n g ' o f t ime . H o w e v e r , t h e f l e x i b i l i ty o f th i s b o un d a ry i s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h a t , wi th n a r r a t i ve s , e ve n t s w i t h i n th e p r e v-
i o u s we e k a r e f r equ e n t l y e xp re s s e d i n the D i s t an t . I n t h e
f o l l owi n g i n c id en t , a wom an h a d j u s t l o s t h e r j o b th ro ugh
d runk e n n e s s . T he n a r r a t o r b l ame d t h e woman ' s w a y w a r d h u s b an d
f o r ' dr i v i n g he r t o dr i n k ' .
s a c k i n g , the n a r r a to r s ay s :
E x . 6 4
a r i n o l �
S p e ak i n g o n t h e d ay a f te r th e
a m b a - n i m
C a u s a l m a k e w r o n g h e - � - M i dd l e - he r h u s b an d- A g e n t he r
i n - a 9g a n b u w - i o - @ ·
h e - g ro w l a t - M i dd l e - h e r
' I t w a s b e c a u s e h e r h u s b a n d mad e h e r g o wro n g i n t h a t h e
g r ow l e d a t h e r ( ye s t e r d ay ) . '
L . 7 . 8 T h e D i s t a n t P e r f e c t
T h e D i s ta n t i s t h e t e n s e o f n a r r a t i ve . T h e D i s t a n t
T e n s e mo rpheme a n d i t s D � r a t i ve A sp e c t mo rph e m e a r e h omomo rph
o u s , t h a t i s , n a
1 0 7
T h e r e i s an e x t e n s i on o f t h e D i s t a n t wh i c h d emo n s t ra t e s
t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h ip be twe e n t e n s e and a s p e c t i n B a fd i .
On r a r e o c c a s i o n s , t h e D ur a t i ve D i s t an t f o rm o f a v e r b i s u s e d
t o e mpha s i s e a ' p u s h i n g b a c k ' o f t h e t i me d ep t h i n t o t h e
r e mo te 1 t i me s of t h e a n c e s t r a l he r o s a n d t h e be g i n n i n g s o f
the s o c i e ty and i t s e n v i ronme n t .
L i n e s 4 0 a n d 4 1 o f t h e T e x t g i ve e x amp l e s o f t h e O u r a t i ve
an d n on - D ur a t i ve A sp e c t s o f t h e D i s t a n t T e n s e :
E x . G S
n u n i n - o a l a - n a - � g u : o i n i 9 - g - a l g - a l g a ma - n a - n a
T h e r e he - s e e - D i s t - i t i n te s t i n e i t- C l a s s - I n t e n s - mo v e - D ur a t - D i s t
g a o d i ·
on t op
' Up t h e r e o n t op he s aw { n on - Dur a t i v e ) a n i n t e s t i n e wh i c h
k e p t movi n g abo u t { D ur a t i ve ) . '
1 I n an e a r l i e r dr a f t o f t h i s s tudy , t h i s e x t e n s i o n w a s , i n
f a c t , t e rme d t h e ' Re mo t e P e r f e c t T e n s e ' . H o we ve r , i t i s
mo re a p p r o p r i a t e t o i n c l u d e i t un d e r the D i s t an t P e r fe c t .
2 . 4 Le x i c a l E n tr i e s ( LE . )
1 0 8
I n th i s S e c t i o n , L e x i c a l E n tr i e s w i l l be s upp l i e d f o r :
1 . F o rma t i ve s wh i c h h a ve c om e d own f u l l y e xp a n d ed i n to
the p r e - t e rm i n a l s t r i n g o f t h e B a s e , s u c h a s C on j u n c t i o n a n d
A dv e rb typ e s and P o s tp o s i t i o n s .
2 . N o n - c ap i t a l i s e d s e n te n c e - typ e m a r ke r s . T h i s on l y
i n vo lv e s t h e Q ue s t i o n f o rm a t i ve wi t h i n t h e s c op e o f t h i s s t ud y .
3 . C o mp l e x S ymbo l s , t h e r e a l i s a t i on o f wh i ch i s n o t
d e p e n d e n t upo n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l c omp on e n t .
N o un s , P ro n o un s a n d V e rb N u c l e i .
T h a t i s ,
C a t e go r i e s n o t r ep re s e n t e d i n t h e L e x i c a l E n t r i e s a r e
t h e c ap i ta l i s e d m a rk e r s i n t ro d u c e d t h r o u gh th e B a s e Rul e s
s u ch a s I M P E RAT I VE , P OT E N T I A L a n d I N TE N S I TY , a n d T e n s e a n d
A sp e c t mo rphe me s wh i c h c a n n o t b e r e a l i s e d un t i l the i r con te x t
i s d e f i n e d t h ro ug h tr a n s fo rma t i on a l p ro c e s s e s . Mo rphe me s
f o r t he s e c a te go r i e s a re p r o v i d e d w i t h i n t h e op e r a t i on o f the
tr an s fo rm a t i on s , as w i th P OT E NT I A L and N E GAT I VE , or by the
Re a l i s a t io n Ru l e s , wh i c h act a s a type o f ' e x t e n d e d l e x i co n ' ,
a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e Aux i l i a r y .
The s e e n t r i e s a r e n o t ' r u l e s ' a s s u c h b u t t h e y h av e be e n
g i ve n the i d e n t i f i c a t i on ' LE . ' be c au s e o f the i r r e l e va n c e to
th e op e r a t i o n of c e r t a i n r u l e s a n d for e a s e o f r e f e r e n c e .
T he Text h a s b e e n u s e d a s t h e s o u r c e f o r a ' s amp l e ' o f
L e x i c a l E n t r i e s i n the c a s e o f N oun s , V e rb N u c l e i a n d A d v e r b s .
A l im i t e d n umb e r o f o t h e r i t e m s h a ve b e e n i n c l u d e d wh e r e n e c
e s s ary , a s wi t h t h e T empo r a l A dv e r b s .
1 0 9
F O RMAT I VE G LOS S MO RP HE ME /WORD
LE . 1 Q ue s t i o n
LE . 2 P o s tp o s i t i o n s
LE . 2 . 1 C omi t a t i ve ' i n c ompa n y w i th ' n a r
LE . 2 . 2 I n s t r ume n t a l ' w i t h , b y me an s o f ' { Q } �
LE . 2 . 3 D a t i ve ' t o , f o r ' �
LE . 2 . 4 A b l a t i ve ' f r o m ' { � } �
LE . 3 A dve rb s
LE . 3 . 1 T e mp o r a l
[ + D i s t ] ' l o n g a go ' m i I o n
[ + M i d ] ' ye s t e rd ay , r e c e n t l y ' � [ + C o n t emp ] ' t o d ay ' b a n a Q g a r a
[ + P ro j ] ' tomo r row ' 9 u r i o i
LE . 3 . 2 Q u a n t i t a t i ve ' ma n y , i n t e n s e l y ' n i d i
LE . 4 C o n j un c t i o n s
LE . 4 . 1 S e q ue n t i a l { o a m b a } a m b a
LE . 4 . 2 P urp o s i ve a r i n o i - Q a n
LE . 4 . 3 T e mp o ra l f ma r a b } · m a r a b a
LE . 5
LE . 5 . 1
LE . 5 . 2
F O RMAT I VE
N omi n a l s
1 P r on oun s [ - N ]
[ + I , + S i n g ]
[ + I I , + S i n g ]
[ + I I I , + S i n g ]
[ + D u a l ]
( + I n c l us i ve ]
[ + E x c l us i ve ]
[ + I I , - S i n g ]
[ + I I I , - S i n g ]
N o u n s [ + N ]
[ - C o n c r e t e ]
[ - An i m a te ]
[ - An i m a t e ]
[ + H uman ]
[ + H um a n ]
[ - P e r s o n a l ]
[ + H uman ]
[ - P e r s on a l
[ - An im a te ]
[ - An i ma t e ]
[ - An i ma t e ]
1 ( Fo o tno t e o v e r p ag e )
1 1 0
GLOS S MO RP H E ME /WO RD
' I , me '
' y o u '
' he , s h e , i t , h i m , he r ' g i n i Q g i
' yo u a n d I , y o u an d me ' �
' we , u s '
' we , u s '
' yo u a l l '
' th e y , th e m '
' s t o r y , me s s a g e '
' c o f f i n i n t r e e - s t a ge b ur i a l '
' t re e , b r an ch , s t i ck '
' man , me n , ma l e '
' wo man , wome n , f e m a l e '
' Ma l umb o B ay , K i n g S o un d '
' r e l a t i on ( s ) ' P rob .
E n g . ' c o un t r y m a n '
' G u n d u lmar a H i l l '
' ty p e o f l ar g e tr e e '
' f i r e , f i re - s t i c k '
' home , c amp , g r o un d , c o un t r y '
a r i d i
a r u d u
i r
a a w a l
9 a n o i n
a m b a
� r a n --Lo-
ma l a m b u
g a n d u r m a n
g u n d u l ma ra
i Q i r i
n u r u
b u r u __.__
F O RMAT I VE
[ - An i m a t e ]
[ + A n i m a t e ]
[ + Human ]
[ - An i ma te ]
[ + H um a n ]
[ - An i ma t e ]
[ - C o un t ]
[ + P e r s o n a l ]
[ - C on cr e t e ]
[ - An ima te ]
[ - An i ma t e ]
[ + H um a n ]
[ + H um a n ]
[ + H um an ]
[ + H uman ]
[ - C o un t ]
[ - C o un t ]
G LO S S
' d i vi n i n g pe g '
' sh ad ow - man , sp i r i t o f d o c t o r - me n '
' pe op l e '
' c a mp , sh ade '
' mu r d e r e r '
' fo o t- p r i n t '
' t i me '
' Lo k i b i n S a l i '
' da y , s un '
' i n te s t i n e '
' mar s h '
' b r o t he r , o n e o f s ame ge n e r a t i o n l e ve l '
' mo th e r '
' fa t h e r '
' o l d woma n , wome n ' ( E ng . }
' s o c i a l de v i an c e , ( " h umb u g " ) '
' te a s i n g '
1 ( f ro m p r e v i o u s p a g e ) :
MORP HE ME /WO RD
y a n d a l
m i r u r u n u
a m b u r i n
b a I i
g a n a b i n i
n i n b i
b u r u ----
a : I ga
b i : n b a
a l g u r u
b i r i
u l u ma n
I n t e re s t i n g p a ra l l e l s c a n b e d rawn w i th t h e p r o n om i n a l f o rm s o f c e r t a i n N o r t he rn T e r r i to ry l an g ua g e s . F o r i n s t an c e , i d e n t -
i ca l f o r m s , s uc h a s � fo r t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n p l ur a l , t h e s e p a ra t i ng o f th e D u a l f ro m t h e P l ur a l s , a n d t h e m ar k i n g o f P l ur a l f o r m s b y t h e mo r p h e m e r , a r e a l l fo und i n D j i ng i l i ( C h a dw i c k 1 9 6 7 : 2 2 4 f ) a n d D j am i nd j u ng a n d N g a l i wu r u ( Bo l t e t a l . 1 9 7 0 : 5 9 4 f f )
1 1 2
LE . 6 Ve rb N uc l e i
Un l e s s a S ub j e c t f r ame i s g i ve n a s a fe a t ure t o a Ve rb
N uc l e u s , i t is a s s ume d t h a t the N uc leus is marke d + N : [ +An i m a t e ]
T e x t n umbe r s a r e g i ve n be l ow t h e LE n umbe r f o r e a c h ve rb .
LE . 6 . 1 ( 1 )
LE . 6 . 2 ( 3 )
LE . 6 . 3 ( 4 )
LE . 6 . 4 ( 5 )
LE . 6 . 5 ( 8 )
L E . 6 . 6 ( 9 )
LE . 6 . 7 ( 1 0 )
LE . 6 . 8 ( 1 2 )
LE . 6 . 9 ( 1 3 )
LE . 6 . 1 0 ( 1 5 )
LE . 6 . 1 1 ( 1 6 )
LE . 6 . 1 2 ( 1 7 )
LE . 6 . 1 3 ( 1 8 )
LE . 6 . 1 4 ( 1 9 )
LE . 6 . 1 5 ( 2 0 )
E N T RY
[ ,!!!+� , + N : [ + Co u n t ] ]
( .Q_+j_Q.+.i_ , - __ N ]
( _Q.+ An + J_ , - __ N )
GLO S S
' p u t , p l ac e '
' d i e '
' f i n i s h , d i e '
N : [ + Co n c r e t e ] , + I r r e g : l ] ' ca r ry , t a k e away '
[ .!J!+..Ll!r.+ � , + N : [ + H uma n ]
+ __ N : n u r u ]
[ a a g u d + A c t i on C h a n g e , �+� , - __ N ]
[ _g_+�+ .i_ , - _N J
[ .Q.+Q , + N : [ + H um an ] I + N :
[ + An im a t e ] , + I r r e g : 2 ]
[ g u r u b +� , + __ N : [ + An i ma t e ] J
[ £+.!l.!l+ � , + __ N : [ + Co un t ] ]
[ b i r a r , .Q_+� , + __ N : [ + An i m a te ] J
[ ra w i n + A c t i on C h a n g e , �+� , - ___ N ]
[ � + A c t i o n C h a n ge , �+! , - __ N ]
' l i g h t a f i re '
' re t u r n '
' e n t e r , go d own '
' sp e a r , k i l l , g i ve n e ed l e s '
' ch a s e , fo l l ow '
' t e l l , s e n d '
' l e a ve be h i n d '
' wa lk , t r a ve l '
' s t a y , r e s i d e '
' s l e ep '
' r i s e up '
ENTRY
LE . 6 . 1 6 [ d a r + A c t ion Change , � ' - ___ N ]
( 2 1 )
LE . 6 . 1 7 ( _2.+�+J_ , + ( 2 2 )
N : [ + Conc r e t e ] ]
LE . 6 . 1 8 [ b u r , a+ a l + i I + N : [ + Conc r e te ] J --- - -- - ---( 2 3 )
LE . 6 .. 1 9 [ m a r + A c t i o n Change , -9_+.!_ , - ___ N ]
( 2 8 ) LE . 6 . 2 0 [ � , .2_+! , + ___ N : [ +An ima te ] ]
( 2 9 )
LE . 6 . 2 1 [ .2_+.!_ , + __ N : [ + An ima te ] , + I r re g : ·3 ]
( 3 1 )
1 1 3
GL O S S
' a r r i ve , come up '
' se e , l ook a t 0
' s e e , look a t '
' e l ap s i n g o f time '
' a ddr e s s '
' ad d r e s s , s ay to '
LE . 6 . 2 2 [ r u w i I +Ac t io n Chan ge , n+£ , - __ N ] ' wa l k , go o f f '
( 3 0 )
LE . 6 . 2 3 ( I a g a I , .9. + a n + j_ , - __ N ] ( 3 2 )
LE . 6 • 2 4 [ I a n d + .9.. , - __ N ]
( 3 3 )
LE . 6 . 2 5 [ d a b +A c t i o n Ch ange , li+£ , - __ N ] { 3 8 )
LE . 6 . 2 6 [ .9_+ � n b + � , + __ N : [ +An im ate ] ]
{ 4 4 ) LE . 6 . 2 7 [ .9...1_:_j_ , _Q+ j_Q.+ j_ , - __ N ] ( 4 5 )
' c l imb '
' s i t , s t ay , ancho r '
' go up '
' se nd '
' bu r s t op e n '
LE . 6 . 2 8 [,g..J_gJ_[ +Ac t i on Change , .[+.!_ , - ___ N ] ' p e ep '
( 4 7 )
LE . 6 . 2 9 [ .a+�+ a I g a m+.9.. , - __ N J ( 4 9 )
LE . 6 . 3 0 [ �+E.. , - ___ N , + I r re g : 4 ] ( S O )
LE . 6 . 3 1 [ 9 a g g a n ma d + A c t ion C h ange , Cl+ I , { 5 6 )
LE . 6 . 3 2 [ .2_+�+ J_ , -__ N ] ( 5 7 )
LE . 6 . 3 3 ( .2_+�+.9.. , - __ N ]
( 5 8 )
_N ]
LE . 6 . 3 4 [� +Act i on Change , �+E.. , -___ N ] ( 5 9 )
' mo ve about '
' be , e x i s t '
' t r y to s top '
' be f r ight en ed '
' run '
' go down '
ENT RY
LE . 6 . 3 5 [� Action C h ange , �+� , - ____ N ]
( 6 0 )
LE . 6 . 3 6 (�+�, -__ N ] ( 6 1 )
LE . 6 . 3 7 [ l a ma n g+� , -____ N ] ( 6 4 )
LE . 6 . 3 8 [ £+A n +l , + ___ N : [ +An ima t e ] ]
( 7 7 ) LE . 6 . 3 9
( 8 1 ) [�+l , +N : [ + Huma n ]
LE . 6 . 40 ( m a n + l_ , -__ N ] ( 8 6 )
+ N :
[ + H uman ] ]
1 1 4
GLOS S
' s ta nd abou t '
' c a l l out '
' l i s te n '
' fi g h t '
' p i ck up , c a r ry
( a p e r s on ) '
' wave '
1 1 5
3 . 0 T H E T RAN S F O RMA T I O N A L C O M P O N E N T
T h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l C o mp o n e n t i s c omp r i s e d o f t wo s u b -
c o mp o n e n t s
R u l e s .
t h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l R u l e s a n d t h e Re a l i s a t i o n
3 . 1 T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l Ru l e s
T h e s e R u l e s a c t o n t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i n g s o f f o r m a t i v e s
p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e B a s e R u l e s a n d a f t e r
a p p r o p r i a t e L e x i c a l i n s e r t i o n .
3 . 1 . 1 C y c l i c / n o n - c y c l i c
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s o n e t o s i x t e e n i n c l u s i ve a r e
c y c l i c w h i l e r u l e s s e v e n t e e n a n d � i g h t e e n a r e p o s t - c y c l i c .
C y c l i c r u l e s a p p l y t o e a c h s e n t e n c e i n t u r n a n d a s m a n y t i me s
w i t h i n e a c h s e n t e n c e ( o r h e r e , e a c h c omp l e x v e r b a l e x -
p r e s s i o n ) a s t h e S t r u c t u r a l D e s c r i p t i o n i s me t . P o s t - c y c l i c
r u l e s op e r a t e o n c o m p o u n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n vo l v i n g m o r e t h a n
o n e s e n t e n c e a n d d e a l w i t h t h e r e c u r s i ve p r o c e s s e s o f Re l a t i v
i s a t i o n , C o mp l e me n t a t i o n a n d C o - o r d i n a t i o n w h i c h a r e r e l e v a n t
t o t h e B a f d i v e r b a l s y s t e m .
3 . 1 . 2 O r d e r i n g
T h e c y c l i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o r d e r e d a n d t h e o r d e r -
i n g i s c r i t i c a l f o r mo s t o f t h e r u l e s . A s a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e
t h e v e r b a l a f f i x e s h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e i r o rd e r a s t h e y
w o u l d o c c u r f r om l e f t t o r i gh t . T h a t i s , t h e v e r b - i n i t i a l
i s i n t r o d u c e d f i r s t a n d , mo rp h e me t h e S u b j e c t p r e f i x
a p a r t f r o m t h e e a r l y i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e O b j e c t s u f f i x , a l l
t h e p r e f i x i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a r e a pp l i e d b e f o r e t h e s u f f i x i n g
o n e s . T h e c h o i c e o f l e f t - t o - r i g h t o r d e r i n g i s a r b i t r a r y
1 1 6
e x c ep t t h a t s uch a s equen t i a l deve l opm e n t a s s i s t s par t i cu l ar ly
in th e fo rmul a t i on o f S tru c tu r a l De s c r ip t i on s .
The pos t- cy c l i c tr a n s fo rmat i o n s are unord e r e d .
3 . 1 . 3 Ob l i g a t o ry/op ti ona l
The r e i s a tend e n cy in re c en t gr amma t i ca l de s c r ip t ion t o
ign o re op t i o n a l con s t r u c t ion s i n tha t they exp re s s s ty l i s t i c
. . h f d . 1 var i a t io n s and ar e , t e re fo r e , o s e c o n ary impo r ta n c e .
Howev e r , wh i l e mi n o r var i a n t s in B afd i ve rba l exp re s s i on s
have be en omi t t e d f rom con s i de ra t ion , the r e a r e a numbe r o f
op t i on a l con s t r u c t i o n s wh i ch mus t b e c omp reh e nd ed i f a n ade -
qua t e a ccount of ve rb mo rpho log y i s to be g i ve n . The s e ar e
th e c on s t r u c t ion s wh i ch in t ro duce mo rphe me s wh i ch , in turn ,
a f fe c t the r e a l i s a t i o n o f o th e r con t iguou s mo rpheme s . Thu s ,
the op ti o n a l S e quen t i a l C on j un c t i o n ( T . 1 7 . 1 } and the P ronom-
in a l S uf f i x Re l a te r ( T . 1 8 . 3 } mu s t be i n t ro du c e d be c a u s e of
the i r i n f l ue n c e upo n the r e a l i s a t i o n of any pronomin a l s u f f-
ixe s wh i ch may fo l low .
3 . 1 . 4 ' S imp l e ' ve r s u s ' Comp l e x ' c a t e go r i e s
The t ran s f o rma t i o n a l ru l e s i n troduc e c er t a i n s yn ta c t i c
c ate go r i e s , su c h a s P ronom i n a l A f f i x e s , A c t ion Typ e , Re l a te r ,
A s s o c i a ti ve S u f f i x and N umbe r . Whe re ve r the s e c at e go r i e s
a r e r e a l i s e d b y a s i n g l e mo rpheme or b y fr e e l y f lu c tuat ing
a l l omorph s , the s e mo rpheme s are i n t rodu c ed imme d i ate ly i n to
t h e S t r u c t ur a l C h a n g e a n d t h e i r ' l a b e l ' d i s c a r d e d . The s e
have be e n t e rm e d ' s imp l e ' c at e gor i e s . The ' A c t i on Typ e '
1 S e e Chom sky ( 1 9 6 5 : 1 2 7 } and Dut ton ( 1 9 6 9 : 1 9 8 f } .
1 1 7
mo rpheme s n ( E x tr a - ac t i ve ) , Q ( I n t r a - a c t i ve ) and i n o i
( Re t ro - a c t i ve ) wh i ch ar e in t ro d u c e d i n Tr a n s f o rma t i o n s 5 to
8 in c l u s i ve are examp l e s o f ' s imp l e ' c ate go r i e s as the s e
r e a l i s a t i o n s are invar i ab le .
Howe v e r , some c a t e go r i e s have c omp l e x re a l i s a t i o n s depend
ing up on the i r syn t a c t i c c on t ex t and the i r sp e c i f y i ng fe ature s .
Th u s , the re a l i s a t i o n o f a P ronom i n a l A f f i x depend s upo n i t s
P e r son a n d N umbe r a n d upon i t s syn t a c t i c fun c t ion wh et he r
i t i s Sub j e c t or Ob j e c t , fo r examp l e . I n the s e c a s e s a
' g e n e r i c ' l abe l i s r e t a in e d thro ughout the Tr an s f o rma t i o n a l sub-
compon en t . The mo rpheme s c o r r e spond ing to the s e sp e c i f ie d
c a t ego r i e s a r e supp l i e d thro ugh the Re a l i s a t i on s ub- compon e n t .
( c . f . fu l l e r d i s cu s s i on in S e c t i o n 3 . 2 , pa ge 1 8 2 . )
3 . 1 . 5 P re s e n t a t i o n
The ti t l e o f the Tran s f o rma t ion p l u s e i th e r OBL I G ( ATORY )
o r OP T I ONAL app e a r s on the in i ti a l l i n e o f the ru l e , fo l l owe d
by i t s r e f e r e n t i a l inde x . The tra n s fo rma t io n s a r e s e t out
a c co rd i n g to the conve n t io n a l pa t t e r n w i th the S truc tur a l
De s c r i p t i o n ( S D ) , by wh i ch the tra n s f o rma t i o n i s a c t i v a t e d ,
pre s e n t e d f i r s t , fo l l owe d by the S t ruc tura l Change ( S C ) in tro -
duc e d by the ru l e .
ru l e ar e then s ta te d .
Any Con d i t ion s upon the op e ra t ion o f the
The S tr uc tu r a l De s c r ip t i o n s mus t c on -
fo rm t o the s eque n c e o f f o rma t i ve s a s pre s e n t e d by the pr e
t e rm i n a l s tr in g o f the ' M a s t e r P h r a s e -mark e r ' on pag e 6 6 .
Cont i n u a l re f e r e n c e to th i s P -mark e r i s sugge s te d , for in s tanc e ,
to a s c e r ta i n the po s s i b l e c on t e n t r ep r e s e n te d by the var i ab l e ·
context s ymbo l s ( th e c ap i t a l i s e d f in a l l e t te r s o f t h e a lp abe t ) .
I l l u s tr a t ion i s bo th by i n t e r l i n e a r ex amp l e and by the ful l
e r pr e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e pro c e s s u s i ng d e r iv a t i o n a l t r e e s .
1 1 8
T . l OBL I G P RONOM I NAL AFF I X B . l/ 3 3 B . 3 / 3 9 B . 7 / 5 3 L . l / 7 1 LE . 5 / 1 1 0
RE FE RENCE : T . 2 / 1 2 0 T . 3 / 1 2 4 T . 1 5 / 1 5 9
S . D . x [:: e r s o n l y
6Numb e r
1 2 3
s . c . 1 2 [+P roA f l 3
a.P e r s o n
SN umb e r
T . 1 . l T he f ir s t t r a n s fo rma t ion a l ru l e app l i e s t o every
Nomi n a l th at i s , Noun [ +N ] o r P ronoun [ -N ] wh i ch
oc cu r s i n the t e rmin a l s tr in g o f the B a s e Compon en t .
T . 1 . 2 Th r e e typ e s o f N omi n a l s may be invo l ve d w i t h i n the
rule . The re may be Sub j e c t Nom i n a l s , wh i ch have come down
through Rul e B . l ; the r e may be O b j e c t Nom i na l s , wh i ch h ave
come down thro ugh B . 3 ; and the r e may be P o s tpo s i t i on a l phra se
Nom i n a l s in t rodu c ed thro ugh B . 7 . The S ub j e c t and Ob j e c t
Nomin a l s a r e r e l e van t t o the op er a t i on o f Rul e s T . 2 a n d T . 3
re sp e c t i ve ly , whi l e the P o s tpo s i t i o n a l Nomi n a l i s re l e va n t
to T . 1 5 .
T . 1 . 3 The e f fe c t o f the t r a n s fo rma t i on , a s out l in e d i n the
S t ru c t u ra l Ch ange , is to add a P ronom i n a l A f f ix t o t h e r igh t
o f e ve ry Nom i n a l ( e l eme n t 2 ) . T h i s a f f ix a g r e e s wi th i t s
Nomi n a l in P e r s o n an d N umbe r , a s ind i c a te d by the un sp e c i f i ed
1 1 9
a an d B marke r s .
T . 1 . 4 A s s t at ed pr e v i o u s ly , the B a f d i ve r b i s a ' s e n t e n c e - in -
mi n i a tur e ' an d one of the ma i n a ims o f th i s s t udy is to d emon -
s t r a te and e xp l or e th i s ch a r a c te r i s a t i o n by g iv ing an account
of the re l a t i o n s h ip s be twe en ve r b mo rpho logy an d th e wider
con t e x t o f it s ' de ep s t ru c tur e ' s e n te n c e .
The f i r s t th r e e tr an s fo rma t i on s , con c e rn i n g the produ c t i on
and a f f i x i n g o f the S ub j e c t and Ob j e ct p ro nomi n a l f o rms , intro-
duc e the p r imary e l e me n t s invo l ve d in the con c ep t of ve rb- a s -
s e n te n c e . Th ey ar e p r imary be c au s e o f the un i ve r s a l i ty o f
the S ub j e c t-Verb-Ob j e c t c a t e go r i e s ; and they are pr imary fo r
Ba rdi in tha t , in s ur fa c e s e n te n c e s , S ub j e c t p ronomi n a l pr e -
f ix e s a r e ob l i gatory in a l l f o rms o f th e ve rb ( apart from I n f in -
i t ive s ) , and Ob j e c t p ronomi n a l s uf f i x e s a re ob l i g a to r i l y pr e s -
e n t in a l l t ran s i t i ve v e rb s , whi l e the fr e e N omi n a l s co r r e s -
pond ing to the s e a f f ix e s a r e op t i on a l . T h i s f a c to r h a s made
the p re s e n t a t i on o f ex amp le s up to th i s po i n t pr em a tur e in
th a t the a f f ix e s h ad t o be e xpre s se d e ve n though they h ad n o t
be e n in t ro duce d i n t o the gramma t i ca l d e s cr ipt i on .
An inhe r e n t l y p l ur a l noun a m b u r i n , ' p e op l e ' , and a P e r s -
an a l P rono un .fu! , ' yo u ( s i n g u l a r ) ' wi l l b e u s e d he r e to demon -s tr a te th e e f fe c t o f T . l :
E x . 6 6 ( a )
s . o .
s . c .
a m b u r i n [+ N l + I I I
- S i n g
� [+N l [+P roA f l + I I I + I I I
- S i ng -S i ng
( b ) a u [-N l + I I
+ S i n g
� [ -N l [+ P roA f l + I I + I I
+ S i n g + S in g
1 2 0
T . 2 OBL I G SU BJECT PRONOM I NAL PRE F I X
B . 1 / 3 3 L . l/ 7 1 LE . 5 / 1 1 0 T . l/ 1 1 8
REFERENC E :
R . 1/ 1 8 6 M . 1 / 2 0 3
S . D . x [ :!:N ] [ + Pr oAf ] ( s ) y VbNuc Aux z { C ompl e )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
s . c . 1 95 95 5 3 + 6 + 7 8 2 4 9
T . 2 . 1 C on s t i tu e n t s 2 a nd 3 i n th e S tru c tu r a l D e s c r ip t i on
rema i n a f ter the tr a n s f orma ti o n a l change d i c ta te d by T . l .
However , b e cau s e the ma tt e r of ag r e em e n t ha s be e n d e term i n ed ,
th e r e i s n o ne e d t o spec i f y Numb er and P er s on ag a i n .
T . 2 . 2 The Nom i na l and i t s P r on om i n a l Af f ix i nv o lv ed i n T . 2
ar e d e f i n ed f u nc t i ona l ly by the ir po s i t i on i n the term i n a l
s tr in g . Th ey occur pre ced i ng th e Verb Nuc l eu s and , be c au s e
o f thi s , f u nc t i on a s the S ub j e c t o f the s e n t e nc e .
T . 2 . 3 Thr oug h th e op er a t i on of T . 2 th e Sub j e c t P r on om ina l
Af f ix be c om e s pr e f i x e d t o th e Ve r b Nuc l e u s . The f r e e
Nom i na l , e l e�en t 2 , i s m ov ed to the r i gh t o f the Aux i l i ar y , g i v-
i n g a Ve.rb - S ub j e c t f r e e wo rd o rd e r { to be d i s cu s s e d on p ag e 1 2 5. )
I n mo s t i n s tanc e s , th i s N om i n a l wou ld be l a ter de l e ted a nd a
c omp l e te g r amm ar wou ld pr ov i d e a tr an s f orma t i on wh i ch would
a l low f or the op t i on a l d e le t i on of f re e S ub j e c t s .
T . 2 . 4 A fu r the r fu n ct i on of Ru l e T . 2 i s to su f f ix the
Aux i l i ar y t o th e Verb Nuc l eu s . A lr e ad y the agg lu t i na tiv e
na tu r e of th e B afd i v er b i s b e c om i ng app ar en t . A t thi s
po i n t , two pr oc e s s e s o f a f f i x i ng have tak e n p la c e , g iv in g the
1 2 1
s equenc e : [ + P r oA f ] + Ve rbNu c l eu s + Aux i l i a r y . Fo r i l l u s t -
r a t i o n , the Nomi n a l a u o f E x . 6 6 ( b ) wi l l be t ak e n and wi l l
b e ' b ui l t ' i n to the s e n te n c e : m i - I i rm a - g a l a u
You - c a l l ou t - Immed you
' Y ou c a l l e d out j u s t now . '
Th e d e r i va t i o n of th i s s e n te n c e from Ba s e Form a t i v e s
thr oug h to sur f a c e f orm s w i l l n ow be fo l l ow e d by m e ans o f
a ' tr e e ' d i ag r am . I n th i s examp l e , the va r i ab l e s I x I I
' Y ' and ' Z ' a r e nu l l a nd ar e r epr e s e n t e d i n th e B a s e F orm a t ive
s tr i ng a s z e r os . T he ru l e s and c ompon e n t s i nv o lve d i n
ea c h s tag e i n the der iva t i on ar e l i s ted i n the l e f t-hand
co lum n .
E X . 6 7
Ba s e Form a t iv e s :
L ex i c on :
App ly T . l :
S . D . f or T . 2 : 1
App ly T . 2 : 1
1 L a ter Ru l e s
Norn VbNu c Aux
a u I i r m a [ + I mm e d ]
+ I I
[- N l [ - N �l+ S[i::r oAf l
+ I I + I I
+ S i ng + S i ng
I I 2 3 5 6
m i l i r m a g a l a u
7 8
1 2 2
The fo l l ow i n g ex amp l e p r e s e n t s a mor e comp l ex con s t ruc t i o n
i n th a t the var i ab l e s I x I and ' Y ' are repre s e n t e d by a ctu a l
fo rma t i ve s and not by z e ro s .
Ex . 6 8 i l') i - m i -m i - n a b a w a
Que s t i on h e - I n t e n s - look abo ut - D i s t ch i l d
' D i d the ch i l d look ab ou t thoro ughly ? '
Ba s e F o rma t i ve s :
Le x i con :
. App ly T . l :
S . D . for T . 2 : 1
App ly T . 2 :
La t e r Ru l e s
Que s t i on Norn I NTEN S I 11 a n a a \ b a w a [
+N l + I I I
+ S i n g [ +N DJ [ +P roA fl + I I I + I I I
+S i n g + S in g I I 2 3
f) a n a i I) i m i m i n a
5
VbN uc Aux I m i .\ [ + D i s t ]
6 7
b a w a
8
T . 2 . 5 Two op t i o n a l e l eme n t s app e ar in the S tr uc t ur a l De s -
c r ip t i o n o f T . 2 . They ar e e l emen t 4 - S e n t e n c e - and e l emen t
9 - Comp l eme n t . The e f f e c t o f the t rans f o rma t i on i s to
pe rmu t e the S e n te n c e , i f it o c cu r s , t o the r i gh t of th e f r e e
Nomin a l , e l e me n t 2 . The s e two e l emen t s mus t be re - un i t e d
1 2 3
i n con t i g uou s s eque n c e a s a cond i t i o n t o the ope r a t i on o f the
' E mbe dde d N omi n a l Re l a t e r ' tr an s forma t i on ( T . 1 8 . 2 / 1 7 9 ) . Th e -
c a te go ry ' Comp l e me n t ' i s in c lud ed in the S tr uc t ur a l De s c r ip-
t i on to e n s ur e th a t , when i t o c cur s , it r e t a i n s i t s S en t e n c e -
f i n a l po s i t i o n .
1 2 4
T . 3 O B L I G O B J E C T PRON O M I N AL S UF F I X
B . 3 / 3 9 L . l / 7 1 LE . 5 / 1 1 0 T . l / 1 1 8
RE FE RE N CE :
R . 3 / 1 9 2 M . 1 1 / 2 3 2
S . D . x Aux [ 2: N ] [ + P r oA f ] ( s ) y ( C omp l e ) '---v----'
l 2 3 4 5 6
s . c . l + 3 izS izS izS 5 2 4 6
T . 3 . 1 E l e me n t s 2 a n d 3 , b e c au s e o f t h e i r po s i t i o n i mm e d -
i a te l y fo l l ow i n g t h e A u x i l i a r y , fun c t i o n a s t h e O b j e c t o f the
v e rb . T h e y c an on l y h a v e b e e n d e r i v ed f ro m a n o un p h r a s e
i mme d i a te l y d om i n a t e d b y the P r e d i c a t e P h r a s e .
T . 3 . 2 T . 3 s u f f i x e s t h e O b j e c t P r o n om i n a l A f f i x t o t h e A u x -
i l i a ry a n d r e - o rd e r s t h e r e ma i n i n g e l e me n t s . T h e r u l e ma k e s
the Ob j e c t s u f f i x ob l i g a t o r y t o t h e t r a n s i t i ve v e r b . I n
p r a c t i c e , th i s i s n o t a t f i r s t e a s i l y e s t ab l i s h e d be c au s e o f
t h e n a t ur e o f t h e t h i r d p e r s on p ro n om i n a l s u f f i x e s . A s h a s
b e e n p o s i t e d e a r l i e r , t h e t h i r d p e r s on s i n g u l a r s u f f i x h a s b e en
i n t e rp r e t e d a s a z e r o mo rph eme . T h e mo s t c ommo n f o r m o f
the th i r d p e r s o n p l ur a l s u f f i x i s r . T h i s i s a n ap i c o -
a l veo l a r v i b r a n t wh i ch n o rma l l y b e c om e s d e - vo i c e d wo r d - f i n a l l y
( M e t c a l f e 1 9 7 1 : 8 8 ) a n d i s , i n th i s c a s e , v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o
h e a r . T h e th i r d p e r s on i s b y f a r the mo s t c o mmon . T h e
f i r s t a n d s e c on d p e r s o n p ro n om i n a l s u f f i x e s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r
i n f o rm t o t h e i r c o r r e spo n d i n g f r e e p r o n o un s . T h e s e f a c t o r s
h ave p r ob a b l y l e d o t h e r i n v e s t i g a to r s t o c o n c l u s i o n s d i f f e r i n g
f r om t h o s e p r e s e n t e d h e r e .1
1 F o o tn o t e o v e r p a g e �
1 2 5
T . 3 . 3 T h e th i rd tr an s f o rm a t i o n a l r u l e c omp le t e s t h e re o r d er -
i n g o f t h e p r i m a ry f r e e S e n t e n c e c o n s t i t u e n t s . T h e f i f th
e l e me n t ' Y ' c an on ly be t h e f r e e S ub j e c t N omi n a l p l u s , i f o n e
oc c ur s , a n e mbe dde d S e n t e n c e ( e l e me n t s 2 and 4 o f t h e s e c on d
tr an s f o rma t i o n ) . ·T . 3 pe rmu t e s t h e f r e e O b j e c t N omi n a l
( e l e me n t 2 ) an d i t s a s s o c i a te d op t i o n a l S e n t e n c e ( e l e me n t 4 )
to a po s i t i o n be twe e n t h e f r e e S ub j e c t a n d the Comp le me n t .
The b a s i c wo r d o r d e r o f B a fd i s e n t e n c e s i s th u s d e f i n e d a s
V ( e r b ) S ( u b j e c t ) O ( b j e c t ) . 2
The f re e Ob j e c t N omi na l , a s
h a s b e e n i n d i c a te d , i s ve ry o f t e n de le te d i n t h e s ur f a c e
s e n t e n c e .
1 ( F o o t n o t e f r om the p r e v i o u s p ag e )
C ap e l l an d E l k i n ( 1 9 3 7 : 2 2 1 ) , . i n t h e i r s u r ve y o f the K i mbe r l e y
d i v i s i on l an g u a g e s , s t a te : ' T h e r e i s n o i n c o rpo r a t i o n o f
p ro n o un ob j e c t . H o w e ve r , i t s ho u l d be a d d e d t h a t , i n
t h e wo r d s o f t h e a u t ho r s , ' t h e s e a r e me r e l y n o t e s on l a n g u
a ge s w h i c h s t i 1 1 aw a i t s k i 1 1 e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n . ' { p a g e 2 25 ) •
N e k e s ( 1 9 3 9 ) , i n h i s a r t i c l e on t h e p r o n oun s o f t h i s l an g u a g e
g roup , ma k e s n o m e n t i on o f o b j e c t p ro n omi n a l s u f f i xe s , a l t ho ugh
in f a c t he d e a l s a lmo s t e n t i r e l y w i t h i n tr a n s i t i ve v e rb s .
2 T he p o s i t i n g o f B a fd i a s a V S O l a n g u a g e i s p r i ma r i ly o n t h e
b a s i s o f the s y s t em o f T op i c a l i s a t i on . I f a S ub j e c t o r an
O b j e c t i s t o be t op i c a l i s e d , i t s f r e e N omi n a l f o rm i s p la c e d
i n th e p r e - ve rb p o s i t i o n . T h u s : i n a i d i n a a u l = ' O u ! c ame . '
wh i le Cl u l i n a i d i n a co u l d b e t r a n s l a t e d , ' I t w a s D u l who
c ame . ' A n d , t o i l l u s t ra te a top i c a l i s e d O b j e c t :
b a r u l u i g a r - a n d i - ga l n i d i
C a t- f i s h t h e y - c a t ch - d i d Q u a nt i t at i ve
' M any c a t - f i s h the y h ad c a ug h t . '
T h e o n l y w a y i n wh i c h T op i c a l i s a t i on c an be i n d i c a t e d by t h e
p r e - v e rb po s i t i on i s fo r t h e u n d e r l y i n g f r e e wo r d o r d e r t o be
v s o .
1 2 6
E x . 6 9 g i ve s e x a mp l e s , i n s u r f a c e fo rm , o f s e n te n c e s wh i ch
r e t a i n a t l e a s t o n e o f t h e f r e e N omi n a l s a n d t h e ve r b s o f wh i ch
d e mo n s t r a t e S ub j e c t a n d O b j e c t a f f i x a t i o n . E x . 7 0 c a r r i e s
th ro ugh a comp l e t e d e r i va t i on o f T e x t Ve r b 2 up t o t h e p re s -
e n t p o i n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s .
a )
E x . 6 9
[ N P , S ]
g i n i 9 g i - n i m a m b a
VbN u c Aux [ N P , P re dP ]
i r - � n b u - n - a i r g u l b u
Tho s e - A g e n t me n t h e y - s e nd - d i d - the m mo n e y s
' T ho s e me n ( th e G o ve r n me n t ) s e n t t h o s e l o t s o f mo n ey ( m o n ey
i s u n s u a l l y e xp r e s s e d i n t h e p l u r a l ) ( t o t h e p e n s i o n e r s ) . '
b ) [ N P , S ] VbN u c A u x [ N P , P r e dP ] [ NP I s ]
i n - a r)g a - n a - f) a y u 9 a yu - n i m a a n a m a a a
H e - t ak e - d i d- me my -A g en t my b o s s
[ NP I s ] V bN u c A ux [ N P , P r e dP ] C omp l e me n t
i n u - r) u l u - n a - 9 a y u n u n u
h e - p u t - d i d - me t he r e
' H e p i c k e d me up my own bo s s a nd p u t me d own the r e
( o n t h e R e s e r ve ) .'
c )
1
[ N P , S ] VbN u c Au x [ N P , P re dP ]
b i g i b i g i - n i m 1 i n - u 9 g � l b u - g a 1 - a a r 9 a y u
P i g - Ag e n t h e - c h a s e - d i d- m e
' Th e p i g c h a s e d m e t h i s m o rn i n g ( N e a r P e r fe c t )
Th e n i m i s a c l i t i c wh i c h i s s u f f i x e d t o the f i r s t c o n s t i t-
ue n t o f a N o uh P h r a s e and h a s b e e n t e rme d the ' Ag e n t ' m a r k e r .
I t a lw a y s o c c u r s w i t h t h e f r e e s u b j e c t o f a t ra n s i t i ve ve rb .
I n th a t f re e o b j e c t s a n d mo s t f r e e s ub j e c t s o f in t ra n s i t i ve
ve r b s r e ma i n unma rk e d , B a * d i app e a r s to a n ' e r g a t i ve ' l an g u
a g e an d the n i m , t h e e rg a t i v e c a s e m a r ke r , a f te r t h e d e f i n i t-
( C o n t i nu e d two p a g e s o n , p a ge 1 2 8 )
1 2 7
E x . 7 0 i f) a r a - m a - n a - n a - r a m b � �
T h e y - p u t - D u r a t - d i d - th e m m e n and wom e n
' T h e y u s e d t o p u t t ho s e me n a nd wom e n ( i n t r e e -
c o f f i n s ) . '
------N P
[ B 7 ]
N orn ( L l l J [ -N ]
+ I I I - S i n g
A [ - N ] [+ P roA f] + I I I + I I I - S i n g - S i n g
s
VP
~ VbN u c A ux
[ B 8 ]
VbN u c A s p e c t [ L 6 ]
-----.. i 9 a r a m a n a n a r a m b � �
p [ B 7 ]
N orn [ Lr ] [ +N
] + I I I - S i n g
T . 4
S . D .
s . c .
O B L I G N U MB E R P RE F I X RE FE RE N C E :
X [ + P r oA f ] �---/
1
+ VbN u c Y -------------- ---
2
1 + N umbe r + 2
1 2 8
R . 4 / 1 9 4 M . 4/ 2 1 3
A l l f i n i te B a� d i ve r b s c a r r y a N umbe r m a r k e r , a l though
t h e s i n g u l a r is m a r k e d b y a z e ro mo rp heme . T h e N umb e r
mo rpheme i s de t e rm i n e d b y t h e n u mbe r o f t h e S ub j e c t . Wi th
a p l u r a l s u b j e c t , the p r o n om i n a l p r e f i x is f o l l owe d b y th e
N umbe r mo rp heme r T h i s i s c on s i s t e n t wi th r e f e r e n c e to
t h e w i de r c on t e x t , as r i s i nd i c a t i ve of t h e p l u ra l thro ugh -
( F o o t n o te c o n t i n ue d f rom p a ge 1 2 6 )
i o n o f H o c k e t t ( 1 9 5 8 : 2 3 5 ) a n d a s app l i e d t o Au s t r a l i a n l an g u-
a g e s , f o r e x amp l e , i n H a l e ( 1 9 7 0 ) , D i xon ( 1 9 6 9 : 3 5 ) a n d ( f o r t h -
c om i n g : 1 6 7 ) a n d B o 1 t e t a 1 . ( 1 9 7 1 : 4 3 ) . H o we ve r , the r e a r e
u s a g e s o f n i m wh i ch d o no t c o n fo rm t o t h e e rg a t i ve p a t t e rn .
I t c an be u s e d wi th a n i n t ra n s i t i ve ve rb wh e r e the s ub j e c t i s
s tr o n g l y top i c a l i s e d . I n t h e f ir s t s e n t e n c e o f E x . 7 1 the
e mp ha s i s is up o n t h e fa c t t h a t the ' wh i t e ' m e n , a nd not t h e
B ar d i , r e t u r n e d by t h a t t ra c k . I n the s e c on d s e n t e n c e , the
P e r s o n of J e s u s C h r i s t wa s empha s i s e d :
a )
b )
E x . 7 1
w a y i b a l a - a i n i - n i m a a g u d i q i r - 1 - n i b i l a g i n i gg m o r
Wh i te s - g r o up o f - Ag e n t r e t ur n t h e y - 9S- d i d ag ain th a t p ath
' I t w a s th e g r o up o f ' wh i t e ' me n w h o r e t ur n e d o n th a t p a th . '
J e s u s - n i m gJ_QJ_ i n - a i b i - n a - a u g a r a
J e s u s - A g e n t th e n h e - d i e - d id - f o r y ou a l l ( Re fe r e n t i a l )
' J e s u s h i ms e l f , t h e n , d i e d f o r y ou a l l . '
N e k e s an d Wo rms ( 1 9 5 3 : 7 2 f ) te rm n i m the ' A ge n t i ve ' a n d
p ro vi d e a u s e f u l di s c us s i on o f i t w i th r e fe r e n c e t o o th e r
A u s t r a l i an Ab o r i g i n a l s t ud i e s .
1 2 9
·o u t B a ;-d i . i r i s t h e f re e fo rm o f the th i r d p e r s o n p l ur a l
p ron oun an d i s b a s i c t o a l l f o rms o f the r e l a te d p ro n omi n a l
a f f i xe s . T h e s ame morphe me i s u s e d a s an i n t e n s i f i e r , an d
to d e n o t e emph a t i c i n t r a n s i t i ve a c t i o n ( p a ge 1 5 1 ) . T h e s e
f un c t i o n s a l mo s t c e r t a i n l y h a ve a n un d e r ly i n g s e m an t i c re l a t -
i o n s h i p i n v i ew o f th e B a rd i f u s i o n o f qu a l i t a t i ve an d q ua n t -
i t a t i ve a s p e c t s o f l a n g u a g e . I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s f u s i o n
w a s a l s o p ro v i d e d b y t h e u s e s o f t he Q ua n t i t a t i ve A dv e r b n i d i
a s d i s c u s s e d oh p a g e 5 8 .
E x . 7 2 c o n t r a s t s the s i n g u l a r a n d p l ur a l fo rms o f two
ve r bs . E x . 7 3 a nd E x . 7 4 g i v e mo r e d e t a i l e d ' t re e ' an a l y s e s
o f the op e r a t i o n o f T . 4 .
E x . 7 2
S i n g u l a r P l ur a l
a ) i n a - � - ma r - i a - i r i r) a - r a - ma r - i a - i r
S h e - S i n g - c ook - d i d - t h e m T he y - P l ur - c ook - d i d- th e m
' S h e c o ok e d t h e m. ' ( M i d P e r f ) ' T h e y c oo k e d t h em . '
b ) r) a n - m a d a - n a - � ' I b u i l d i t '
m i n - m a g a - n a - � ' Y o u bu i l d '
i n - m a d a - n a - � ' H e b u i l d s '
a n - m a g a - n a - @ ' Y o u a n d I
b u i ld '
a - r a - m a g a - n o - � ' W e bu i l d i t '
g u - r a - ma g a - n a - � ' Y o u a l l bu i l d '
i - r a - m a Q a - n a - � ' T he y b u i l d '
E x . 7 3 T a k i n g up the d e r i va t i o n o f t h e ve rb i n E x . 6 7
a f te r t he app l i c at i o n o f R u l e T . 2 : ( p a g e 1 2 1 ) [+ P r oA f ] + I i r ma + Aux a u + I I [ VbN u c 1 + S i n g
l S . D . fo r T . 4 : 1 2
AEE l:i T . 4 : 1 + N umbe r + 2
\ . I ___J___ L a te r R u l e s _____... m 1 + � + I i r m a g a I a u _____.,. m i I i r m a g a l a u
1 3 0
E x . 7 4 T a k i n g up th e d e r i va t i o n o f the ve rb i n E x . 7 0 ,
p a ge 1 2 7 , a f t e r th e app l i c a t i o n o f Ru l e s T . 2 a n d T . 3 :
s . o . f o r T . 4 :
App ly T . 4 :
L a t e r Ru l e s
[+ P roA f] + I I I - S i n g
I l
+ m + a + - -
[ VbN l.l c ] D u r a t +
2
l + N umbe r + 2
D i s t + P e r f
\ I � ------+- -'�9.__ __ + __ �a_r_a ____ +� __ m_+_a_+ __ n_a_+_n __ a_+ __ r
------+ i Q a r a ma n a n a r
[ + P roA f] + I I I - S i n g
1 3 1
T . 5 to T . 8 A CT I ON T Y P E
U n d e r th i s g e n e r a l he a d i n g , th e r e a r e f o ur o b l i g a to ry
tr a n s fo rma t i o n s . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e m , t h e c o n cep t o f
' Ac t i o n Typ e ' i n B a f d i e xp re s s i o n s w i l l b e e x a mi n e d .
T h i s c on c ep t comp r e he n d s the t r a d i t i o n a l t e r ms ' t r an s i t -
i ve ' , ' i n t r a n s i ti ve ' , ' r e f l e x i ve ' a n d ' r e c ip ro c a l ' . A l tho ugh
the s e te rms h a ve b e e n u s e d up t o th i s po i n t , the b as i c . d i s -
c u s s i o n o f t r a n s fo rma t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s w i l l b e c o uc he d m o r e
i n the ' A c t i o n Type ' c on c ep t s o f ' E x t r a - a c t i o n ' , ' I n tr a - a c t i o n '
a n d ' Re tr o - a c t i o n ' . T h e r e a r e a n umbe r o f r e a s o n s fo r s ug g -
e s t i n g the t e rm s .
F i r s t l y , i t i s a c o n v e n i e n t g e n e r a l i s a t i on t o _ i n c o rp o r a te
t he two p ro c e s s e s o f r e f l e x i v e a n d r e c ip ro c a l a c t i o n un d e r th e
on e t e rm , ' r e t ro - a c t i o n ' . I n E n g l i s h , we c an d i f fe r e n t i a t e
b e twe e n re f l e x i ve p l ur a l s ' th e y h i t t h e m s e l v e s ' an d
r e c ip r o c a l s ( wh i c h mu s t b e p l ur a l } ' t h e y h i t e ac h o th e r ' .
I n B a fd i th e r e i s n o s u r f a c e d i s t i n c t i on a n d c on t e x t mu s t d i s -
amb i g u a t e t he e xp r e s s i o n .
S e c on d l y , ' i n t r a - ' a n d ' e x t r a - a c t i o n ' e xp r e s s mo r e c l o s e -
l y th e u n d e r l y i n g ve r b a l p r o c e s s e s i n v o l ve d . E x t r a - a c t i on
an d tr a n s i t i ve a c ti o n a re p ra c t i c a l ly s y n o n y mo u s , de n o t i n g
t h e p a s s i n g o f th e e f f e c t o f t h e a c t i on f ro m Age n t t o O b j e c t .
I n tr a - ac t i o n , howe ve r , s tr e s s e s mo r e t h e c om i n g b a ck o f the
a c t i on i n t o the S ub j e c t . T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d p ar t i c u l a r ly
by v e r b s s uc h a s �+� ' to b e f r i g h t en e d , a f r a i d ' , a s i n :
E x . 7 5 ( Th e 2 i s t h e I n t r a - a c t i o n mo rph e me }
u - 1) - g - a r g - a - a i ( N o te t h e d i s c on t i n u o u s P ro j e c t e d T en s e mo rpheme _g_+ �)
H e - I n tr aA c t i o n - wi l l - be a f r a i d - wi l l - o f y o u
' H e w i l l b e a f r a i d o f yo u . '
1 3 2
T h e ab s e n c e o f a g e n e r a l s u r f a c e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r marke r
fo r p a s s i ve a c t i on c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e f a c t t h a t i n t r a - a c t i o n ,
whi l e i n c l u d i n g i n tr a n s i t i vi t y , a l s o exp re s s e s the c om i n g
b a c k o f t he a c t i o n upo n t h e S ub j e c t . I n ad d i t i o n t o the
I mp er s on a l v e r b s , t h e p a s s i ve is s ome t i me s e xp r e s s e d wi t h i n
t h e me a n i n g o f t h e v e r b s te m . T h e ve rb m a 9g a r me an s ' to
be i gn o r e d ' a n d i t t ak e s t h e i n t r a - a c t i ve mo rp he m e . I n the
fo l l owi n g ex amp l e , i t is a c c o mp a n i e d by the th i rd p e r s o n p l u r a l
Re f e r e n t i a l p r o n omi n a l s u f f i x o i r
E x . 7 6
9 a - 9 a - m a 9g a r a - n a - n a - a i r
I - I n t r aAc t i o n - i g n o r e d - D u r a t - wa s - by t h e m
' Th e y k e p t on i g no r i n g me . '
T h i rd l y , i n t h i s di s c u s s i o n o f t he n a t ure o f B a fd i a c t i o n
typ e , t h e r e i s t h e sm a l l c l a s s o f ve rb s te m s wh i c h c a n exp r e s s
b o th i n t r a - a n d ex t r a - a c t i o n . Ap a r t f rom the s e f e w ve r b s ,
e x t r a - and i n t r a- a c t i o n s te m s a r e i n m u t u a l l y ex c l u s i ve s e t s .
a s w a s p o i n t e d o u t o n p a ge 8 0 . T h e r e i s t h e ve r b b +A n
' t o f i n i s h ' wh i c h , w i th a n e x t r a - a c t i o n m a r ke r , m e an s ' to f i n -
i s h , to c omp l e te a n o b j e c t . ' Wi t h t h e i n t r a - a c t i o n ma rk e r ,
i t c an me an e i th e r ' t o d i e ' o r ' t o f i n i s h ( a n a c t i v i ty ) ' , a s
w a s i l l u s t r a t e d o n p a ge 9 7 . An o th e r g r o up o f v e rb s a re
tho s e rep r e s e n te d b y s u c h ve r b s a s ' to c ry ' , ' t o l augh ' an d
' t o h i d e ' , a s e t p a r a l l e l e d i n E n g l i s h . T h e s te m � i s
p r im a r i l y i n t r a - a c t i ve , exp re s s i n g t h e a c t i o n o f ' c r y i n g ' w i th-
o u t p ar ti c u l a r re f e r e n c e t o t h e c au s e of t h e a c t i o n . Howe ve r ,
th e s ame s t e m c an t ak e t h e e x t r a - a c t i o n m a r k e r , i n wh i ch c a s e
i t i s mo d i f i e d t o me a n ' t o c r y fo r s ome on e ' , wh e r e t h e ' s ome
o n e ' i s s p e c i f i e d b y an o b j e c t p r o n om i n a l s u f f ix .
1 3 3
I n E x . 7 7 , a n i n t r a - a c t i v e ve r b i s c omp a r e d w i t h a n e x t ra -
a c t i ve one . N o t e t h e ch a n g e i n a c t i o n t y p e mo rp h e me s a n d
the o b l i g a t o r y i n c l u s i o n o f a n o b j e c t s u f f i x in t h e e x t ra - a c t i ve
e xp r e s s i o n .
E x . 7 7
I - I n t r a - s h a l l - c r y - s h a l l A c t i o n
I - E x t r a - s h a l l - c r y fo r - s h a l l - t h e m A c t i o n
' I s h a l l c r y . ' ' I s h a l l c r y f o r t h e m . '
Th e f o u r t h a r e a wh i c h d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e f un c t i o n o f the
a c t i on typ e m a r k e r s is in th e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e re t r o - a c t i o n
e xp r e s s i on s . Re t ro - a c t i o n o c c u r s wh e n t h e A g e n t N P a n d t h e
Ob j e c t N P a r e i d e n t i c a l , s e t t i n g i n t o op e r a t i o n Ru l e T . 8 .
T h e a c t i o n n ow , a s i t a c t s b a c k upon i t s own s ub j e c t , c e a s e s
to be ex t r a - a c t i ve . I n f a c t , i t b e c om e s i n he r e n t l y i n t r a -
a c t i ve . T h e i n te r e s t i n g th i n g i s t h a t , w i t h t h i s c h a n ge i n
a c t i o n t yp e , t h e de e p s t r u c t u r e a c t i on typ e m a r k e r c h a n g e s
f r om n t o � . T h e d e ep s t r u c t u r e r e f e r e n c e i s n e c e s s a ry
h e re b e c a u s e the ma r k e r s may be de l e t e d or mo d i f i ed at the s ur -
f a c e l e ve l b y t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l r u l e s . Th e v e rb g+ a m ' t o
l au g h ' , b e c a u s e i t ca n e xp r e s s b o th a c t i o n ty p e s , s e rve s a s an
e x c e l l e n t b a s e up on wh i c h to c o mp a r e the op e r a t i o n s o f a c t i o n
typ e t r an s f o rm a t i o n s . T h e f o l l ow i n g e xamp l e g i ve s i n tr a - ,
e x t r a- an d r e tr o - a c t i ve e xp re s s i o n s i n t h a t o rd e r :
E x . 7 8 ( U s i n g t h e M i d d l e P e r f e c t T e n s e m a r k e d by i a . )
T h e � p r e f i x e d t o t h e ve rb s t e rn i n t h e e xt r a - a c t i o n ve rb
h a s no a c t i o n type s i gn i f i c a n c e but i s a ph o n o l o g i c a l rno d i f -
i c a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d b y R u l e M . 8 , p ag e 2 2 8 .
a )
b )
c )
E x . 7 8
m i - 9 - g a m - i o
Y o u- I n tr a- l a ugh - d id Ac t i o n
m i - n - a 9g a m - i o - a r 9 a y u
You-Extr a- l augh a t- d i d- me Act i o n
m i - r:i - g a m - i n a - i a
You- I n t ra- l augh at -Re t ro - d i d Act ion Ac t io n
1 3 4
' Y ou l aughe d . '
' Y ou laughe d at me . '
' Y o u l a ughe d a t your se l f . '
The comp l e te p arad i gm o f thi s ve rb , showi n g the thre e
a c t ion type s , i s s e t out a s P ar a d i gm 4 , p age s 2 6 0 f f .
T . 5
s . o .
s . c .
O B L I G E X T RA - A CT I ON
X [ + P roA f ] �
l
1 + +
n y +
RE FE RE N CE :
[ + P ro A f ] z
2 + 2
1 3 5
B . 3 / 3 9
R . 3 / 1 9 2 M . 2 / 2 0 8
T . 5 . 1 T h e two P r o n om i n a l A f f i xe s i n t h e S t r u c t u r a l D e s c r ip t -
i o n c an on ly b e S ub j e c t a n d O b j e c t a f f i xe s r e s p e c t i ve l y .
T . 5 . 2 T h i s t r a n s f o rma t i o n d i c t a t e s t h a t , whe n an O b j e c t
p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x o c c u r s , t h e e x t r a - a c t i o n m a rk e r n i s
s uf f i xe d t o t h e S ub j e c t p ro n o m i n a l p r e f i x o f the s ame v e r b .
E x . 7 9 A p a r ad i gm o f t h e s i n g ul a r fo rms o f t h e D i s t a n t
P e r fe c t o f t h e ve r b m u l b ' t o l e n d t o ' : ') a - n - u mu l b u - n a - r ' I m a d e a l o a n t o t h em . ' m i - n - u m u l b u - n a - r ' Y o u ma de a l o a n t o the m . ' i - n - u m u l b u - n a - r ' H e m a d e a l o a n t o th e m . ' a - n - u m u l b u - n a - r ' Y o u a n d I ma de a l o a n t o t he m . '
E x . B O D e r i va t i o n a l t r e e fo r ve rb ( ab o ve ) : [: � �oA f ] +
+ S i n g
S . D . f o r T . 5 : 1 2
App ly T . 5 :
L a te r R ul e s I + �-n + m u l b + u + na + r ------.. ') a n u m u l b u n a r
!) a n u m u l b u n a r
1 3 6
T . 6 OB L I G I N T RA - ACT I ON REFE RE NCE :
M . 3/ 2 1 1
s . o . x [ + P roA f ] + y �
1 2
s . c . 1 + .!l + 2
C on d i t i o n : 2 doe s n o t i n c l u d e [ + P r oA f ] .
T . 6 . 1 T h e C o n d i t i o n i n t ro d u c e s t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i on be t -
we e n t h e S t r u c t u r a l D e s c r ip t i on s o f T . 5 . a n d T . 6 . F o r T . 6
t o b e a c t i va t e d the r e m u s t n o t b e an O b j e c t p r o n om i n a l s u f f i x
( o r , a t t he h i g h e r n o d e , a n [ N P , P r ed P ] ) ge n e r a t e d i n th e B a s e .
T h a t i s , the a c t i o n o f t h e ve r b d o e s n o t p a s s o v e r o n to an
O b j e c t .
T . 6 . 2 I n t h e ab s e n c e o f a n O b j e c t p r o nomi n a l s u f f i x , Ru l e
T . 6 i n t ro d u c e s t h e i n t r a - a c t i o n m ar k e r .!l a s a s u f f ix t o t h e
S ub j e c t p r onomi n a l p r e f i x .
E x . 8 1 A p a r ad i gm o f the s i n g u l ar f o rms o f t h e D i s t an t
P e r fe c t o f the ve r b � ' t o s l e ep ' . ( Comp a r e E x . 7 9 )
l) a - 1) - u m u l g u - n a ' I s l e p t . '
m i - 1) - u m u l g u - n a ' Y o u s l e p t . '
i - 1) - u m u l g u - n a ' H e s le p t . '
a - 9 - u m u l g u - n a ' Y ou a n d I s l ep t . '
E x . 8 2 ' T r e e ' fo r t h e f i r s t v e rb i n E x . 8 1 : 9 a 9 u m u l g u n a [ !� �oAf] + V bN u c + A ux
v + Sr S . D . f o r T . 6 : l 2 ( wh e re 2 doe s n o t i n c l u d e
[ + P roA f ] )
App l;t: T . 5 : 1 .!l � \ \ !) a !) u m u l g u n a L a t e r R u l e s _...,. g a + !) + m u l g+ u + n a �
T . 7 P RE - S TE M T RANS F O RMAT I ON S
T . 7 . 1 OB LI G P RE - S TE M P LACE ME N T
1 3 7
L . 4 . 4 / a s REF E RE N C E :
S . D . x [ + P r oA f ] + Y + �
[ P r e - S t e m ( + A c t i o n C h ang e ) , Z ] VbN u c '-- .........,,.. ../ VbN u c
1 2 3 4
s . c . 1 3 2 + 4
T . 7 . 1 . 1 I f a P r e - S tem o c cu r s i t w i l l h a ve b e e n l i s t e d , i n
a c c o rd w i t h Ru l e L . 4 an d t h e r e l e va n t L e x i c a l E n tr y , a s the
f i r s t e l e me n t of the V e r b N u c l e us . T h u s , fo r e xamp l e , the
ve r b ' t o c l i mb ' i s set o u t o n p age 1 1 3 a s l a g a l g+ a n + i
e t c . ] . A P re - S tem may a l s o be m a rk e d w i t h th e f e a ture
[ +A c t i on C h ang e ] ( t o b e d i s c u s s e d f u r th e r under T . 7 . 2 ) , as
i n t h e c a s e o f t h e ve r b ' t o g o d own ' , wh i ch is g i v e n o n
p a g e 1 1 3 a s �+ A c t i on C h an g e , m+ a e t c . ] .
T . 7 . 1 . 2 Up to t h i s p o i n t i n t h e op e r a t i o n o f the t r an s fo rm-
a t i o n a l c ompo n e n t , th r e e o b l i g a t o ry p r e f i xe s w o u l d h a ve b e e n
a f f i x e d t o the V e r b N u c l e us , a l l th r e e o f wh i ch a re i n c l ud e d
i n e l e me n t 2 o f t h e S . D . o f T . 7 . 1 . T h e P ro n o mi n a l A f f i x i s
g i ve n , a n d t h e A c t i on T y pe an d N umbe r c o n s t i t ue n ts a r e r ep r e s -
e n t e d by the s y mb o l ' Y ' .
T . 7 . 1 . 3 T h i s ' P r e - S t e m P l a c e me n t ' t r a n s f o rma t i o n r ev e r s e s
the o r d e r o f e l e me n t s 2 ( th e p r e f i x e s ) a n d 3 ( th e P r e - S t e m a n d
t h e f e a t u r e [ + A c t i on C h an g e ] i f i t o c c u r s ) , a n d p re f i xe s e l e -
me n t 2 t o the f o u r th e l e m e n t . E l e me n t 4 mu s t b e e i th e r the
c l a s s m a rk e r o r , i n the c a s e of � - C l a s s ve r b s , the ve rb s te m
o f th e an c i l l a ry ve rb .
1 3 8
T h e f o l l ow i n g e x a mp l e , u s i n g t h e ve r b ' t o c l i mb ' , w i l l
b e d e r i ve d r i g h t f r o m th e B a s e R u l e s t h r o u gh t o t h e p r e s e n t
p o i n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s .
E x . 8 3 l a g a l a 9 a r g a n i n g a l
' W e a l l we n t c l i mb i n g t h i s m o r n i n g ( N e a r P e r f e c t ) . '
B a s e Ru l e s :
F o r m a t i ve s :
L e x i c o n :
App l y T . l a n d T . 2 =
App ly T . 4 :
[ N
N o rn [ L . 1 ]
I [�LJ [ - N6A f ) + 1 /
App l y T . 6 :
[ + Plo A f ] + N umb e r+
[ + P r o A f ] + Q+ N umb e r + ....... /
......,......
S . D . f o r T . 7 . 1 : 2
App l y T . 7 . 1 : 3
L a t e r Ru l e s � l a g a l
P r e dP [ B 1 3 )
VP [ B 4 ]
VbN u c
V b N u c
l ag6ii + i
A ux
1\ A sp e c t T e n s e [ L . 6 ] [ L . 7 ] I I D u r a t N e a r
P e r f
l a g a l g+ a n + i + D ur a t + N e a r P e r f
l a g a l
I 3
g+ a n + i +
I 4
+ n + g a l
l a g a l a r;i a r g a n i n g a l
T . 7 . 2 O B L I G A C T I O N C H A N G E
1 3 9
L . 4 . 4 . 3 / 9 1 RE F E RE N C E :
s . o . x P r e - S t e m + A c t i o n C h a n g e
1 2
s . c . 1
[ + P r o A f ]
3
3 +
+ .!l +
4
n +
y
5
5
T . 7 . 2 . 1 A n u mbe r o f t h e P r e - S t e m s wh i c h w i l l h a ve b e e n p l a c e d
i n t h e p r e - P r o n om i n a l A f f i x p o s i t i o n b y R u l e T . 7 . 1 b e a r t h e
f e a t u r e [ + A c t i o n C h a n g e ] . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s f e a t u r e a n d
t h e t r a n s f o rm a t i o n a l p r o c e s s i t i n i t i a t e s w a s f o r e s h a d o w e d i n
S e c t i o n L . 4 . 4 . 3 . S i mp l y , i t i s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p e c u l i a r ,
b u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e s e t o f P r e - S t e m i n t r a - a c t i ve ve r b s
w h o s e an c i l l a r i e s a r e e x t r a - a c t i ve w h e n t h e y f u n c t i o n a l on e .
Fo r e x amp l e , t h e v e r b ' t o g o d ow n ' i s i n t r a - a c t i v e . I t i s
e x p r e s s e d by t h e P r e - S t e m � a n d t h e a n c i l l a r y m+ a ' t o
p l a c e , t o p u t ' , w h i c h i s a n e x t r a - a c t i ve v e r b i n i t s o w n r i g h t .
i t i s a n e x a mp l e o f a ' M e a n i n g - b e a r i n g P r e - S t e m ' ( p a g e 8 6 )
i n wh i c h t h e m e a n i n g i s c a r r i e d e n t i r e l y b y th e P r e - S te m a n d
t h e s e m a n t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e · o f t h e a n c i l l a r y i s n e u t r a l i s e d .
B e c a u s e t h e c o mp l e t e P r e - S t e m v e r b o f t h i s t y p e c a n n o t
t a k e a n O b j e c t N P , t h e a n c i l l a r y w i l l u n d e r g o t h e ' I n t r a - a c t
i o n ' t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , T . 6 , a n d w i l l h a ve t h e i n t r a - a c t i v e mo r -
p h e m e 2 s u f f i x e d t o t h e P r o n o m i n a l A f f i x . T h i s i s a n
i n c o r r e c t r e a l i s a t i o n a s t h e an c i l l a r i e s a r e i n f l e c t e d f o r
' A c t i o n T y p e ' a s i f t h e y w e r e s t a n d i n g a l o n e . R u l e T . 7 . 2
a l l ow s f o r t h e c o r r e c t r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e a n c i l l a r y b y
c h a n g i n g t h e A c t i o n T y p e mo r p h e m e f r o m � t o n
1 4 0
E x . 8 4 s e t s o ut t h e de r i v a t i o n o f a f o r m o f t h e ve r b
' t o c ome d own ' c omme n c i n g a t t h e F o rma t i v e l e ve l .
E x . 8 4
Fo rma t i ve s :
Le x i c on :
App l y T . l a n d T . 2 ·
App l y T . 4 :
App l y T . 6 :
App ly T . 7 . 1 :
S . D . fo r T . 7 . 2 :
App l y T . 7 . 2 :
L a t e r Ru l e s
i n a - m a - n a - n a
Come down he - � - D ur a t - d i d
' H e u s e d t o g o down . '
N orn [ L 1 ]
+ S i n g
VbN uc
�+A c t i o n m+ a C h a n ge
A sp e c t [ L . 6 ]
D ur a t
T e n s e [ L . 7 ]
D i s t P e r f [�� I I ]
[ -N�A f ] + �+ A c t i o n m + a + D ur a t + D i s t
j ,,./" C h a n g e P e r f
[ + : r�) +N umb e r+
[ + P rLf ] +�+ N umbe r+ .Y.!!£.+ A c t i on m+ a + D ur ? t + D i s t C h an g e P e r f �
�+ A c t i o n [ + P roA f ] +�+ N umbe r+ !!!_+9_ +
I CTge
1 2
1
I �
�
�
I � --3 4 5
3 + n + A I T + n + fl$ + !!!_+9_ +
i n a ma n a n a
n a + n a
W i t ho u t the op e r a t i o n o f T . 7 . 2 , th e f o l l ow i n g un a c c e p t -
ab l e f o rm w o u l d h a ve b e e n de r i ve d : * � i 9 a m a n a n a
T . 8 RE TRO -ACT I VE VE RB S
1 4 1
Two s ub- r u l e s a r e p r e s e n te d un d e r th i s he ad i n g .
T . 8 . 1 i n t ro d u c e s t h e o b l i g a to r y m a rk e r fo r r e t r o - a c t i on .
T . 8 . 2 i n t r od uc e s the op t i o n a l m a r k e r . The o b l i g a to ry mo rph-
e rne i s th e s u f f i x j n a j ; the op t i o n a l ma r k e r i s th e p r e f i x m .
A s di s cu s s e d p re v i o u s l y , r e t r o - ac t i on i s the ge n e ra l
con c e p t emb r a c i n g re f l e x i ve and r e c i p r o c a l a c t i on . T h e s ame
s u r f a c e f o rm e xp r e s s e s b o t h a l t ho ugh the r e c ip ro c a l r e q u i r e s
p l u r a l n o un p h r a s e s .
T . 8 . 1
S . D .
s . c .
x
1
1
Con d i t i on :
T . 8 . 1 . 1
OB L I G RE T RO -ACT I ON I
[ + P roA f ]
2
2
2 6 .
+ n + Y
3 4
+ A ux +
5
4 + i n a i + s
[ + P ro A f ]
6
z
7
7
T h e C on d i t i o n i s t h e cr i t i c a l fa c t o r wh i c h c au s e s
th e op e r a t i o n o f th i s t ra n s fo rma t i o n . Whe n e ve r t h e S ub j e c t
an d O b j e c t n o un p h r a s e s a r e i de n t i c a l wi t h i n the s a me s e n t
e n c e , r e t ro - a c t i o n mu s t o c c ur .
T . 8 . 1 . 2 T he t h i r d e l e me n t i n the S . D . i s tr an s fo rme d i n
a c t i o n t yp e f r o m e x t r a - a c t i o n { � ) t o i n tr a - a c t i on ( � ) •
T h e s i gn i f i c an c e o f th i s c h a n ge wa s d i s c u s s e d o n p ag e 1 3 3 ,
wh e r e i t w a s po i n t e d o u t th a t t he i n t r a - a c t i ve mo rph e me i s
u s e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e c o rn i n g b a c k o f t h e a c t i o n upon t h e S ub
j e c t .
1 4 2
T . 8 . 1 . 3 T h e ob l i g a t o r y re t r o - a c t i o n m a r k e r l!l£l i s i n tro -
d u c e d a s a s u f f i x t o the Ve r b N u c l e u s ( wh i c h i s i n c l u d e d i n
t h e s ymbo l ' Y ' ) , a n d i mm e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h e A ux i l i a r y .
T h e re a l i s a t i o n o f t h e A ux i l i a r y i s n o t a f f e c t e d i n any way .
T . 8 . 1 . 4 T h e O b j e c t p r o n om i n a l s u f f i x , e l e me n t 6 , i s d e l e t e d .
I n a f u l l gr a mma r , t h e f r e e fo rm o f t h e [ N P , P r e dP ] wo u l d a l so
b e d e l e t e d by a l a te r t r an s f o rma t i o n .
a )
b )
E x . 8 5 C o mp a r i n g E x t r a - a c t i ve a n d Re t r o - a c t i ve fo rms :
E x t r a - a c t i ve
r) a - n u - m u n d u - n a - 95
I - E x t ra - we t - d i d - h i m A c t i o n
Re t ro - a c t i ve
g a - 9 u - m u n d - i n o i - n a
I - I n t r a - w e t - Re t r o - d i d A c t i o n A c t i o n
' I we t h i m . ' ( D i s t P e r f ) ' I we t my s e l f . '
m i - n a - m a r a - g a l - o i r m i - g a - ma r - i n o i - ga l a
Y o u- E x t r a - b urn - d i d - t h e m Y o u- I n t ra - b u r n - Re t r o - d id A c t i o n A c t i o n A c t io n
' Y o u b ur n t t h e m . ' ( N e a r ' Y o u b u rn t yo u r s e l f . ' P e r f )
E x . 8 6 Th i s s e n t e n c e i s t a k e n f ro m a t r ad i t i on a l c h i l d-
r en ' s s t o r y o f th e ra c e b e t we e n t h e k a n ga roo and t h e l an d h e r -
m i t - c r a b . T he c r ab i s a dd r e s s i n g h i s k i n s me n c on c e rn in g t h e
c on te s t . I n th i s c a s e , t h e f r e e S ub j e c t i s e xp r e s s e d and i t
p r e c e de s th e ve r b i n T op i c a l i s e d p o s i t i o n . T h e f r e e p ro n o un
u s e d i s i n t h e f i r s t p e r s on p l ur a l E x c l u s i ve a s t h e h e a r er s
a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e c om i n g e ve n t .
T h e s e ma n t i c s o f t h e e x a mp l e i s i n t e re s t i n g . T h e e x tr a -
a c t i ve f o rm o f t h e ve r b me a n s ' t o c h a s e ' . W i t h r e t ro - a c t i on ,
i n t h i s c a s e r e c ip r o c a l , i t me a n s ' t o h av e a r a c e ' o r , l i t e r -
a l ly , ' t o ch a s e e a c h o t he r ' . T h e h e rm i t - c ra b s ays :
a r u d a Qg u r - 9 u r u b - i n a - a
E x c l u s i ve We - c h a s e - Re t ro - w i l l A c t i o n
' We w i l l r a c e e a c h o th e r . '
F o r ma t i ve s :
L e x i c on :
App ly T . l :
N o rn [ L 1 ]
VbN u c Aux
r) U r u b + u [ + P ro j ]
1 4 3
N orn [ L 1 ]
[�: x c] A
A,E,E J.:f: T . 2
zoA f ]
+ · l) u r u b + u + A ux+ [ + P roA f ] [ - N� ] an d T . 3
A2E l Y T . 4 a n d T . 5 ·
C on d i t : 2 = 6 .
Ap.f2 l:t T . 8 . 1 :
L a t e r Ru l e s
-
+ Aux+ [ + P roA f ] I 5 6
,s 7 � a r u d u a r u d u
a r u d a 9 g u r 9 u r u b i n a a
T . 8 . 2 OP T I ONAL
s . o . x + C l a s s
l 2
s . c . 1 m
RE TRO - ACT I ON I I
+ y + i n a i + z �_/
3
3
1 4 4
T . 8 . 2 . 1 T h i s tr an s fo rma t i o n o n l y app l i e s t o ve r b s wh i c h h ave
u n d e r g o n e the ob l i g a to ry Re t ro - a c t i on R u l e T . 8 . 1 . T h u s the
morp h e me i n a i mu s t app e a r in t h e s . o . o f T . 8 . 2 .
T . 8 . 2 . 2 W i th s u c h ve r b s , t h e C l a s s m a r k e r , e l e men t 2 , may
be r ep l a ce d by t h e Re t r o - a c t i on p re f i x � , wh i c h wou l d then
be a f f i xe d to th e Verb S t e m ( the f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t i n c l ud e d
un d e r th e s ymb o l ' Y ' ) . T h i s op t i o n i s ch o s e n q u i te f r e que n t -
l y , e sp e c i a l l y wi t h s h o r t e r v e rb s t em s wh i ch c omme n c e w i th a
vowe l .
E x . 8 7 ( S e e a l s o the Re t r o - ac t i ve ve r b i n P . 3 , p a ge 2 5 7 f f )
a ) i o o r - m - o n d - o n d - i n a i - n a
T he y - Re t r o - I n t en s - c o ve r - Re t r o - d i d ( D i s t P e r f ) A c t i o n A c t i on
' T h e y c o ve r e d th e m s e l ve s c omp l e t e l y . '
b ) m i - o a - m- a n d - i n a i - n - g a l
Y o u - I n t r a - Re t r o - s c r a t ch - Re tr o - D ur a t - d i d ( N e a r P e r f ) A c t i on A c t i o n A c t i o n
' Y o u h a ve be e n s c r a t c h i n g yo u r s e l f a l l mo rn i n g . '
c ) i - Q i - m - i l b i r - i n a - i o
I t- I n t r a - Re tr o - e ch o - Re tr o - d i d ( M i d P e r f ) A c t i o nA c t i o n A c t i o n
' I t e c h o e d . '
F r o m t h i s po i n t o n , t h e a b b re v i a t i o n s E A ( E x t r a - a c t i on ) ,
I A ( I n t r a - a c t i on ) a n d RA ( Re t r o - a c t i o n ) wi l l s ome t i me s be u s e d .
T . 9 I RRE A L I S E X P RE S S I ON S
1 4 5
I r re a l i s e xp r e s s i o n s r e l ev a n t t o v e r b mo rpho l ogy a r e t he
P o t e n t i a l { T . 9 . 1 ) and th e N e g a t i ve { T . 9 . 2 ) . T h e c l o s e i n t e r -
r e l a t i o n s h i p be twe e n the s e two typ e s o f exp r e s s i o n s w a s d i s -
c u s s e d o n p a g e s 4 l f .
T . 9 . 1 O B L I G P OTE N T I A L B . 3 . 2 / 4 1 RE F E RE N CE :
R . 2 . 3 / 1 8 8 M . 1 . 1 / 2 0 3
S . D . w P OTE N T I A L x + { ll } + y + A s p e c t + z .!l
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
s . c . 1 3 5 jZS 7
T . 9 . 1 . l T h e P o t e n t i a l t r an s fo rma t i on i s a c t i va te d whe n t h e
f o rma t i ve P OTE N T I AL o c c ur s in t h e S . D .
T . 9 . 1 . 2 T h e tr a n s fo rma t i o n r ep l a c e s th e A c t i on T yp e mo rph e me s
.!']_ ( E A ) o r .!l ( I A ) b y th e P o te n t i a l ma r k e r , s ug ge s t i n g a n
un de r l y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p i n B a f d i b e twe e n R e a l i s a c t i v i ty an d
A c t i o n T yp e .
T . 9 . 1 . 3 T h e s e c on d e f f e c t o f the t r an s fo rma t i o n i s t h a t
A sp e c t i s n e u t r a l i s e d i n I r r e a l i s e xp r e s s i on s . T h e T e n s e
mo rphe m e s a r e mo d i f i e d a l s o , a s w i l l b e s h own i n S e c t i o n R . 2 . 3 .
A s w a s d i s c u s s e d i n B . 3 . 1 , p a g e 4 1 the s e mo d i f i c a t i on s t o the
Auxi l i a r y d em o n s t r a t e the b a s i c d i v i s i o n of B a { d i t e n s e i n t o
P e r f e c t a n d I mp e r f e c t .
T . 9 . 1 . 4 T h e s u f f i x i n g o f t h e P o t e n t i a l mo rph e me t o t h e P ro -
n om i n a l S ub j e c t p r e f i x ( th e f i n a l c o n s t i t u e n t o f ' X ' i n t h e
1 4 6
S . D . o f T . 9 . 1 ) c a u s e s mo d i f i c a t i on s i n t he r e a l i s a ti o n o f t h e
pre f i x , a s wi l l b e po i n t e d out i n R u l e M . 1 . 1 .
E x . 8 8 C omp a r i n g t h e P o te n t i a l and the I n d i c a t i ve o f
the M i dd l e P e r fe c t o f t he ve r b g u r i d ' t o p a i n t ' :
I n d i c a t i ve
Q a - n u - g u r i d - i a - @
I - E A - p a i n t - d i d - i t
' I p a i n t e d i t . '
m i - n u - Q u r i d - i o - @ ' Y o u .
i - n u - 9 u r i d - i a - @ ' H e .
P o t e n t i a l
9 a - l u - 9 u r i d i - n a - @
I - P o t e n t i a l - p a i n t - d i d - i t
' I s ho u l d h a ve p a i n te d i t . '
• m i - l u - g u r i d i - n a - @
• u - l u - g u r i d i - n a - @
a - n u - 9 u r i d - i a - @ ' Y o u and I . a - l u - 9 u r i d i - n a - @
a Q - u r u - g u r i d - i a - @ ' We a l l . . a - l u - r u - 9 u r i d i - n a - @
g u 9 - u r u - g u r i d - i a - @ ' Y o u a l l . g u - l u - r u - g u r i d i - n a - @
i 9 - u r u - 9 u r i d - i a - � ' T he y . . u - l u - r u - g u r i d i - n a - @
T . 9 . 2 O B L I G NE GAT I VE
s . o . w NE GAT I VE x +
1 2 3
s . c . 1 a r a 3
RE FE RE N CE :
{ .!l } + y + A sp e c t .!l
4 5 6
5
1 4 7
B . 3 . 1 / 4 0
R . 2 . 3 / 1 8 8 M . 1 . 1 / 2 0 3
+ z
7
7
C on d i t i o n : 3 d o e s n o t i n c l ude E MP H .
T . 9 . 2 . 1 Apa r t f rom t h e t e rm s ' N E GAT I VE ' a n d ' P OTE N T IAL ' ,
the S t r u c t ur a l D e s c r ip t i o n s o f T . 9 . 1 an d T . 9 . 2 a r e i d e n t i c a l .
The S t r u c t ur a l C h an ge s b ro u g h t abo ut by t h e two tr a n s fo rma t i o n s
ar e a l s o t h e s ame e x c e p t t h a t , w i th t h e N e g at i ve , t h e f r e e
mo rph e me a ra i s i n t r o d u c e d p re c ed i n g th e i n f l e c t e d v e r b .
T h e re s ul t a n t mo d i f i c a t i o n s to t h e A ux i l i a ry a n d t o t h e
P r o n om i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e t h e s ame a s t h o s e i n t ro d u c e d i n to the
P o te n t i a l f o r ms .
T . 9 . 2 . 2 T h e C o n d i t i on e x c l ud e s t h e po s s i b i l i ty o f a ' N e g a t -
i ve E mp h a s i s ' e xp r e s s i o n f ro m t h e S . D . o f T . 9 . 2 . T h i s typ e
o f con s t r uc t i o n wi l l be h a n d l e d by T . 1 2 , p a ge 1 5 3 .
E x . 8 9
I n d i c a t i ve
a ) g u Q - u r - u l u g u - n a - r
Y o u- P l u r- c 1e a n- d id - t h e m
' Y o u c l e an e d t h e m . '
b ) i - n - a J i - n o - r?
H e - E A - e a t - i s - i t
' H e i s e a t i n g i t . '
N e g a t i ve
a ra g u - 1 - u r - u l u g u - n a n a - r
N e g y o u - P o t - P l ur - c l e a n- d i d t h e m
' Y o u d i d n o t c l e an t he m . '
a ra u - 1 - a l - a - @
N e g he - P o t - e a t - i s - i t
' H e i s n o t e a t i n g i t . '
1 4 8
E x . 9 0 T h e d e r i v a t i on o f t h e ve rb :
a r a g a - l i - m i l i - n a
N e g I - P o t - wa k e - d i d
' I d i d n o t w ak e up . •
F o rma t i ve s : N orn N E G VbN u c A s p e c t T e n s e
L e x i c on :
App ly T . l :
[:LJ I\ [ - N ] [ + P roA f ] 1
m i I + i
App ly T . 2 : / / G [ + P ro A f ] + m l l + I +
App ly T . 4 an d T . 6 ·
S . D . f o r T . 9 . 2 : 2 3 4 5
M i d P e r f
6 7 App l y T . 9 . 2 : a r\ \ i A /7 -------.. a ra �D_a�+� ___ +__.�'--+ ___ m_i __ l + __ i __ +�n __ a La t e r Ru l e s
___..,. a ra D a I i m i I i n a
T . 10 I N TE N S I V E ACT I ON
T . 1 0 . 1 O B L I G VE RB S T E M RE DUP LI CAT I ON
RE FE RE N CE :
s . o . x I N T E N S y .+ VbS + z
1 2 3 4 5
s . c . 1 I; 3 4 4 5
C on d i t i o n : 3 d o e s n o t i n c l ud e P r e - S te m .
1 4 9
B . 4 . 3/ 4 7 L . 4 . 5 / 9 2
T . 1 0 . 1 . 1 I f t h e I N T E N S I TY m a rk e r c o m e s d own i n t o the te rm-
i n a l s tr i n g , i t c au s e s a r e d up l i c a t i on e i th e r o f t h e Ve rb
S te m ( T . 1 0 . 1 ) or the P r e - S te m , whe r e o n e o c c ur s . ( T . 1 0 . 2 ) . The
C on d i t i on t o T . 1 0 . l d e t e rm i n e s wh i ch o f t h e two s ub - ru l e s
w i l l app l y .
T . 1 0 . 1 . 2 W i th r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d i s c u s s i on u n d e r Ru l e L . 4 . 3 ,
i t wi l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t s ome ve rb s te m s a r e o n ly p a r t i a l l y
re dup l i c a t e d t o e xp r e s s I n t en s i ty . I f a v e r b i s s o m a rk e d ,
i t s Le x i c a l E n tr y wo u l d s upp l y the r e d up l i c a te d f o rm .
E x . 9 1
a ) m i - n - 9 u l m a - 9 u l m a - g a l - o a r 9 a y u
Y o u- E A- I n t e n s - f r i gh te n - d i d ( I mme d P e r f ) - me
' Y o u j u s t g ave m e a t e r r ib l e f r i gh t ! '
b ) u - 9 - g - a l g - a l g - a
c )
H e - I A - w i l l - I n te n s - f a l l - w i l l
' H e wi l l r e a l l y f a l l h e a v i l y . '
o a n o a i - r - b - a n d - a n d a ma - n o ( N o t e P a r t i a l Re d up l i c a t i o n )
Q ue s t i o n t he y - P l u r - C l a s s - I n te n s - s tumb le - a r e
' A r e t h e y s t i l l s t a g g e r i n g about ? '
T . 1 0 . 2 OB L I G
s . o . x
1
s . c . 1
P RE - S T E M RE D UP L I CAT I ON
RE F E RE N CE :
I N T E N S P r e - S t e m y
2 3 4
3 + 3 4
1 5 0
B . 4 . 3 / 4 7 T . 7 . 1 / 1 3 7
T . 1 0 . 2 . 1 T h e P r e - S t e m i s a l w a y s r e d up l i c a t e d f u l l y .
T . 1 0 . 2 . 2 T h ro u gh the op e r a t i o n o f t h e P r e - S te m P l a c e me n t
t r an s fo rma t i o n ( T . 7 . 1 ) , t h e P r e - S te m wo u l d h ave be e n l o c a t e d
c on t i g u o u s to th e I NT E N S I TY fo rm a t i ve whe r e o n e o c c ur s .
E x . 9 2
a ) ya r - ya r i n - o u - n a - n a
I n t en s - p ad d l e h e - � - Dur a t - d i d ( D i s t P e r f )
' H e k e p t o n p ad d l i n g h a rd . '
b ) b a r- b a r i g a r - a - n a - r i
I n te n s - kn o c k a b o u t th e y - � - d i d - yo u
' T h e y k n o ck e d y o u abo ut b ad ly . '
c } a ra a a 1 1 - o a l i g u - l a - r a - ma - n a - r
N e g I n t e n s - s to r e up y o u- P o t - P l ur -p ut - d i d - t h e m
' Y o u d id n o t s to r e t h e m u p c ar e fu l l y . '
'11'. l' 1
s . o .
s . c .
OB L I G
x T e n s e
1
1
2
2 +
I N T R A - ACT I ON E MP HAT I C
RE FE RE N CE :
E MP H A T y
3 4
{ ..!J=. } # � 4
C on d i t i o n : 2 i s n o t m a r k e d [ + P ro j ]
1 5 1
B . 3 . 3 / 4 4
T . 1 1 . 1 T h e E mp h a t i c m a r k e r o n l y o c c u r s w i t h i n t r a - a c t i ve
v e r b s , a s d i s c u s s e d u n de r B . 3 . 3 .
T . 1 1 . 2 T h r o ugh T . 1 1 , t h e E MP HAT I C m a rk e r i s r e a l i s e d a s
e i t h e r i r o r � a n d i s s u f f i x e d t o the T e n s e f o rm a t i ve .
T h e s e two mo r p h em e s app e a r to be i n te r c h a n g e ab l e .
T . 1 1 . 3 T h e E mp h a t i c m a rk e r a l w a y s o c c u r s wo rd- f i n a l l y , a s
i s i n d i c a te d by th e wo r d b o u n d ary s ymb o l # . T h i s s y mb o l
p r e v e n t s f ur t h e r s u f f i x i n g t o th e E mp h a t i c mo rphe me .
T . 1 1 . 4 T h e Co n d i t i o n e x c l ud e s v e r b s i n t h e P ro j e c t e d I mp e r f-
e c t T e n s e f ro m th e op e r a t i on o f t h i s t r an s fo rm a t i o n . T h a t
i s , t h e i n t r a - a c t i ve E mp h a t i c c an o n l y app l y to a c omp l e t e d
a c t i o n o r a n a c t i o n i n p ro g r e s s .
E x . 9 3
a ) b u g u n i n - i n - i r
I n s i d e h e - i s - E mph a t
' H e i s r e a l l y i n s i d e . '
b ) g i n i fJ g g u n a i b u l a y i - b - a r - i n - i r
T h a t G u n s p l a y - Re l a t o r - we - a r e - E mp h a t
1 5 2
' I t i s t h a t ( c a rd g ame o f ) Gun s wh i c h we a r e a l w a y s p l a y
i n g • I
E x . 9 4 T h e f o l l ow i ng th r e e v e rb s a r e t a k e n f rom a n ar r -
at i ve d e s c r i b i n g a mu r d e r a n d i t s a f t e rm a th . A young man
h ad j u s t mur d e r e d h i s un c l e in a b r u t a l an d d r awn o u t m a n n e r :
i n - a i b i - n - a r:i a r i 9 i r - m i - m i I i - n - a f) a r a m b u r i n
H e - d i e - di d -E mp h a t T h e y - I n t e n s - wake up - d i d - E mp h a t p e op l e
i f) a r - a a r - a r a - n - a f) a r b a n a a r a
T h e y - I n te n s - s t an d up- d i d - E mp h a t s t r a i gh t away
' ( A t l a s t ) he was r e a l l y d e a d . A l l t h e p e op l e wo k e up w i th
a s t a r t . A l l ( t he me n ) s t o o d up s tr a i gh t away .
N o t e the u s e o f the I n t e n s i ve i n c o n j un c t i o n w i th the
E mp h a t i c i n the s e c o n d an d th i r d v e rb s , d e mo n s t r a t i n g the
ve r s a t i l i ty and e xp re s s i v en e s s of B a fd i ve rb s .
1 5 4
N om i n a l s m a y s t i l l b e s upp l i e d b y t h e u s e o f f r e e f o rms o u t -
s id e the v e r b . Th i s i s t h e c a s e wi th the e xp r e s s i on i n
E x . 9 5 ( a ) , wh e r e t h e S ub j e c t i s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e f r e e pron oun
g i n i gg i a n d i n ( b ) , wh e re bo th S ub j e c t an d O b j e c t a r e g i ven .
T . 1 2 . 7 T he r e l a t i o n b e twe e n the N e g a t i v e E mp h a s i s c o n s t r uc t -
i o n a n d wh a t h a s be e n t e rmed the B a ! d i ' I n f i n i t i ve ' wi l l b e d i s -
c u s s e d und e r Ru l e T . 1 7 . 2 . F o r c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d fo r re a so n s
wh i c h w i l l b e g i ve n und e r t h i s l a te r d i s c u s s i o n , t h e e l e me n t s
o f the d i s c on t i n uo u s mo rphe me m a + .
an d I n f I I r e sp e c t i ve l y .
E x . 9 5
a ) T e x t L i n e 5 2 :
a r a - g a m a - l a ma n g - a - n
. + n wi l l b e l abe l e d I n f I
g i n i f)g i ·
N e g - E mp h I n f I - l i s t e n - T ra n s i tV - I n f I I he
' H e did n o t l i s t e n a t a l l . '
b ) a r a - g a m - a : l - a -n i r i r
N e g - E mp h I n f I - s e e - T r an s i tV - I n f I I th e y t h e m
' T h e y ( a E u rop e a n p un i t i ve p a r t y ) d i d n o t s e e a s i g n o f
the m ( th e B a f d i ) ( be c a u s e the B a fd i ' d o c to r -m a n ' h ad " m ade
· the i r e y e s b a d " ) . '
E x . 9 6 T h e two N e g a t i ve E mp h a s i s ve r b s i n t h i s e x amp l e
a r e p a r t o f an o th e r murd e r n a r r a t i ve . A s k i l l e d h un t e r , who
has j us t k i l l e d a woma n , i s b e i n g s ub j e c t e d to a f i e r c e a n d
protr a c t ed o r d e a l o f r e t r i b u t i o n . Howe ve r , i n t h i s s c e ne ,
non e o f t h e me n s e e m t o b e a b l e t o h i t h i m .
i 9 u r u - m u n u - 9 u - a i n - i r · a J g u d u o u r U l') - g � ·
Th e y - t h r e w- w i th- a t h i m - t h e m L e f t r i g h t - f rom
a r a - 9 a m a - y i - n a i n i m a r g a · i r o l a - 9
1 5 5
N e g - E mp h I n f I - h i t - I n f I I h i s sh i e l d S p e a r s - w i th
i 9 u r u - m u n u - 9 u - o i n - i r a r a - 9 a m - o n a i - n ·
the y - t h r e w- wi t h - a t h i m - t h e m N e g - E mp h I n f I - sp e a r - I n f I I
' T he y th r e w a t h i m w i th ( bo o me r an g s ) . T o t h e l e f t a n d t o
the r i g ht ( t he y we n t y e t ) n o t o n e h i t h i s s h i e l d . T h e y
th r e w a t h im wi th the i r s p e a r s , b u t the y we r e n o t ab l e t o
spe a r h i m a t a l l . '
T . 1 3 O P T I ON AL
S . D . x g a n a a
1 2
s . c . 1
Y E S - N O QU E S T I ON S
Y + A u x ----.........-----
3
z
4
3 + � 4
RE FE RE N CE :
1 5 6
B . 2 . 2 / 3 6 LE . 1 / 1 0 9
T . 1 3 . 1 9 a n a a i s the f re e , p r e - ve rb fo rm o f th e Q u e s t i o n
m a r k e r . As d i s c u s s e d i n B . 2 . 2 , ap a r t f r o m i n t o n a t i o n , i t
d oe s n o t a f f e c t t h e f o r m o f t h e ve rb .
T . 1 3 . 2 T h e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e van c e o f ' Y e s - N o ' que s ti o n s t o
B a !d i v e r b mo rp h o l o g y i s t h a t , a s a n op t i o n a l a l te r n a t i ve ,
the y may b e e xp re s s e d b y rep l a c i n g � a n o a w i th t h e s u f f i x
� s u f f i x e d t o the A u x i l i a ry . L i ke o t h e r B a rd i g r amma t -
i c a l m a r k e r s , s uch a s a m b a , t h e S e que n t i a l C o n j un c t i on a f f i x
and � , th e Re l a te r ( s e e p a g e s 6 3 an d 1 7 6 ) , t h i s Q ue s t i on
s uf f i x c an o c c ur i n a l mo s t a n y po s i t i on a n d c an b e u s e d t o
' q ue s ti on ' a n y p a r t o f sp e e ch .
E x . 9 7
a ) i g a - n i m- a d a
S i c k n e s s -A ge n t - Q u e s t i o n
' H a s t h e s i c k n e s s be e n a c t i n g ? ' = " Do y o u f e e l i l l ? '
T r u l y - I n t e n s i f i e r - Q ue s t i o n
' I s th a t r e a l l y t r u e ? '
c ) n i r a - g u d - a 9 a
H o w -Q u a l i t a t i ve - Q ue s t i on
I H . ow i s e ve ry t h i n g go i n g ? '
d ) d i f) g i - � n - a g a
D i n g e y - i n - Q ue s t i o n to u s
' A re we go i n g i n t h e d i n g e y ? '
1 5 7
T h e f o l l owi n g e x amp l e p ro v i d e s i l l u s t r a t i on o f the a l t e rn
ati ve u s e o f f) a n a a a n d � in c on j un c t i o n w i t h ve rb a l
e xp re s s i o n s .
E x . 9 8
a )
r) a n a a m i - l a b a - n n u r u
Q u e s t i o n y o u- h a ve - d o f i r e
' D o y o u h a ve a n y ma t c h e s ? '
--=> m i l a b a n - a d a rn
a r - a l a l - a - f) a y u =====? r:i u r i a i a r a l a l - a d a - 9a y u
T omo r row Q ue s t i on y o u- fo l l ow - w i l l - me
' T omo r r ow , wi l l y o u a l l fo l l o w ms ? '
c )
9 a n a a d a r u n g - a r - a � d a r u n g a r - a Q a
Q ue s ti on a r r i ve he - � - w i l l
' W i l l h e a r r i ve ? '
I t i s e v e n p o s s i b l e f o r t h e � to b e s u f f i x e d to the
P re - S te m i n s t e ad of the A u x i l i a r y .
a l s o be e x p r e s s e d : d a r - a d a u n g a r a
T h u s , E x . 9 8 ( c ) c ou l d
1 5 8
T . 1 4 O B L I G I MP E RA T I VE B . 2 . 3 / 3 7 L . 7 . 2 / 1 0 2
RE F E R E N CE :
S . D . I MP E RA T x + A ux y M . 1 . 2 / 2 0 4
1 2 3 4
s . c . f2$ 2 3 4
[ + P r o j ]
T . 1 4 . 1 T h e s e n t e n c e - t y p e m a r k e r I MP E RA T I VE c a u s e s t h e ve r b
A u x i l i a r y w i th wh i c h i t i s a s s o c i a t e d t o b e o b l i g a t o r i l y m a r k -
e d a s P ro j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t T e n s e . T h i s m a r k i n g un d e r l i e s t h e
f a c t , a s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n B . 2 . 3 , t h a t t h e f o r m s o f th e
I mp e r a t i ve a n d th e P r o j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t a r e i d e n t i c a l mo r p h o l -
o g i c a l l y .
T . 1 4 . l I n a f u l l g r a mm a r b o t h t h e Q u e s t i o n a n d I mp e r a t i v e
s e n t e n c e - t y p e s w o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e I n d i c a t i v e b y
a n i n t o n a t i o n f e a t ur e .
T . 1 4 . 2 T h e r e i s a l s o t h e f a i r l y c om mo n u s e o f a P e r s o n a l
P ro n o un a s a n e mp h a t i c w i th t h e I mp e r a t i ve . I n mo s t i n s t a n c e s
t h e p ro n o un w i l l o c c ur i n t h e T op i c a l i s e d , p r e - ve rb p o s i t i o n .
T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l ow i n g e x amp l e :
E x . 9 9
a u b u n u r:i - a : I g - a a r - =:> n b a g a g ·
Y o u o ve r t h e r e y o u - h i d e - I mp e r a t a n o t h e r - i n t r e e
i n - a u - n - i n i · a u b u n u I u I r) - a : g - a g u l b - u n ·
H e - s ay - d i d - t o h i m Y o u t h e r e b e h i n d y o u - go i n - I mp e r a t r o c k - a t
' " Y o u h i d e o v e r t h e r e i n t h e o t h e r t r e e ! " h e s a i d t o h i m .
" Y o u g o i n b e h i n d t h e r o c k o ve r t h e r e ! "
1 5 9
T . 1 5 P OS T P O S I T I ON A L P H RAS E S U FF I XE S
A n umb e r o f p o s tpo s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s c a n b e p a r a l l e l e d
b y ve rb s u f f i xe s . Th e r e i s a s e t o f A s s o c i a t i ve p ronom-
i n a l s u f f i xe s c o r re s p o n d i n g to I n s t r ume n t a l and C o mi t a t i ve
p o s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s ( T . 1 5 . 1 ) and the r e i s a s e t o f Re fe re n t -
i a l p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o D a t i ve an d Ab l a t i ve
e xp r e s s i o n s ( T . 1 5 . 2 ) .
T . 1 5 . 1 OP T I ON A L A S S O C I A T I VE S U F F I X B . 1 0 . 1 / 6 0 B . 1 0 . 2 / 6 1
RE F E R E N C E :
R . 3/ 1 9 2
S . D . x Aux y [ � N ) [ + P roA f ] { I n s t r um } z '----v-----' Com i t a t
1 2 3 4 5 6
s . c . l + _Q_ + 4 2 3 + 5 6
T . 1 5 . 1 . 1 N om i n a l s s t an d i n g a s th e he ad o f a po s tp o s i t i o n a l
p h r a s e w o u l d h ave un d e r go n e t h e f i r s t tr an s fo rma t i o n , t h e o u t -
p u t o f wh i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d by e l e me n t s 3 and 4 i n t h e S . D . o f
the s e po s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e t r an s fo rmat i o n s T . 1 5 . 1 an d T . 1 5 . 2 .
T h e s e N o mi n a l s a r e the o n l y o n e s wh i c h c a n f u l f i l t h e S . D . .
T h a t i s , th e S ub j e c t a n d O b j e c t N o m i n a l s c an no t a c t i v a t e t h e
f i r s t t wo s ub - r u l e s o f T . 1 5 .
T . 1 5 . 1 . 2 Wh e n a N om i n a l s t a n d s a t the he a d o f e i th e r an
I n s t r ume n t a l o r a C om i t a t i ve po s tpo s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , i t s c o r re s -
p o n d i n g P ro n om i n a l A f f i x ( e l e me n t 4 ) c an b e s u f f i x e d w i th i n
the v e r b . T h e A f f i x i s l a t e r r e a l i s e d b y th e s ame mo rph e me
1 6 0
s e t a s t h e O b j e c t p r o n om i n a l s u f f i x b y R u l e R . 3 .
T . 1 5 . 1 . 3 T h e A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x � i s a l s o i n t r o d u c e d b y
t h i s r u l e a s a n a f f i x t o th e A ux i l i a r y a n d i m m e d i a t e l y p r e
c e d i n g t h e P ro n o m i n a l A f f i x d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l a s t p a r a g r ap h .
T h e A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x mo rp h e me i s , i n f a c t , t h e s a me a s o n e
o f t h e a l l o mo rp h s o f th e I n s t r um e n t a l p o s t p o s i t i o n .
T . 1 5 . 1 . 4 T . 1 5 . 1 s u f f i x e s t h e p o s t p o s i t i o n , e l e me n t 5 , t o t h e
f r e e f o r m o f t h e N o m i n a l , e l e me n t 3 . I n m a n y c a s e s , t h e s e
p o s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s s o f o r m e d a r e l a t e r d e l e t ed , p a r t i c u l a r
l y wh e r e t h e f r e e f o r m o f t h e N o m i n a l i s a p ro n o u n .
T . 1 5 . 1 . 5 B a f d i , l i k e E n g l i s h , m a k e s t h i s l i n k b e t we e n t he
C o m i t a t i ve a n d I n s t r u me n t a l . I n E n g l i s h , t h e s ame s u r f a c e
p r e p o s i t i o n ' w i t h ' e xp re s s e s b o th . I n B a f d i , a l th o u g h t h e
p o s tp o s i t i o n s d i f f e r ( th e C o m i t a t i ve p o s t p o s i t i o n i s n a r ) ,
b o t h c a n b e e xp r e s s e d by t h e s am e A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x m o r p h e m e
� . I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e A s s o c i a t i ve c o n s t r u c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n
t o I n s t r ume n t a l p o s t p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s w i l l b e g i v e n f i r s t a n d
th e n i t s r e l a t i o n t o C o m i t a t i ve e xp r e s s i o n s w i l l b e d e mo n s t r a t
e d .
E x . 1 0 0
a ) 9 a n g - i d i 9 - a - 9 - i r - �
I - t o u c h - w i l l - w i t h - t h e m - h e r
' I w i l l t o u c h h e r w i th t h e m . '
b ) i n u - m u n d u - n a - n a - 9 - @- a a r g a y u
H e - we t - D u r a t - d i d - w i t h - i t - me
' H e k e p t o n w e t t i n g m e w i t h i t . '
1 6 1
E x . 1 0 1 The fo l l ow i n g s e n t e n c e d e s c r i be s the c o v e r i n g
o ve r o f a p i g w i t h l e ave s a f t e r i t h ad b e e n s h o t . N o te the
r ep e t i t i o n of th e p o s t p o s i t i o n a l ph r a s e a n d ve rb re d up l i c at i o n
t o exp r e s s t h e tho r o u gh n e s s o f t h e op e r a t i on .
b i I i I i - 9 b i I i I i - 9
Th e y - I n te n s - c o ve r - d i d - w i t h - t h e m - i t l e a ve s - wi t h l e ave s - w i t h
' T he y c o ve r e d i t th o ro u gh l y wi th m a n y l e ave s . '
Fo rma t i ve s :
N o rn I N TE N S V bN u c A ux N orn T Lexic on : [ -N ]
+ I I I
)\ ��, ::r [+P roA f ) T . 5 & szJ T . 1 0
b + A n d + i + I I I + I I I [ -N ] [+N ] 7\ ?\ [ - N ] [ + P r oA f ] [ +N ] [ + P roA f ] l
I n s t rum
I N um · b:::> [ +P roA f ] + n +
b + b +A n d + A n d + i + Aux+ [ +P ro A f ] [ + N ] - e r ::=::---
[ +P roA f ] I n s t r um
· � I S . D . fo r T . 1 5 . 1 : 1 2 3
App l y T . 1 5 . 1 : 1
L a t e r Ru l e s
�
+�+ 4 \ i g + n + o r+ b + A n d + A n d + i + n a + g+ i r+ � b i l i l i + g
i rp r o n d o n d i n a r) i r b i I i I i r) b i I i I i r)
4 5
1 6 2
E x . 1 0 2 T h e A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x i n r e l a t i o n t o Comi t a ti ve
po s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s :
a ) d a r i g a r - a o a - 9 - i r
b )
c )
Come they - d i d - wi th - t h e m
' T h e y ( t he p e op l e ) c ame w i th the m ( th e c h i l d r e n ) . '
i 9 a r a - m a - n a - 9 - o a r m u d u - @ i : I a
Th e y - p l a c e - d i d - w i th - u s - i t d og
' Th e y l e f t the dog w i th u s . '
i r b i r a r
T h e y l e ave be h i n d the y - �- d i d- w i t h - t h e m - h im
' T h e y l e f t h i m ( th e i n i t i an d ) b e h i n d w i th t h e m ( the g ro up
o f o l d e r me n ) . '
T . 1 5 . 2 OP T I ON A L
S . D . x Aux y
RE F E RE N T I A L S U FF I X
RE FE RE N C E :
1 6 3
B . 1 0 . 3 / 6 1 B . 1 0 . 4 / 6 2
R . 5 / 1 9 5 M . 1 1 / 2 3 2
[ � N ] [ + P roA f ] { D a t i ve } z
� Ab l a t i ve
1 2 3 4 5 6
s . c . 1 + 4 2 3 + 5 6 [ + Re fe r ]
C o n d i t i o n s : ( i ) 3 i s m a r k e d [ + A n i m a t e ] .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 1
( i i ) 2 i s no t l s t . o r 2 n d . P e r s o n P ro n om i n a l
Ob j e c t .
T h i s i s th e s e c o n d o p t i o n a l t r a n s fo rm a t i o n by wh i ch
a p o s tp o s i t i on a l ph r a s e m ay be i n co rp o r a t e d i n e s s e n c e w i th i n
the i n f l e c t e d ve rb . I t m a y app l y wh e n c e r t a i n Da t i ve o r
Ab l a t i ve p o s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s o c c u r i n th e C o mp l e me n t .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 2 T h e f i r s t C o n d i t i o n i s t h a t th e N o m i n a l wh i ch s t an d s
a s t h e h e ad o f t h e po s tp o s i t i on a l p h r a s e m u s t b e m a r k e d a s
[ + An i m a t e ] . Th u s , fo r e x amp l e , a Da t i ve ph r a s e i n wh i ch
the N o m i n a l i s a p l a c e n ame wou l d n o t a c t i va t e t h e t r a n s f o r m -
a t i o n .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 3 T h e s e co n d Co n d i t i o n b l o ck s t h e t r a n s f o rma t i on i f
a f i r s t o r s e c o n d p e r s o n O b j e c t p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x o c c ur s b e t -
we e n th e A ux i l i a r y a n d th e p o s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e . T h a t i s ,
Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x e s c a n o n l y o c c u r w i th e x t r a - a c t i ve ve r b s i f
the O b j e c t p ro n o m i n a l s u f f i x i s i n the t h i r d p e r s o n .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 4 T he Re fe re n t i a l s u f f i x e s e xp r e s s a c t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e
t o a n a n i ma t e b e i n g , t h a t i s , ' to ' , ' fo r ' o r ' f r o m ' a p e r s o n
1 6 4
o r a n a n i ma l . T h e i r ma i n fun c t i o n i s to e xp r e s s I n d i r e c t
O b j e c t s , b u t t h e t e r m ' Re f e r e n t i a l ' h a s be e n cho s e n in v i ew o f
1 the w i d e r u s e o f th e s u f f i x e s .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 5 T h e Re fe r e n t i a l a n d th e O b j e c t p r o n om i na l s u f f i x e s
a r e t o b e v i e we d i n the i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s wi th i n t h e w i d e r p r o -
nom i n a l s y s t em . T he forme r a r e d e r i ve d from t h e f r e e P o s s e s s -
i ve P rono un s , wh i l e th e l a t t e r a r e r e l a te d t o t h e P e r s o n a l P ro -
n o un s . T h e s e re l a t i o ns wi l l b e m a d e mo r e exp l i c i t i n t h e
d i s c u s s i on o f Ru l e R . 5 , wh e r e t h e f r e e a n d b o und p ro nom i n a l
fo rm s wi l l b e c o mp a r e d .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 6 T h e Re fe r e n t i a l s u f f i x e s a r e d i s t i ng u i s h e d by t h e
a d d i t i o n o f t h e fe a t u r e [ + Re f e r ] to th e p ro n om i n a l a f f i x
c o r r e sp on d i ng to th e p o s t po s i t i o n a l p h r a s e N om i n a l ( e l e me n t s
4 a n d 3 i n the S . D . } .
T . 1 5 . 2 . 7 T h e D a t i ve e x p r e s s e s ' t o ' o r ' fo r ' ( c . f . B . 1 0 . 3 ) .
Wi th a n a n im a t e he ad tha t i s , th e po s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s
und e r con s i d e r a t i o n t h e e xp r e s s i on s wou ld r e f e r to a c t i o n s
' w i th r e f e r e n ce t o ' , ' on a c co u n t o f ' , ' fo r t h e b e n e f i t o f ' an
a n i ma t e be i n g , u s ua l l y h um a n . T h e D a t i ve mo r p h e m e i s � .
E x . 1 0 3 ( T e x t V e r b s 5 4 , 8 6 a n d 8 7 ) :
a } a i g i r i n - a u - n a - o i n
P e e p he - � - d i d - a t h im ( Re f e r )
' H e p e ep e d a t h i m . '
b ) 1 - m a n i - n - g a t - a a r a n i n - a u - n a - a i r
H e - wave - D ura t - j u s t d i d - a t me h e - s a y - d i d- to t h em
" H e k e p t o n wav i ng a t m e j u s t n ow l " he s a i d t o them .
1 C . f . t h e W i k - m u n k a n ' Re f e r e n t - be n e fa c t i v e S u f f ix ' i n G o d f r ey
( 1 9 7 0 : 7 4 7 ) for a c l o s e p a r a l l e l .
1 6 5
E x . 1 0 4 T h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n i s t a k e n f rom a s to ry c o n c e rn -
.iing a ' La y u d u ' a wh i t e sp i r i t b e i ng wh i c h s e e k s to l u r e a
g ro up o f c h i l d r e n away :
a l a - 9 a n w i : n i n - a u - n a - a i r i · i n a - m a r a - n a - a i r i - �
C h i l d r e n - fo r c o a x e h e - � - d i d- fo r them F i s h he - c oo k - d i d- fo r t h e m - i t
' H e ( th e L a yu d u ) c o a x e d t ho s e c h i l dr e n . He c oo k e d a f i s h
for t h e m . '
T . 1 5 . 2 . 8 E x a mp l e s o f t h e A b l a t i ve po s tpo s i t i o n { � } we r e � g i v e n i n B . 1 0 . 4 . Whe n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n a n ima t e h e a d , t h e
Ab l a t i ve fo l l o w s v e r b s s u c h a s ' to h i de ( f rom ) ' , ' t o be f r i g h t -
e n e d ( f r om ) ' , ' to b e s urp r i s e d ( f ro m ) ' , ' t o b e i g n o r e d ( f rom ) ' .
T h e l a s t t h r e e ve r b s wou l d i n E n g l i s h b e pa s s i v e s f o l l owe d b y
' by ' , exp r e s s i n g a g e n t . I n B a f d i , w i t ho u t a s ur f a c e p a s s i v e
co n s tr u c t i o n , t h e A b l a t i ve i s u s e d .
E x . 1 0 5
a ) l n - a a l g i - n a - a a Q a d i g i - n f m
H e - h i d e - d i d - f rom u s D i ck i e -A g e n t
' D i c k i e h i d f r o m u s ( a f t e r s te a l i n g t h e eg g s )
b ) 9 a n - o a r g i - g a l - o i r i n
I - f r i g h t e n e d - wa s j u s t - f rom h im
' I wa s j us t n o w f r i g h t e n e d b y h im . '
c ) i 9a - m a 9 g a r a - n a - a i r
H e - i g n o r e d -wa s - f r o m t h e m
' T h e y t o o k no no t i c e o f h im . '
T . 1 5 . 2 . 9 Wh e n a Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x o c c u r s b e fo r e a th i rd
p e r s o n O b j e c t s u f f ix , a typ e o f ' d i - tr an s i t i ve ' comb i n at i o n
re s u l t s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e fo l l owi n g e x a mp l e .
1 6 6
E x . 1 0 6
a ) i n - a u l u g a - n a - a i n - i r
H e - b r i ng - d i d- fo r h i m - th em a l c o ho l
' H e b r o u g h t tho s e ( bo t t l e s o f ) l i qu o r fo r h im . '
b ) i n - g u l u - n - 3 a n - i r
H e - th row- i s - fo r me - th e m
' H e i s t h r o w i n g i n t ho s e ( be t s ) for me ( i n a c a r d g ame ) . '
c ) 9 a n - a u g u r u - n - a o w - i r
I - ma k e c a t am a r an - am- fo r u s two - t he m
' I am ma k i n g the two s e c t i on s o f a c a t a m a r a n fo r u s two . '
1 6 7
T . 1 6 ADVE RB IAL T RAN S F O RMA T I ON S
I n S e c t i o n B . 9 , two a dve r b s we re i n t ro du c e d be c a u s e o f
the i r re l e va n c e t o t r a n s fo rma t i on a l p ro ce s s e s wh i c h a f f e c t
ve rb mo rph o l og y . T h e y we re t h e T ime a n d t he Q u a n t i t a t i ve
adve r b s a n d the i r re l a t e d t r an s fo rma t i o n s wi l l now be f o rm-
u l a t e d un de r T . 1 6 . l an d T . 1 6 . 2 .
T . 1 6 . 1
S . D .
s . c .
T . 1 6 . 1 . 1
O B L I G T I ME ADVE RB /AU X I L I A RY AG RE E ME N T
x + T e n s e y
........
1 2
1 2 [ o T e n s e J
T i me [ o T e n s e ]
'-""'""
3
3
RE F E RE N CE :
z
/
B . 9 . 1 / 5 7 L • 5 / 9 9 LE . 3 . l / 1 0 9
T h i s t r a n s fo rm a t i o n s a f e g u a r d s t h e ob l i g a t o ry te n se
a g r e e me n t be twe e n a t e mp o ra l a dve r b m a rk e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
te n s e i n i t s Le x i c a l E n t r y a n d t he te n s e o f t he re l a t e d v e r b
A ux i l i a ry . A g r e eme n t i s i n d i c a te d b y t h e o m a rk e r .
E x . 1 0 7 T a k e the un g r amma t i c a l s e n t e n c e :
* 9 u r i a i n - a i d i - n a
T omo r row he - g o - d i d ( D i s t P e r f )
* ' T omo rrow h e we n t . '
D u r i n g i t s d e r i va t i on , t�e fo l l ow i n g s t age wou l d be r e a c h -
e d : [ + P roA f ] + � + N umbe r + a + i d + i + A s p e c t + T e n s e T i me [ + D i s t ] [ + P r o j ]
A t t h i s p o i n t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n wou l d b l o c k f u r t h e r d e r i va t i o n
thro ugh l a c k o f a g r e e me n t be twe e n ve rb T e n s e a n d T i me a d ve rb .
1 6 8
I f , howe ve r , the a dve rb o u r i a [ + P r o j ] we r e t o be r e p l a ce d
b y t h e a d ve rb m i I o n [ + Di s t ] the n the d e r i va t i on cou l d pre c ed e .
The l i n e i n the de r i va t i on o n the p r e v i o u s p a g e w o u ld t he n
re ad :
----+ m i I o n i n o i d i n a
' Lo n g ago , he we n t . '
T . 1 6 . 2 O B L I G I T HE M I DE LE T I ON
S . D . w Aux + x + [ + P roA f] + I I I ....... .... - S i n g ..............
1 2
s . c . 1 fz5
RE F E RE N CE :
1 6 9
B . 9 . 2 / 5 8 LE . 3 . 2 / 1 0 9
y n i d i z
....... -- ___ _/ ............
---
3
3
T . 1 6 . 2 . 1 ' T he m ' De le t i o n w a s f o r e s h a dowe d i n B . 9 . 2 i n the
d i s c u s s i o n o f the Q u an t i t a t i ve a dve rb n i d i Wh e n .!l.l..QJ.
fo l l ows an O b j e c t p ro n omi n a l s u f f i x m a r k e d th i r d p e r son p l ur a l ,
the s u f f i x i s ob l i g a t o r i l y d e l e t e d . T he Q ua n t i t a t i ve a d v e rb
s ub s ume s the me a n i n g o f the p l ur a l s u f f i x , mak i n g i t unn e c e s s -
ary . I n E x . 1 0 8 t h e p l u r a l O b j e c t s u f f i x o i r i s d e l e te d .
E x . 1 0 8
m a j g a ! i r u - I u rJ a - n - g a I - � n i d i •
W i l d g rap e s the y - g a th e r - D u ra t- d i d- ' t h e m ' d e l e t i o n Q u an t i t
� g u l u � g u l u w a r a i r u - l u � a - n - g a l - sd
Con j ' M a k a b a l a ' f ru i t t he y - g a t h e r - D ur a t - d i d - ' the m ' d e l e t i o n
n i d i g a ya ra - o i n i - n i m b a w a ·
Q ua n t i t ' wh i t e ' - g r o up o f - A g e n t c h i l d r e n
' A g r o up o f " wh i te " c h i l d re n h a ve j u s t ( I mme d P e r f ) be en g a t h -
e r i n g l ar g e q u an t i t i e s o f w i l d g rape s a n d " M a k ab a l a " f r ui t . '
A s i s e v i de n t f r om the s e e x amp l e s , when a f r e e O b j e c t
o c c u r s i n c o n j un c t i o n w i t h the Q ua n t i t at i ve a d v e r b , i t i s
u s u a l l y t o p i c a l i s e d .
1 7 0
T . 1 7 CON J U N CT I ON T RAN S F O RMAT I ON S
Two f r e e c o n j un c t i o n s , S e q ue n t i a l and P u rp o s i v e , whi ch
may i n t rod u c e mo d i f i c a t i o n s wi t h i n t he i n f l e c t e d ve rb w i l l be
d i s c u s s e d un d e r T . 1 7 . A t h i r d c on j un c t i on T e mp o r a l
wi l l be d i s c u s s e d un d e r T . 1 8 .
T . 1 7 . 1
S . D . sl
1
s . c . 1
T . 1 7 . 1 . 1
O P T I ONAL
{ a m b a } o a m b a
2
2
S E QU E N T I AL CON J UN C T I ON B . 1 1 . 1 /6 3 LE . 4 . 1 /1 0 9
RE F E RE N CE :
M . 1 1 / 2 3 2 M . 1 3 . 2 / 2 4 2
[ x + Aux y ] s s 2 � 2
3 4
3 + a m b a 4
I f t h e S e qu e n t i a l c on j un c t i o n a m b a {-a b } conn e c t s a m a
two s e n t e n c e s , i t may a l s o be i n tr o du c e d a s a s u f f i x t o the
A ux i l i a r y o f t h e ve rb of the s e c o n d s e n te n c e .
T . 1 7 . 1 . 2 I f the f o u r th e l e m e n t i n t h e S . D . i s a P r onom i n a l
A f f i x , t h e S e q ue n t i a l c o n j un c t i o n c au s e s mo d i f i c a t i o n s t o i t s
s u r f a c e re a l i s a t i o n ( M . 1 3 . 2 ) .
T . 1 7 . 1 . 3 T he form o f the S e q ue n t i a l s u f f i x i s g i v e n a s
a m b a • A s a f r e e c on j un c t i o n the r e i s f r e e f l uc t u a t i o n be t-
we e n a m b a and a a m b a Ho we ve r , th i s f l uc t u a t i o n i s c on -
t ro l l e d b y R u l e M . 1 3 . 2 i n the c a s e o f t h e s u f f i x .
1 7 1
The fo l l ow i n g e x amp le i l l u s t r a t e s t h e S e q u e n t i a l c o n j un c t -
i o n , f i r s t l y , s u f f i xe d t o a n i n t r a - a c t i ve ve rb a n d the n p r e c e d -
i n g bo th O b j e c t a n d Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x e s .
E x . 1 0 9
a ) T e x t Ve r b s 3 2 a n d 3 3 :
s [ l a g a l a a m b a r) - a : n - a 1
C l imb S e q u y o u - c l imb - m u s t
5 [ r) a - 1 a n d - a m b a 2
g a n d i J 5
Y o u - s i t - S e qu o n top
2
' " T h e n y o u c l i mb up ( i n t o the t r e e b y the tr e e - c o f f i n ) and
the n y o u mu s t s i t ( t he re ) o n t op l " '
b ) 5 [ a i b a n - a y a - a i r - � 1
d i 9 g i � b u n - a m b a J 5 1
Th i s y o u - t ake - fo r t h e m- i t d i n g e y o f f o ve r the re - S e q u
s [ a n - a r g - a m b a - 1 i r ] 2 8 2
Y o u - p i c k up - S e qu - t h e m
' " Y ou t a k e t h i s d i n ge y o f f o ve r t h e r e f o r t h e m a n d the n
y o u p i c k the m up . " '
P e e p S e qu y o u- � - a t t h e m Wo rd yo u - b r i n g - S e qu - for u s - i t
' " Y o u ( two ) h ave a p e e p a t the m a nd the n b r i n g b a c k wo r d
f o r u s . :• '
Th e ub i q u i t y o f t h e S e que n t i a l c on j u n c t i o n h a s be e n n o t e d
a l re a dy . Apa r t from o c c u r r i n g a s a s u f f i x w i t h i n the i n -
f le e te d ve rb , i t c a n f o l l ow f re e p r e - ve rb e l e me n t s :
E x . 1 1 0
a ) s [ b u n - a m b a 1
d i d i n - a u - n a l C a r a a a m b a u l a r - a l a - n a - @ J s l s 2 �- s2
F u r t h e r - S e qu run he - � - d i d N e g S e q u t h e y - s e e- did-h :im
' H e r a n on fu r t h e r and t h e y di d n o t s e e h i m ( a g a i n ) . '
b ) [ i n - a a r g i - n - a m b a sl
1 7 2
g i n i 9 g b a w a ] s s c a a g u d o a m b i n - a u -n�s 1 2 2
H e - a f ra i d - wa s - S e q u t h a t bo y Re tu rn Sequ he - fd - d i d
' T h a t b o y wa s a f r a i d a n d s o he r e t u rn ed ( t o t h e c amp ) .
B e c au s e the s e op t i o n a l po s i t i on s fo r the S e q u e n t i a l
co n j un c t i on d o n o t a f fe c t the mo rpho l og y o f the i n f le c t e d
ve rb the r e i s n o a t t e mp t i n the p r e s e n t an a l y s i s t o a c c oun t
f o r th e m t r a n s fo rm a t i on a l l y .
T . 1 7 . 2
S . D . sl
1
s . c . 1
T . 1 7 . 2 . 1
O P T I ONAL
a r i n a i - g a n s 2
[ x
2 3
f6 3
1 7 3
P URP O S I VE CON J U N C T I ON
[ + P roA f ] + Y
---......----__/
4
m a
B . 1 1 . 2 / 6 4 tE . 4 . 2 / 1 0 9 T . 1 2 / 1 5 3
RE FE RE N C E :
+ V e rb N u c l e u s ( + i n a f ) +Z # ] S
�- 2
5 6
+ 5 + n
P urp o s i ve c on j un c t i o n may b e e xp r e s s e d e i the r by
re l a t i n g two s e n t e n c e s t h ro u g h the u s e o f a r i n a i - 9 a n ( a s i n
the S . D . a bo v e ) o r by mo di f y i n g t he d e p end en t i n f l e c t e d v e r b
( a s i n t he s . c . i n t ro duc e d by T . 1 7 . 2 ) . Ex amp l e s o f th e
fo rme r me thod we re p r o v i d e d i n B . 1 1 . 2 .
T . 1 7 . 2 . 2 T h e mo d i f i c a ti o n s t o the dep e nd e n t ve rb are con s i de r -
a b l e , be i n g i de n t i c a l t o tho s e i n t r o d u c e d i n to the i n f l e c t e d
ve rb t h ro ugh T . 1 2 the N e g a t i ve E mp h a s i s t ra n s f o rma ti o n .
T h a t i s , t h e p r e f i x m a re p l ac e s a l l p r e f i xe s to the V e rb N u c -
l e us , a nd t h e s u f f i x n re p l a c e s a l l s u f f i x e s ap ar t f r om the
Re t ro - a c t i ve mo rpheme i f it o c c u r s .
T h e P u rpo s i ve con j un c t i o n ( e l e me n t 2 ) i s d e l e te d .
T . 1 7 . 2 . 3 T h i s c o n s tr u c t i on i s s im i l a r t o ' I n f i n i t i ve o f P urp-
o s e ' c on s t ru c t i on s i n o the r l an g u age s s u c h as E n g l i sh and
G re e k a nd i t wi l l b e te rme d t he B a f d i ' I n f i n i t i ve • .1
l T h . ' l. S l. S t h e te rm u s e d b y N e k e s a n d Wo rms wh o , i n f a c t , t a k e
t h i s f o rm a s t h e b a s i c one f o r ve rb s a n d u s e i t to i d e n t i fy
v e r b s te ms . Howe ve r , be c au s e o f t h e un c ommo n o c c u r re n c e o f
t he f o rm a n d b e c a u s e the C l a s s ma r k e r i s l a t e r mo d i f i e d i n I n f
i n i t i ve s , I h av e cho s e n r a th e r to i de n t i fy v e rb s b y th e i r
C l a s s m a r k e r p l u s V e rb S te m .
1 7 4
A s s t a t e d o n p a g e 1 5 4 , the p r e f i x m a wi l l b e l abe l l ed I n f I ,
and t h e s u f f i x n wi l l be l abe l l e d I n f I I .
T . 1 7 . 2 . 4 A l t h o u g h the D a t i ve p o s tp o s i t i o n � i s s hown to
be de + e te d as p a r t o f the P u rp o s i ve c o n j un c t i o n in the s . c .
o f T . 1 7 . 2 , i t i s o f te n re - i n t r o d u c e d a s a s u f f i x t o a c o n s t i t -
uen t o f t he d e p e n d e n t s e n t e n c e . T h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t wi t h
th e f a c t , a s p o i n t e d o u t i n B . 1 1 . 2 , t h a t t h e D a t i ve i s common-
ly u s e d to e xp r e s s P urpo s e as in t h e fo l l ow i n g e x amp l e :
E x . I l l i n - a i d i - n a r i a n a b u r u - 9 a n
H e - g o - d i d A r i a n a k a n g a ro o - fo r
' A r i a n a ( t he E a g l e - h awk ) we n t o f f fo r k an g a roo . '
T h e fo l l ow i n g e x a mp l e i l l u s tr a te s t h e ' I n f i n i t i ve o f
P urp o s e ' c o n s t r u c t i o n :
E x . 1 1 2 ( M e th o d s o f d i v i n i n g t h e i d e n t i t y o f a mu rd e r e r ) :
a )
[ i r - a l a l a - n - i r s l
g i n i g g i m � w a n ] 5 1
T h e y - w a t c h o ve r - do - th e m th o s e h a i r re l i c s
s [ m i r u r u n u - n l m - 9 a n 2
m - a : l- a - n b a l a b u J 5
S h ad o w m a n - A g e n t - fo r I n f I - c ome - T ran s i tV - I n f I I up 2
' Th e y k e ep wa t c h o ve r t h o s e h a i r re l i c s ( o f t h e murd e r e d man )
fo r t h e · ' sh a d ow m a n ' ( o f t h e k i l l e r ) t o c ome up . '
b )
s [ 9 a 9 a 9 a Q a b a g a ga a i r b i r - b - i r a - m a - n - i r ] 1 s l
Sh o r t s t i c k s s t a n d up - Re l a t - the y - p ut - d o - t h e m
5 [ Cl a w a I - 9 a n 2
m a - y u l o - a - n g i n i 9 g o i w a r a - n i m ]s 2
M e s s a g e - f o r I n f I - t e l l - T r a n s i tV - I n f I I t h a t co rp s e -Ag e n t
' ( T h e y e x ami n e t ho s e ) sh o r t s t i c k s ( d i v i n i n g p e g s ) wh i ch
the y s e t up fo r t h a t d e a d man t o s e n d a me s s ag e . '
1 7 5
Wh e r e the d e p e n d e n t ve r b s t and s a l o n e � the d e p e n d e n t
s e n t e n c e , t h e D a t i ve po s t p o s i t i on �� c an be s u f f i x e d to i t .
E x . 1 1 3
a ) I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , the I n f i n i t i ve o f P u rpo s e o c c u r s w i th
the Re t r o - a c t i o n mo rp he me i n a I •
5 [ b a r;i i - g a r a 1
I i ya n m i n - m a - n a u - n i m ] s [ m a - 9 u r u b - i n a i - n - 9 a n ] 8 1 2
Wh a t - t ime w a n t yo u- � - do y o u - A g e n t I n f - c h a s e - RA - I n f - fo r I I I
' A t wh a t t i me d o y o u w a n t f o r u s t o r a c e a g a i n s t e a c h o t he r ? '
b )
s [ .!?._!_!J_ 1 i 9 i r - i - n a - a i r m a n g a - n i m a m b u r i n ] 5
1 M a k e t r o ub le the y - � - d id - f o r them b l a c k - Ag e n t p e op le
[ m - o n Cl - a - n - 9 a n ] s 2 s 2 I n f I - spe a r - T r an s i tV- I n f I I - fo r
' Th e Abo r i g i n a l p e op l e we n t t o m a k e t ro ub l e f o r th e m ( two
E ur op e an s e n g a ge d i n s h e l l i n g ) t o s p e a r th e m . '
1 7 6
T . 1 8 RE LAT O R C ON S T RUCT I ON S
T he ub i q ui ty o f B a fd i p o s tp o s i t i o n s , c l i t i c s an d p a r t i c l e s
h a s b e e n me n t i o n e d f ro m p o i n t t o p o i n t . b
Th e Re l a t e r {ba
}
i s the mo s t ve r s a t i l e i n th i s re s p e c t . I t c an be us e d to
re l a te a lmo s t a n y two p a r t s of sp e e c h , or wo rd s t o l a rge r to
larger c o n s t r u c t i o n s , or s e n t e n c e t o s e n t e n c e . The f o l l ow-
ing i l l u s t r a t i o n g i ve s a l i m i t e d ove r v i e w o f i t s f un c t i o n s .
E x . 1 1 4 E x amp l e s o f r e l a t i o n :
a ) N o un t o n o un o l w a r a - b - a m b a
D e ad m an - Re l a t e r - man
' T h e man wh o w a s a c o rp s e .
b ) N o un t o ad v e rb l w a l a - n i m i g i n i Q g i b a w - a r a - b
U n c l e - Ag e n t th a t c h i l d- t i m e - Re l a t o r
' A t t h e t i me o f th a t unc l e ' s ch i ld hood . '
c ) N o un t o p ro n oun g u l u - b a - o i r - l r
F a th e r s - Re l a te r - th e i r- th e m
' T ho s e { me n ) wh o we r e t h e i r f a th e r s . '
d ) Ad j e c t i ve t o l u g a l - b a - l i r
p r o n o un B a d - Re l a to r - th e m
' T h o s e who we re b ad . '
e ) P o s tp o s i t i on a l g a r a - y u n u - b a - 1 i r
phr a s e to pro n ou n S e a - b e l on g i n g - Re l a te r - t h e m
' T ho s e wh o be l on g t o th e s e a . '
T h e Re l a t e r a l s o f un c t i o n s i n con j un c t i o n w i t h t h e ve rb
an d it i s up o n t h i s s e t of r e l a t i o n s t h a t t h e fo l l ow i n g
t r a n s fo rm a t i o n s c e n t r e .
T . 1 8 . 1
s . o .
s . c .
T . 1 8 . 1 . 1
in B . 1 1 . 3 .
OP T I O N A L
sl
{ m a r a b } m a r a b a
�
1
1
T E MP O RA L RE LAT O R
RE F E RE N CE :
[ x + T e n s e + y ] s s
2 [ + D i s t ] 2 ........ ../
........,,,..
2
2 + b #
1 7 7
B . 1 1 . 3 / 6 5
LE . 4 . 3 / 1 0 9
m a r a b } . T h e T e mpo r a l c o n j un c t i o n {
b w a s d i s c u s s e d m a r a a
B y t h i s o p t i on a l t r an s f o rma t i on , t e mpo ra l c on -
j un c t i o n may b e e xp re s s e d b y t h e Re l a t e r b s u f f i xe d to th e
ve rb . I n t h e s . c . o f T . 1 8 . 1 , t h e f r e e c o n j un c t i o n i s r e t a i n -
e d . Howe ve r , in mo s t c a s e s , i t i s l a te r d e l e t e d .
T . 1 8 . 1 . 2 Wh e n i t o c c ur s a s a v e rb a l s u f f i x , i t i s wo rd- f in a l
an d n o mo r e s uf f i x i n g can t ak e p l a c e , as i n d i c a t e d b y th e
s ymbo l # •
T . 1 8 . 1 . 3 T h i s op t i on a l c o n s t r u c t i o n i s l im i te d to ve rbs i n
the D i s tan t P e r fe c t T e n s e a n d t h u s i t i s a l i te r a r y d ev i c e
p a r t i c u l a r l y u t i l i s e d i n n a r r a t i ve .
E x . 1 1 5
a ) 5 [ i r - n i m 1
a m b u r i n � i r) a r - a I a - n - i r ] s
l T ho s e - A g e n t pe op le A f f i rm a t i ve t h e y - s e e - d i d - t h e m
s C g i n i r) g l a : g a 2
i r) a - l a n d a - n a - b n u n u ] -- s
2 Th a t l ug g e r i t - an c ho r - d i d - Re l a t e r the r e
' Y e s , tho s e ( B a f d i ) p e op l e s aw t h e m wh e n t h a t l ugge r
a n c h o r e d t h e r e . '
b ) s
c a a r a d a a ; 1
i l) i r - i - n - i n ] sl
H e r e y o u r me a t t he y - s ay - d i d- t o h i m
[ f n - a a l a - n a - b s
2 f r - ma j a ]
$ 2 H e - s e e - d i d- Re l a t e r t h e i r - h an d s
s c a 1 : n 3
i l) a r - a - n a - �- b b a I i I f ] s 3
P o i n t a t the y - � - d i d - h im - Re l a t o r i n i t i an d
1 7 8
"' H e r e i s y o u r me a t 1 " t h e y s a i d t o h i m ( a ma l e vo l e n t
sp i r i t } whe n h e s aw t h e i r h a n d s a s t h e y p o i n t e d t o t h e in i t -
i an d . '
T . 1 8 . 2
s . o .
s . c .
1 7 9
OP T I ONAL E MBE DDE D N OM I N A L RE LAT O R B . 7 . 2 / 5 4
RE F E RE N CE :
[ X ( P r e - S te m ) N o m s 2
[ + P roA f ] + Y [ ! N ] z ] 5 l 2J s
1
1 2
1 2
3
3
4
b a + 4
5 6
C on d i t i o n : 2 i s c o - re f e r e n t i a l w i th 5 .
T . 1 8 . 2 . 1 T h e E mb e dde d N om i n a l Re l a te r t r an s fo rmat i o n pro -
du c e s t he B af di e qu i va l e n t o f th e r e l a t i ve c l au s e i n o th e r
l a n g ua ge s .
T . 1 8 . 2 . 2 T h e s . o . fo r T . 1 8 . 2 i s a d e ve l op e me n t out o f Rul e
B . 7 , whi ch i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e c ur s i ve s en t e n c e [ N P ----+ N om ( S ) ] .
T h e N o mi n a l o f t h e p r i ma ry s e n te n c e i s e l e me n t 2 i n the s . o .
I t s con t e x t i s un sp e c i f i e d a nd , t h u s , i t c an be a S ub j e c t ,
Ob j e c t o r P o s tp o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e N o m i n a l . I t i s fo l l owe d by
the e mb e d de d s e n t e n c e , s2
, wh i ch i s c omp r i s e d of e l e me n t s
3 t o 6 i n t h e r u l e .
T . 1 8 . 2 . 3 T h e f i f t h e l e me n t c a n r ep r e s e n t any f re e fo rm o f
a N omi n � l in t h e e mbe d d e d s e n t e n c e . Whe re t h i s e mb e d ded
N o m in a l i s c o - re f e re n t i a l wi th a N o mi n a l i n the p r i m a r y s e n t -
e n c e ( th e C o n d i t i o n ) , T . 1 8 . 2 may ope r a te .
T . 1 8 . 2 . 4 T he t r a n s fo rma t i o n p r � f i x e s the Re l a t o r b a t o the
S ub j e c t p ro nomi n a l p re f ix or t o t he P r e - S te m i f o n e o c c ur s .
The f r e e N om i n a l i n t h e e mb e dde d s e n t e n c e , e l e me n t 5 , i s d e l e t-
e d .
E x . 1 1 6
a ) Re l a t in g two S ub j e c t N om i n a l s :
1 8 0
[ i n - o u - n - i n s -.�����-
1 a r a - n i m ] 5 5 [ g u l b - u n b - i r;, - a - n a - n a ]
1 2 5 2 H e - s ay - d i d - t o h i m o th e r - A ge n t Ro c k - a t Re l a t - he - be - D u r a t
D i s t
' Th e o t he r ( h e r mi t - c r ab ) , wh o w a s w a i t i n g a t t h e r o c k ,
spok e t o him . '
b ) Re l a t i n g a n O b j e c t a n d a S ub j e c t Nom i n a l :
5 [ a m b a - n i m a r a u l a r - a l a - n a - r 1
ga ya r a - o i n i l 5 1
M e n - A ge n t N e g t h e y - s e e - d i d- th e m ' wh i te s ' - g ro up o f
5 C o i b a b - a r a r 2
i r) i r - i - n a ] 5 2 The re Re l a t - s t and i n g th e y - � - we r e
' The ( two Abo r i g i n a l ) me n d i d n o t s e e t h a t g ro up o f " wh i t e "
me n wh o we r e s t an d i n g the re . '
c ) Two r e l a t i ve c l a u s e s a r e i n vo l ve d i n t h i s i l l u s tr a t i o n .
T he p r i ma r y s e n t e n c e i s : ' H e g a ve i t r i gh t p a s t t o the
man ' ; the f i r s t e mbe dde d s e n te n c e i s : ' T h e m a n w a s
be h i n d ' ; a n d the s e c o n d de p e n d e n t s e n t e n c e i s : ' Th e
m a n w a s ho l d i n g t h e i n i ti an d . ' T h e th r e e o c c ur r e n c e s
o f the wo rd ' ma n ' a r e r e f e r r i n g t o the s ame p e r s o n .
s [ n u n l n - a - n - � l
a n g u m u n d u a m b a J 5 1
There he - g i ve - d i d - i t r i g h t p a s t t o man
5 [ b a y i b i ro n b - i 9 - a - n a - n a ] 2 s 2
B e h i n d
5 [ b a I i I i 3
Re l a t - he - b e - D u r a t - D i s t
b - i n - u 9 g u n d u n d u ma - n a - n a - � l 8 3
I n i t i a n d Re l a t- he - h o l d t i g h t - D ur a t - D i s t
' H e g ave i t ( s a c r e d b l o o d ) t h e r e r i gh t p a s t t o the m a n who
was b e h i n d a nd wh o w a s ho l d i n g t h e i n i t i a n d t i gh t l y . '
T . 1 8 . 3 OP T I ON A L
s . o . X + [ + P r oA f ]
1
s . c . 1 + b a + 2
P RO N OM I N A L S UF F I X RE LAT O R
RE FE RE N CE :
y
1 8 1
T . 3 / 1 2 4 T . 1 5 . 2 I 1 6 3
M . 1 1 / 2 3 2
C on d i t i on : 1 doe s n o t i n c l u de e i t he r t h e S e q u e n t i a l c on j un c t -
i o n s u f f i x a m b a o r the A s s o c i a t i ve s uf f i x � .
T . 1 8 . 3 . l T he Re l a te r m a y a l s o b e i n t r o d u c e d a s a n a f f i x
wi th i n t h e ve r b w i th o u t c h a n g i n g th e me an i n g o f t h e ve r b .
I t may pr e ce d e e i t he r O b j e c t o r Re fe r e n t i a l p r o n omi n a l s u f f -
i x e s a nd wh e n i t do e s , i t mo d i f i e s the i r re a l i s a t i on ( s e e
R u l e M . 1 1 ) .
T . 1 8 . 3 . 2 T h e t r a n s f o rma t i o n c a n n o t app l y i f e i t h e r t h e
S e q u e n t i a l c on j un c t i o n s u f f i x o r t h e A s s o c i a t i ve s u f f i x
p re c e d e s t h e P ro n omi n a l s u f f i x .
E x . 1 1 7
a ) Re l a te r i n c o n j un c t i o n wi t h a n O b j e c t s u f f i x :
i rp r - � n i - n a - n a - b a - 1 i r
T h e y - k i l l - D ur a t - D i s t - Re l a t - t h e m
' T h e y u s e d t o k i l l t he m . '
b ) Re l a t e r w i th a Re f e re n t i a l s u f f i x :
i g a - l a ma n ga - n a - b a - a i n
H e - l i s te n - d i d- R e l a t - f o r h im
' H e l i s te n e d fo r h i m . '
3 . 2 Re a l i s a t i o n R u l e s
1 8 2
T h e Re a l i s a t i o n s ub - c ompo n e n t pr o v i de s s e t s o f mo rphe me s
co r r e sp on d i n g t o t h e u n re a l i s e d c a t e go r i e s p r e s e n t i n t h e o u t -
p u t o f t h e T r a n s f o rma t i o n a l r u l e s . N o o th e r mo rphe me s a re
i n t r o d u c e d a f t e r t h i s s ub - c omp o n e n t . T h e o u tp ut o f t h e s e
r u l e s s t r i n g s o f c o n c a t e n a t e d mo rphe me s i s op e r a t e d
up on by t h e P h o n o l o g i c a l Comp on e n t t o p r o d u c e t h e s u r f a c e
f o rms o f B a f d i ve r b s .
3 . 2 . 1 C a t e go r i e s I n vo l v e d
T h e o u t p u t o f t h e T r a n s fo rm a t i o n a l ru l e s co n t a i n s c e r t a i n
s y n ta c t i c c a t e go r i e s wh i c h h ave n o t b e e n i n a n y w a y pho n o l og i c
a l l y r e a l i s e d e i t h e r t h r o u gh t he Le x i c o n o r the t ra n s fo rma t i on s .
T h e c a t e go r i e s i n vo l ve d h a ve t h e fo l l ow i n g f o u r c h a ra c t
e r i s t i c s :
( i ) T h e y a r e t ra n s fo rm a t i o n a l l y d e p e n de n t .
Th a t i s , th e s e c a te go r i e s a re d epe n de n t up on t h e T r an s
f o rm a t i o n a l C omp o n e nt e i th e r f o r t h e i r o c c ur r e n c e , a s i n t h e
c as e o f th e p ro n omi n a l a f f i x s e t s a n d th e N umb e r m a r k e r. , wi t h i n
t h e i n f l e c t e d ve rb , o r fo r th e i r spe c i f i c a t i on , a s i n t he c a s e
o f s ome a sp e c t s o f t h e A uxi l i a r y ( A uxi l i a ry /Adve rb ag r e e me n t ,
f o r i n s t an c e ) .
( i i ) T h e y a r e c o mp l e x i n r e a l i s a t i o n .
S ome t r an s f o rma t i o n a l ly d ep e n de n t c a te go r i e s w i l l h a ve
be e n r e a l i s e d w i t h i n t h e t r an s fo rm a t i o n a l r u l e s . T he s e ar e
the ' s i mp l e ' c a te go r i e s , as de f i n e d in S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 4 , p age 1 1 6
wh i ch , b e c au s e th e y a r e s i n g le mo rp h e me s o r a s e t o f f r e e l y
f l u c t u a t i ng a l l omo rph s , a r e r e a l i s e d d i r e c t l y i n t o the S t ruc t
u r a l C h an ge o f the t r a n s fo rma t i o n by wh i ch the y are i n t r o d uc e d e
1 8 3
T h e ' s i mp l e ' c a t e g o r i e s a re A c t i o n T y pe ! P o t e n t i a l , N e g
a t i ve a n d N e g a t i ve E mph a s i s , Q ue s t i o n , A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x ,
S e q ue n t i a l Con j un c t i o n , the ' I n f i n i t i ve ' , t he Re l a t e r a n d
I n t r a - a c t i on E mp h a s i s . A l l t h e s e c a t e go r i e s are r e a l i s e d
i mme d i a te l y b y a s i n g l e mo rphe me wi th i n t h e i r t r ans f o rma t i o n
e x c ep t I n tr a- a c t i o n E mp h a s i s , wh i c h i s r e a l i s e d e i th e r by i r
o r a � a r i n t e r ch a ng e a b l y .
T h e Re a l i s a t i on r u l e s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i th t h e b a l a n c e o f
t r an s f o rm a t i on a l l y d ep e n de n t c a te go r i e s wh i c h a re c omp l e x i n
t h e i r r e a l i s a t i o n a n d d ep e n d fo r t h e i r r e a l i s a t i o n up on the i r
sp e c i f y i n g fe a t ur e s and s yn t a c t i c c o n t e x t . T h e ' c omp l e x '
c a te go r i e s , w i t h t h e re l e van t re a l i s a t i on r u l e in b r a c k e t s ,
a r e : th e S ub j e c t P r o n omi n a l P r e f i x ( R . l ) , the A u x i l i a ry ( R . 2 ) ,
the O b j e c t /A s s o c i a t i ve P ro n om i n a l S u f f i x ( R . 3 ) , t h e N umb e r
P r e f i x { R . 4 ) a n d the Re f er e n t i a l P r o nomi n a l S u f f i x { R . 5 ) .
( i i i ) T he y a r e f ul l y sp e c i f i e d by t he i r a t t e n d an t
f e a tur e s .
T h u s , a n y A ux i l i a r y a t t h i s p o i n t i s sp e c i f i e d a s to
T e n s e a n d A s p e c t and any P ro n o mi n a l A f f i x is ma rke d a s to
P e r s on and N umbe r . S o de f i n e d , th e c a t e go r i e s a r e op e ra t e d
up on b y th e Re a l i s a t i o n r u l e s t o p r o vi de t h e c o r r e s po n d i n g
mo rphe me .
( i v ) Th e y a re de f i n e d i n f un c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o the i r
s y n ta c t i c c o n t e x t .
P ro n o m i n a l A f f i x e s mu s t n o t o n l y b e sp e c i f i e d bu t t h e i r
s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n s S ub j e c t - o f , O b j e c t - o f mu s t b e c o n -
s i de re d f o r co r r e c t re a l i s a t i on . Fo r i n s t an c e , a s a S ub j e c t
p r e f i x , t h e D u a l wou l d b e r e a l i s e d a s � ; a s an O b j e c t
s u f f i x o r fo l l owi n g t h e A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x i t wou l d b e �
1 8 4
i f i t i s mark e d [ + Re f e r ] , i t wo u l d b e a o w u .
E x . 1 1 8 t ake s up t h e o u t p u t o f E x . 8 6 , p a g e 1 4 2 a ft e r the
app l i c a t i o n o f the T - r u l e s t o i l l u s t r a te the d i s c u s s i on o f th e
Re a l i s a t i o n s ub - c ompon e n t : ( v e rb d e r i va t i o n on l y )
a r u d a Q g u r - 9 u r u b - i n o - a
E x c l u s i ve we - c h a s e - Re t ro -wi l l A c t i o n
' We wi l l r a c e e a c h o t he r . '
[+P roA f] + � + N umbe r + 9 u r u b + u + i n o i + A ux + E x e [ + P ro j ]
A t th i s po i n t i n the d er i va t i o n , the r e a r e l e x i c a l i te m s ,
a s w i th th e V e r b S te m a n d T ra n s i t i o n a l Vowe l ; the re ar e
' s i mp l e ' mo rp he me s wh i c h h a ve b e e n in s·e r t e d d i r e c t l y a s r e a l -
i s a t i on s o f c a t e go r i e s i n t r o du c e d t h r o u g h the t r an s fo rma t i o n a l
r u l e s , s u c h a s th e Q ( I n tr a - a c t i on ) a n d t h e i n o i ( Re tro -
a c t i on ; a n d t h e re a r e t h e un r e a l i s e d c o mp l e x c a t e go r i e s ,
P r onom i n a l A f f i x , N umbe r and A ux i l i a r y . T he m o rphe me s wh i c h
re a l i s e the s e c a t e go r i e s a r e p ro v i de d b y the R e a l i s a t i o n ru l e s :
t h e E x c l us i ve p re f i x i s r ea l i s e d a s � ( R . l ) ; N umbe r i s
r e a l i s e d a s r ( R . 4 ) ; and A ux i l i a r y , a s t h e p r e f i x � a n d
t h e s u f f i x a ( R . 2 ) . T h i s g i ve s t h e s e qu e n c e o f f u l l y
r e a l i s e d , mo rp he m e s : a Q+ Q + g + r+ g u r u b + u + i n o f+a wh i ch , a f t e r
t h e op e r a t i o n o f t h e M o rphopho n emi c r u l e s , b e c ome s
a !) g u r f,) u r· u b i n a a •
3 . 2 . 2 T h e E x te n d e d L e x i c o n
T h e p r o b l e m c au s e d by t h e n on - re a l i s a t i on o f c omp l e x
s yn t ac t i c c a te g o r i e s h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o gn i s e d
1 i n the de s c r ip t io n o f a g g l ut i n a ti ve l an gu ag e s .
1 ( Fo o tn o t e o ve r p ag e )
e spe c i a l l y
1 8 5
Chom s k y , i n th e d e f e n c e o f th e ' l e x i ca l i s t ' po s i t i o n
tha t ' a l l l e x i c a l i n s e r t i o n r u l e s p re c e d e any n o n l e x i c a l
t ran s fo rma t i o n s ' ( 1 9 6 9 : 5 0 ) , i s fo r c e d t o a l l ow f o r s o me d e -
vi c e wh i c h wi l l p e rmi t a l i m i te d i n s e r t i o n o f a f f i x e s a f te r
the app l i c a t i o n o f th e l e x i c a l i n s e r ti o n r u l e s . T h u s , he
g i ve s g ua r d e d c o n s e n t to th e ' E x t e n d e d L e x i c a l H yp o t he s i s '
2 prop o s e d by J a c k e n do f f . J a c k e n do f f ( 1 9 6 9 : 3 0 ) s u g g e s t s
t ha t , ' t he on ly c h a ng e s t r a n s fo rma t i o n s c a n mak e t o l e x i c a l
i te m s i s t o a dd i n f l e c t i o n a l a f f i x e s s u c h a s n umbe r , g e n d e r ,
ca s e , p e r s on , a nd t e n s e . ' T he s e i n c l ud e p r e c i s e l y t h e t yp e s
o f a f f i xe s wh i ch a r e i n t ro du c e d th ro u g h t h e R e a l i s a t i on R u l e s
i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
T h e Re a l i s a t i o n R u l e s a r e uno r d e r e d .
1 ( f rom p r e v i o u s p a g e )
D ut t o n , fo r i n s t a n c e , i n h i s s tu dy o f t h e P ap u a n l an g u a g e
' Ko i a r i ' , fou n d i t n e c e s s ar y to i n t ro duc e ' Mo rp h e m e R e a l i s a t i on
Rul e s ' a f t e r t h e t r a n s fo rma t i o n a l r u l e s ( 1 9 6 9 : 4 0 1 - 4 1 2 ) . T h e
' Re a l i s d t i on ' compon e n t o f th e p r e s e n t s tudy i s p a t te rne d o n
t h i s s e c t i on i n D u t to n .
2 C hom sk y s a y s , ( 1 9 6 9 : 3 2 ) : ' M y own g ue s s i s t h a t t h e e x t end -
e d l e x i ca l h yp o t h e s i s i s p ro b a b l y c o r re c t , i n e s se n c e . ' H i s
a r g ume n t s f o r t h e ' l e x i c a l i s t ' h yp o t h e s i s i n h i s ( 1 9 6 9 ) and
( 1 9 6 8 ) p a p e r s a r e d i r e c t e d t o th e s a f e g ua r d i n g o f h i s co n c ep t
o f ' de ep s t r u c tu r e ' a g a i n s t t h e a t t a c k s , par t i c u l ar l y , o f the
' g e n e r a t i ve s e ma n t i c i s t s ' . C h om s k y ' s a n d J a c k e n do f f ' s a r g u-
me n t s m u s t b e s e t a ga i n s t t h i s b a c k g roun d .
R . l
f + P roA fl + I + S i n g
+ I I + S i n g
+ I I I + S i n g
+ D u a l
+ I I - S i n g
+ I I I - S i n g
R . 1 . 1
S U BJ E CT P RONOM I NA L P REF I X
RE F E RE N C E :
m i
a + X+VbN u c
1 8 6
B . 1 / 3 3 T . 2 / 1 2 0
M . 1 / 2 0 3 M . 3/ 2 1 1
T h e s e re a l i s a t i o n s c a n on l y be o f t h e S ub j e c t p r e f ix
b e c a u s e o f the s yn t a c t i c c o n t e x t g i ve n t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e
ru l e , tha t i s , p r e c e d i n g th e V e rb N u c l e u s .
R . 1 . 2 S ome o f th e s e p re f i x mo rph e me s a r e l at er mo d i f i e d by
Rul e M . l a n d Rul e M . 3 .
E x . 1 1 9 Th e c on j u g at i o n o f the M i d d l e P e r fe c t o f the
ve rb lJ2. , ' t o d r i n k ' is p re s e n t e d as it wo u l d app e ar a f te r
th e op e r a t i on o f th e t r a n s fo r m a t i on a l ru l e s , fo l l owe d by i t s
s u r f a c e r e a l i s a t i o n wi th t h e S ub j e c t p r e f ix fo rms hyp he n a t e d :
( O ve r )
+ I + S i n g
+ I I + S ing
+ I I I + S i ng
+ D ua l
+ { I n c } E x e
+ I I - S i n g
+ I I I - S i n g
+�+ N umb e r+�+ A ux +[ +P roA f ] [ + M i d ] + I I I
+ S i n g
1 8 7
9 a - n i b i o
m i - n i b l o
i - n i b i a
a - n i b i a
a 9 - i r l b i a
g u 9 - i r i b i o
I 9 - i r i b I o
F o r id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f mo rp h e m e s , the f i r s t ve rb ,
Q a n l b i a wi l l b e s e t o u t i n de t a i l :
L a te r Rul e s
+ N umbe r + i b + i + A ux +
Q a + n + szS + i b + i + i a +
---• r:i a n i b i a
[+ P roA f] + I I I
l n g
szS
' I d r a nk i t ( ye s te r d a y ) . '
R . 2 A UX I L I ARY
R . 2 . 1 [ - P e r f ]
[ + D u r a t , - P e r f ]
[ - De f i n i te ]
[ + C o n t e mp ]
x + [ + D ur a t , + C o n t e mp ]
[ + M i dd l e ]
[ + D ur a t , +M i d d l e ]
[ + D i s t an t ]
[ + Dur a t , + D i s t a n t ]
RE FE RE N CE :
a
a
g a 1 e a )
n g a I e a )
i n a
n a
n a n a
1 8 8
B . 4 / 4 5 B . 8 / 5 6 L . 6/ 1 0 0
L . 7 / 1 0 1
T . 9 / 1 4 5 T . 1 6 . 1 / 1 6 7
M . 1 2 / 2 3 8
Con d i t i o n : X d o e s n o t i n c l ude t h e P o t en t i a l mo rph e me
R . 2 . 2 X + N umbe r + Y x + g_ + N umb e r + Y ;_ __ + T e n s e [ + P ro j ]
Con d i t i on : X doe s n ot i n c l ud e t h e P o te n t i a l mo rph e me
R . 2 . 3
x + + y +
[ - P e r f ] ro n t e mp} [ + M i dd l e ]
- De fin ite
[ + D i s t ]
a
.. n a
n a n a
1 8 9
R . 2 . 1 . l Th e A u x i l i ary h a s b e e n t r e a t e d a s a s i n g l e un i t i n
i ts mo rpheme r e a l i s a t i o n a l t h o u gh th e D u r a t i ve mo rp h e me n
i s e a s i l y i de n t i f i a b l e . T h e r e are a n umb e r o f r e a s o n s f o r
t r e a t i n g th e A ux i l i a r y a s a ' f u s e d ' un i t r a th e r th an s e p a r a t
ing i t i n t o A s p e c t an d T e n s e :
( i ) I t i s t h e s i mp l e s t me thod o f p r e s e n t a t i on an d ,
th e r e f o r e , con f o rm s to the p r a c t i c a l e mp h a s i s o f the an a l y s i s .
I t s i mp l i f i e s t h e pr e s e n t a ti on i n ob v i a t i n g th e n e e d f o r a
n umb e r o f ru l e s o f mi n i mum ' p rod u c t i vi ty ' . Fo r i n s t an ce ,
the D ur a t i ve mo rph e me be c ome s an i n f i x i n t he M i d d l e P e r f e c t
i a ---+ i - n - a ) , an d i t a t t ra c t s th e vowe l a i n t h e D i s t
an t P e r fe c t T e n s e ( n + n a ----+ n a - n a ) .
( i i ) I t unde r l i n e s the r e l a t i o n s h ip b e twe e n A sp e c t a n d
T e n s e i n B a fd i . T h e D u r a t i ve a sp e c t , f o r i n s tan c e , a t ti me s
i s e xt e n d e d to e xp re s s g r e a t e r t i me d e p t h , a s i n t h e c a s e o f
th e ' Remo t e P e r f e c t ' wh i c h i s a n e x te n s i o n o f t h e D ur a t i ve
D i s t an t a n d h a s the s am e r e a l i s a t i o n n a n a ( s e e p a ge 1 0 7 ) .
R . 2 . 1 . 2 T h e I mp e r fe c t T e n s e s [ - P e r f ] P r e s e n t an d P ro j e c t -
e d h ave t h e s ame s u f f i x ma rk e r s a l tho ugh the n o n - C u r a t i ve
P re s e n t i s mo s t r a re an d t h e P ro j e c t e d n o n - D ur a t i v e i s f a r
mo r e commo n t h a n t h e D ur a t i ve . T h e two I mp e r f e c t t e n s e s a re
d i s t in g u i s h e d i n s u r f a c e fo r m s by the i r p r e f i x s t r u c t u re .
R . 2 . l . 3 T h e C o n t e mpo r a ry T e n s e s I mme d i a t e a n d N e a r P e r -
f e e t sh a r e t h e s ame s uf f i x e s an d , a s w i t h th e I mp e r fe c t s ,
a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e i r p r e f i x e s .
E x . 1 2 0
i r - u n d u r u - g a l a - �
T he y- c ro s s - I mm e d - i t
' Th e y h ave j u s t c ro s s e d i t . '
i � u r - u n d u r u - g a l a - @
The y - c ro s s - N e ar - i t
' T h e y c ro s s e d i t e a r l i e r . '
1 9 0
R . 2 . 1 . 4 T h e C o n d i t i o n e x c l ude s I r r e al i s ve rb s f r om R u l e
R . 2 . 1 , a n d the Aux i l i a r i e s o f s u c h ve r b s a r e r e a l i s e d by
R . 2 . 3 .
R . 2 . 2 . 1 T h e s e c on d A ux i l i a ry s ub - r u l e , R . 2 . 2 , i s a l s o s ub-
j e c t to th i s C o n d i t i o n . T h e C o n d i t i o n i s s t a t e d twi c e be c a u s e
the Re a l i s a t i o n r u l e s a r e un o rd e r e d . R . 2 . 2 i n t ro d u c e s the
mo rpheme g a s a p r e f i x o c c ur r i n g i mme d i a t e ly �e f o r e N umbe r
i n the P ro j e c t e d T e n s e . T h i s p r e f i x d i s t i n g u i sh e s P r e s e n t
f rom P ro j e c t e d fo rms i n c on j u n c t i o n w i th o th e r mo rphopho n emi c
c h ange s to t h e p re f i x s t r u c t u r e .
a )
b )
E x . 1 2 1
r;i a n - u n d u r u - n a - @
I - cr o s s - D u ra t P r e s - i t
' I am c ro s s i n g i t . '
a - r - u n d u r u - n o - @
We - P l u r - c ro s s - D u r a t P r e s i t
' We a r e c r o s s i n g i t . '
g a n - g - u n d u r u - n a - @
I - P ro j - c r o s s - D u r a t P ro j - i t
' I sh a l l b e c ro s s i n g i t . '
a Q - g - u r - u n d u r u - n a - �
We - P r o j - P l u r - c ro s s - D u ra t P ro j i t
' We s h a l l b e c r o s s i n g i t . '
B e fo re d i s c u s s i n g t h e t h i r d s ub - r u l e , R . 2 . 3 , the f i r s t
two s ub - r u l e s w i l l b e i l l u s t ra t e d to ge the r :
E x . 1 2 2
a ) U Q - g - i r - m i I - a ' T h e y w i l l w a k e up . '
Th e y - P ro j - P l u r - wake - P r o j
b ) i r - m i I i - n a ' T h e y a r e w a k i n g up . '
Th e y - wake - D ur a t P re s
c ) i r) i r - m i l - a ' T h e y wok e up ( s ome t ime i n t h e
T he y - w a ke - I n de f i n i te P e r f p a s t ) . '
1 9 1
d ) i r - m i I i - n - g a I a ' Th e y h a ve j u s t be e n wak i n g
T h e y - wake - D u r a t - I mme d up . '
e ) i g i r - m i I i - n - g a l a ' T h e y k e p t wak i n g up ( th i s
T h e y - w ak e - D u r a t - N e a r mo r n i n g ) . '
f ) i 9 i r - m i 1 - i a ' T he y wo ke up � e s t e rd a y ) . '
T he y - wa k e - M i d
g ) i r) i r - m i I i - n a - n a ' T he y k e p t on w ak i n g up ( l on g
T h e y - w ake - D ur a t - D i s t a g o ) . '
R . 2 . 3 . 1 T he th i rd A ux i l i a r y s ub - r u l e app l i e s t o I r r e a l i s
ve r b s t h a t i s , N e g a t i ve o r P o t e n t i a l . T h e Aux i l i a ry
f o r t he s e ve r b s i s c on s i d e r ab l y s imp l i f i e d . A s p e c t ha s b e e n
d e l e te d t h rough R u l e T . 9 a n d the r e a r e f e we r T e n s e mo rphe me s .
R . 2 . 3 . 2 T h e mo rp he me fo r b o t h I mp e r f e c t s i s a . T h e N e a r ,
I mme d i a t e , M i d d l e and I n de f i n i te P e r f e c t s a r e ma rke d by n a •
T he D i s t a n t P e r fe c t i s ma rk e d b y n a n a •
R . 2 . 3 . 3 T h e f un c t i on wh i ch t h e p r e f i x e s p e r f o rme d i n d i s -
t i n g u i s h i n g t e n s e w i th t h e r e a l i s ve rb s ( R . 2 . 1 an d R . 2 . 2 ) i s
n e u t r a l i s e d be c a u s e t h e p r e f i x i n g o f t h e P ro j e c te d T e n s e �
d o e s n o t app l y to I r r e a l i s ve rb s , a n d b e c au s e o f the op e ra t io n
o f t h e Ru l e s M . l , p a ge 2 0 3 a nd M . 3 , p a g e 2 1 1 .
a )
E x . 1 2 3 ( N e g a t i n g t h e ve r b s g i ve n i n E x . 1 2 2 )
a ra i - 1 - i r - m i I - a ' T h e y w i l l n o t w ak e up . ' { }
N e g th e y - P o t - P l ur - w ake - [ - P e r f ] ' T h e y a re n o t w ak i n g up . '
l b ) a r a i - 1 - i r - m i l i - n a + Co n t e mp ' T h e y d i d n o t w a k e up ( e ar l i e r t o d a y ) • • l
N e g th e y- P o t - P l u r - wa k e - + M i d ' T he y d i d n o t w a k e up f ( ye s t e r da y ) . '
- D e f i n i t e ' Th e y d i d n o t w ak e up
i - 1 - i r - m i I i - n a n a ( I n d e f i n i te p a s t �
c ) a r a ' Th e y d i d n o t w a k e up
the y - P o t - P l u r - w a k e - [ + D i s t ] ( l o n g a go ) . ' N e g
R . 3 OBJE C T /A S S O C I AT I VE P RONOM I N AL S U F F I X
RE F E REN CE :
f + P roA fl + I � + S i n g
+ I I r i + S i n g
+ I I I + S i n g
+ D u a l �
+ { I n c } m u d u E x e
+ I I � - S i n g
+ I I I r - S i n g
1 9 2
B . 3 /3 9 T . 3 /1 2 4
M . 11 /2 3 2
R . 3 . 1 T h e s y n t a c t i c c o n te x t , t h a t i s , fo l l owi n g the Ve rb
N u c l e us , de f i n e s the s e P ro n om i n a l A f f i x e s as e i th e r O b j e c t
s u f f i xe s o r s u f f i x e s f o l l ow i n g the A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f ix � .
R . 3 . 2 A s p r e vi o u s l y s t a t e d , t he O b j e c t s u f f i x e s a r e r e l a t ed
t o th e P e r s on a l f r e e p r o n o un s , r ep e a t e d he r e fo r c omp a r i s on :
[ + ! , + S i n g ] � [ + I I , + S i ng ] a u
( + I I I , + S i n g ] g i n i f) g i
[ + D u a l ] � [ + E x e ] a r u d u
( + I I , - S i n g ] .9.-'!I. [ + I I I , - S i n g ] i r
1 9 3
R . 3 . 3 T h e s e s u f f i x mo rp h e me s a r e l a t e r mo d i f i e d by Ru l e M . 1 1 .
A s the s e mo d i f i c a t i o n s a f fe c t the re a l i s a t i o n o f pro nom i n a l
s u f f i xe s wh i c h fo l l ow t h e A s s o c i a t i ve S u f f i x , i l lu s t r a t i o n
o f A s s o c i a t i ve f o r m s w i l l n o t be g i v e n un t i l the d i s cu s s i o n
o f M . 1 1 . ( S e e p a g e 2 3 4 )
Ex . 1 2 4 T h e c o n j u g at i on o f t h e D i s t a n t P e r fe c t o f the
ve rb b + i ' t o h i t ' , u s i n g a th i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r S u b j e c t i n
c on j un c t i o n w i th a l l o f t h e p r o n om i n a l s u f f i x O b j e c t s . T h e
de r i va t io n i s t ak e n up fr om a f t e r t h e op e ra t i on o f a l l t h e
ru l e s u p t o t h i s po i n t . T h e sur f a c e r e a l i s a t i on s app e a r on
the r i g h t wi t h the O b j e c t morp h eme s hy phe n at e d :
r+ P r oA f l
+ I -+ i n i m b i n a - o a y u + S i n g
+ I I -+ i n i m b i n a - r i + S i n g
+ I I I -+ i n i m b i n a - StS + S i n g
+ Du a l -+ i n i m b i n a - w a y i i + n + N umb e r+ b + i + n a +
+ { I n c } -+ i n i m b i n a - m u d u E x e
+ I I -+ i n i m b i n a - g u r - S i n g
+ I I I -+ i n i m b i n a - r - S i n g
Fo r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f mo rp h e me s , t h e f i r s t v e rb ,
i n i m b i n a 9 a y u wi l l b e s e t o u t i n d e t a i l :
l+!!_+N um\be r+ b + i +� + [ :� ::: f J I L a t e r
i + n + fl)+ b + i + n a + Q a y u --- � i n i m b i n a l) a yu - - R u l e s - -
H e - E A- S i n g - C l a s s - h i t - d i d- me
' H e h i t me ( s ome t i me a g o ) . '
R . 4 NUMB E R P RE F I X
N umbe r ....
RE FE RE N CE :
x +
1 9 4
T . 4 / 1 2 8
M . 4 /2 1 3
R . 4 . 1 R . 4 re a l i s e s N umbe r a s a z e r o mo rp h e m e i n r e l a t i o n to
any S ub j e c t p r o n om i n a l p r e f ix mar ke r wi th the fe a t ure [ + S i n g ] ,
a n d r i n re l a t i on to a ny S ub j e c t p r e f i x ma rke d [ - S i n g ] .
R . 4 . 2 T h e v a r i a b l e ' X ' i s n e c e s s a ry t o a c c omo d a t e
e i the r t h e A c t i on Typ e mo rp heme o r the P o te n t i a l mo rpheme .
E x . 1 2 5 C o n t r a s t i n g s i n gu l a r and p l ura l , u s i n g the ve rb
m i ' t o l o o k a r o und ' .
S i n gu l a r P l u r a l
a ) a - r - m i - n a
I - S i n g - l oo k a ro un d - P r e s We - P l u r - l o o k a ro u n d - P re s
' I am l o o k i n g a r o un d . ' ' We a r e l oo k i n g a ro und . '
b ) i - g i - y:S - m i - g a l i 9 - i r - m i - g a l
H e - I A - S i n g- l ook a ro u nd - N e a r Th e y - P l ur - l ook a ro u n d- N e a r
' H e l o ok e d a r o u n d ( e a r l i e r ) . ' ' Th e y l oo k e d a r o u n d ( e a r l i e r ) . '
c ) m i - I i - y:S - m i - n a g u - 1 i - r i - m i - n a
You - P o t- S i n g - lo o k a r o un d -did Y o u - P o t -P l u r - l ook a ro u n d - d i d
' Y o u ( s i n g ) sh o u ld h a ve ' Y o u a l l s h o u l d h a ve l oo k e d
l oo k e d a ro u n d . ' a r o und . '
R . 5 RE F E RE N T I A L S UF F I X
r + P roA fl
+ Re f e r
+ I -+ { a a n } + S i n g a n
+ I I { � } + S i n g I
+ I I I { � i n } + S i n g I n
+D u a l a :> W U
+ { I n c } E x e �
+ I I o u g a ra - S i n g
+ I I I a i r - S i n g
RE FE RE N CE :
1 9 5
B . 1 0 / 6 0 T . 1 5 . 2 / 1 6 3
M . 1 1 / 2 3 2
R . 5 . 1 The r e l a t i on s h i p be twe e n t h e Re f e r e n t i a l [ + Re f e r ] p ro -
n om i n a l · s u f f i xe s and the P o s s e s s i ve p ro n o un s ha s be e n me n ti o n -
e d . T h e f r e e P o s s e s s i ve s a re g i ve n be l ow f o r c omp a r i s o n :
[ + I , + S i n g ] a a n a
[ I I I , + S in g ]
[ + I I I , + S i n g ]
[ + D ua l ] a :> w a
o a d a ---
[ + I I , - S i n g ] a u g a r a
[ + I I I , - S i n g ] a i r a
R . 5 . 2 The Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i xe s m a y l a t e r be mo d i f i e d th ro ugh
Rul e M . 1 1 .
1 9 6
E x . 1 2 6 The P ro j e c te d I mpe r f e c t o f t h e ve rb a + a l g ,
' t o h i d e ' , u s i n g a thi rd p e r s on s i n g u l a r S ub j e c t in con j un c t -
i on w i t h t h e Re f e r e n t i a l p ro n o m i n a l s u f f i xe s :
r + P roA fl + Re f e r
+ I + S i n g
+ I I + S i n g
+ I I I + S i n g
+ D u a l
+ I I - S i n g
+ I I I - S i n g
-+
u rrn a J ga - a a n
u rlQ a J ga - a i
u 9 g a l ga - a i n
u 9g a l g a - a o w u
u 9 g a t g a - o a Q a
u g ga l g a - a u g a r a
u 9 g a J g a - o i r
Fo r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f mo rph e me s , the f i r s t v e rb ,
u 9 g a J ga a a n wi l l b e s e t o u t i n de t a i l :
i + 9 + g + �+ a + a J g + i + a + [+ P roA f l + Re f e r + I + S i n g
I i + g+g+ �+ a + a J g + i + a + a a n
H e - I A - P ro j - S i n g - C l a s s - h i de - T r a n s i tV - P ro j - f rom me
' H e w i l l h i d e f ro m me . '
The M o rpho pho n e m i c r u l e s a c t up o n th i s s t r i n g o f c on c a t -
e n a t e d mo rp heme s , mo d i fy i n g the S ub j e c t p re f i x a n d d e l e t i n g
th e C l a s s m a rk e r a n d t h e T ra n s i t i o n a l Vowe l , g i vi n g t he s ur fa c e
fo rm o f t he ve rb a s : u g g a l g a a a n .
Th e r u l e s o f t h e P h o n o l o g i c a l Comp o n e n t wi l l n ow be
p re s e n t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d .
1 9 7
4 . 0 THE P HON O LO G I CAL C OMP ONE N T
T h e P ho n o l o g i c a l Comp o n e n t de a l s wi th mo rphoph o n e m i c p ro
ce s s e s and r u l e s wh i c h op e r a t e up o n the o u tp u t o f the B a s e and
T r a n s f o r ma t i o na l C o mp o n e n t s to p ro d u c e th e s ur f a c e pho n e m i c
r e p r e s e n t a ti on s o f B a fd i ve r b s . The p r e s e n ta t i o n wi l l b e
b a s e d up o n th e phon e m i c o r t h o g r aph y s e t o ut o n p ag e 2 6 . A
ge n e r a t i ve p ho n o l o g y o f B a ; d i wi l l no t b e f o r mu l at e d he r e , a l
th o ugh th e re a re ge n e r a l p ro c e s s e s wh i ch co u l d p e rh ap s be be t t
e r cap t ur e d b y a f e a t ure de s c r ip t i on i n a f u l l e r s t udy .
4 . 1 P ho n o l o g i c a l P ro c e s s e s
T h e ru l e s up t o t h i s po i n t wi l l h a ve ge n e r a t e d s e que n c e s
o f con c a t e n a te d mo rphe me s , m a n y o f wh i ch w i l l mod i f y o r b e mo d-
i f i e d by th e i r e n v i ronme n t . F i ve pho n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s
un de r l i e a lmos t a l l t h e mo rphopho n e mi c r u l e s wh i ch h ave b e e n
f o rm u l a t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e mo d i f i c a t i on s wi th i n B a ;d i
ve rbs .
4 . 1 . 1 A s s i m i l a t i o n
Mo rp hophon e m i c Ru l e s 8 . 2 an d 1 0 d e mo n s t r a t e th e p ro c e s s
o f A s s i m i l a t i on t o t h e p o i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i on . B y M . 8 . 2 ,
p age 2 2 9 , t h e � i s mod i f i e d t h ro ugh a s s imi l a t i o n t o a c o n -
ti g uous C l a s s mark e r . I t b e come s n be fo re a a I a n d m
be f o r e a b • T h u s �+ o a l g u ga l o i s r e - w r i t t e n a s
� a n o a l g u g a l o a n d J...!l+ b i l g i n o i s r e - w r i t t e n a s l m b i l g l n a •
T h a t i s , a s s i mi l a t i o n t o the a l ve o l a r a n d b i l a b i a l p o i n ts o f
a r t i c u l a t io n r e sp e c t i ve l y .
1 9 8
4 . 1 . 2 d . 1
C l u s t e r Re u c t i on
C l us t e r s o f e i th e r vowe l s o r i n c omp a t i b l e c o n s on an t s a re
o f t e n r e d u c e d by th e de l e t i o n o f o n e o f t h e i r me mb e r s .
' I n c omp a t ib le ' co n s o n an t c l u s t e r s a re t h o s e s e q ue n c e s o f c o n -
s o n an t s wh i ch h ave n o t b e e n f o un d t o o c cur wi t h i n a n y B a f d i
2 wo rd . C l u s t e r re d u c t i o n i s th e b a s i s o f M . 2 an d M . 1 2 . 3 fo r
i n s tan c e . M . 2 . 2 l i s t s f o ur con s on an t s b e f o re wh i ch an n
h as n e ve r be e n found t o o c c u r . T h a t i s , t h e c on s o n an t c l u s t -
e r s .!l.[ , n il n l a n d !!J... d o n o t o c c u r i n any B af d i wo rd .
Wi th the s e s e qu e n ce s , t h e n i s s i mp l y d e l e t e d . T h u s ,
�+ n a n a be c o me s g a n a n a , a n d m i n + t u ma g a l o i r b e c ome s
m i I u ma ga I o i r •
B y M . 1 2 . 3 , c e r t a i n i n i t i a l me mb e r s o f vowe l c l u s te r s a r e
de l e t e d . T h u s ,
m i n o a ya ya n a c;i i r .
m i n a a ya ya n a +�+JJ:. i s r e w r i t t e n a s
1 T h i s i s th e t e r m u s e d b y C ape l l an d H i n c h ( 1 9 7 0 : 3 5 , 3 9 ) .
2 S u c h s e que n ce r e s t r i c t i o n s c o u l d we l l b e t e r me d ' ph o n o l og -
i c a l l y - d e f i n e d s ur f a c e s t r u c t u r e c o n s t r a i n t s ' a s an e x t e n s i o n
o f P e rmut te r ' s ( 1 9 7 0 ) c o n t e n t i o n f o r ' s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e c o n
s t r a i n t s i n s y n t a x ' ( c . f . r e f e r e n c e t o h i s a r g ume n t o n p a ge 1 4
foo t n o t e 1 , a b o ve ) .
T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v an t t o t h e v i e w o f th e p r e s e n t
s t udy o f the B a fd i ve rb a s a ' s e n t e n c e - i n -mi n i a t ur e ' . J us t
a s t h e t r a n s fo rma t i o n a l comp o n e n t o utp u t may c o n t a i n c e r t a i n
s e que n c e s , s u ch a s t h e Sp an i s h c l i t i c s i n P e r l mu t t e r ' s pap e r ,
wh i c h a r e s ub j e c t t o s yn t a c t i c c on s t r a i n t s , s o the r u l e s a l so
p r o d uc e s e q ue n c e s o f mo rp h e me s wh i ch m ay b e s ub j e c t t o p h on o l
o g i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s .
1 9 9 4 . 1 . 3 T r an s i t i on
' C l u s t e r r e d u c t i o n ' a n d T r a n s i t i o n are c omp le me n t a r y in
t h e i r op e r a t i o n . T h e y app e a r to b e a l t e r n a t i ve s o l u t i o n s
t o t h e p r o b l e m wh i ch a r i s e s whe n e i th e r vowe l o r i n c omp a t i b l e
c o n s on a n t c l u s t e r s a re g e n e r a t e d th ro ugh p r e v i o u s r u l e s . I f
c l u s t e r re duc t i o n d oe s n o t op e ra te , th e n s o me t ra n s i t i on a l
pho n e me i s i n t r od u c e d .
Fo r i n s t an c e , wh e n ve rb s t em- f i n a l vowe l s o c c ur c o n t i g -
uo u s l y w i th A ux i l i a ry vo we l s , b o th a r e r e t a in e d by t h e i n t ro -
d u ct i on o f o n e o f the s e mi - co n s o na n t s w o r � t h ro ugh Ru l e s
B . 1 2 . 1 a n d B . 1 2 . 2 . T hu s , o n o +� b e c ome s o n o w a r a n d
l n i r i } a + i n a be c ome s i n i r i J a y i n o •
I n t h e c a s e o f c o n t i guo u s con s o n an t s , ' ep e n t he t i c ' vowe l s
a re i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u gh M . 7 .
w r i t t e n a s
4 . 1 . 4
a l a r a m a n a n a r •
1 Vowe l H a rmo n y
B y i t , a l + r+ m a n a n a r i s
A s s o c i a t e d wi th the tr a n s i t i on a l ' ep e n t he t i c ' vo we l s i s
the p ro c e s s o f Vowe l H a rmo n y . T h e e p e n t h e ti c vowe l s a r e
t h e s ame a s the f i r s t vowe l o f t h e ve rb s t e rn o r , in s ome c a s e s ,
th e T ra n� i t i o n a l V o we l ( S e e M . 7 ) . B u t , i n t h e c a s e o f a s te rn
wh i c h h a s an o phon eme , t h e i n f l ue n c e o f vowe l h a rmo n y e x -
te n d s t o t h e p ro n om i n a l p r e f i x wh e r e t h e vo we l o f t h e p r e f i x
i s an a . Th u s , b y M . 9 , �+ 0 9 o r i n o a i s r e w r i t t e n a s
Q o 9g o 9 o r i n o a •
1 ' d h i h h ' d · f l I n r ap i s p e e c , vow e a rrnon y a s an e v e n wi e r in u e n c e .
I n T e x t V e r b s 8 a n d 9 i t e x t e n d s to t h e A ux i l i a r y . T h u s ,
l g u r u l u l u r u n a i s J n.1:1 r u_.l u l u r u n u a n d i g i r i n a i s l g i r i n l
2 0 0 4 . 1 . 5 Me t a t he s i s
Me t a th e s i s a r e ve r s a l i n m o rp h e me o rd e r o c c ur s
tw i ce i n B afd i ve r b mo rp ho l o g y . I t u n de r l i e s a mod i f i c a t i o n
t o t h e s e co n d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r i n t h e P ro j e c t e d T e n s e o f i n t r a-
a c t i ve ve rbs and i t a f f e c t s th e r e a l i s a t i on o f ' d i - t r a n s i t i ve '
p ro n om i n a l s u f f i x c o mb i n a t i o n s wh e n th e y fo l l ow a c o n s on a n t .
The f i r s t mo d i f i c a t i o n i s i n tr od u c e d t h r o ugh M . 1 . 2 . 2 wh i c h
wou l d c a u s e , f o r i n s t an c e , �+.Q_+ m u l g a t o b e wr i t te n a s
r) a m u l g a • T h e s e c on d mo d i f i c at i on i s i n t ro d u c e d by M . 1 1 . 3 . 1
by wh i c h th e comb i n a t i o n a i n + r wo u l d be w r i t t e n a s o l r l n •
4 . 2 O th e r F a c t o r s
I n ad d i t i o n t o t h e s e f i ve p ro c e s s e s wh i ch un de r l i e mo s t
o f the B a rd i p h on o l o g i c a l r u l e s , the fo l l ow i n g two i mp o r t an t
f a c t o r s a l s o i n f l ue n c e t h e p h o n o l o g y .
4 . 2 . 1 Abb r e v i a t i on
Ru l e M . 1 . 2 . l d e a l s wi th mo d i f i c a t i o n s t o the s e c o n d p e r s o n
P ro j e c t e d T e n s e f o rms . T h e s e a re t h e I mpe r a t i ve s a n d th e
f a c t t h a t t he y a r e mod i f i e d t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n are any
o t h e r f o rm s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e t e n de n c y found i n ma ny l a ng-
uage s to sh o r t e n t h e mo s t c ommo n e xp r e s s i o n s o f c o mman d .
F o r i n s tan ce , the B a f d i f o r ' th e y w i l l s l e e p ' i s u � g u r m u l g a
I f t h e s e c o n d pe r s o n p l ur a l we r e t o be r e a l i s e d wi th o u t the
i n te rve n ti o n of Ru l e M . 1 . 2 . 1 , i ts fo rm w o u l d b e a Q g u r m u l ga •
How e v e r , the p r e s e n t f o rm ha s b e e n ab b r e vi a t e d t o a - r m u l g a •
An o th e r a r e a i n wh i ch fo rms h a v e be e n abb re v i a t e d ove r
t i me an d t h ro u gh i n t e n s i ve u s e i s t h a t o f th e ' I r r e g u l a r Ve rb s '.
2 0 1
A s me n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 6 . 1 , p a ge 2 6 3 , wh e r e th e s e ve rbs
h ave be e n p re s e n te d i n p a r a d i g m fo rm , it i s the mo s t u s e d
t e n s e o f the mo s t c ommon ve r b s wh i ch h a ve be e n mo d i f i e d .
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e P re s e n t T e n s e ( an d , w i th t h i s ve rb t h e
P r o j e c te d T e n s e) o f t h e v e r b a+ � ' t o wa l k ' h a s ' l o s t ' i t s
Auxi l i a r y . T h e ' re g u l a r ' d e r i va t i o n o f t h e th i r d pe r s on
s i n g u l a r f o r m s wou l d be u n g a l a ( P r o j e c t e d ) a n d
( P r e s e n t ) .
an d i n g a l
4 . 2 . 2
The s e fo rms h a ve be e n abb re v i a t e d t o
r e sp e c t i ve l y .
D i s t i n c t i o n
i n g a l a n o
u n g a l
S o me mo rp hoph o n e m i c mod i f i c a t i o n s app e a r t o h a ve be e n
i n t r od u c e d t o avo i d amb i g u i t y c a u s e d b y t he p r o d u c t i o n o f
h o mo mo rpho u s f o rms . A s i m i l a r d i s t i n g u i sh i n g 'f un c t i o n wa s
n o t e d f o r t h e P ro j e c t e d T e n s e p re f i x � w i t h o u t wh i c h , a n um
b e r o f the P r e s e n t and P r o j e c t e d f o rm s wou l d be i d e n t i c a l .
( S e e S e c t i o n R . 2 . 2 . 1 , p a g e 1 9 0 )
T he s e c o n d p a r t o f Ru l e M . 3 , be c a u s e i t i s l i mi t e d t o
th e P r e s e n t a n d I mme d i a t e T e n s e s o n l y , l e a d s t o a d i s t i n c t i on
be twe e n t h e I mme d i a t e a n d t h e N e a r P e r fe c t T e n s e s . Fo r
i n s t an c e , t h i s r u l e di s t i n g u i s h e s be twe e n t h e I mme d i a t e f o rm
i r - m u l g u n g a l a
i l) u r - m u l g u n g a l o
P e r fe c t f o rm .
' T h e y we r e s l e e p i n g j u s t a mo men t ago ' an d
' T he y we r e s l e e p i n g e a r l i e r ' t h e N e a r
2 0 2
4 . 3 Mo r p h o p h o n e m i c R u l e s
4 . 3 . 1 N a t u r e o f Ru l e s
T h e mo rp h o p h o n e m i c r u l e s a r e o r d e r e d a n d a l l a r e o b l i g -
a t o r y . S o me o f t h e c o mmo n op t i o n a l f o r m s a r e n o t e d i n t h e
d i s c u s s i o n .
4 . 3 . 2 C o n v e n t i o n s
T h e t h r e e - p e r i o d c o n ve n t i o n i n d i c a t e s a n i n c o mp l e t e
mo r p h e me . I t s f u n c t i o n i s p ur e l y t h a t o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
an d d e f i n i t i o n o f mo r p h e me s i n t h e fo rm u l a t i o n o f t h e r u l e s .
. . . a w o u l d e x p r e s s a n y mo r p h e me wh i c h e n d s i n a b u t wh i c h
i s l o n g e r t h a n a a . . . w o u l d i n d i c a t e a n y a - i n i t i a l mo r -
p h e me l o n g e r t h a n a • I f t h i s c o n ve n t i o n i s p a r e n t h e s i s e d ,
i t b e c o me s op t i on a l . T h u s , ( . . . ) ( . . . )
mo rp h e m e wh i c h c o n s i s t s o f a a l o n e , o r a
i n i t i a l , me d i a l o r f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
w o u l d i n d i c a t e a
i n mo r p h e m e
W h e r e h o mo mo r p h o u s mo r p h e m e s c o u l d l e a d t o c o n f u s i o n o f
r e f e r e n c e , a f u r t h e r mo r p h e me i d e n t i f i e r i s u s e d . Amb i g u -
o u s c o n t e x t s a r e s p e c i f i e d b y a s ub - s c r i p t l ab e l . M . 9 i l l -
u s t r a t e s th e s e c o n ve n t i o n s :
( • • • ) .9_ ( • • • ) ( • • • ) � ( • • • ) / __ + x + � ( • • • ) [ V b S ]
T h e v o w e l a , wh e n e ve r i t o c c u r s b e f o r e a Ve r b S te m
wh i c h i s �- i n i t i a l , i s w r i t t e n a s �
A g r e e me n t i s i n d i c a t e d b y a s ub - s c r i p t n ume r a l . Fo r
i n s t a n c e , t o e xp r e s s t h e a g r e e me n t o f ' e p e n t h e t i c ' v o w e l s w i t h
t h e f i r s t vo w e l o f t h e V e r b N u c l e u s , R u l e M . 7 r e a d s :
C + C � C + Vl
+ C / __ + X + ( • • • ) Vl
[ V bN u c l
M . l S U BJE CT P RE F I X MO DI F I C AT I ON
M . l . 1 T H I RD PE RSON
l ( . . . ) ....
RE FE RE N CE' :
+ I
+ X + A ux [ + P ro j ]
2 0 3
B . 1 / 3 3 T . 2 / 1 2 0 T . 1 4 / 1 5 8 R . 1 / 1 8 6
M . 3 / 2 1 1
The J_ ( • • • ) i s e i t he r the th i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r p r o n omi n a l
p re f i x J_ , o r t h e th i rd p e r s o n p l u r a l p r e f i x l!J. ( i n wh i ch
c a s e the ' t h r e e - p e r i o d ' c o n ve n t i o n s t and s fo r the � ) .
Wh e n e ve r o c c u r s be fo r e t h e P o te n t i a l mo rphe me I o r
i n a ve rb i n t h e P ro j e c te d I mp e r fe c t T e n s e , i t i s r e wr i t t e n
a s u .
E x . 1 2 7 ( U s i n g t he ve r b m+ a ' t o p u t ' ) :
a ) T h e t h i rd p e r s o n P ro j e c t e d I n d i c a t i ve fo rms wo u l d b e t h e
fo l l o w i n g s t ri n g s o f mo rpheme s u p t o th i s po i n t in t h e ru l e s :
i + n + g+ gS+ m+ a + a + @ i l') + n + g + r+ m+ a + a + @
H e - EA - P ro j - S i n g - p u t- TV l_ Proj - i t T h e y - E A - P ro j - P l ur - p ut - T V-P ro j i t
' H e w i l l put i t ( th e r e ) . ' ' Th e y w i l l p u t i t ( t he r e ) . '
App l y M . 1 . 1 : u + n + g + @+ m+ a + a + � U l') + n + g + r+ m+ a + a + @
L a t e r R u l e s u n g a ma u l') g a r a m a
1 Th e T r a n s i t i o n a l Vo w e l ( T r a n s i tV up t o t h i s po i n t ) w i l l be
f ur the r a b b r e v i a t e d i n the M o rphophon e m i c C ompo n e nt to TV .
2 0 4
b ) T h e t h i r d p e r s o n D i s t a n t P e r f e c t P o t e n t i a l f o r m s w o u l d
app e a r a t t h i s p o i n t a s :
i + l + �+ m+ a + n a n a + � i 9 + l + r + m + a + n a n a + @
H e - P o t - S i n g - p u t - T V - D i s t - i t T h e y - P o t - P l u r - p u t - T V - D i s t - i t
' H e s h o u 1 d h a v e p u t i t ( the r e ) . " Th e y s h o u 1 d h a v e p u t i t ( the r e ) . '
App l y M . 1 . 1 : u + l + 0 + m + a + n a n a + � u 9 + l + r + m + a + n a n a + �
L a t e r R u l e s � u l a m a n a n a u l a r a m a n a n a
M . 1 . 2 S E C ON D P E R S O N P RO J E CT E D
T h e m o r p h o p h o n e m i c r u l e s r e l a t i n g t o s e c o n d p e r s o n P r o -
j e c t e d T e n s e f o r m s h a ve b e c om e n e c e s s a r y i n v i e w o f t h e a b b r e v -
i a t i o n o f I mp e r a t i ve s i n B a fd i .
t h e s e mo d i f i c a t i o n s .
M . 1 . 2 . 1 A c t i o n
T yp e + g_ T e n s e
[ + P r o j ]
T w o s ub - r u l e s a c c ou n t f o r
[� + A c t i o n ] T y p e
a
A c t i o n T yp e wo u l d b e e i t h e r t h e E x t r a - a c t i v e mo r p h e m e n
o r t h e I n t r a - a c t i v e mo r p h e me � . T h e a mo r p h e m e i s t h e
P ro j e c t e d T e n s e p r e f i x . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e t h i s
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s t h e g i n t h i s p o s i t i o n c o u l d a l s o b e a
C l a s s m a rk e r .
Wh e n e ve r t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r p r e f i x m i o r t h e
s e c o n d p e r s o n p l u r a l p r e f i x � o c c u rs b e f o r e a n A c t i o n T yp e
m a r k e r a n d t h e P r o j e c t e d T e n s e p r e f i x , t h e m i i s r e w r i t t e n
a s a a n d t h e t e n s e p r e f i x d e l e t e d , a n d t h e � i s r e w r i t t e n
a s a a n d b o t h t h e t e n s e p r e f i x a n d t h e A c t i o n T y p e m a r k e r a r e
d e l e t e d .
2 0 5
E x . 1 2 8 ( u s i n g t h e ve rb a n d + i ' t o p i ck up an ob j e c t ' )
a ) T h e s e cond p e r son P r o j e c t e d I n d i c a t ive forms ( wi th the
p lu ra l Ob j e c t pronom in a l s u f f ix r ) wo u l d app e a r a t th i s
po i n t a s :
m i + n + g + @+ a n d + i + a + r a l) + n + g+ r + a n d + i + a + r
Y ou - EA- P ro j - S i n g -p i ck -TV-P ro j - Y o u- E A - P ro j - P l u r - p i c k - TV -P ro j -
' P i ck them up ! '
up the m up them
' P i ck them up ( a l l of you ) 1 '
App ly a + n + @+ @+ a n d + i + a + r a + @+ @+ r + a n d + i + a + r M . 1 . 2 . 1
Late r Ru l e s a n a n d a r a r a n d a r
b ) T o i l l u s t r a t e fu rthe r , the p l ur a l ve rb abo ve i s pre s e n t e d
in a s imp l i f i e d t r e e d i a g r am :
[ :�
I - S i n g .. • ----.
VbN uc Aux [-N ] [ + P ro j ] + 1 : 1
- s i n g
A f t e r T- and R-Rul e s : I a l) + n + + r + a n d + i + a + r
App ly M . 1 . 2 . 1 : a + � + � + r + a n d + i + a + r
Late r Ru l e s a r a n d a r
' P i c k the m up ( al l o f you ) 1 '
E ve ry Morphophon emi c r u l e thus f a r ha s i nvo l ve d the P ro-
j e c t e d Ten s e , emph a s i s i n g the fact tha t the S ub j e c t pre f i xe s o f
th i s t e n s e und e rgo con s i de r ab ly mo re mod i f i c at i on than i s true
of o th e r te n s e s . The fo l l ow i n g e xamp l e s e t s out the P ro j e c t-
e d Ten s e p ar ad i gm o f the ve rb a r a l g a m+ a ' t o d r y ' to i l l u s t-
r a te th e ru l e s fo rmu l a t e d t o th i s po i n t . The th i rd p e r son
p l ura l Ob j e c t s u f f i x r i s us ed i n e a ch c a s e .
2 0 6
E x . 1 2 9
9 a - n - g - a r a l � m - a - r ' I s h a l l d r y t h e m . '
a - n - @ - a r a l g a m - a - r ' Y o u w i l l d r y t h e m . / D r y t h e m ! '
u - n - g - a r a l g a m - a - r ' H e w i 1 1 dr y t h e m . '
a - n - g - a r a l g a m - a - r ' Y o u a n d I w i l l d r y t h e m . '
a D - g - a r - a r a l g a m - a - r ' W e a l l s h a l l d r y t h e m . '
a - � - r - a r a l g a m - a - r ' Y o u a l l w i l l d r y t h e m . / D r y t h e m ! '
u 9 - g - a r - a r a l g a m - a - r ' T h e y w i l l d r y t h e m . '
N o t e t h a t t h e E x t r a - a c t i o n mo rp h e m e n d o e s n o t app e a r
i n a n y o f t h e p l u r a l f o r m s . I n t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n , i t h a s
b e e n d e l e t e d b y R u l e M . 1 . 2 . 1 . I n t h e f i r s t a n d t h i r d p e r -
s o n s i t i s l a t e r a s s i m i l a t e d b y c o n t i g u i t y w i t h a p r e c e d i n g
v e l a r n·a s a l ( R u l e M . 2 . 1 ) .
M . 1 . 2 . 2 a + .!1 .!J_ + a [ + P r o A f] + I I + S i n g
T h i s s e q u e n c e o f a + _g_ c a n o n l y b e t h e o u t p u t o f t h e
p r e v i o u s s ub - r u l e . T h a t i s , a m u s t b e t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n
s i n g u l a r P ro j e c t e d S u b j e c t p r e f i x a s , i n a l l o t h e r t e n s e s ,
i t i s m i a n d t h e .!1 m u s t b e t h e I n t r a - a c t i o n ma r k e r i n
t h i s c o n t e x t .
Wh e n t h e s e t w o mo r p h e me s o c c u r i n s e q u e n c e , t h e i r o r d e r
i s r e v e r s e d b y t h e p r o c e s s o f me t a t h e s i s .
E x . 1 3 0
a ) l) a - m u I� b ) !) a - l a g - a c ) 9 a - m i d u g - a
Y o u - s l e e p - P r o j Y o u - f i n d o u t - P r o j Y o u - l oo k a r o u n d -P r o j
' G o t o s l e e p ! ' ' Y o u w i l l f i n d o u t . ' ' L o o k a r o u n d. '
d ) ( a ) , a b o ve , r e p r e s e n t e d a s a t r e e d i a g r a m :
A f t e r T - & R - H u l e s :
App l y M . 1 . 2 . 1 :
App l y M . 1 . 2 . 2 :
L a t e r Ru l e s
[+ P r o A f J�
+ I I + S i n g
V b N u c A u x [ + P r o j ]
m i + � + 9 + >6+ m u l g + u + a
a + rJ + � + >6 + m u I g + u + a
x 9 + a + @+ @+ m u I g + u + a
9 a m u l g a
2 0 7
2 0 8
M . 2 E X T RA - A C T I O N M A R K E R D E L E T I O N 'l' . 5 / 1 3 5 RE F E RE N C E :
M . 2 . 1 n / · · · !1 +
[ + P ro A f ]
T h e E x t r a - a c t i o n mo rp h e m e n i s w r i t t e n a s a z e r o m o r -
p h e me w h e n i t i s a f f i x e d t o a S u b j e c t p r o n om i n a l p r e f i x e n d -
i n g i n Q .
T h i s r u l e i n vo l ve s e v e r y s e q u e n c e o f a p l u r a l p r o n om i n a l
p r e f i x w i t h n , a s a l l t h r e e p l u r a l p r e f ) · · : s e n d i n .Q.
T h e y a r e , � f o r f i r s t p e r s o n , � f o r s e c o n d p e r s o n a n d
J_Q_ f o r t h i r d p e r s o n .
T h i s p r o c e s s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d i n E x . 1 2 9 w i t h r e s -
p e c t t o P r o j e c t e d p l u r a l f o r m s . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x amp l e t a k e s
t h e s a m e v e r b a n d a pp l i e s t h i s r u l e t o o t h e r t e n s e s . F r o m
t h i s p o i n t o n i n t h e E x a mp l e s t h e f i r s t s t r i n g o f c on c a t e n a t e d
mo rp h e m e s p r e s e n t e d w i l l b e t h e o u t p u t o f a l l t h e r u l e s u p t o
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t . T h i s d o e s n o t a p p l y t o t h e ' t r e e '
d i a g r am s w h i c h t r a c e t h e d e r i v a t i o n b a c k i n mo r e d e t a i l .
a )
b )
c )
E x . 1 3 1
a 8 + n + r + a r a l g a m+ a + g a l o + r
W e -EA - P lur - dr y - TV - N e ar - th em
' W e d r i e d t h e m ( e a r l i e r ) . '
g u g + n + r + a r a l g a m + a + i a + r
Y o u - E A . . . . . d r y . . . M i d - t h e m
M . 2 . 1 --- a f) + �+ r + a r; a I g a m + a + g a I a + r
L a t e r R u l e s --- a r:i a r a r a l g a m a g a l a i r
M . 2 . 1 --- g u 9 + �+ r + a r a l g a m + a + i a + r
L a t e r R u l e s --- g u 9 a r a r a l g a m i a i r
' Y o u d r i e d t h e m ( y e s t e r d a y ) . '
i Q + n + r + a r a l g a m+ a + n a + r
T h e y - E A • • • d r y . • . D i s t -th Ell1
M. 2 .1 --- i r:i + � + r + a r a I g a m + a + n a + r
L a t e r R u l e s ---.. i r:i a r a r a l g a m a n a r
' T h e y d r i e d t h e m ( l o n g a g o ) . '
M . 2 . 2
2 0 9
t / r n
n � + ( . . . ) + x + Aux / ��-
l [ + { P r e s } ] I rnrne d
T h e E x t r a - a c t i o n m a r k e r n i s w r i t t e n a s a z e r o mo rphe me
wh e n i t o c c u r s imme d i a t e l y b e f o re t h e c o n s o n a n t s I , n
a n d l , a n d whe n th e ve rb i s i n e i t h e r t h e P r e s e n t o r the
I mme d i a te P e r f e c t T e n s e . T h e s e c o n s o n a n t s may be c omp l e t e
mo rp h e me s o r th e in i t i a l c o n s on a n t s o f a l o n g e r mo rph e me , a s
de n o te d b y t h e ( . . . ) c o n v e n t i o n w a nd t h e y a r e a l l a pa r t o f ,
o r t h e c omp l e t e V e r b S t e rn . I n f ac t , t h e s t ern n ' t o p i c k
up ' , i s t h e o n l y r e c o rd e d i n s t an c e o f a s in g l e con s o na n t s t e m
re l e van t to th i s c o n t e x t , b u t i t i s u s e d w i th con s i d e r a b l e
f r e que n c y b o t h a s an a u t o n omo u s ve rb a n d a s an a n c i l l a ry .
T h e l i s t o f c o n te x t c on s o n an t s c on s i s t s o n l y o f tho s e wh i c h
p ro d u c e t h i s mo d i f i c a t i o n a n d w h i c h h ave b e e n r e c o r ded . On
p a g e 8 1 , i t w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c on s o n a n t - i n i t i a l s t em s
c omme n c e wi th o n l y a ve r y l im i te d numb e r o f c on s o na n t s .
Howe ve r , o n e wou l d e x p e c t , f o r e x amp l e , t h a t i f ve rb s te rns
we re f o un d wh i c h c omme n c e w i th T o r n , t h e n t h e s e c on -
s on a n t s wou ld a l s o c a u s e th e d e l e t io n o f t h e E x t ra - a c t i on
mo rp h e me .
T h i s a l t e rn a t i o n i s an e x amp l e o f ' c l u s t e r r e d u c t i o n ' .
Qu i t e ap a r t f rom t h e c o n t e x t o f th i s ru l e , n i s n e ve r
f o l l owe d b y any o f t h e c o n s o n a n t s l i s te d i n t h e r u l e i n B a f d i
con s o n a n t c l u s t e r s . B e c a u s e o f s e q ue nt i a l i n c omp a t i b i l i ty ,
the E x t r a - a c t i o n mo rp h e me i s d e l e t e d .
T h e f a c t t h a t t h i s r u l e i s l im i te d t o t h e P re s e n t and
I mm e d i a t e T e n s e s d e mo n s tr a t e s , o n t h e o n e h a n d , the r e l a t i on -
2 1 0
s h ip be twe e n t h e two t e n s e s ( s e e p a g e 1 0 4 ) and , on the othe r ,
the d i s t i n c t i on be twe e n the I mme d i a t e a n d th e N e a r P e r fe c t s .
a )
b )
c )
d )
E x . 1 3 2
f) a + n + fll+ ii + a + n a + P5 M . 2 . 2 ---+ f) a + @+ @+ ii + a + n a + �
. . k . L a te.r I - E A - S 1 n g-p 1 C - T V -Pres- 1t Ru l e s ----. f) a n a n a
up
' I am p i c k i n g i t up . '
l + n + pS+ r l n a r i n + a + n o + @ M . 2 . 2 --+ i + @+ e+ r i n a r i n + a + n a + e
L a te r H e - E A . • e xp l a i n • • P re s - i t
Rul e s i r i n a r l n a n a
' H e i s e xp l a i n i n g i t . '
m l + n + e+ l u m+ a + g a l a + r
Y o u - E A . app r o a c h . I mme d t h e m
M . 2 . 2 --+ m i + @+ e+ l u m+ a + g a t a+ r
L a te r Ru l e s --+ m i l u m a g a l o i r
' Y o u app r o a che d t h e m j u s t n ow . '
f) a + n + e+ J a b + a + g a l a + r
I - E A . . • h a v e • • I mm e d-then
' I j u s t h ad the m . '
M . 2 . 2 ___.. f) a + @+ e+ ! a b + a + g a l o + r
L a t e r Rul e s ---+ f) a J a b a g a l o i r
2 1 1
M . 3 f) P RE F I X D E L E T I ON T . 6/ 1 3 6 R . 1 / 1 8 6
( • • • ) Q
RE FE RE N CE :
+ I
+ X + VbN u c + Aux
[ + { P r e s } ] I mme d
.!l. i s w r i t t e n a s a z e r o mo rphe m e wh e n e ve r i t o c c u r s be fo r e
e i the r the P o t e n t i a l J_ , o r t h e V e rb N u c l e u s o f a ve rb i n the
P r e s e n t Imp e r f e c t o r the I m me d i a t e P e r f e c t T e n s e .
T h e ( . . . ) a l l ows fo r t h e two po s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e s o f the
Q be fo r e a ve r b n u c l e u s . I t may o c c u r a s t h e I n t r a - a c t ion
m a rk e r o r a s t h e f i n a l c o n s o n a n t of a p l u r a l S u b j e c t pr e f ix .
Thu s , t h e r u l e wi l l app l y twi c e i n t h e c a s e o f p l u ra l , I n t r a -
a c t i ve ve r b s . F i r s t l y , i t wi l l d e l e t e t h e I n t r a - a c t i o n
mo rpheme a n d t h e n i t w i l l d e l e te t h e f i n a l � o f t he p r e f i x e s
� , .9J:!!l a n d l!J. .
A s wi t h R u l e M . 2 . 2 , t h e A ux i l i a r y r e s t r i c t i o n unde r l i e s
t h e P r e s e n t / I mm e d i a te r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d t h e I mme d i a t e /N e a r
d i s t i n c t i o n , a s the fo l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s h o w s :
E x . 1 3 3
a ) U s i n g m u l g + u
i r - m u l g u - n a
T h e y - s l e ep - P r e s
' t o s l e ep ' :
i r - m u l g u - n - g a l o
T h e y - s l e e p - D u r a t I mm e d
T h e y - s l e ep - D u r a t - N e ar
' T h e y ar e s l e ep i n g . ' � h e y we r e s l e ep i n g ' T h e y we r e s l e ep i ng
i - m u l g u - n a
H e - s l e ep - P r e s
' H e i s s l e e p i n g . '
j u s t a mom e n t ag o . ' e a r l i e r . '
i - m u l g u - n - g a l a i-9u- m u I g u - n - g a I a
H e - s l e ep - D u r a t -Imme d H e - I A - s l e e p - D u r a t - N e a r
' H e wa s j u s t a s 1 e e p . ' 'H e wa s s 1 e e p i n g e a r 1 ier.'
2 1 2
b ) U s i ng 9 a l g + a 1 t o c ry 1 :
g u - r - 9 a l g a - n a g u - r - 9 a l g a - g a 1 a g u 9 - a r - 9 a l g a - g a 1 a
Y o u - P l u r - cr y - P r e s Y o u - P lu r - c ry - I mme d Y o u - P l u r - c r y - N e ar
' Y o u a l l a r e c r ying."Y ou h a ve j u s t cr ied .' ' Y ou c r i e d e a r l i e r . '
c ) T h e de r i v a t i o n o f t h e I mm e d i a te v e r b i n ( b ) : [+ P r oA f + I I - S i n g --' I' ...__ ___ _
VbN u c Aux [ + I mm e d ]
A f t e r T - a n d R - Ru l e s : g u 9 + !) + r + 9 a l g + a + ga l a
App l y M . 3 : g u 9 + @ + r + 9 a l g + a + g a l a
Re - app ly M . 3 : g u � + � + r + 9 a l g + a + g a l a
L a t e r Ru l e s g u r 9 a l ga g a 1 a
E x . 1 3 4 I l l u s t r a t i n g de l e t i o n be f o r e t h e P o t e n t i a l I
T h e on l y � o c c u r r ing b e fo r e I i s t h e f i n a l � o f
S ub j e c t p re f i x f o rms . T h e A c t i o n Typ e mo rph e me s wo u l d h a ve
b e e n r e p l a c e d by t h r o ug h Ru l e T . 9 . T h e th i r d p e r s on
p l u r a l p r e f i x w o u l d h a ve be e n a l t e r e d f ro m l!l. t o .!:!!J. by
Ru l e M . 1 . 1 , p a g e 2 0 3 .
a )
b )
u 9 + l + r + i b + i + a + �
T h e y - P o t - P l u r - dr i n k - TV I mp e r f - i t
' T h e y sh o u l d d r i n k i t . '
a r a a 9 + l + r+ i b + i + n a n a + �
N e g we - P o t - P l ur - dr i n k T V - D i s t - i t
' We d i d n o t d r i n k i t . '
M . 3 --- u �+ l + r + i b + i + a + �
L a t e r Ru l e s - u I i r i b a
M . 3 --- a r a a @+ l + r + i b + i + n a n a + @
L a te r R u l e s - a r a a l i r i b i n a n a
2 1 3
M . 4 P LU RA L MA RKE R DE LE T I ON T . 4 / 1 2 8 R . 4 / 1 9 4
RE F E R E N CE :
r / + I • • • + x
C o n d i t i o n : X doe s n o t i n c l u de an O b j e c t p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x .
T h e p l u r a l p r e f i x r i s wr i t t e n a s a z e r o mo rpheme
imme di a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a n I n t r a - a c t i ve v e r b s t e m wh i c h c o mm -
e n c e s w i t h th e con s o n a n t
F rom thi s p o i n t o n i n t h e fo rmu l a t i o n o f mo rphoph on em i c
ru l e s th e A c t i o n Typ e o f ve rb s t e m s w i l l a t t i me s b e d e f i n e d
by t h e p r e s e n c e or ab s e n c e o f an O b j e c t p r o n o mi n a l s u f f i x .
Th i s i s n e c e s s a ry be c a u s e th e ru l e s a pp l y a l s o to I r re a l i s
ve rb fo rms . W i th s u c h fo r ms , the A c t i o n T y p e m a rke r s have
be e n d e l e te d t h r o u gh the o p e ra t i o n o f Ru l e T . 9 , a n d c a nn o t ,
th e r e fo r e , be u s e d to de f i n e the c o n t e x t o f t he r u l e s .
T h e C o n d i t i o n to M . 4 de f i n e s the ve rb s i n vo l ve d a s I n t r a -
a c t i ve .
The mo d i f i c a t i o n s i n t ro d uc e d by M . 4 l e ad to homomo rpho u s
s u r f a c e f o r m s be twe e n t h e D u a l an d the I n c l u s i v e /E x c l u s i ve ,
and b e twe e n t h e t h i rd p e r s o n s i n g u l a r a n d th i r d p e r s o n p l u r a l
in a l l t e n s e s a n d i n b o th r e a l i s a n d i r r e a l i s ve rb s .
E x . 1 3 5
a ) U s i n g l a m a n g+ a ' to l i s te n ' :
i - l a m a n g a - n a a 9 a - l a ma n g - i o
I I I - l i s t e n- P r e s
' { H e i s } T h e y a r e
l i s t e n i n g .
{ Di
u a/l
E } - l i s t e n - M i dd l e
n c x c
' { We two } l i s te n e d . ' We a l l
2 1 4 b ) U s i n g l a n d + a ' t o s i t ' :
a r a u - l a n d a - n a a r a a - l a n d - a ----
N e g I I I - s i t -M i dd l e N e g { D u a l } . - s i t - I mp e r f I n c / E x e
' { H e } d i d n o t s i t down . I , { W e two } w i l l n o t s i t down . •
T h e y We a l l
M . 5 CLAS S M A RKE R DE LE T I ON RE FE RE N C E :
2 1 5
L . 4 . 2 / 8 1
M . 6 / 2 2 1 M . 8 / 2 2 8
F o u r r u l e s a re n e c e s s a ry t o a c c o un t fo r mo d i f i c a t i on s
t o the C l a s s m a rk e r s . T h e f i r s t t h r e e i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r o -
c e s s o f c l u s t e r re d u c t i o n , wh i l e t h e f o u r th p r o v i de s an e x amp l e
o f in t e rvo c a l i c a s s i m i l a t i o n .
M . 5 . 1 C l a s s / C l a s s m a r k e r s a r e w r i t t e n a s z e ro mo rp h e me s whe n the y
imme d i a t e ly fo l l ow e i th e r or g_ •
The i n th i s co n t e x t i s t he P o t e n t i a l mo rp he m e and
the il i s the P r o j e c t e d T e n s e p r e f i x .
E x . 1 3 6 U s i n g d -r a n b + u ' t o t r e a d up o n ' :
a ) a r a rJ u + l + o + a n b + u + a + r i .M . 5 . 1
L a t e r N e g I - P o t - C l a s s - t r e ad - T V -
R u l e s ____...
I mp e r f - yo u
' I wi l l n o t t r e ad o n yo u . '
a r a 9 a l a n b a r i
b ) m i + l + a + a n b + u + n a n a + r
Yo u - P o t - C l a s s - t r e a d - T V D i s t - th e m
M . 5 . 1 ----. m i + l + @+ a n b + u + n a n a + r
L a t e r Ru l e s ___.,
' Y o u sh ou l d h a v e t ro dd e n o n th em . '
m i l a n b u n a n a r
E x . 1 3 7 U s i n g b + U l + u ' t o c om e ou t ' :
a ) u + f) + g+ b + u l + u + n a M . 5 . 1 ___... u + 9 + g+ @+ u l + u + n a
L a t e r H e - I A - P r o j - C 1 a s s - c o m e out-Ru 1 e s
TV - D u r a t P ro j
' H e w i l l k e e p o n c o m i n g o u t . '
u 9g o l u n a
b ) f) a + f) + g + b + U l + u + a M . 5 . 1 � 9 a + 9+ g+ @+ U l + u + a
L a t e r I - I A - P r o j - C l a s s - c ome o u t -
Ru l e s T V - P ro j
' I s h a l l c ome o u t . '
f) O f) g o I a
2 1 6
M . 5 . 2 C l a s s ...
Con d i ti o n : X i n c l ud e s an O b j e c t p r onomi n a l s u f f i x .
The C l a s s m a r k e r i s w r i t t e n a s a z e ro mo rp h e me i mme d i a t e -
l y f o l l o w i n g the p l ur a l m a rk e r r i n an E x t r a - a c t i ve ve rb .
E x t r a - a c ti on i s d e f i n e d a s the p r e s e n c e o f an Ob j e c t
s u f f i x .
E x . 1 3 7 U s i n g g + a n b + u ' t o g row l a t ' :
a } i + r+ g + a n b + u + n a + 9 a y u M . 5 . 2 --- i + r+ �+ a o b + u + n a + g a y u
b }
c }
I I I - P l u r - C l a s s - g ro w l - TV P re s - me
' T h e y a r e g ro w l i n g at me . '
a r a g u + l + r+ g + a ci b + u + n a + r
N e g I I - P o t - P l ur - C l a s s -g ro w l - TV - M i d - th e m
' Y o u a l l d i d n o t g r o w l a t
L a t e r Ru l e s
M . 5 . 2
L a t e r R u l e s
t he m . I
T h e d e r i va t i o n o f the ve rb :
- i r a n b u n a a r 9 a y u
--- a r a g u + l + r+ @+ a o b + u + n a + r
---. a r a g u l a r a o b u n a r --
i g a r - a n b u - n a - m u d u
The y - g ro w l a t - D i s t - u s
' T he y g ro w l e d a t u s . ' [ + P roA f + I I I - S i n g--1-----.
�
VbN u c A ux [ +P r o A f] [ + Di s t ]
+ { I n c } E x e
A f t e r T - a n d R - Ru l e s : i f) + n + r + g + a o b + u + n a + m u d u
App ly M . 2 . 1 : i f) + � + r + g + a o b + u + n a + m u d u
App l y M . 5 . 2 : i f) + � + r + �+ a o b + u + n a + m u d u
L a t e r R u l e s i f) a r a n b u n a m u d u
2 1 7
M . 5 . 3 / .!2_+ ___ + X + Aux [ + P r o j ]
The c l a s s m a rk e r s b a n d a a r e w r i t te n a s ze ro mo rph -
e me s imme d i a t e l y fo l l ow i n g t h e E x t r a - a c t i o n m a r k e r n whe re
the ve r b is i n the P r o j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t Te n s e .
T h e o n l y c on t ex t i n wh i c h t h i s r u l e app l i e s i s the s e c o n d
p e r s o n s i n g u l a r , a s t h e C l a s s m a r k e r s wo u l d h a ve a l re a dy be e n
de le t e d e l s e whe r e i n t h e P ro j e c t e d by c o n t i g u i t y w i th e i t h e r
t h e P ro j e c t e d p r e f i x � o r t h e p l u r a l p r e f i x r . T he
C l a s s m a r k e r s h a ve n o t be e n de le t e d i n th e s e c o n d p e r s o n s i n g -
u l a r be c a u s e t h e � p r e f i x i t s e l f wou l d h a ve be en de le te d by
Ru l e M . 1 . 2 . 1 .
T h i s r u l e de l e t e s t h e r e ma i n i n g b a n d a C l a s s m a r k e r s
i n the P r o j e c t e d T e n s e o f E x t r a - a c t i ve v e r b s . H o we ve r , the
C l a s s m a r k e r a i s r e t a i n e d i n a l l p ro b ab i l i t y be c a u s e o f
the commo n a l ve o l a r po i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i o n fo l l owi n g n .
E x . 1 3 8 T h i s e xa mp l e t a k e s pho n o l o g i c a l l y s i m i l a r ve r b s
f rom the t h r e e C l a s s e s and comp a r e s t he i r de r i v a t i o n . T h e
t h r e e ve rbs i n o r de r a r e : b + A l + i ' t o m a k e ' ( a sm a l l ob j e c t ) ;
g+ a · I + i ' to g o t o ' ;
a ) a + n + �+ b + A l + i + a + r
and a + a l + i ' t o s e e ' .
M . 5 . 3 � a + n + @+ �+ A l + i + a + r
I I - E A - S i n g - C l a s s -m a k e - T V - L a t e r P ro j - t h e m Rul e s :> n :> l a r
' M ak e t he m ! '
b ) a + n + �+ g + a l + i + a + r M . 5 . 3 ---.. a + n + @+ @+ a l + i + a + r
I I - E A - S i n g - C l a s s - go t o -T� L a t e r P ro j - t h e m R u l e s a n a l a r
' Go t o t he m ! '
2 1 8
c ) a+ n + @+ o + a l + i + a + r R u l e M . 5 . 3 d o e s n o t app l y .
I I - E A - S i n g - C l a s s - s e e - T V P r o j - t h e m
L a�e r----+ a n d a l a r
Ru e s
' L o o k a t t h e m ! '
T h e f r e e t r a n s l a t i o n s f o r t h e s e v e r b s h a v e b e e n g i v e n i n
t h e I mp e r a t i v e t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f a b b -
r e v i a t i o n o f t h e s e f o r m s i s c o n t i n u e d b y t h i s r u l e i n t h e c a s e
o f b - a n d �- C l a s s v e r b s . A s w a s m e n t i o n e d , t h e P r o j e c t e d
f o r m s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e I mp e r a t i ve s , a r e t h e mo s t mo d i f i e d
fo r m s o f B a f d i v e r b s . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a mp l e p r e s e n t s t h e
d e r i v a t i o n o f ( b ) i n E x . 1 3 8 t o s h o w t h e e x t e n t o f mo r p h o p h o n -
e m i c p r o c e s s e s up o n i t t o t h i s p o i n t :
E x . 1 3 9 a n - a l - a - r
Y o u - g o t o - P r o j - th e m
' G o t o t he m . '
A f t e r T - a n d R - R u l e s :
App l y M . 1 . 2 . 1 :
Ap p l y M . 5 . 3 :
L a t e r R u l e s
[+ P r oA f + I I + S i n g ---"1�-----
VbN u c A u x + P r oA f ] [ + P ro j ] + I I I
- S i n g
m i + n + g + @ + g + a l + i + a + r
a + n + @ + @ + g + a l + i + a + r
a + n + @ + @ + @+ a l + i + a + r
a n a l a r
2 1 9
M . 5 . 4 + v
Wh e n t h e C l a s s m a r k e r s a a n d .9. o c c u r b e t w e e n a n y t w o
vowe l s , t h e y a r e w r i t t e n a s y . Wh e n t h e C l a s s m a r k e r b
o cc u r s i n t e r vo c a l i c a l l y , i t i s w r i t t e n w •
W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p h o n e m e c h a r t s o n p a g e 2 6 , i t c a n
b e s e e n t h a t t h i s r u l e r e f l e c t s a p r o c e s s o f a l t e r n a t i o n f r om
s t op pe d p h o n e me s to c o n t i n ue n t s in i n t e r vo c a l i c e n v i r o n me n t s .
T h e b i l ab i a l s t op b i s r e p l a c e d by t h e b i l ab i a l s e m i - c o n s o n -
an t w . T h e l a m i n a - a l v e o l a r s t op
l am i n a - p a l a t a l s e m i - c o n s o n a n t y .
i s r e p l a c e d b y y .
a i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e
T h e d o r s o - ve l a r s t op .9.
T h e m a i n c o n t e x t s i n wh i c h t h i s r u l e a pp l i e s a r e t h e
s i n g u l a r f o r m s o f I n t r a - a n d R e t r o - a c t i ve v e r b s i n t h e P r e s e n t
I mp e r f e c t a n d I mme d i a t e P e r f e c t T e n s e s , a n d t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n
s i n g u l a r P r o j e c t e d T e n s e o f t h e s a me A c t i o n T yp e s . I n t h e s e
c o n t e x t s , t h e I n t r a - a c t i on m o rp h e m e � h a s b e e n d e l e t e d b y a
p r e v i o u s r u l e l e a v i n g t h e C l a s s m a r k e r s b e t w e e n t h e f i n a l
v o w e l o f t h e s i n g u l a r S u b j e c t p r e f i x a n d t h e i n i t i a l vowe l o f
t h e v e r b s t e m .
T h e o n l y o t h e r c o n t e x t r e l e v an t t o t h e r u l e i s w i t h t h e
o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e I n f i n i t i ve p r e f i x m a , wh i c h s t a n d s imme d
i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e V e r b N u c l e u s .
F o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , w a n d y w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s
C l a s s m a rk e r s a l o n g w i t h £ , b a a n d .9. •
T h e f o l l o w i n g e x amp l e l i s t s a l l t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f s e c on d
p e r s o n s i n g u l a r f o r m s o f t h e v e r b g + a m + a ' t o l a u g h ' r e l e va n t
t o R u l e M . 5 . 4 . T h e I n f i n i t i ve i s a l s o g i v e n .
a )
c )
e )
E x . 1 4 0
9+ a + y+ a m+ a
I A - y o u - C l a s s - l a u gh - P r o j
' Y o u w i l l l a u g h . '
m i + y+ a m+ a + n a
Y o u - C l a s s - l a u g h - T V - P r e s
' Y o u a r e l a u g h i n g . '
m i + y+ a m+ a + ga I a
Y o u - C l a s s - l a u gh - T V - I mm e d
' Y o u j u s t l a u g h e d . '
b )
d )
f )
2 2 0
9 + a + y + a m+ i n a + a
I A - y o u - C l a s s - l a u g h - RA - P r o j
' Y o u w i l l l a u gh a t y o u r s e l f . '
m i + y+ a m+ i n CJ i + n a
Y o u - C l a s s - l a u g h - RA - P r e s
' Y o u a r e l a u gh i n g a t y o u r s e l f . '
m i + y+ a m+ i n a i + g a l a
Y o u - C l a s s - l a u gh - RA - I mm e d
' Y o u j u s t l a ug h e d a t y o u r s e l f . '
g ) m a + y+ a m+ a + n
I n f I - C l a s s - l a ugh - T V - I n f I I
' t o l au g h '
A n op t i o n a l f o r m i s f r e q ue n t l y u s e d wh e n t h e v o w e l s
f l a n k i n g t h e C l a s s m a rk e r a r e b o t h a , a s i n E x . 1 4 0 . Th e
a + C l a s s + a c an b e w r i t t e n s i mp l y a s a : T h i s a b b r e v i a t i o n
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e d w i t h t h e I mp e r a t i ve .
E x . 1 4 0 c o u l d b e w r i t t e n a s 9 a : ma ' L a u g h ! '
T h u s , ( a ) i n
E x . 1 4 1 U s i n g b + u ma r+ a ' t o s h i v e r ' t o i l l u s t r a t e b -
C l a s s mo d i f i c a t i o n s :
a ) ma + w + u ma r + a + n r) a + w + u m a r+ a + n a
I n f I - C l a s s - s h i ve r - T V- I n f I I I - C l a s s - s h i ve r - T V - P r e s
' t o s h i ve r ' ' I a m s h i ve r i n g . '
c ) i + w + u m a r+ a + n + g a l a
H e - C l a s s - s h i ve r - T V - D u r a t - I mm e d
' H e w a s s h i ve r i n g j u s t n ow . '
M . 6 VE RB S TE M VOWE L MO RP H O P HONE ME S
REF E RE N C E :
2 2 1
L . 4 . 1 / 7 9 LE . 6 / 1 1 2
I n S e c t i o n L . 4 . 1 th r e e v e r b s t e m mo rphopho n e m e s we r e
i n t ro du c e d . S ome b - an d a- C l a s s s t e m s e x h i b i t t h e mo rpho -
pho n e m e s A a n d U , wh i l e s ome o - C l a s s s t e ms c omm e n c e wi th
I . T h e t h re e s ub - ru l e s o f M . 6 a r e c on c e rn e d w i th the s e
mo rp hop hon eme s .
M . 6 . 1 I . . . [� · · · i / I • • •
T h e mo rphop hon e me I i s r e wr i t t e n a s u whe n imme d i a t e -
ly p re c e d e d b y e i t h e r a o r � , o r a s i n a l l o the r e n -
vi ronmen t s .
E x . 1 4 2
a ) U s i n g a + I J g+ a ' t o t e l l ( pa r t i cu l a r l y a s t o r y ) ' :
a - n - o - u l 9 - a - a a n - � a - r - i l 9 - a - a a n - �
I I - E A- C l a s s - t e l l - P ro j - fo r - i t I I - P l u r - te l l - P ro j - fo r - i t me me
' Y o u ( s i n g ) , te l l i t fo r me ! ' ' Y o u a l l , t e l l i t f o r me ! '
b ) U s i n g o + I b a r+ a ' t o s i n ge ' :
m a - y - u b a r - a - n 9 a - 9 - l b a r - i n a - i a
I n f I - C l a s s - s i n g e - TV - I n f I I I - I A - s i n g e - RA - Mi dd l e
' t o s i n ge ' ' I s i n g e d my s e l f . '
T h e f u l l p ar a d i gm o f t h e ve rb ' t o s i n g e ' i s p re s e n te d
i n P . 3 , p a g e s 2 5 7 f f .
2 2 2
M . 6 . 2 ( . . . {:} . . . ) .... � C l a s s + �
T h e m o r p h o p ho n e me U i s w r i t t e n a s u a n d A i s
w r i t t e n a s a i m me d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g a C l a s s m a r k e r .
T h e C l a s s m a r k e r s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t a r e b a ,
w a n d y .
T h e d ou b l e ( . . . ) c o n ve n t i o n i n c l u d e s e ve r y o c c u r r e n c e o f
t h e s e mo rp h o p ho n e m e s w i t h i n t h e v e r b s t e m . T h u s t h e y m ay
o c c u r a l on e a s t h e s t e m , a s w i t h t h e v e r b b + U ' t o s p e a r ' ;
s te m- i n i t i a l l y a s i n g+ u n b ' t o p u s h ' ; s t e m - m e d i a l l y , a s i n
g + o l A I ' t o p u t t o s l e e p ' ; a n d i n i t i a l l y a n d m e d i a l l y w i t h i n
t h e o n e s te m , a s i n
s t op ' , a n d g + U d A I
b + u d u g+ ' t o s t amp o f f ' ,
' t o l o s e ' .
b + A n d A r m I t o
M . 6 . 2 a n d M . 6 . 3 a r e c omp l e me n t a ry i n op e r a t i on a n d w i l l
b e i l l u s t r a t e d t o g e t h e r a f t e r t h e f o r mu l a t i on o f t h e l a t t e r .
M . 6 . 3 u { }
A
A f t e r t h e op e r a t i o n o f M . 6 . 2 , a n y r e ma i n i n g U mo rp h o -
p h o n em e o r A mo rp h o p ho n e me i s w r i t t e n a s o
E x . 1 4 3
a ) U s i n g g+ U I U r b ' t o a n s w e r a c h a l l e n ge ' :
M . 6 . 2 M . 6 . 3
m i - n - g - u l u r b u - n a - @ g u - r - o l o r b u - n a - @
I I - E A - C l a s s - a n s w e r - P r e s - i t I I - P l u r - a n s we r - P r e s - i t
' Y o u a r e a n s we r i n g the c hallen g e ." Yo u a l l a r e a n s we r i n g i t . '
b ) U s i n g b + A r g A n d ' t o r o l l u p ' :
M . 6 . 2 M . 6 . 3
9 a - n - b - a r g a n d i - n a - i r 9 0 - l - o r g o n d - a - r
2 2 3
I - E A - C l a s s - r o l l up - P r e s - t h e m I - P o t - r o l l up - I mp e r f - t h e m
' I a m r o l l i n g t h e m up . ' ' I s h o u l d r o l l th e m up . '
c ) U s i n g b + U I ' t o c o m e o u t ' :
M . 6 . 2
1 - w - u l u - g a l a
I I I - C l a s s - c om e o u t - I m m e d
' H e c am e o u t j u s t t h e n . '
T h e p a r ad i g m o f t h e v e r b
p a g e s 2 5 4 f f .
M . 6 . 3
u - 9 - g - o l - a
I I I - I A - P r o j - c om e o u t - P r o j
' H e w i l l c om e o u t . '
b + A I ' t o m a k e ' i s g i ve n o n
M . 7 E P E N T H E T I C VOWE L
2 2 4
U p t o t h i s p o i n t i n th e o u tp u t o f t h e R u l e s , a n um b e r o f
p r e f i x e d c o n s o n an t s h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d c o n t i g u o u s l y . T h e r e
a r e t h e c o n s o n a n t - f i n a l S u b j e c t p r e f i x e s ; th e r e i s th e P l u r -
a l m a r k e r r , t h e C l a s s m a r k e r s a n d t h e op t i o n a l Re t ro - a c t i o n
m a rk e r m a n d t h e r e a r e t h e c o n s o n an t - i n i t i a l v e r b s t e rn s .
A s h a s b e e n d e mo n s t r a t e d , o n e o f t h e p r o c e s s e s w h i c h
op e r a t e s i n B a �d i mo rp h op h o n e m i c s up o n i n c o mp a t i b l e c on s o n -
a n t s e q u e n c e s i s th a t o f ' c l u s t e r r e d u c t i o n ' , i n v o l v i n g t h e
d e l e t i o n o f o n e o f t h e p h o n e me s . H o w e v e r , s u c h s e q ue n c e s
m a y b e r e t a i n e d by t h e u s e o f a n o th e r p r o c e s s t h a t o f th e
i n c l u s i o n b e twe e n t h e c o n s o n a n t s o f e p e n t h e t i c v o w e l s ( E pV ) .
C o up l e d w i th e p e n t h e s i s i s t h e p r o c e s s o f v o w e l h a r mo n y , i n
t h a t t h e e p e n t h e t i c v o w e l i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t he f i r s t v o w e l o f
th e V e r b S t e rn , o r t h e T r an s i t i on a l V o w e l w i t h v o w e l - l e s s S t e rn s .
T h e r u l e i n t r o d u c i n g e p e n t h e s i s w i l l b e s t a t e d s i mp l y
a n d t h e n a s e t o f C o n d i t i o n s l a i d up o n i t . T h e C o n d i t i o n s
a re n e c e s s a r y i n t h a t s o m e c o n s on a n t c l u s t e r s r em a i n a mo n g
p re f i x e d p h o n e me s .
M . 7
C on d i t i o n s :
( i )
( i i )
( i i i )
( i v )
c + c c + v 1 + c ���+ x + ( . . . ) v 1 [ Vb N u c ]
c + c i s n o t t h e s e q u e n c e o f :
b .!l + ( a }
.9.
n + { .£ } .9.
[ + P r o j 1
n + C ( . . . ) + X + A ux
[ { + P r e s } ] + I rnme d
L + C ( . . . ) + X , wh e r e X d oe s n o t i n c l ud e a n
O b j e c t p ro n o m i n a l s u f f i x .
2 2 5
T h e r e a r e two a p p a r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e r e t e n t i o n o f
t h e c o n s o n an t c l u s t e r s t h r o u g h t h e c o n t r o l o f t h i s c omp l e x s e t
o f C o n d i t i o n s . F i r s t l y , t h e r e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l b a s i s f o r
s ome o f t h e s e q u e n c e s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h o s e c o ve r e d b y
C on d i t i o n s ( i ) a n d ( i i ) . T h e a l v e o l a r c l u s t e r �+� , t h e
d o r s o - v e l a r c l u s t e r �+ a a n d t h e s e q u e n c e �+ g a re c ommo n i n
B a f d i p h o n o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s . T h e s e qu e n c e s �+£ a n d �+� ,
h o w e ve r , c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d o n t h i s b a s i s , a l t h o u g h t h e
s e q u e n c e s a r e m o d i f i e d b y a s s i m i l a t i o n l a t e r t o m+ b a n d n + a
r e sp e c t i ve l y ( R u l e M . 8 ) . S e c o n d l y , t h e C o n d i t i o n s ( i ) a n d
( i i ) a l l ow fo r c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s i n c e r t a i n s u r f a c e f o r m s .
F o r i n s t an c e , t h e t h i r d C o n d i t i o n a l l o w s f o r a s u r f a c e d i s -
t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n s o me o f t h e I mme d i a t e a n d t h e N e a r P e r fe c t
f o rm s . T h e f o u r t h C o n d i t i o n l e a d s t o d i f fe r e n c e s b e twe e n
c e r t a i n E x t r a - a c t i ve a n d I n t r a - a c t i ve f o r m s .
E x . 1 4 4 I l l u s t r a t i n g M . 7 w i th o u t C o n d i t i o n s :
a ) U s i n g l) U r i d + i ' t o p a i n t ' :
i + 9 + m+ � u r i d + i + i n a i + n a
I II- I A - RA - p a i n t - T V - RA - D i s t
' H e p a i n t e d h i m s e l f . '
b ) U s i n g m+ a ' t o p u t ' :
a + I + r+ m+ a + n a n a + r
I - P o t - P l u r - p u t - TV - D i s t -th em
M . 7
L a t e r R u l e s
M . 7 ---
L a t e r R u l e s
' W e s ho u l d h a ve p u t t h e m ( th e r e ) . '
c ) u s i n g m i n a + i ' to r e c e i ve ' :
M . 7
I I - P l u r - r e c e i v e - T V - M i d - i t L a t e r R u l e s
' Y o u r e c e i ve d i t . '
i + l) + u + m+ u + l) u r i d + i + i n o f +n a
i 9 u m u 9 u r i d i n a l n a
a + l + a + r+ a + m + a + n a n a + r
a l a r a m a n a n a r
g u 9 + i + r+ i + m i n a + i + i a + @
2 2 6
E x . 1 4 5 I l l u s t r a t i n g C o n d i t i o n ( i )
a ) U s i n g b + u d u g+ u ' t o s t a mp o f f ' :
m i + g+ b + u d u g+ u + g a l a M . 7 d o e s n o t a pp l y .
L a t e r a I I - I A - C l a s s - s t a mp o f f - T V - N e a r ___.. m i m b u d u g u ga l Ru l e s
' Y o u s t amp e d o f f . '
b ) U s i n g a + i d + i ' t o g o , w a l k ' :
a + r:i + a + i d + i + n a M . 7 d o e s n o t a p p l y .
D u a l - I A - C l a s s - g o - T V - D i s t L a t e r Ru l e s
' Y o u a n d I w e n t . '
E x . 1 4 6 I l l u s t r a t i n g C o n d i t i o n ( i i )
a ) U s i n g a + a n b + u ' t o t r e a d o n ' :
a n a i d l n a
m l + n + a + a n b + u + n a + m u d u M . 7 d o e s n o t app l y .
L a t e r I I - E A - c l a s s - t r e a d o n -'IV - Pr e s-us Ru 1 e s
m l n a a n b u n a a r m u d u
' Y o u a r e t r e a d i n g o n u s . '
b ) U s i n g t h e s am e ve r b :
ga + n + g+ a n b + u + n a + r i M . 7 d o e s n o t a pp l y .
I - E A - P r o j - t r e a d o n - TV - D u r a t P r o j - y ou
L a t e r R u l e s
!) a n ga n b u n a i r t
' I w i l l k e e p o n t r e a d i n g o n y o u . '
N o t e t h a t t h i s C o n d i t i o n o n l y a pp l i e s t o t h e �+ g s e -
que n c e wh e n t h e � i s t h e P r o j e c t e d T e n s e p r e f i x . T h e C o n -
d i t i o n d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e op e r a t i o n o f M . 7 i f t h e a i s a
C l a s s m a r k e r , a s t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r b i l l u s t ra te s :
c ) U s i n g g + o n b + u ' t o s e n d wo r d ' :
i + n+ g+ o n b + u + n a + n a + a a d a + � M . 7 --+- i + n + o+ g+ o n b + u + n a + n a +aada
I I I - E A - C l a s s - s e n d w o r d - T V D u r a t - D i s t - t o u s - i t
L a t e r Ru l e s
' H e k e p t o n s e n d i n g w o r d t o u s . '
- i n o r:i g o n b u n a n a o a d a
2 2 7
E x . 1 4 7 S h o w i n g t h e s u r f a c e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e
I mm e d i a t e an d N e a r P e r f e c t T e n s e s i n t r o d u c e d b y C o n d i t i on ti i D :
U s i n g m a <J + a ' t o bu i l d ' :
Qa + n + m a d + a + g a l a + @ M . 7 d o e s n o t a pp l y .
I - E A - bu i l d - TV - I m me d - i t
' I h a v e j u s t b u i l t i t . '
g a + n + m a Q + a + g a l a + @
I - E A - b u i l d - T V - N e ar - i t
' I b u i l t i t e a r l i e r . '
L a t e r Ru l e s
M . 7
L a t e r R u l e s
l) a n m a d a ga l o
r) a + n + a + m a d + a + g a l a + @
r) a n a m a Q a g a l a
E x . 1 4 8 I l l u s t r a t i ng C o n d i t i o n ( i v ) , b y c o mp a r i n g t h e
ve r b m u l g + u ' t o s l e ep ' w i t h m u l b + u
g u 9 + r + m u l g+ u + n a
I I - P l u r - s l e e p - T V - D i s t
' Y o u s l ep t . '
g u 9 + r+ m u l b + u + n a + �
I I - P l u r - l e n d - T V - D i s t - i t
' Y o u l e n t i t . '
M . 7
L a te r Ru l e s
M . 7
L a t e r R u l e s
' t o l e n d ' :
g u l)+ u + r + m u l g + u + n a
g u g u r m u l g u n a
g u g+ u + r+ u + m u l b + u + n a + @
g u g u r u m u l b u n a
M . 8 C LA S S MA RKE R A S S I M I L AT I O N
RE F E RE N C E :
2 2 8
L . 4 . 2 / 8 1 M . 5 / 2 1 5 M . 6 / 2 2 1
I n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s , C l a s s m a r k e r s mo d i f y t h e i r e n v i r o n -
me n t s b y a s s i m i l a t i o n t o t h e i r p o i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i o n .
M . 8 . 1 v+
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e n a s a l s m a n d Q , w h i c h f o rm
h o mo r g a n i c c l u s t e r s w i t h t h e C l a s s m a rk e r s b a n d g_ r e s -
p e c t i ve l y , p r o v i d e s t r a n s i t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s wh i c h a r e p a r a -
l l e l e d i n o t h e r a r e a s o f B a f d i mo r p h o l o g y . T h e v o w e l o f
t h e c o n t e x t w o u l d b e a n ' e p e n t h e t i c vo w e l ' i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u g h
Ru l e M . 7 . O w i n g t o C l a s s m a r k e r d e l e t i o n ( M . 5 ) a n d t h e
C o n d i t i o n s t o R u l e M . 7 , w h i c h b l o c k t h e a d d i t i o n o f e p e n t h -
e t i c vo we l s , R u l e M . 8 . 1 o n l y a pp l i e s t o s i n g u l a r f o r m s i n
t h e N e a r , M i d d l e a n d D i s t a n t P e r f e c t T e n s e s .
E x . 1 4 9
a ) U s i n g b + u l 9 A r + a ' t o d r a g ' :
a + n + u + b + u l Q a r + a + n a + n a + r M . 8 . 1 ---+ a + n + u + m+ b + u l 9 a r + a + n a + n a + r
L a te r D u a l - E A - E p v - C l a s s - d r a g - T V - --+-
R u l e s D u r a t - D i s t - th e m
' Y o u a n d I u s e d t o d r a g t h e m a l o n g . '
b ) U s i n g g + a ! b + u ' t o d i g ' :
i + n + a + g + a ! b + u + i a + a a n + r
I I I - E A - E pV - C l a s s - d i g - T V M i d - f o r m e - t h e m
' H e d u g t h e m f o r m e . '
M . 8 . 1
L a t e r R u l e s
a n u m b u l g a r a n a n a r
i + n + a + � + g + a l b + u + i a + a a n + r
i n a rrn a ! b i a a n i r
2 2 9
M . 8 . 2 .!l
T h e I n t r a - a c t i ve m a r k e r .!l i s w r i t t e n a s n imme d i a t e -
l y p r e c e d i n g t h e C l a s s m a r k e r a , a n d a s m p r e c ed i n g t he
C l a s s m a rk e r b • T h i s i s a n e x amp l e o f a s s i m i l a t i o n t o t h e
a l ve o l a r a n d b i l ab i a l p o i n t s o f a r t i c u l a t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y .
E x . 1 5 0
a ) U s i n g d + a l g + u ' t o f a l l ' :
Q a + 9+ a + a l g + u + g a 1 a M . 8 . 2
I - I A - C l a s s - f a l l - T V - N e a r L a t e r Ru l e s
' I f e l l . '
g a + n + a + a l g + u + g a 1 a
g a n a a 1 g u g a 1 a
b ) U s i n g b + i l g + i ' t o b l o w , o f w i n d ' :
i + Q + b + i l g + i + i n a M . a . 2 ----+ i + m + b + i l g + i + i n a
I I I - I A - C l a s s - b l ow - D u r a t M i d L a t e r R u l e s
' I t w a s b l o w i n g . '
i m b i l g i n a
2 3 0
M . 9 � P RE C E D E N CE M . 6 . 3 /2 2 2 RE F E RE N C E :
T h e vo w e l � e x h i b i t s t h e l e a s t a l l o p ho n i c v a r i a t i o n o f
1 t h e v o w e l s . I t a l s o e x e r t s t h e s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e u p o n
i t s e n v i r o n m e n t . I t s mo d i f y i n g e f f e c t t h r o u g h vo we l h a r m -
a n y u p o n an y p r e c e d i n g a v o w e l s i n th e p r e f i x e s i s e x p r e s s e d
b y t h i s r u l e .
M . 9 ( • • • ) a ( • • • ) ( . . . ) '2_ ( . • . ) /_+ X + '2_ ( . • . )
( V b S ]
T h e v o w e l a , wh e n e v e r i t o c c u r s b e fo r e a V e r b S t e m
wh i c h i s �- i n i t i a l , i s w r i t t e n a s � .
T h e ( . . . ) .9_ ( • • • ) c o ve r s a n y o c c u r r e n c e o f a T h i s
c o u l d b e a s i n g l e p ho n e m e , a s w i t h t h e D u a l p r e f i x ; mo r p h e m e -
i n i t i a l , a s w i t h � ; o r mo r p h e me f i n a l , a s w i t h m a
T h e ' X ' b e f o r e t h e V e r b S t e m i n t h e r u l e c o n t e x t a l l o w s
f o r i n t e r ve n i n g mo r p h e m e s .
E x . 1 5 1
a ) U s i n g b + Ar,) A r + a ' t o s h o w o n e s e l f o f f ' :
1J a + 9 + g + � 9 � r + a + i n d i + a
I - I A - P r o j - s h o w o f - T V - RA P r o j
' I w i l l s h o w m y s e l f o f f . '
M . 9
L a t e r R u l e s
b ) U s i n g b + U l t] U r + a ' t o p u l l a l o n g ' :
I - P l u r - p u l l a l o n g - T V - N e a r i t
' W e p u l l e d i t a l o n g . '
1 S e e M e t c a l f e ( 1 9 7 1 : 9 1 )
M . 9
L a t e r R u l e s
-
� IJ + � r + � l tJ � r + a + g a l o + @
2 3 1
M . 1 0 [ - F I N A L VE RB S T E MS LE . 6 /1 1 2 RE F E RE N C E :
I. + � ( . . . ) Q ( . . • )
A S te m - f i n a l I. a nd a n n i n s e qu e n c e a r e wr i t t e n a s
a n Q
A s p o i n t e d o u t o n p a g e 8 3 , t h e r_- f i n a l v e r b s te rn s d o
n o t h a ve a T r a n s i t i o n a l V o w e l .
T h i s i s ag a i n a n i n s t a n c e o f a s s i m i l a t i o n t o t h e p o i n t o f
a r t i c u l a t i o n , w i t h t h e a p i c o - d orn a l n a s a l � r e p l a c i n g t h e
a p i c o - d orn a l I. a n d t h e a p i c o - a l v e o l a r n I. i s t h e
o n l y a p i c o - do rn a l wh i c h a c t i v a t e s t h e r u l e a s v e r b s s u c h a s
m i d u Q ' t o l oo k a r o u n d ' , a + i I i I ' t o l i ck ' a n d g + a l a d ' t o
b e b o g g e d ' d o n o t p ro d u c e t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n .
T h e � ( . . . ) c an e i t h e r b e a s i n g l e p h o n e m e a s i n t h e c a s e
o f th e I n f i n i t i ve s u f f i x , o r t h e i n i t i a l p h o n e m e o f a l o n g e r
mo rp h e me , a s w i t h t h e D u r a t i v e D i s t an t mo r p h e m e n a
E x . 1 5 2
a ) U s i n g m u r a r ' t o s m e l l ' :
9a + n + m u ra r + n + g a l o + r M . 1 0 � � a + n + m u r a + n + ga l a + r
L a t e r I - E A - s rn e l l - D u r a t - I mrn e d - t h e m ___,.
R u l e s
' I w a s s m e l l i n g t h e m j u s t n ow . '
b ) U s i n g a + I r g a r ' t o m ak e s o r e '
� a n m u ra n g a l a i r
m a + y + u r g a r; + n M . 1 0 ___,. m a + y+ u r g a + o
L a te r I n f I - C l a s s - m a k e s o r e - I n f II �
Ru l e s
' t o m a k e s o r e '
m a y u r g a n
M . 1 1 P RO N O M I N AL S UF F I X M O D I F I C A T I ON
2 3 2
R . 3 / 1 9 2 R . 5 / 1 9 5
RE FE RE N C E :
I n S e c t i o n s R . 3 a n d R . 5 , t h e O b j e c t / A s s o c i a t i v e a n d t h e
Re f e r e n t i a l p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x e s we r e s e t o u t . C o n s i d e r a b l e
m od i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e w h e n t h e s e b a s i c f o r m s f o l l o w a c on -
s o n a n t o r c e r t a i n o t h e r s u f f i x mo rp h e me s . T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s
w i l l b e c h a r t e d i n p a r a d i g m f o r m , a n d c o mmo n l y u s e d op t i o n a l
f o r m s w i l l b e g i ve n . M . 1 1 h a s t h r e e s e c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o
t h e O b j e c t /A s s o c i a t i ve s u f f i x e s , t h e Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x e s a n d
t h e ' D i - t r a n s i t i ve ' s u f f i x c o m b i n a t i o n s .
M . 1 1 . 1 O B J E C T / A S S O C I A T I VE S U F F I X
M . 1 1 . 1 . l � o a r r;i a y u
r i o i r i
� a a r w a y i
> ( • • • ) C+ mu d u a a r m u d u
� a a r g u r
r o i r
A l l t h e f o r m s o f t h e p r o n o mi n a l O b j e c t s a s s e t o u t i n
R . 3 a n d r e p e a t e d h e r e i n t h e l e f t - h an d c o l umn ( a p a r t f ro m t h e
z e r o mo rp h e m e f o r t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r ) c om me n c e w i t h a c o n -
s o n a n t . Wh e n t h e y o c c ur i mme d i a t e l y a f t e r a n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t
t h e a b o ve m o d i f i c a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e . T h e mo r ph e me i s
p r e f i x e d t o t h e b a s i c f o r m i n t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r an d
2 3 3
the th i rd p e r s o n p l ur a l , wh i l e the mo rpheme a a r i s p r e f i x e d
t o a l l o th e r f o rm s .
M . 1 1 . 1 . 2 [J [:: J / { � } + a m b a --
T h e s e c o n d p e r s on s i n g u l a r O b j e c t s u f f i x r i i s wr i t t e n
a s 1 1 , and the th i rd p e r s o n p l ur a l s u f f i x r a s .!...!...c. , fo l l owi n g e i t he r th e Re l a t o r b a o r t h e S e q u e n t i a l C o n j un c t i o n
s u f f i x a m b a •
A s an op t i on a l a l t e r n a t i ve , t h e I c a n a l s o be i n s e r t e d
be twe e n b a o r a m b a a n d t he O b j e c t s uf f i x e s � , m u d u
an d .9J:!.!:. • ( c . f . E x . 1 5 3 ( d ) )
E x . 1 5 3 U s i n g g u l m+ u
a ) U Q - g u - r u - g u l m - a - r i
' t o f r i g h t e n ' :
I I I - P ro j - P l u r - f r i g h t e n - P r o j - yo u
' T h e y wi l l f r i g h te n yo u . '
b ) I Q u - r u - g u l m- i a - o i r i
I I I - P l u r - f r i gh t en -M i d d l e - yo u
' T h e y f r i gh t e n e d y ou ( ye s te rd ay ) . '
c ) i Q U - r u - g u I m u - n a - b a - 1 i r
I I I - P l ur - f r i g h t e n - D i s tan t - Re l a to r - yo u
' T h e y f r i gh t e ne d yo u ( s o m e t ime a g o ) . '
d ) i Q u - r u - Q u l m u - n - a mb a - l g u r
I I I - P l ur - f r i gh te n - D i s t an t - S e qu e n t i a l - yo u ( P l u r )
' T h e y f r i gh t e n e d y o u a l l ( a f te r th a t ) . '
2 3 4
O n e sp e c i a l c o n s o n a n t c o n t e x t o f R u l e M . 1 1 . 1 . 1 re q u i r e s
a t t e n t i o n . T h e c o n s o n a n t m a y b e t h e A s s o c i a t i v e s u f f i x Q ,
wh i c h i s a l w a y s f o l l o w e d b y a n O b j e c t s u f f i x . T h e y n e e d n o t
b e c o n t i g u o u s , a s a Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x c a n i n t e r ve n e . W h e n
t h e y a r e c o n t i g uo u s , M . 1 1 . l . l a p p l i e s . T h e t h i r d p e r s o n
s i ng u l a r O b j e c t a f f i x i s a z e ro mo r p h e me . H o w e ve r , a c ommon
op t i o n a l f o r m f o l l o w i n g the A s s o c i a t i v e s u f f i x i s
a )
b )
E x . 1 5 4 U s i n g d a r £.I_ ' t o a r r i v e '
d a r u 9 - g - a r - a r - a - 9 - a a r rn u d u
A r r i ve I I I - P r o j - P l u r - � - P r o j - A s s o c - u s
' T h e y w i l l a r r i v e w i t h u s . '
a r a d a r g u - 1 - a r - a - o a n a - g - i n a
N e g a r r i v e I I - P o t - P l u r - � - D i s t - A s s o c - h i m
' T h e y d i d n o t a r r i v e w i t h h i m . '
i n a .
M . 1 1 . 2 RE F E RE N T I A L S U F F I X
a a n a a r a n
o i o i r i
o i n a i r i n
2 3 5
( • • • ) C+
O n l y t h e f i r s t , s e c o n d a n d t h i r d p e r s o n s s i n g u l a r o f t h e
Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x e s a r e mod i f i e d w h e n t h e y i m me d i a t e l y f o l l o w
a c o n s o n a n t . T h e D u a l a n d t h e P l u r a l f o rm s a r e i n v a r i a b l e
i n a n y c o n t e x t a p a r t f r o m o n e op t i o n a l f o rm . T h e op t i on a l
f o r m s c a n b e u s e d w i t h s om e o f t h e s u f f i x e s f o l l o w i n g t h e
Re l a t o r b a a n d t h e S e q ue n t i a l C o n j u n c t i o n a m b a , a s w i t h
t h e O b j e c t s u f f i x e s i n t h i s c o n t e x t .
o n d a n d t h i r d p e r s o n s s i n g u l a r a a n
T h u s , t h e f i r s t , s e c -
a ; a n d a i n m a y b e
w r i t t e n a s I a n I i a n d I i n r e s p e c t i ve l y a n d t h e t h i r d
p e r s on p l u r a l a i r m a y b e w r i t t e n I i r .
E x . 1 5 5 U s i n g o + a j g + i ' t o h i d e ' :
a ) u - o - g - a j g - a - a a n
I I I - I A - P r o j - h i d e - P r o j - f r o m me
' H e w i l l h i d e f r o m me . '
b ) u - o - g - a J g i - n o - a a r a n
I I I - I A - P r o j - h i d e - D u r a t P ro j - f r o m me
' H e w i l l k e e p o n h i d i n g f r o m me . '
c ) u - o - g - a J g i - n a - a a m b a - l a n
( c . f . E x . 1 5 4 ( c ) )
I I I - I A - P r o j - h i d e - D ur a t P ro j - S e q ue n t i a l - f ro m me
' T h e n he w i l l k e e p o n h i d i n g f ro m me . '
2 3 6
M . 1 1 . 3 D I - T RAN S I T I VE S U FF I X E S
M . 1 1 . 3 . l a a n + r o a r a n � • • • ) C + � Cl i + r o i r i
a i n + r d i r i n
A s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n T . 1 5 . 2 . 9 , Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x e s
m a y o c c u r w i th O b j e c t s u f f i x e s i n t h e s a me i n f l e c t e d v e rb .
T h i s d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f th e Re f e r e n t i a l f o rm s
wh e n t h e O b j e c t s u f f i x i s s i n g u l a r , a s t h e l a t t e r i s a z e r o
mo rp h e me . H o w e ve r , wh e n t h e t h i rd p e r s o n p l ur a l O b j e c t
s u f f i x r f o l l o w s a Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x , a s i n t h e l e f t - h a n d
c o l umn o f th e s e r u l e s , c e r t a i n mo d i f i c a t i o n s t ak e p l a c e .
W h e n t h e s u f f i x c o mb i n a t i o n f o l l o w s a c o n s o n an t , a t y p e
o f me t a t h e s i s o c c u r s , l e a v i n g th e r i n f i x e d w i t h i n t h e
Re f e r e n t i a l s u f f i x . T h e r e s u l t i n g fo r m s , i n f a c t , a r e i d -
e n t i c a l w i th t h e s i mp l e R e f e r e n t i a l f o r m s i n t h i s c on t e x t .
( c . f . M . 1 1 . 2 , p a g e 2 3 5 )
M . 1 1 . 3 . 2 a a n + r a a n + i r
a i + r a + i r
a i n+ r a i n + i r
a ;.) w u+ r a ;) w + i r >--
a a d a + r a a d + i r
a u g a r a + r a u g a r + i r
a i r + r o i r + i r
2 3 7
W i t h a l l t h e s e f o rm s , t h e p l u r a l mo r p h e m e r i s e xp a n d e d
t o i r , c a u s i n g t h e d e l e t i o n o f t h e f i n a l v o w e l o f t he Re f e r
e n t i a l s u f f i x w h e r e o n e o c c ur s .
E x . 1 5 6 U s i n g n + a
a ) a - n - a - a i n - i r
' t o p i c k up ' :
I I - p i c k up - P r o j - f o r h i m - t h e m
' P i c k t h e m u p f o r h i m l '
b ) a - n - a - n a - a i r - i n
I I - p i c k u p - T V - D u r a t P r o j - t h e m- f o r h i m
' K e e p o n p i c k i n g t h e m up f o r h i m l '
c ) a - n - a - a a d a - 0
I I - p i c k up - P r o j - fo r u s - i t
' P i c k i t up fo r u s ! '
d ) a - n - a - a a d - i r
I I - p i c k up - P ro j - f o r u s - t h e m
' P i c k t h e m u p f o r u s ! '
e ) a � n - a - n a - a a d - i r
I I - p i c k u p - T V - D u r a t P r o j - fo r u s - t h e m
' K e e p o n p i c k i n g t h e m up f o r u s l '
M . 1 2 S U F F I X V O WE L A D J U S T M E N T
RE F E RE N C E :
2 3 8
B . 8 / 5 6 L . 7 / 1 0 1 R . 2 / 1 8 8
A t t h i s s t a g e i n t h e o u t p u t o f t h e r u l e s , a n um b e r o f
vowe l s m a y h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d c o n t i g uo u s l y . T h e p r e s s u r e
1 o f B a f d i s y l l ab l e s t r u c t u r e a g a i n s t vo we l c l u s t e r s l e a d s t o
o n e o f t w o p r o c e s s e s . A v o w e l - f i n a l V e r b S t e rn c o n t i g u o u s
t o a vowe l - i n i t i a l A u x i l i a r y o r t h e Re t ro - a c t i o n mo r p h e m e
i n a i c a u s e s t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s i t i o n t o op e r a t e . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , a v o w e l - f i n a l A ux i l i a r y wh i c h imme d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s
a n o th e r v o w e l - i n i t i a l s u f f i x c a u s e s t h e p r o c e s s o f c l u s t e r
r e d u c t i o n t o o p e r a t e . A s t he r e a r e two p o s s i b l e vo we l s
wh i c h c o mme n c e A u x i l i a r i e s t h e o f t h e M i d d l e P e r f e c t
m a r k e r a n d t h e P r o j e c t e d I mp e r f e c t a two s u b - r u l e s , M . 1 2 . 1
a n d M . 1 2 . 2 , a r e n e c e s s a r y t o a c c o u n t f o r t r a n s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s .
A t h i r d s u b - r u l e , M . 1 2 . 3 , w i l l d e a l w i t h c l u s t e r r e d u c t i o n .
M . 1 2 . l a [: : :J / [ ( • • • ) {� } ] +
( . . . ) { - } a
[ V b S ]
T h e P ro j e c t e d mo rp h e m e a i s w r i t t e n a s w + a f o l l ow i n g
a V e r b S te rn e n d i n g i n e i t h e r u o r � , a n d a s �+ � fo l l o w i n g
a V e rb S t e rn e n d i n g i n o r a
I t i s i mp o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h i s r u l e d e a l s w i t h t h e
s m a l l s e t o f v o w e l - f i n a l V e r b S te rn s wh i c h d o n o t h a ve a T r a n s -
i t i o n a l V o we l ( s e e p a g e 8 3 ) . W h e n a T r a n s i t i o n a l V o we l d o e s
o c c u r b e f o r e a v o w e l - i n i t i a l Au x i l i a r y , i t i s d e l e t e d ( M . 1 2 . 3 ) .
1 S e e M e t c a l f e ( 1 9 7 1 : 9 2 ) .
2 3 9
E x . 1 5 7 I l l u s tr a t i n g t h e fo u r po s s i b l e vo we l - fi n a l Ve rb
S te ms in the o r d e r s e t o u t in M . 1 2 . l :
a ) U s i n g � ' t o rub '
9 a + n + g u + 9 u 9 u + a + r i
I - E A- P ro j - r ub - P r o j - y ou
' I w i l l r ub y o u . '
b ) U s i n g b + U ' t o sp e a r ' :
o + n + o + a + r
I I - E A - sp e a r - P ro j - t h e m
' Sp e a r t h e m 1 '
M . 1 2 . 1
L a t e r Ru l e s
M . 1 2 . l
L a te r Ru l e s
c ) U s i n g m i ' t o l o o k a r o un d ' :
---+ !) a + n + g u + w + a + r i
- !) a n g u w a r i
� o + n + o + w+ a + r
- o n o w a r
a r a m i + I i + m i + a + a a c;t a M . 1 2 . 1 - a r a m l + I i + m i + y+ a + a a Q a
L a t er N e g I I - P o t - loo k - I mp e r f - fo r
R u l e s a r o u n d u s
' Y ou a r e n o t l oo k i n g a r ou n d fo r u s . '
d ) U s i n g o + i r i ra ' t o t e a s e ' :
a r a m i I i m i y a o a Q a
a + r+ i r i r a + a + 9 a y u M . 1 2 . 1 ---. a + r + i r i r a + y+ a + g a y u
I I - P l u r- t e a s e - P ro j - me
' Y o u w i l l a l l t e a s e me . '
M . 1 2 • 2 i . . .
L a te r R u l e s
w + i . . .
y_ + i . . .
( • • • ) ,!!
( • • • ) � +
( . . . ) � [ V bS ]
T h e i n i t i a l o f t h e M i dd l e P e r f e c t morp he me o r the
Re t r o - a c t i on mo rph eme i s w r i t t e n as w+ i be fo r e an u - f i n a l
V e r b S te m , a s y+l be fo r e a n a - f i n a l V e rb S te m a n d a s a z e r o
mo rpheme be fo r e a n o - f i n a l Ve rb S t em .
2 4 0
E x . 1 5 8
a ) U s i n g a + r d u 1 t o t ur n o ve r 1 :
a + n + a + u d u + i a + a i r M . 1 2 . 2 � a + n + a + u d u + w + i a + a i r
L a t e r D u a l - E A - C l a s s - t ur n - M i d d l e - �
R u l e s o ve r t h e m
' Y o u a n d I t u r n e d t h e m o v e r . '
b ) U s i n g i r i I a ' t o w a v e ' :
i + n + i r i l a + i n a + izJ
I I I - E A - w av e - D u r a t M i d - i t
' H e k e p t w a v i n g i t . '
c ) U s i n g b + U ' t o s p e a r '
M . 1 2 . 2
L a t e r R u l e s
-
a n a u d u w i a i r
i + n + i r i I a + y+ i n a + s6
i n i r i l a y i n a
a r a u + l + o r+ m + o + i n d i + n a n a M . 1 2 . 2 -----. a r a u + l + o r + m + o + @ n o i + n a n a
L a t e r N e g I I I - P o t - P l u r - RA - s p e a r -
Ru l e s RA - D i s t
' T h e y d i d n o t s p e a r e a c h o t h e r . '
a r a u l o r m o n a i n a n a
A s me n t i o n e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e 1 0 - P r e c e d e n c e '
R u l e , M . 9 , t h e v o w e l o e x e r t s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e upon
i t s e n v i r o n me n t . T h e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f Ru l e M . 1 2 . 2 , a s
i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x . 1 5 8 ( c ) , a l s o p r o v i d e s a n i n s t a n c e o f t h e
d om i n an c e o f o
M . 1 2 . 3 ( • • • ) V + V ( • • • ) ----)io... v ( . . . )
W h e n a n y two vo w e l s o c c u r c o n t i g u o u s l y , t h e f i r s t i s
d e l e t e d .
T h e r e a r e two a r e a s i n wh i c h t h i s s ub - r u l e ap p l i e s .
T h e f i r s t i s i n t h e d e l e t i o n o f t h e T r a n s i t i o n a l V o w e l s wh e n
t h e y o c c u r b e f o r e a vo w e l - i n i t i a l A u x i l i a r y o r t h e Re t r o - a c t i o n
mo rp h e m«:=> T h e s e c o n d i s t h e d e l e t i o n o f t h e f i n a l vo w e l o f
a n A · � d r y m o rp h e me o r t h e Q u e s t i o n m a r k e r s u f f i x a d a __.__ o,r
t h e R e t r o - a c t i o n mo rp h e m e b e f o r e a n o t h e r v o w e l .
2 4 1
T h e f i r s t a r e a w i l l b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x . 1 5 9 a n d t h e
s e c o n d b y E x . 1 6 0 .
E x . 1 5 9
a ) U s i n g u n d u r+ u ' t o c u t a c r o s s ' :
u + n + g+ u n d u r + u + a + �
I I � E A - P r o j - c u t a c r o s s - T V P ro j - i t
M . 1 2 . 3
L a t e r Ru l e s
----.. u + n + g + u n d u r + �+ a + �
__., u n g u n d u r a
' H e w i l l c u t a c r o s s i t { t h e p a s s a g e ) . '
b ) U s i n g g + a n d + i ' t o s c r a t c h ' :
l + 9+ a + m+ a n d + i + i n o i + n a
I I I - I A - RA - s c r a t c h - T V - RA D i s t
' H e s c r a t c h e d h i m s e l f . '
E x . 1 6 0
M . 1 2 . 3
L a t e r Ru l e s
a ) U s i n g 1 ; n a + ; ' t o w a i t ' :
Q a + 9 i + I i n o + i + n a + i
I - I A - w a i t - T V - D i s t - f o r y o u
' I w a i t e d f o r y o u . '
M . 1 2 . 3
L a t e r R u l e s
b ) U s i n g � ' t o l o o k f o r l i c e ' :
a Q+ g a + r a + m + a r + i n o i + a
I - P r o j - P 1 u r - RA - 1 o o k - RA- Pro j f o r l i c e
M . 1 2 . 3
L a te r R u l e s
i + g + a + m+ a n d + �+ i n a l + n a
i r;i a m a n d i n o i n a
----. 9 a + g i + I i n a + i + n �+ i
___... l) a l) i 1 i n a i n i
---+ a 9 g a r a m a r i n o a
' W e s h a l l l o o k f o r e a c h o t h e r ' s l i c e . '
c ) U s i n g o + a y a y+ a ' t o l imp ' :
m i + n + a + a y a y+ a + n a + a d a + i r M . 1 2 . 3 ------. m i + n + a + a ya y+ a + n @+ a Q @+ i r
L a t e r I I - I A - C l a s s - l imp - T V - D i s t - --+
R u l e s Q ues tion - E mphat ---
' W e r e y o u l imp i n g b a d l y ? '
m i n a a y a ya n a Q i r
N o t e t h a t i n t h e f i n a l e x amp l e , R u l e M . 1 2 . 3 a pp l i e s t w i c e .
2 4 2
M . 1 3 S U F F I X CON S O N AN T ADJ U S TM E N T
T h e two r u l e s n e c e s s a ry to c o ve r mo d i f i c a t i o n s i n vo l vi n g
s u f f i x c on s on a n t s a g a i n i l l u s t r a t e th e c omp l e m e n t a ry p r o c e s s e s
o f c l u s t e r re du c t i o n and t ra n s i t i o n . H o we ve r , r e du c t i o n i s
l im i t e d t o c o n t i g u o u s i de n t i c a l con s on a n t s , t hu s a l l o w i n g fo r
the r e te n t i on o f c on s o n a n t c l u s te r s wi th i n t he i n f l e c t e d ve r b .
M . 1 3 . l
Whe n i de n t i c a l c o n s o n a n t s o c c u r c o n t ig u ou s l y , t h e f i r s t
i s de l e te d .
E x . 1 6 1 U s i n g g u l + u ' to t h row ' :
M • 1 3 .1 ---+ a r) u + r u + r) u I + i � + o u g a r a L a te r I - P l u r - t h r o w - M i d- fo r y o u -it ----...
Ru l e s
' I t h re w i t f o r yo u . '
a 9 u r u 9 u I i o u g a r a M . 1 3 . 2 [�] �
[o a m b a l / �
I • • • { - } +
n
T h e S e q ue n t i a l C o n j un c t i on s u f f i x a m b a i s wr i t t e n a s a a m b a a n d t h e Q u e s t i o n ma r k e r � a s � imm e d i a te ly
fo l l ow i n g th e c o n s o n an t s a nd n .
T h e po s s i b l e c o n s on an t c on t e x t s a r e I , t h e f i n a l p h o n -
eme o f the C o n t e mp o r a r y mo rph eme � , a n d n , t h e P r e s e n t
o r Du r a t i ve P ro j e c t e d a ux i l i ar y .
E x . 16 2
a ) U s i n g f) U l + u ' t o t h r o w ' :
a + n + g u + f) u I + u + n + a m b a + I i r
D u a l - E A - P r o j - t h ro w - D u r a t P ro j - S e qu - t h e m
M . 1 3 • 2
L a t e r Ru l e
2 4 3
----.... a + n + g u + f) u l + u + n + a a m b a + l l r
---+ a n g u f) u I u n a a m b a I i r
' Th e n y o u a n d I w i l l k e e p o n t h r o w i n g t h e m . '
b ) U s i n g g + a r a r b a l + a ' t o d r o p ' :
i f) + a r + a r a r b a l + a + g a l + a d a + � M . 1 3 . 2 ---+ i 9 + a r + a r a r b a l + a + g a l+bada�
. L a t e r I I I - P l u r - d ro p - N e a r - Q u e s tim-
1 't
R u e
' D i d t h e y d r o p i t ? '
M . 1 4 + - RE MO VAL
1 ---
+
i g a r a r a r b a l a g a l b a Q a
T h i s i s t h e f i n a l r u l e w h i c h w o u l d app l y t o a l l ve r b s .
B e f o r e M . 1 4 , v e r b s w o u l d a pp e a r a s s t r i n g s o f m o rp h e me s
c o n c a t e n a t e d b y p l u s s i g n s . T h i s r u l e r e mo ve s t h e s i gn s
an d l e a ve s t h e f i n a l s u r f a c e f o r m s . I n E x . 1 6 2 , t h e ' L a t e r
R u l e ' r e f e r r e d t o i s M . 1 4 .
2 4 4
5 . 0 RULE OUTP UT
5 . 1 C omp l e te Ve rb D e r i va t i on s
I n th i s S e c t i o n , the s ix ve rb s p� e s e n t ed on page s
are de r i ve d r i g h t thro ugh f rom B as e Rul e s to sur f a c e forms .
5 . 1 . 1
B a s e Rul e s :
Le x i con :
9 a n - ma - n a - @
I - p ut-P r e s - i t ' I am put t i n g i t ( the s t ory down ) . '
N orn
P redP
~ VP NP
A [ B 7 ]
VbN u c Aux
/\ VbN u c Aspect Tense
[ LE . 6 • 1 ] [ L 6 ] [ L . 7 ] Norn
Tran s fo rmat io n s :
[ L l l l
[:LJ [ L 1 1 ] [ -N ]
Re a l i s a t i o n t
M . 1 4
[ T . 1 ]
[ T . 2 ] [ T . 3 ]
[ T . 4 ]
[ -�A f ] 1 I [ + P roA f ] +
/
+ I I I
A [ - N ] [ + P roA f ] k I + [ + P roA f ]
[ + P roA f ] +N umbe r+ [ T . 5 ] � I [ + P roA f ] +�+N umbe r+�+�+ D urat+P e s+ [ +P roA f ]
[ R i l l (r 4l [ l 2 ] (l 3
l
� + n + � + m+a + n a + �
f) a n ma n a
5 . 1 . 2
B a s e R u l e s :
L e x i c o n :
m i n - a a r a l a - n
Y o u - r u n - P r e s
' Y o u a r e r u n n i n g . '
N P [ B 7 ]
N o rn
P r e dP [ B 3 ]
VP
~ V bN u c A u x
2 4 5
A V bN u c A s p e c t T e n s e
[ L 1 1 ] [ LE . 6 . 3 3 ] [ L 6 ] [ L 7 ]
T r a n s f o r ma t i o n s : [:� I ]
Re a l i s a t i o n :
+ S i n g
[ T . l ] A [ - N ] [ + P r o A f ] 1 I [ + P r o A f ] +
/ [ + P r o A f ] + N um b e r +
[ T . 2 ]
[ T . 4 ]
[ T . 6 ] I [ + P r oA f ] + Q+ N u m b e r + £+ �+ �+ D u r a t + P r e s
M o rp h o p h o n e m i c s :
1T 1 l 4 1 l 2 1
m 1 + !l. + 2 + �+ a r a l +� + n
[ M . 8 . 2 ] I n
[ M . 1 4 ]
m i n a a r a l a n
2 4 6
5 . 1 . 3 ( E x . 3 ) : i m - b a n i - n - a 9 a r
I t - f i n i s h - P r e s - E mp h a t i c
B a s e Ru l e s :
L e x i c o n :
' I t ( t h e s t o r y ) i s a b s o l u t e l y f i n i s h e d . '
s [J!.-- l! � ·� N P P re dP
[ B 7 ]
~
N o rn [ L 1 1 ]
VP EM H A T
~ VbN u c A ux
/\ V b N u c A s p e c t T e n s e
[ LE . 6 . 3 ] [ L . 6 ] [ L . 7 ] E MP H A T
T r a n s f o rm a t i o n s : [ : � I I ] [ T . l ]
[ -�A f ]
[ T . 2 ] I [ + P r o A f ]
[ T . 4 ] / [ + P r o A f ] + N u mb e r +
Re a l i s a t i on :
[ T . 6 ] I I [ + P r oA f ] +Q+ N u mle r+
[ T . 1 1 ] I I [ + P r o A f ] + Q+ N umb e r + �+ An + l+ D ur a t+ P r e s + �
+ E MP H A T
Mo rp h o p ho n e mi c s :
[ R l l ] [ R , 4 ] [ R f 2 ]
+ .Q. + _t + b + A n + i + n + � [ M . 6 . 2 )
[ M . 8 . 2 ]
[ M . 1 4 ]
+ m +
i m b a n i n a Q a r
LL r -1 b + a n + i + n + �
5 . 1 . 4
B a s e R u l e s :
L e x i c o n :
T r a n s f o r ma t i o n s :
[ 'f . l ]
[ T . 2 ]
i F) - g - a t g - a l g a m a - � a - n a I t - C l a s s - I n t e n s - mo v e - D u r a t - D i s t
2 4 7
' I t k e p t o n mo v i n g a b o u t v i g o r o u s l y . '
s
~ N P P r e d P [ B 7 ] [ B l 3 ]
VP
�� I N T E N S V b N u c A u x
N orn [ L l l J [ - N ]
+ I I I + S i n g
�"" [ - N ] [ + P r o A f ] � I N T E N S [ + P ro A f ] +
V bN u c [ L E . 6 . 2 9 ]
7\ A s p e c t T e n s e [ L 6 ] [ L 7 ]
[ T . 4 ] / + P r o�mb e r +
[ T . 6 ] I I I N T E N S [ + P r o A f ] + �+ N umb e r +
[ T . 1 0 . l ]
R e a l i s a t i o n :
M . 1 4
[ + P r o A f J + n+ N um b e r+ g+ .Q.J_g_+ ____. __ a�m�+ �+ D u r a t + D i s t [ R( [ Rr
7\ + !1 + t + _g_+ �+ a I g a m + � + n a + n a
i F) g a l g a l g a m a n a n a
2 4 8
5. 1 . 5 ( E x . 5 )
a r a g u - 1 - u r u - m - u g u l - i n d i - n a - a a n
N e g y o u - P o t - P l u r - RA - b r e a k - RA - M i d - f o r me ( Re f e r )
' Y o u w e r e n o t b r e a k i n g y o u r s e l v e s ( i n c on c e r n ) f o r m e . ' s
B - Ru l e s : [ B 1 1
L e x i c o n :
T - Ru l e s :
[ T . 1 ]
[ T . 2 ] [ T . 3 ]
[ T . 4 ] [ T . 5 ]
[ T . 8 ]
N E G
[ T . 9 . 2 ] 1 a r a
[ T . 15 .211 R -R u l e s : a r a
M -Ru l e s : [ M . 3 ]
[ M . 7 ]
[ M . 1 2 . 3 )
[ M . 1 4 )
a r a
N P [ B 7 ]
N E G
N orn N E G [ L 1 1
J
[ - N ] + I I
- S i n g /\ [ - N ] [+ProAf ] �
N E G [ + P r o A f ] +
V b N u c A u x x VbN uc A sp T e n s e e c t [ L 7 )
[ L 6 ]
N P -� C o mp l e [ B 7 ] [ B I S
J
P o s t p o s P /\ N P P o s t p o s
[B.r [ B r O ]
N o rn N o rn D a t i v e [ L f 1 ] [ L 1 1 ] [L E .2 • 3]
[ :� I ] [ :� ] - S i n g + S i n g
� A [-N] [+ ProAf] [-N] [ +ProAf] � I
+[+ProAf] I n + N um+ d + � + u + A s p + M i d+ [ -+ProAf ] T b e r T I T e c t � �
[ + P r o A f ] + _Q_ !!1_+ �+ .!:'_+ i n�pl-M id
I eel I 1 [ - N ] [ + P r o A f ] !@..!!
T �/ � [ + P r0 A f l + l+ N um +�+ �+ �+l!l.2J..: M i d + [ + P r 0 A f ]
[ R 1 ) b e r [ R 2 ) + Re f e r
.9J:!..2 +
I �
[ R i 4 ] l S ]
+ r + m+ u u I + u + i n a i + n a + a a n
l+u+r+-u+ m
I I � + l +u+r+u+m+�+ £+� + � + a a n
a r a g u l u r u m u g u l i n d i n a a a n
2 4 9
5 . 1 . 6 ( E x . 6 )
u g - g - i r - i g u - g u r - a - a a n - i r
T h e y - P r o j -p l u r - I n t e n s - m a k e c a t a m a r a n - P r o j - f o r m e - t h e m
' T h e y w i l l s u r e l y ma k e t h e m ( t h e t w o s e c t i o n s o f a
c a t a m a r a n ) f o r m e . '
S - Ru l e s :
L e x i c o n :
T - R u l e s :
[ T . 1 ]
N P [ B 7 ]
s
P r e dP
-------� ----- _ _/_ � VP N P C o m p l e
[ B 4 ] [ B 7 ] [ B l 5 ]
I N T E N S V bN u c
P o s tp o s P x A u x N P Postpo s A [ B f [ B . ,l O l
N orn I N T E N S V bN u c Aspect Te nse N orn N orn Dative [ L 1 1 l [ L . 6 l [ L • 7 l [ L 1 1 l [ L i 1 l [LE . 2 3l
[ :� I I ] [:� I I ] [:� ] - S i n g - S i n g + S i n g
A � A [ T . 2 ]
[ - N ] [ + P r oA f ] [-N] [+Pro Af] [-N ] [+ProAf]
[ T . 3 ] I 1 I
[ T . 4 ] I N T E N S [ + P r o A f ] + + [ + P r o A f ]
[ T� ���+ P r o�+ N um + �+�+t I
T .9_+ ,!_+ .9..'::!_+ �+ u + [+ProAf] [-N ] [+ P roAf] T R - [ T . 1 5 . 2 1 I I I I 1 �/ �
Ru l e s : [ + P r o A f ] + !!_+ N urn+ a +.!_+ �+ �+ �+ N o n + P r o j + r+ ProAf�A f ] [ R . l ] b e r J . . J.. . . . . t . D. ur at L + Re f er J [ R . 3 l
[ R . 4 ] .
[ R . 2 ] [ R . 5 ]
M -__ L - - - - - -- --- - - --: . - -- --1 l
Ru l e s : i r) + �+ g_+ r_+�+ .!_+�+ �+ � + � + Cf a n
-! I [ M . l . l ] U r)
[ M . 2 ]
[ M . 5 . 2 ]
[ M . 6 . 1 ]
[ M . 7 ]
+
I [ M . 1 1 . 3 . 2 ] a a n + i r
[ M . 1 2 . 3 l u r) + g i r + � + �+ g u r+ 95 +
[ M . 1 4 ] u r) g i r i g u g u r a CJ a n i r
-I -I a + Cl a n + i r
r
2 5 0
5 . 2 V e r b P a r a d i g m s
T he p a r a d i gm s p r e s e n t t h e I n d i c a t i v e f o r m s o f a repr e s e n t -
a t i ve s e t o f v e r b s . E x t r a - , I n t r a - a n d R e t r o - a c t i ve v e r b a l
f o rm s f ro m the .. -fo.u-r::- --·-c ·l·a s s e s a r e g i v e n i n a l l t e n s e s . T h e
E x t r a - a c t i v e v e r b s a l l h a v e t h e t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r O b j e c t
s u f f i x �
P a r a d i gm 1 ( P . l ) , � - C l a s s v e r b s , p r e s e n t s a v o w e l - i n i t -
i a l , a v o w e l - f i n a l a n d a vo w e l -m e d i a l V e r b S t e m . T h e
b - C l a s s v e r b s o f P . 2 i l l u s t r a t e t h e r e a l i s a t i on s o f t h e m o r ph o -
p ho n e me s U a n d A . T he �- C l a s s v e r b s o f P . 3 g i v e e x a mp l e s
o f t h e I mo r p h o ph o n e m e a n d t h e o p t i o n a l R e t r o - a c t i v e m o r p h em e
m . C l a s s � v e r b s , P . 4 , a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e o n e v e r b
' to l a ug h ( a t ) ' , w h i c h c a n e x p r e s s a l l t h r e e A c t i o n T yp e s .
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• • • • · • • • • · •
a - r - m - u l u g - i n a - i - g a l o
g u - r - m - · · · · · · • · · · · · • ·
i - r - m - · · · · • • · · · • · · · · •
8 a - � - u m - u l u g - i n a - i - g a l o
m i - 8 - u m - · · · · · · · • · · · • · • ·
i - 8 - u m - · · • · • • · • · • · · • • ·
a - 8 - u m - · • · · · • · • • • • · · • •
a 8 - u r - m - u l u g - i n a - i - g a 1 a
I I g u f') - i r - i - · · • · · • · • · • • • g u r:i - i r - a - · • • · • • · · g u r:i - u r - m - · · · • • • • • · • • • • • •
I I I i f) - i r - i - · • • · • · • · · · • · i r:i - i r - a - · • • • · · • • · i 8 - u r - m - · · • • • • • • • • • • • • •
t
p . 3 . 2 ( C o n t . )
P . 3 a - C l a s s V e r b s
p
E
R
F
E
c
T
T
E
N
s
E
M i d d 1 e
D i s
t
a
n t
N
u
M
B
E
R
s i n g
p 1 u r
s i n g
p 1 u r
I
p
E
R
s
0
N
I I
I I I
D u a l
{ I n c } E x e
I I
I I I
I
I I
I I I
D u a l
{ I n c } E x e I I
I I I
A C T I 0 N T Y P E
E x t r a - A c t i v e I n t r a - A c t i v e R e t r o - A c t i v e
a + r b a r + a ' s i n g e ' a + i d + i ' g o , w a l k ' a + u l u g + u ' w a s h '
r:i a - n - a - u - b a r - i a - �
m i - n - a - u - · · · •
i - n - a - u - • . • . • . .
a - n - a - u - . . . . . . .
a r:i - i r - i - b a r - i a - �
g u r:i - i r - i - • · • · • · •
i r:i - i r - 1 - · · • • • ·
r:i a - n - a - u - b a r - a - n a - �
m i - n - a - u - · · . . • • • •
i - n - a - u - · · · · · · · · · ·
a - n - a - u - • . • • . . . . . .
a f) - i r - i - b a r - a - n a - �
g u f) - i r - i - · · · · · · · · · ·
i f) - i r - i - · · · · · · · · · ·
r:i a - n - a - i d - i a
m i - n - a - · ·
i - n - a - · · · •
a - n - a - · • •
a r:i - i r - a - i d - i a
g u r:i - i r - a - · · • •
i r:i - i r - a - • • . • •
r:i a - n - a - i d - i - n a
m i - n - a - · . . • • •
i - n - a - · · · · · ·
a - n - a - . . . . . . .
a T) - i r - a - i d - i - n a
g u r:i - i r - a - . . . . . . .
i f) - i r - a - • • • • • • •
r:i a - r:i - u m - u l u g - i � o - i a
m i - f) - u m - · · • • · • · •
i - f) - u m - · · · · • · •
a - I) - u m - · · · · · · · · ·
a r:i - u r - m - u l u g - i n o - i a
g u r:i - u r - m - · • · · · • • • • •
i r:i - u r - m - · • · • · · •
r:i a - f) - u m - u l u g - i n a - i - n a
m i - f) - u m - · · · · · · · · · · • ·
i - r:i - u m - · · • • • · • · • · · ·
a - r:i - u m - • • • • · • • · · · •
a f) - u r - m - u l u g - i n a - i - n a
g u f) - u r - m - • • • • • • • • • • • • •
i Q - u r - m - · · • • • • • • • • • • •
P . 4 . 1
N
°'
0
P . 4 9 - C l a s s Ve r b s
T N p
E u E
N M R
s B s
E E 0
R N
I p s I r i 0 I I
M n j g 1: I I e
p c D u a l
t E e p { I nc }
d 1 Ex e I I
u R r I I I
F
p s I E r i
e I I n
c s g I I I e n D u a l
T t
p { I n c } 1 E x e
I I u r I I I
A c T I 0 N T y p E
E x t r a - Ac t i v e I n tr a - Ac t i v e R e t r o - A c t i v e
g+ a m+ a ' l a u gh a t ' g + a m+ a ' l a u gh ' g + a m+ a ' l a u gh a t '
r) a - n - g - a m - a - 95 r) a - r) - g - a m- a r) a - r) - g - a m- i n a - a
a - n - . . . . . . r) - a - y- · · · · ') - a - y- . . . . . . . .
u - n - g - • • • • • • u - r) - g - · · · · u - 1) - g - . . . . . . . .
a - n - g - • • • • • • a - f) - g - · · · · a - 1) - g - · · · · · · · ·
a r) - g - a r - a m- a - 95 a r) - g -a r - g - a m - a a r) - g - a r - g - a m - i n a - a
a - r - . . . . . . a - r- g - · · · · a - r - g - . . . . . . . .
u r) - g - a r - · · · · · · u r) - g - a r - g - · • • • u r) - g - a r- g - • • • • • • • •
') a - n - g - a m- a - n a - 95 ') a - y- a m- a - n a f) a - y- a m- J n a - 1 - n a
m t - n - g - · · · · · · · · · m I - y- • • • • • • • m 1 - y- · · · · · · · · · · ·
. 1 - n - g - · · · · · · · · · I - y- • • • • • • • l - y- . . . . . . . . . . .
a - n - g - · · · · · · · · · a - y - . . . . . . . a - y- . . . . . . . . . . .
a - r - a m - a - n a - 95 a - r - g - a m- a - n a a - r - g - a m- 1 n a - 1 - n a
g u - r - . . . . . . . . . g u - r- g - • • • • • • • g u - r - g - · · · · · · · · · · ·
i - r - . . . . . . . . . 1 - r- g - · · · · · · · 1 - r- g - · · · · · · · · · · ·
P . 4 . 2
N °' __,
P . 4 g - C l a s s V e r b s
T N p E u E
N M R s B s E E 0
R N
p I s I m i I I
E m n e g I I I d Du a l R i
a { I nc } F
t p E x e
e 1 I I u
E r I I I
c
N s I T e i I I
a n r g I I I
D u a l
p { I n c } 1 E x e
I I u r I I I
A c T I 0 N T y p E
E x t r a - A c t i v e I n tr a - A c t i v e R e t r o - A c t i v e
g +a m+a ' l a u g h a t ' g + a m+ a ' l augh ' g + a m+ a ' l au gh a t '
f) a - n - g - a m- a - g a l a - � f) a - y- a m - a - g a l a f) a - y - a m - i n a - i - g a l a
m i - n - g - · • • • • · • • • • • m i - y- · · · · · · · · · m I - y- • • • • • • • • • • • • •
I - n - g - • • • • • • • • • • • i - y- . . . . . . . . . I - y - • • • • • • • • • • • • •
a - n - g - · · · · · · · · · · · a - y- . . . . . . . . . a - y- . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a - r - a m- a - g a l a - � a - r- g - a m- a - g a l a a - r - g - a m- i n a - i - g a l a
g u - r - . . . . . . . . . . . g u - r - g - · · · · · · · · · g u - r- g- · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
i - r - . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - r- g - · · · · · · · · · 1 - r - g - · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
f) a - n - a f) - g - a m- a - g a t a - � l) a - 1) - g - a m- a - g a t a f) a - 1) - g - a m- i n a - J - g a l a
m i - n - a l) - g - · · · · · · · · · · · m 1 - f) - g - · • • • • • • •
• m a - f) - g - · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
i - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · · · · · I - 1) - g - • • • • • • • • • i - 1) - g - · . . . . . . . . . . . .
a - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · · · · · a - 1) - g - . . . . . . . . . a - f) - g - . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a 1) - a r - a m - a - g a l a - � a f) - a r - g - a m- a - g a l a a f) - a r - g - a m - i n a - i - g a t a
g u f) - a r - . . . . . . . . . . . � u f) - a r - g - · · · · · · · · · g u f) - a r - g - · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
i f) - a r · - . . . . . . . . . . . i f) - a r - g - · · · · · · · · · i � - a r - g - · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
P . 4 . 2 ( Co n t . )
N O"l N
P . 4 g - C l a s s V e r b s
T N p E u E N M R s B s E E 0
R N
p M s I . ; i I I
E d n d g I I I 1 D u a l
R e
F p { I nc } 1 E x e
I I u E r I I I
c
D s I T ; i I I
s n t g I I I a D u a l n t { I n c } p
1 E x e I I
u r I I I
A c T I 0 N T y p E E x tr a - A c t i v e I n t r a - A c t i v e R e t r o - A c t i v e 9 +a m +a ' l a u gh a t ' g+ a m+ a ' l a u gh ' g+ a m+ a ' l a u g h a t '
l) a - n - a f) - g - a m - i a - � f) a - f) - g - a m- i o f) a - f) - g - a m- i n a - ; a
m i - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · m i - f) - g - · • • • • m i - f) - g - · · · • • • • • •
i - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · i - f) - g - · • . • • j - f) - g - • • • • • • • • •
a - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · a - f) - g - • • • • • a - 1) - g - . . . . . . . . .
a f) - a r - a m- i a - szi a f) - a r - g - a m - i o a f) - a r - g - am - i n a - 1 a
19 u f) - a r - . . . . . . . � u f) - a r- g - · · · · · � u f) - a r - g - · · · · · · · · ·
j f) - a r - . . . . . . . i f) - a r - g - · · · · · i f) - a r- g - · · · · · · · · ·
f) a - n - a f) - g - a m- a - n a - � f) a - f) - g - a m - a - n a f) a - f) - g - a m- i n o - i - n a m i - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · · · m i - f) - g - · • • • • • • m 1 - f) - g - · · · · · · · · · · ·
i - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · · · i - ') - g - . . . . . . . J - f) - g - . . . . . . . . . . . a - n - a f) - g - · · · · · · · · · a - 1) - g - • • • • • • .
a - 1) - g - . • . . . • . • . . .
a Q - a r - a m - a - n a - � a f) - a r - g - am - a - n a a f) - a r - g -a m - i n a - i - n a
19 u f) - a r - . . . . . . . . . p u l) - a r - g - · · · · · · · s u f) - a r - g - · · · · · · · · · · ·
i 1) - a r - . . . . . . . . . i l) - a r - g - · · · · · • • i I) - a r - g - • • • • • • • • • • •
6 . 0 A P P E N D I CE S
6 . 1 I r r e g u l a r Ve r b s
RE F E RE N C E :
2 6 3
L . 4 . 8 / 9 8 4 . 2 . 1 / 2 0 0
I r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n B a f d i ve r b s t r u c t u r e a r e l i m i t e d t o a
s m a l l n umb e r o f th e mo s t c om mo n l y u s e d v e r b s a n d , i n a l m o s t
e ve r y c a s e , t o th e P r e s e n t a n d I mm e d i a t e P e r f e c t T e n s e s .
I r r e g : l ' t o c a r ry , t ak e a w a y ' L E . 6 . 4 / 1 1 2
T h e P r e s e n t I mp e r f e c t a n d t h e I m me d i a te P e r f e c t s i n g u l a r
f o rm s h a ve t h e c o n s o n a n t a
s I
i I I
n I I I
g D u a l
P RE S E N T
Q a - n - g a - a - a - n o - �
m i - • • . . . a . . . . . . .
i - . . . . . a .
a - . . . . . a .
. . . .
. . . .
. .
. .
a s t h e V e r b S t e rn .
I MME D I A T E
Q a - n - g a - a - a - g a l a - �
m i - · . . . · a · . . . . . . . .
I - · · · · · a · · · · · · · · ·
a - . • • • . a . . . . . . . . .
I r r e g : 2 ' t o s p e a r , k i l l , g i ve n e e d l e s ' LE . 6 . 8 / 1 1 2
T h e s a m e rn o d i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e w i t h b + U a s w i t h
t h e p r e v i o u s ve r b .
P RE S E N T
s r Q a - n - b - u - a - a - n a - �
i I I m i - · · · · · · a · · · · · · ·
n I I I i - · · · · · · o · · · · · · ·
g D u a l a - · · · · · · a · · · · · · ·
I MME D I AT E
Q a - n - b - u - a - a - g a l o - �
m i . . . . . . . a • . • . . . . . .
. . . . . . . a . . . . . . . .
a . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . .
2 6 4
I r r e g : J <J + r , ' t o a d d r e s s , s a y t o ' L E . 6 . 2 1 / 1 1 3
I n t h e P r e s e n t a n d I m m e d i a t e s i n g u l a r o f t h i s v e r b , t h e
V e r b N u c l e u s i s d a T h e s e c o n d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r P r o j e c t e d
( t h e I mp e r a t i v e ) f o r m i s s h o r t e n e d t o a n a a
S I
i I I
n I I I
g D u a l
P RE S E N 'l'
r) a - n - d a - n a - st
m i · · • d a · · • · ·
• • • d a • • • •
a · · · d a · · · · ·
I r r e g : 4 l_+.9_ , ' t o b e , e x i s t '
I M M E D I A T E
rJ a - n - d a - g a I a - )li
m i · · · d a · · · • · • •
· • · d a • • • • • • •
a · · · d a · · · · · · ·
L E . 6 . 3 0 / 1 1 3
W i t h t h i s I n t r a - a c t i v e v e r b , t h e s a me t e n s e s a r e a f f e c t e d
i n b o t h s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l f o r m s .
c h a n g e s t o , a n d t h e r e i s a n n
t h e s i n g u l a r f o r m s .
S I
i I I
n I I I
g D u a l
p I
1 I I
u I I I
r
P RE S E N T
f) a - n - i - n a
m i - n - i
i - n - i
a - n - i
a - r - i - n a
g u • • . i
i . . . i
T h e T r a n s i t i o n a l V o w e l
a d d e d t o t h e N u c l e u s i n
I M ME D I A T E
f) a - n - i - g a l a
m i - n - i
i - n - i
a - n - i
a - r - i - g a l a
g u • • • i
i . . . i
I r r e g : S g_+�+� , ' t o w a l k t o , a pp r o a c h ' ( E x t r a - a c t i ve )
T h i s v e r b w a s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a c t o r o f ' A b b r e v
i a t i o n ' i n S e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 1 / 2 0 0 w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o c o m m o n B a ;- d i
v e r b s . T h e A u x i l i a r i e s o f t h e I mp e r f e c t T e n s e s a r e d e l e t e d
i n s u r f a c e f o r m s .
P R 0 ,J E C 'l' E LJ
s I rJ CJ - n - g - CJ I - "; r) a - n - g - a I - 0
i I I a - n - a l - p m i · · · · · · · · ·
n I I I u - n - g - a l - p
g D u a l a • • • • • • . • . a . . • • • • • • •
p I cJ rJ - g a - r - a I - J/1
l I I d r . . . . . g u . • . • . • .
u
I I I r
u r) - g a - r · · · · · i . . . . . . .
I r r c g : 6 t_+ -9_ , ' t o g i v e ' ( E x t r a - a c t i v e )
T h e M i d d l e P e r f e c t f o r m s o f t h i s v e r b a r e a b b r e v i a t e d .
N O N - D U RA T I V E M I D D L E D U R A T I V E M I D D L E
s I fJ a - n - a - a - 0
i I I m i · · · · · · · · m i · · · · · · · ·
n I I I
g D u a l a . . . . . . . . a • • • • • • • •
p I a l) - a r - i n a - 0 1
I I
u
I I I r
i f) • • • • • • • • •
6 . 2 Ve rb Mo rpheme L i s t
MORP HEME DE S C R I P T I ON
a - P ro nom i n a l S ub j e c t
a - P ro nom i n a l S ub j e c t
a - P r o nom i n a l S ub j e c t
- a I n d e f i n i t e A c t i on
- a N o n - D u r a t ive I mp e r f e c t T e n s e s
- a Po t/N e g Imp e r f e c t T e n s e s
- a d a --L- Que s t i o n M a r k e r
- a m b a S e que n t i a l C o n j u n c t i on
- a n Re f e r . P ro n om i n a l A f f i x
�- P ro nom i n a l S ub j e c t
- � I n t r a - a c t i o n E mph a t i c
a r a N e g a t i ve
- b - C l a s s M ar k e r
- b T empo r a l Re l a to r
- b a - N o m i n a l R e l a t o r
-� Que s t i o n M a r k e r
- a - C l a s s M a r k e r
-� Re f e r . P ronom i na l A f f i x
- a a Q i r D i - tr an s . P r onom i n a l A f f i x
- a a m b a S e que n t i a l C o n j un c t i on
- a a n Re f e r . P ronom i n a l A f f ix
- a a ra n Re f e r . P ro n om i n a l A f f ix
- o a r a n D i - tr a n s . P r on om i n a l A f f ix
- o a r g u r P ro n om i n a l O b j e c t
- o a rm u d u P ro n om i n a l O b j e c t
- a a r ga yu P ro n om i n a l O b j e c t
- a a r wa y i P ro nom i n a l O b j e c t
FEATU RE S
[ + D ua l ]
[ + { I n c } ] E x e
[ + I I ]
[ + ! , + S i n g ]
[ + { I n c } ] E x e
[ + { I n c } ] E x e
[ + { I n c } ] Ex e
[ + ! , + S i ng ]
I + I , + S i ng ]
[ + ! , + S in g ]
[ + I I , - S in g ]
[ + { I n c } ] Ex e
[ + ! , + S i ng ]
[ +D ua l ]
2 6 6
P AGE
1 8 6
2 1 1
2 0 4
1 8 8
1 8 8
1 8 8
1 5 6
1 7 0
1 9 5
1 8 6
1 5 1
1 4 7
8 1
1 7 7
1 7 9
2 4 2
8 1
1 9 5
2 3 6
2 4 2
1 9 5
2 3 5
2 3 6
2 3 2
2 3 2
2 3 2
2 3 2
MORP HEME D E S CR I PT I ON
- a 1 R e f e r . P r o n om i n a l Af f i x
-lin. R e f er . P r onom i n a l . A f f ix
- a l r Re f e r . Pr on om i n a l A f f i x
-a t r D i - tr a n s . P r on omi na l Af f i x
-£1.rj_ R e f e r . P r on om i n a l Af f i x
- a I r I D i - tr an s . Pr on om i n a l A f f i x
- a I r I P r o n om i na l Ob j e c t
- a i r I n R e f er . P r o n om i n a l Af f ix
- o l r l n D i - tr an s . P r onom i n a l A f f ix
-a i r l r D i - tr a n s . P r onom i n a l A f f ix
-o u g a r a Re f e r . Pr on om i n a l Af f i x
-au ga r l r D i - tr an s . P r on om i n a l Af f i x
-Cl o w u R e f e r . P r on om i n a l A f f i x
- a o w l r D i - tr an s . P r o n om i n a l Af f i x
- a- C l a s s Mar k er
-_g_- Pr o j e c te d T e n s e P r e f i x
- ga I ( a ) C on t emp or ar y P er f e c t T e n s e
9-l:!_- P r on om i n a l S ub j e c t
�- P r on om i n a l S ub j e c t
-.9J!.!:. P r on om i n a l Ob j e c t
I - P r o n omi n a l S ub j e c t
- I Re f er . Pr on om i n a l Af f i x
- t a
- I n
M i dd l e P er f e c t T e n s e
Re f er . P r on om i n a l A f f i x
F EATURE S
[ + ! ! , + S i n g ]
[ + I I I , + S i n g ]
[ + I I I , - S i n g ]
[ + I I , + S i n g ]
[ + I I , + S i ng ]
[ + ! ! , + S i n g ]
[ + I I , + S i n g ]
[ + I I I , + S i n g ]
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[ + I I I , - S i n g ]
[ + I I , - S i n g
[ + I I , - S i n g ]
[ + Dua l ]
[ + Du a l ]
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1 9 5
1 9 5
1 9 5
2 3 6
2 3 5
2 3 6
2 3 2
2 3 5
2 3 6
2 3 6
1 9 5
2 3 6
1 9 5
2 3 6
8 1
1 8 8
1 8 8
2 1 1
1 8 6
1 9 2
1 8 6
1 9 5
1 8 8
1 9 5
2 6 8 M O R P H EM E D E S C RI P T I ON F E A TU RE S P AGE
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- f n a f R e tr o -A c t i o n M ar k e r 1 4 1
l.!l- P r o nomi na l Su b j e c t [ + I I I , - S i ng ] 1 8 6
- f r I n t r a -A c t i o n Empha t i c 1 5 1
- 1 - P o t e n t i a l 1 4 5
- I a n Re f e r . P r o n om i na l A f f ix [ + ! , + S i ng ] 2 3 5
-� P r o n om i n a l O b j e c t [ + ! ! , - S i ng ] 2 3 3
- I i R e f e r . P r on om i na l A f f ix [ + ! ! , + S i ng ] 2 3 5
- I i P r o n om ina l Ob j e c t [ + ! ! , + S i ng ] 2 3 3
- I l n R e f e r . P r onomi n a l Af f ix [ + I I I , + S i n g ] 2 3 5
- I i r P r onomi n a l Ob j e c t [ + I I I , - S i n g ] 2 3 3
- I I r R e f e r . P r o n om i n a l A f f ix [ + I I I , - S i n g ] 2 3 5
- l m u d u P r o n om i n a l Ob j e c t [ + { I n c } ] Ex e
2 3 3
- I wa 'i. i Pr o n orn i n a l Ob j e c t [ + Dua l ] 2 3 3
-m - I n tr a -A c t i o n M a r k e r 2 2 9
- m - R e tr o -A c t i on Mar k e r 1 4 4
m a - I n f i n i t i v e P r e f ix 1 5 4
m i - P r o n om i n a l S ub j e c t [ + I I , + S i ng ] 1 8 6
-m u d u P r on om i n a l Ob j e c t [ + { I n c } ] E x e 1 9 2
- n - I n tr a -A c t i on Ma r k er 2 2 9
- n - Ex tr a - A c t i on M a r k e r 1 3 5
- n - D u r a t . A sp e c t 1 8 9
- n I n f i n i t i v e S u f f ix 1 5 4
- na D i s t a n t P e r f e c t T e n s e 1 8 8
- n a P ot e n ti a l /N e g Aux i l i a r y [ + {C on t emp } ] 1 8 8 M idd l e
- n a n a P o t e n t i a l /Neg Aux i l ia r y [ -M idd l e ] 1 8 8
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P r o n o m i n a l O b j e c t
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P ro n om in a l S u b j e c t
P r o nom i n a l Sub j e c t
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C l a s s M a r k e r
P r o nom i n a l O b j e c t
C l a s s M a rk e r
FEATU RE S
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[ + I , + S ing ]
[ + I I I , - S i ng ]
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[ + I I I , - S i ng ]
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269
PAGE
1 8 8
1 3 6
1 5 9
1 86
15 3
3 6
1 92
128
192
1 92
20 3
20 3
20 3
21 9
1 92
21 9
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2 7 0
T h i s t e x t i s P a r t O n e o f a two - p a r t d e s c r i p t i o n n a rr a ted
b y a B a f d i m a n , Mr T udo r E j a i . I t i s a v a i l ab l e i n t a p e a nd
t r an s c r ip t f o rm t h r o u g h t h e A u s t r a l ian I n s t i tut e o f A bo r i g i n a l
S t ud i e s ( T ap e C a t a l o g u e N o . A l 8 3 9 ) . T h e g e n e r a l t i t l e o f
the t ap e i s , ' D e a th , B u r i a l and E x i s t e n ce A f t e r D e a t h ' a n d
the s ub - t i t le o f P a r t O n e i s , ' T r e e - s t a g e B ur i a l a n d t h e
O rd e a l o f L o k i b i n S a l ! ' .
E a ch l i n e and e a ch v e rb a r e n umb e r e d , w i th t h e l i ne
n umb e r s app e a r i n g i n t h e l e f t - ha n d c o l umn a n d th e v e r b n umb e r s
a f t e r t h e v e r b i n p a r e n th e s e s . A f r e e t r a n s l a t i o n fo l l o w s .
1
2
3
4
5
6
a a w a l f) a n - m a n - f6 ( 1 ) a a r t · f) a n a t n ·
S to r y I - am p ut t i ng - i t t h i s . T r e e co f f i n .
l 9 a r a - m a n a n a - r ( 2 ) a m b � o r a n m l I o n ·
T he y - u s e d to p u t - th e m m e n a n d wom e n ' b e fo r e ' t ime s .
b a Q a g - o n g a p d I · l n - a t b l n ( 3 ) a r t n a - a 9 a r a m b a ·
T r e e - i n o n top . H e - d i e d o n e - I n t e n s i f i e r m a n .
ma l a m b u · t m - b a n f n a ( 4 ) · g f n l gg a r a t 9 a r a - n a - f6 ( 5 )
Ma l umbo B ay . H e - d i e d .
� · g a n d u r ma n - n l m a t n - l r
T h e n t h e y - t oo k - h i m
l g a r a - n a - 95 ( 6 ) •
away . R e l a t i o n s -A g e n t h i s - th ey t h e y - t o o k - h im .
ii u n f g a r a - m a n a - p5 ( 7 ) g u n d u l m a r a ga n d t ·
T he r e th e y - p u t - h im G u n d u l m a r a H i l l o n top .
7
8
9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
2 7 1
l r) l r - o n b a Q a g · Q a n a l n - g u n · I Q u r u -
T r e e n a m e - o n b r a n c h e s . T r e e c o f f i n - i n . T he y -
l u l u r u n u - szj ( 8 ) n u r u a r n a r w a r a · b a l a b u a a g u d
l i t - i t f i r e h i s d e a d m a n . B a c k r e t u r n e d
l r) l r l - n l ( 9 ) • b u r u - f) a n I Q - g a Q l n a ( 1 0 ) m a r ·
t h e y - szS . T i m e - fo r i t - we n t i n T emp - s u n s e t .
a t b f Q a r a - ma n a - r ( 1 1 ) . ya n d a l I r - Q a
H e r e t h e y- p l a c ed - th e m . D i v i n i n g p e g s t h e i r - n ame
b a Q a g a · 9 t n i l') g b a Q a g a · a a w a l - Q l d i
s t i c k s . T h o s e s t i c k s . M e s s a g e - p e r t a i n i n g t o
b a Q a g a g i ii l r)g • a l') g l - n l m l n - b u a a n - flS ( 1 2 ) 0 -
s t i c k s th o s e . W h o - A g e n t he - k i l l e d - h im C o n j
a '.) g l - n l m l n u - l') u r u b u n a n a - £6 ( 1 3 ) m l r u r u n u
wh o - A gent h e - f o l l o we d - h i m ( a s a ) ' s h a d o w -m a n '
9 1 n 1 F) s a m b a 9 1 n 1 F) g b a Q a g • y a n d a l - b a - o i b
t h a t m a n ( i s ) t h a t s t i c k . P e g s - Re l a te r - t h e s e
I r a - m a n - f r ( 1 4 ) a a w a l - F) a m a y- u } F) a - n ( 1 5 )
t h e y - p u t - t h e m m e s s a g e - w i t h I n f i n i t i ve - t e l l - I n f i n i t i ve
a r r n u n o u - b a l - i r a t w a r a - n l m
t o t h e m t h e l i v i n g - Re l a te r - t h e m d e a d ma n -A g e n t
a m b u r l n · g l n l l') g a r a b l r a r i r) l r i - n l - 1') ( 1 6 )
p e op l e . T h e n l e f t b e h i n d t h e y - szS - w i t h i t
b l a a t w a r a · b a l a b u r a w f n I F) a r a - m a n ( 1 7 ) a m b u r l ii
t h i s d e ad ma n . B a c k w a l k e d t h e y - szS p e op l e
1 9 b a I t - 9 a n • .9...!..r.
2 7 2
l 9 a r - a l a n a ( 1 8 ) d a g a d a g t g t r t - n t ( 1 9 ) .
c amp- t o . S t a y e d the y - w e n t a b o u t s l e p t t h ey - szS .
2 0 m u y u n t g a r - o a r m f n a ( 2 0 ) � · d a r l 9 a r - a o a ( 2 1 )
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
E ar l y the y - ro s e up away . C ame the y - szS
n u n u · l g a r - a l a n a - pS ( 2 2 ) n l d t b a n f __.__
the r e . T h e y - l o o k ed a t - i t Q u a n t i t a t i v e th i s way s aw
f g a r - a l a n a - pS ( 2 3 ) • a r a - g l o u l a r - a l a n a - ; ( 2 4 )
the y - s aw- i t . N e g- I n t en s i f i e r t h e y - s aw- h i m
n I d I • m f r u r u n u n 1 - l') a a m b a g t n l 9 g
Q u an t i t a t i ve . ' S h a dow- m a n ' h i s - n am e be i n g t h a t .
g a p a b f n l - b · a r a u l a r - a f a n a - ; ( 2 5 ) n l n b t l ·
Mur d e r e r - R e l at e r . N e g th e y - s aw- i t
a a g u d l g f r l - n l ( 2 6 ) b a l a b u · .9lr.
t r a c k .
t g a r - a I a n a ( 2 7 ) •
Re t ur n ed t h e y - szS b a c k . S t ay e d t h e y - we n t abdut
2 6 i r o a r a m a r i n o u n a ( 2 8 ) � · g l n i r;i g a r a ill
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
T h r e e T e mp i t wa s t i m e . T h e n sp o k e
l g l r i - n - l n ( 2 9 ) r u w i I a - n a ( 3 0 ) a u · �
t h e y - s a i d - t o h i m L o k i g o y o u - szS you o f f
i l') f r i - n - f n ( 3 1 ) •
the y - s a i d - t o h im .
f) a n o t n - g u n ·
l a g a l o a m b a l) a : - n a ( 3 2 ) ba d a g - o n ·
C l imb S e qu yo u - c l imb t r e e - i n .
!) a - I a n d - a m b a ( 3 3 ) g a r) d I ·1 g I r I - n - I n ( 3 4 ) •
T r e e c o f f i n - i n . Y ou - s i t - S e qu o n t op t h e y - s a id - to h i m
b a n I --L- CJ t r a I r m I I o n - o u n a m b u r f n ·
T h a t w a y t h e i r t h o s e be f o r e - b e l o n g i n g p e o p l e .
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5 .
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
t n - o a r m i n a ( 3 5 ) �
2 7 3
r u w i I t - n a n a ( 3 6 )
H e - ro s e up s t r a igh t away we n t h e - �
� · r u w l I t - n a n a ( 3 7 ) g a r a g a r a n u n u d a b
away . W e n t h e - � C o n t i n u a t i v e th e r e we n t up
1 - n a n a ( 3 8 ) • g i n t r;ig - o n b a d a g · l a g a l t r;i - g a n l n a ( 3 9 ) •
he - szS . T h a t - i n t r e e . C l i mb e d h e - c l i mb e d .
a r - a : I g a • 0 a a g u d t n - o u n a ( 4 0 ) n a l a b · � a n o t h e r - s u n . C on j r e tu rn ed h e - szS · th e r e . S t i l l
r u w t I 1 - n a n a ( 4 1 ) g o r n a • d a g a d a g i r;i i r l - n ( 4 2 ) a r ---
c a m e h e - szS we l l . S l e p t the y - szS a n o t h e r -
a : I g a m l n r u w t I 1 - n a n a ( 4 3 ) o a r - o I rp r - o n b u n a - {6
s un T e mp we n t h e - szS h e r e - f rom t h e y - s e n t- hi m .
l u g a l - g u n � � · .sLL.:...L m a r a b t n - o t d l n l ( 4 5 )
b ad- a t t im e now . B ur s t ope n T emp i t - c ame o u t
n u : - o u g t n l og o t w a r a - b - a m b a · r u w 1 1
hi s - s toma c h t h a t d e a d o n e - R e l a t or - man . We n t
1 - n a n a ( 4 6 ) o a r - o . b a n I m o l g i r t n - o u n a ( 4 7 )
h e - szS h e r e - f rom . Q u i c k ly p e e p e d he - szS
n u n u 9 a n o l n - g u n · n u n t n - o a l a n a - � ( 4 8 ) 9 u : o l n
( 4 4 ) •
t he r e tr e e c o f f i n - a t . T h e r e he - s aw- i t i n te s t i n e
I Q - g a I g a I g a ma n a n a ( 4 9 ) g a ti d I · Q u : a l n l
i t- w a s mo v i n g a r o und on top . A n o t h e r i n t e s t i n e
l a Q a - m a d a n 1 9 - a n a n a ( S O ) n t d l ·
b o t tom-D i r e c t i o n a l i t - w a s Q u an t i ta t iv e .
2 7 4
4 3 1 1) - g a l g a l g a ma n a n a ( 5 1 ) n l d l · a g a l a m b a
I t - w a s mo v i n g a r ound Q u an t i t a t i ve . C o n j man
4 4 l n - o a l a n a - fZS ( 5 2 ) o a r l l f) - g a l g a l a ma n a n a ( 5 3 ) n i -m a t a ·
4 5
4 6
4 7
4 8
he - s aw- h i m th i s h e - wa s mo v i n g ar ound h i s - a rm .
a g a l n I y- a Q a • b i l - a m b a a 1 g 1 r t n - o u n a - o t n ( 5 4 )
C o n j h i s - bo dy . A g a i n - S e qu p e e p e d h e - fd - a t h im
b a Cl I i n - o a l a n a - fZS- b ( 5 5 ) • f) a f) g a n m a <j t n - a u n a
th i s w a y h e - s aw - h im -T emp . T r i .e d t o s top h e - szS
i n - o a rg i n a ( 5 7 ) •
h e - w a s f r i g h t e n e d .
l) a n - o u n u
t n - a a ra l a n a ( 5 8 ) g l n i Q g - o -
H e - r a n o f f th a t - f r om-
l) a n o i n ·
b e c au s e o f - b e l o n g i n g t r e e c o f f i n . C am e down
( 5 6 )
4 9 l n a - m a n a ( 5 9 ) a a r i b i : n b a · o a r l m a r a r a r
h e - szS th i s ma r s h . H e r e T em p s t an d i n g
s o · l f) i r i - n ( 6 0 ) a m b - a r; a Q 1 1) 1 - 1 i rm a n - t r f 6 1 ) •
the y - � me n - o th e r t h ey - c a l l e d o u t-E mph a t .
a l g u r u
B r o t h e r
5 1 o a n a m - b u r u - l) a n m l n - a a ra l a n ( 6 2 ) l l) i r t - n - t n ( 6 3 ) .
wh i c h -p l a c e - to yo u- a r e r u nn i n g the y - s a i d- to h im .
5 2
5 3
5 4
a r a - f) a ma - l a m a n g a - n ( 6 4 ) g l n l Q g l · g a �
N e g - E mp h I n f in i t i v e - l i s t e n - I n f i n i t i ve h e . S t i l l
t n - o a ra I a n a ( 6 5 ) b a n o a r a n u n u · I r) I - I I rma n - t n ( 6 6 )
h e r a n s t r a ig h t o n t h e r e . T h e y - c a l l e d- t o h im
b a y t b f ro n · o a r a - f) a m a - I a ma n g a - n ( 6 7 ) •
b e h i n d . C o n j N eg - E mp h I n f i n i t iv e - l i s t e n - I n f i n i t iv e .
2 7 5
S S b u n - o n d a r i n - a o a ( 6 8 ) b a l - u n n l r i r o a r a hl
5 6
5 7
S S
F u r t he r o n c a m e h e - � c amp - t o a l o n g s i d e o f f
l n o a ra l a n a ( 6 9 ) • 1 9 1 - l l r m a n - l n i ( 7 0 ) b i r l - g u l u
T h e y - c a l l e d- t o h i m mo t h e r - f a t h e r -h e r a n .
n i m a i n - i r �- n u f) u 1 - o I n i o a I b u r - g a Q a •
Ag e n t hi s - t h e y a n d o l d e r - g r o up a f ew - n o t .
u l u m a n - o l n l u l a r - a l a n a ( 7 1 ) n l d l
O l d wo m e n - g r o up l i v e d t h e y - we n t �bo u t Q u a n t i t a t i ve
5 9 i f) l - l l r m a n - l n l ( 7 2 ) o a n a m - b u r u - f) a n m l n - a a r a l a ( 7 3 )
t h e y c a l l e d - t o h i m wh i c h - p l a c e - t o y o u- a r e run n i ng
6 0
6 1
6 2
6 3
6 4
6 5
6 6
i f) l r l - n - l n ( 7 4 ) • a r a d i n i n - a a r a l a n a ( 7 5 )
t h e y s a i d - t o h im . N eg to h i m s t i l l h e - r a n ( l i k e )
n a ma Q a b l r a r - a u n u � ·
n o t h i n g b e h i n d - b e l o ng i n g = o n h i s own A f f i rm a t i ve .
l n - o a r g l n a ( 7 6 ) ·
H e - w a s f r i g h t e n e d .
r u b a n m a r a b � m a r a b u - a t n
I n r e t u r n T e mp h umb ug T emp- h i s
a 1 d o · a m b u c l n l n - a m b a n l n a - r ( 7 7 ) g l n i f) g - a m b a
t e a s i n g . P e op l e h e - fo ug h t - t h e m t h a t - ( i s wh y )
I f) a r a - ma n a - � ( 7 8 ) r u b a n b a Q a - b a r u w I I 1 - n a n a ( 7 9 )
t h e y - p ut - h i m
r) a n a I n - f) a n •
i n r e t u r n away - R e l a t e r we n t he
ba I a b I f) u r u - f) u r u b I n a - � ( 8 0 ) � t r e e c o f f i n - t o . Up the y - c h a s e d- h i m o f f
a r a r) a - n l m · i f) a r - a r g l n a - � ( 8 1 ) � b a l 1 - f) a n ·
o th e r s - Ag e n t . T h e y - br o u gh t - h i m away c amp- t o .
2 7 6
6 7 � m i n - a a r a l a - g a l ( 8 2 ) i Q i r i - n - i n ( 8 3 ) · a ra
6 8
6 9
7 0
Why y o u - we r e r u n n i ng - j u s t t he y - s a i d - t o h i m . R e s p o n s e
I) a n - a a rg I - g a I - o i r i n ( 8 4 ) •
I - w a s f r i g h t e n e d - j u s t - f rom h i m .
a r l n o i - ya l g a l g a ma n -
c a u s a l h e -mo v e d abo ut -
� ( 8 5 } n u n u g a n d i . i - m a n i n - g a 1 - a a r a n ( 8 6 )
j u s t t h e r e o n top . H e - w a v e d - j u s t - to m e
l n - a u n a - o i r ( 8 7 ) · g i n l l)g - a m b a l) a n - a a r a I a -g a I ( 8 8 ) •
he s a i d - to t h em . T h a t - ( i s why ) I - w a s r un n i ng - j u s t .
7 1 i m - b a n l n - a Q a r ( 8 9 ) g l n i 9 g ·
I t - f i n i s h e d - E mp h a t th a t ( s to r y ) .
2 7 7
F RE E T RAN S LAT I ON : { Wi t h e xp l an a t o r y n o te s i n p a r en th e s e s )
T h i s s to r y wh i ch I am p u t t i ng down c o n c e r n s t h e t r e e
c o f f in . T h e y u s e d t o p l a c e t h e { d e c e a s e d ) m e n a nd wome n
up i n a t r e e i n t h e o l d e n t i m e s .
A c ertain m an o n c e d i e d i n M a l umbo B a y { n e ar t h e mo u t h
o f K i ng S o un d , We s te r n Au s t r a l i a ) . A f te r h e h a d p a s s e d o n
h i s r e l a t i on s t o o k h i m a w a y . T h e y p u t h i m t h e r e a t the top
o f G u n d u l ma r a H i l l , on a t r e e co f f i n in the b r a n ch e s of a n
' I � i r i ' t r e e . T h e y l i t a l ar g e f i r e fo r t h i s d e a d man .
T h e y r e t u r n e d t h e r e a t s u n down .
s t i c k s whi c h t h e y c a l l ' ya n d a l a '
H e r e t h e y p l a c e d t ho s e
' d i v i n i ng p e g s ' . T h e
p ur p o s e o f tho s e s t i ck s w a s t o g i v e a m e s s ag e a s t o who k i l l e d
t h e p e r s o n o r wh o fo l l o we d h im a s a ' sh adow - m a n ' . ( A ' s hadow�
man is t h e a l te r e go of a s o r c e r e r wh i ch dog s t h e s te p s o f
t h e v i c t im a n d f i n a l l y m a y k i l l h im ) . T h a t m a n ( the m u r d -
e r e r , i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y o n e o f ) tho s e s t i c k s . T ho s e d i v -
i n i n g p e g s wh i ch t h e y p u t t h e r e a r e f o r t h e d e a d p e r s o n t o
s e n d a me s s ag e t o the p eo p l e w h o a r e l i v i n g . T h e n t h e y
l e f t t h e d e a d m a n t he r e b e h i n d a n d w a l k e d b a c k to c amp .
T he p eo p l e s t ay e d t h e r e a nd a l l s l ep t . E ar l y n e x t mo r n i n g
t h e y a r o s e a n d w e n t o f f t o t h a t p l ac e . T h e r e t h e y l oo k e d
c a r e fu l l y ove r i t b u t s aw n o t a s i ng l e t hi n g .
n o t s e e t h a t b e i n g c a l l ed t h e ' s h a d ow-ma n '
T h e y d i d
t h e o n e who
w a s the m u r d e r e r n o r d i d the y s e e o n e t r a ck . � The y
r e t u r n e d a n d s t ay e d ( i n c amp ) fo r t h r e e d ay s .
T h e n t h e y s p o k e t o L o k i { b i n S a l i , a B a � d i m a n , A s i a n
f a t h e r ) .
2 7 8
" � o u go o f f a n d c l imb i n to t h a t t r e e l S i t down t he r e
o n top whe r e t h a t t r e e c o f f i n i s l " t h e y s a i d t o h im .
T h a t i s the way tho s e p e op l e ( u s e d to a c t ) i n th e o l d e n
d ay s .
H e g o t up i mm e d i at e l y and w e n t o f f .
un t i l h e w a s r i g h t up the r e o n t h e h i l l .
H e k e p t go i n g
H e c l imb e d up
i n t o t h a t t r e e . ( A t t h e e n d o f t h e day , he r e t u r n e d t o
c amp . ) T h e n e x t d ay h e we n t b a ck t h e r e . S t i l l h e c am e
b a c k we l l ( i n g o o d sp i r i t s ) . T h e y a l l s l ep t . W h e n the
n e x t ( t h i rd ) day c am e , they s e n t him f rom t he r e a nd o f f he
we n t . I t w a s t o b e a b a d t ime f o r h im a s the s t om a c h o f
th a t m a n who h a d d i e d h a d b u r s t op en . W h e n L o k i r e t u r n e d
f rom ( c amp ) , qu i c k l y he p e e p e d t h e r e a t t h e t r e e c o f f i n .
Up the r e o n t op he s aw a n i n te s t i n e wh i c h k ep t mo v i ng a b ou t .
Ano th e r i n t e s t i n e wa s h a n g i n g downw a r d s . I t k e p t mo v i n g
abo u t a l s o . An d h e s aw t h a t d e a d m a n mo v i n g h i s a rm a r o un d -
a n d h i s body 1 W h e n h e p e e p e d a g a i n a t h im , he s aw t h e ·same
t h i ng .
" I mu s t s top l " he s a i d , b u t h e w a s te r r i f i e d . O f f
he r a n f r om t h a t t r e e co f f i n b e c a u s e o f wh a t i t he l d . H e
c a m e d o wn t o th i s m a r s h . A s the y we r e s t and i n g a b o ut he r e ,
th e o th e r m e n c a l l ed o u t l o ud l y to h i m ,
" B ro th e r , t o w h i ch p l ac e a r e y o u r u n n i n g ? "
H e d i d n o t l i s t e n t o t h e m a t a l l . H e k ep t o n r un n i n g
s t r a i g h t o n t he r e . T h e y c a l l e d to h i m f r om be h i n d , b u t h e
wou l d n o t l i s t e n . F u r t h e r o n he c ame a l o n g s i d e t h e c amp
a nd r a n o n . H i s p a r e n t s a n d n o t a f e w o f t h e o l d e r p e op l e
c a l l e d t o h i m . A g ro up o f t h e o ld e r wom e n wh o we r e l i v i n g
t h e r e c a l l e d t o h i m , a s k i n g :
2 7 9
" T o whi c h p l ac e a r e y o u r un n i n g ? "
H e t o o k n o n o t i c e . I n d e e d , h e r a n o n a s f a s t a s
a ny t h i n g o u t o n h i s o wn . H e w a s s o f r i g h t e n ed .
T h i s w a s i n r e t r i b u t i o n f o r h i s ' humbu g ' ( g e n e r a l t e rm fo r
a r a n g e o f b a d c on d u c t ) a n d fo r the t i m e s wh e n he u s e d to
t e a s e a nd f i g h t wi th the p e op l e . T h a t i s why f o r
r e t r i b u t i on the y m a d e h i m g o o f f to the t r e e c o f f i n .
T h e o th e r s c h a s e d o f f a f t e r h im a n d b r o u g h t h i m ba c k
t o t h e c amp .
" Wh y we r e y o u r unn i ng j u s t n o w ? " t h e y s a i d t o h i m .
" O h , I w a s v e r y f r i g h t e n ed o f h im b e c au s e h e k e p t
mo v i n g a r o un d u p the r e . J u s t now , h e wav e d h i s h a n d a t
me . T h a t i s why I r a n , " h e s a i d to t h e m .
T h a t ( p a r t o f t h e s to r y ) i s qu i t e f i n i sh e d .
2 8 0
7 . 0 B I B L I O G RA P H Y
O n l y wo r k s to wh i c h r e f e r e n c e h a s b e e n m a d e w i t h i n the
d i s s e r t a t i o n h av e b e e n l i s te d i n thi s B i b l i o g r aphy .
B O LL I N GE R , Dw i g h t L .
( 1 9 6 5 ) ' T he A to m i s a t i on o f M e a n i ng ' , L a ngu age ,
4 1 : 5 5 5 - 5 7 3 .
B O L T , J . E . , J . R . C LE VE RLY a n d W . G . HO D D I N OT T .
( 1 9 7 0 ) ' P ronom i na l i s a t i o n i n D j ami n d j ung a n ' . I n
P a c i f i c L i n gu i s t i c s S t ud i e s i n H o n o u r o f
A r t h u r C a p e l l , S e r i e s c , N o . 1 3 ( C a nb e r ra , t h e
A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , pp . 5 9 3 - 6 1 5 .
BO LT , J . E . , W . G . H O D D I N OTT a n d F . M . KOFO D .
( 1 9 7 1 ) ' A n E l em e n t a r y G r amma r o r th e N g a l iwuru L a ng -
ua g e o f th e N o r th e rn T e r r i t o r y ' U npub l i s h e d
mi m e o .
BRE KLE , H e rbe r t E .
( 1 9 6 9 ) ' Ge n e r a t ive S em a n t i c s Ve r s u s D e e p S y n t a x ' .
I n F . K i e f e r ( e d . ) , S tu d i e s i n S y n t ax a n d
S em a n t i c s ( D o r d r e c h t , D . R e i de l P u b l i s h i ng C o . )
CAMP B E L L , W i l l i am D . a n d W . H . B I RD .
( 1 9 1 4 )
CAP E L L , A r t hur .
( 1 9 3 7 )
( 1 9 4 0 )
' A c co un t o f th e Abo r i g i n e s o f S un d a y I s l a n d ,
K i n g S o u n d , K imbe r l e y , We s t e rn A u s tr a l i a . '
I n R o y a l S o c i e ty o f We s t e r n A u s tr a l i a .
J o u r n a l , 1 : 5 5 - 8 2 .
' T h e S t ru c t ur e o f Au s t r a l i a n L a ng u a g e s ' ,
O c e a n i a , 8 : 2 7 - 6 1 .
' T he C l a s s i f i c a t i on o f L a n g uag e s i n N or t h a n d
N o r th - We s t A u s t r a l i a ' , O c e a n i a 1 0 : 2 4 1 - 2 7 2 ,
4 0 4 - 4 3 3 .
( 1 9 5 6 )
( 1 9 6 3 )
( 1 9 6 5 )
( 1 96 7 )
2 8 1
' A N ew Appro a c h t o A u s tr a l i a n L i ng u i s t i c s ' ,
O c e a n i c L i ngu i s t i c Mo nog r aph s N o . 1 , ( S y d n e y ,
U n i ve r s i t y o f S y d ne y )
L i ng u i s t i c S u r v e y o f A u s t r a l i a , ( S y d n e y , T h e
A u s tr a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Abo r i g i n a l S tu d i e s ) .
' Abo r i g i n e s : L a ng ua g e s ' . I n A u s t r a l i a n E n c y c l o -
pa e d i a , 1 : 2 1 - 2 8 . ( S y d n e y , G ro l i e r )
' T h e An a l y s i s o f Comp l e x V e r b a l Fo rm s ' . I n
P a c i f i c L i ng u i s t i c s , S e r i e s A , N o . 1 1 ( C anb e r r a ,
t h e A u s tr a l i a n N at i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , pp . 4 3 - 6 2 .
CAPE L L , A r thur and A . P . E LKI N .
( 1 9 3 7 ) ' T h e L a ng uag e s o f t h e K imbe r l e y D i v i s i on • ;
O c e a n i a , 8 : 2 1 6 - 2 4 6 .
CAP E LL , A r t h u r a n d H . E . H IN C H .
( 1 9 7 0 )
C HA DWI C K , N .
( 1 96 8 )
M a ung G ramma r , (th e H ag u e , Mo u to n ) .
' D j i n g i l i ( N o r th A u s t r a l i a ) i n a C omp a r a t i v e
P e r sp e c t i ve ' , O c ea n i a 3 8 : 2 2 0 - 2 2 8 .
CHOM S K Y , N o am A .
( 1 9 6 5 )
( 1 9 6 6 )
( 1 9 6 8 )
( 1 9 6 9 )
A sp e c t s o f th e T he o r y o f S y n t a x ,
M a s s . , M . I . T . P r e s s ) .
( C ambr i d g e
C a r t e s i a n L i ng u i s t i c s : A C h ap t e r i n t he H i s t -
o ry o f R a t i on a l i s t i c T ho u g h t , ( N ew Y o r k , H a rp e r
a n d Row ) .
' D e ep S t r u c t u r e , S u r fa c e S tr uc t u r e a n d S ema n t i c
I n t e rp r e t at i on ' , r epr i n t e d i n Roma n J akob s on
a n d S hi g eo Kawamo to ( e d s . ) , S tu d i e s i n G e n e ra l
a n d O r i e n t a l L i ng u i s t i c s , ( To ky o , T E C C o . , 1 9 7 0 ) .
' Some E mp i r i ca l I s s u e s i n t h e T h e o r y o f T r a n s -
f o rm a t i o na l G r amm a r ' . U npub l i s he d m im e o .
CHOM SK Y , N o am A . a nd M o r r i s HAL LE .
( 1 9 6 5 )
( 1 96 8 )
' Som e C o n tr o v e r s i a l Q u e s t i on s i n P ho no l o g y
T he o r y ' , J o ur n a l o f L i n g u i s ti c s 1 : 9 7 - 1 3 8 .
T h e S o u n d P a t t e rn o f E ng l i sh , ( N e w Y o r k , H ar p e r
a n d Row ) •
2 8 2
COATE , Howa r d H . a n d L . O A TE S �
( 1 9 7 0 )
D I K , S imon c .
( 1 96 7 )
A G r amm a r o f Ng a r i n j i n , ( C a nb a r r a , A u s t r a l i a n
I n s t i tu t e o f A bo r ig i n a l S tu d i e s ) .
' S om e C r i t i c a l Rema r k s on t h e T r e a t me n t o f
M o r ph o l og i c a l S t r u c t u r e i n T r a n s f o r ma t i o n a l
G e n e r a t i v e Gr amm ar ' , L i ngua , 1 8 : 3 5 2 - 3 8 3 .
D I X ON , Ro be r t M .
( 1 9 6 9 )
( 1 9 7 0 )
( 1 9 7 1 )
' Re l at i v e C l au s e s a n d P o s s e s s i ve P h ra s e s i n
Two A u s t r a l i a n L a ng u a g e s ' , L a ng u a g e 4 5 : 3 5 - 4 4 .
' L a ng uage s o f th e C a i r n s Ra i n Fo r e s t Re g i on ' .
I n P a c i f i c L i ng u i s t i c s . S e r i e s C , N o . 1 3 ( C a n
be r r a , t h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i ve r s i t y ) ,
pp . 6 5 1 - 6 8 2 .
' A M e th o d o f S em a n t i c D e s c r i p t i on ' . I n D . D .
S t e i n b e rg a n d L . A . J a ko b o v i t s ( e d s . ) , S e ma n t i c s :
A n I n t e rd i s c ip l i n a ry Rea d e r i n P h i l o s ophy ,
L i ng u i s t i c s , a n d P s y cho l og y . ( C amb r i d g e ,
C ambr i dg e Un i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) . pp . 4 6 3 - 4 7 1 .
( fo r t h co m i n g ) T h e Dy i rb a l L a ng ua g e o f N o r th Q u e en s l a n d .
( Camb r i dg e , C amb r i dg e U n i ve r s i t y P r e s s ) .
n d ' T he S eman t i c s o f G i v i ng ' .
M a ur i c e Gro s s e t a l . ( e d s . ) ,
T o be p ub l i sh e d in
F o rma l An a ly s i s
o f N a tur a l L a ng ua g e ( F i r s t I n t e rn at i on a l C o n -
g r e s s ) , ( t h e H a g u e , Mouto n ) .
DUT TON , . T hom a s E .
( 1 9 6 9 ) ' A S y n t a c t i c S k e t c h o f Ko i a r i ' , P a r t I I o f
T h e Ko i a r i a n L a ng u ag e s o f C e n t r a l P apua , P h . D
T he s i s , t h e A u s tr a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n ive r s i t y ,
C a nb e r r a .
E L K I N , Ado l p h u s P .
( 1 9 3 2 ) ' So c i a l O rg a n i s at i o n i n t h e K imbe r l e y D i v i s i o n ' ,
O c ea n i a , 2 : 2 9 6 - 3 3 3 .
2 8 3
( 1 9 3 5 ) ' I n i t i a t i o n i n t h e B a r d T r ib e , N o r t h - We s t
A u s t r a l i a ' . I n Roya l S o c i e ty o f N ew S o u t h
Wa l e s . J o u r n a l a n d P ro c e d i ng s , 6 9 : 1 9 0 - 2 0 8 .
( 1 9 3 9 ) ( e d . )
' S t ud i e s i n A u s t r a l i a n L i ngu i s t i c s ' .
O c e a n i a M o n o g r ap h , N o . 3 .
E L S ON , Be n j am in F . ( e d . )
( 1 9 6 4 ) V e rb S t ud i e s i n F i ve N e w G u i n e a L a ng u ag e s ,
( N o rma n , S umm e r I n s t i t u t e o f L i ng u i s t i c s ) .
F I L LMORE , C h a r l e s J .
( 1 9 6 8 ) ' T h e C a s e F o r C a s e ' . I n Emmon B a c h and Rob e r t
T . H a r m s ( e d s . ) , U n i ve r s a l s i n L i ngu i s t i c
T he o ry , ( N e w Y o r k , Ho l t , Ri n e h a r t a nd W i n s t o n).
F RAN T Z , D o na l d G .
n d
GARVI N , P .
( 1 9 4 8 )
GOD F RE Y , M a r i e .
( 1 9 7 0 )
HALE , K e n n e t h .
( 1 9 6 5 )
( 1 9 6 7 )
( 1 9 6 7 a )
' T o wa r d s a G e n e r a t i ve G r amm a r o f B l a c k foo t ' .
U npub l i s h e d P h . D . T h e s i s ,
A l b e r t a .
U n i ve r s i t y o f
a K ut e n a i I I I : Mo rpheme D i s t r i b ut i o n s ( P r e f i x ,
T he m e , S u f f i x ) ' , I n t e rn a t i o n a l J o u rn a l o f
Am e r i c a n L i n g u i s t i c s , 1 4 : 1 7 1 - 1 8 7 .
' W i k - M u n k a n V e r b Mo rpho l o g y ' . I n P a c i f i c
L i n g u i s t i c s , S e r i e s c , N o . 1 3 ( Ca nb e r ra , t h e
Au s t ra l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i ve r s i t y ) , pp . 7 4 1 - 7 5 6 .
' A u s t r a l i a n L a ng uag e s a n d T r a n s fo rm a t i o n a l
Gr amm a r ' , L i n g u i s t i c s , 1 6 : 3 2 - 4 1 .
' C a s e a n d Vo i c e i n S om e A u s t r a l i a n L a n g ua g e s ' .
Unpub l i s h e d m i m e o .
' S om e P ro du c t i ve Rul e s i n L a r d i l ( Mo rn i ng to n
I s l an d ) S yn t a x ' .
S e r i e s A , N o . 1 1
I n P a c i f i c L i ng u i s t i c s ,
( C a n b e r r a , t h e A u s t ra l i a n
N a t i on a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , pp . 6 3 - 7 3 .
( 1 9 6 8 )
( 1 9 7 0 )
2 8 4
' P re l im i n a ry R ema rk s on wa i b i r i Gramm a r : I I ' .
Unpub l i sh e d m i meo �
' Th e P a s s i ve a n d E r g at i v e i n L a ng ua g e C h a n g e :
T h e A u s t r a l i a n C a s e ' . I n P a c i f i c L i ngu i s t i c s ,
S e r i e s c , N o . 1 3 ( Ca nb e r r a , th e A u s t r a l i a n N a t
i o n a l U n i ve r s i t y ) , pp . 7 5 7 - 7 8 1 .
HO CKE TT , C h a r l e s F .
( 1 9 5 8 )
HY ME S , D e l l .
( 1 9 5 5 )
A Co ur s e i n M o d e r n L i n g u i s t i c s ,
M a cM i l l a n ) .
( N ew Y o r k ,
' P o s i t i o n a l A n a l y s i s o f C a t e g o r i e s : A F r ame
fo r R e co n s tr u c t i on ' , Word 1 1 : 1 0 - 2 3 .
. J ACKE N DO F F , R . S .
( 1 9 6 9 ) ' S ome Rul e s o f S e ma n t i c I n t e rp r e t a t ion f o r
E n g l i s h ' . U npub l i s h e d P h . D . T he s i s , Ma s s -
a ch u s e t t s I n s t i tu t e o f T e c h n o l o g y .
KAT Z , J e r ro l d J . a n d P a u l M . P O S TAL .
( 1 9 6 4 )
KE RR , N .
( 1 9 6 9 )
LAKOF F , Ro b i n .
( 1 9 6 8 )
LAN G , A d r i a n n e .
( 1 9 7 1 )
LE E S , Rob e r t B .
( 1 9 5 7 )
A n I nt eg r a t e d T h e o ry o f L i ng u i s t i c D e s c r ip t ion s
( C amb r i dg e M a s s . , M . I . T . P r e s s ) .
' P r e l im i n a ry Repo r t o f F i e l dwo r k P a r t I .
A Comp a r a t i v e Wo rd - l i s t N y i g i n a a n d N e i gh -
b o u r i ng L a ng ua g e s ' . U npub l i sh e d m i m e o s ,
A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Abo r i g i n a l S t ud i e s .
A b s t r a c t S yn t ax a n d L a t i n Comp l e m e n t a t i on ,
( C amb r i dg e M a s s . , M . I . T . P r e s s ) .
' N ou n s a n d C l a s s i f i c a t o ry V e rb s i n E ng a ( N ew
Gu i n e a ) : A S em a n t i c S t udy ' . U np ub l i s h e d
P h . D . T he s i s , A u s t r a l i an N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i ty .
Re v i ew o f N o am A . C ho m s k y , Syn t a c t i c S t r u c t u r e s
( th e H a g u e , M o u to n , 1 9 5 7 ) , i n L a n g ua g e , 3 3: 37 5- 40 8.
2 8 5
LONGA C RE , Robe r t E .
( 1 9 6 4 ) G r amma r D i s co v e r y P r o c e du r e s : A F i e l d M a n u e l
( t he H a g u e , M o u to n ) .
LYON S , J o hn . ( e d . )
( 1 9 7 0 ) N ew Ho r i z o n s i n L i ng u i s t i c s ( H a rmo n d s wo r th ,
P e ngu i n Boo k s L t d ) .
M C CAWLE Y , J ame s D .
( 1 9 6 8 a )
( 1 9 6 8 b )
MATTH E W S , G . H .
( 1 9 6 5 )
MATTHEWS , P . H .
( 1 9 6 5 a )
( 1 9 6 S b )
( 1 9 6 7 )
( 1 9 7 9 )
' C o n c e r n i ng t h e B a s e C ompo n e n t o f a T r a n s fo rm
a t i on a l Gramm a r ' , F o unda t i o n s o f L a ng u a g e ,
4 : 2 4 3 - 2 6 9 .
' T h e Ro l e o f S em a n t i c s i n a Gr amm a r ' . I n
Emmo n B a c h a n d Rob e r t T . Harms ( e d s . ) , U n i
v e r s a l s i n L in g u i s t i c T h e o r y ( N ew Y o r k , H o l t ,
R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s to n ) .
H i da t s a S y n t a x ( th e H ag u e , M o u t o n ) .
' T he I n f l e c t i o n a l Comp o n e n t o f a Wo rd- a n d
P a r a d i gm G r amma r ' , J o u r n a l o f L in gu i s t i c s ,
1 : 1 3 9 - 1 7 1 .
' S ome C o n c ep t s i n Wo r d - a n d - P a r a d i g m Mo rpho l og y ' ,
F o u n d a t i o n s of L a ng ua g e , 1 : 2 6 8 - 2 8 9 .
' T he M a i n F e a t u r e s o f M o d e r n G r e e k V e rb I n f l e c
t i on ' , F o unda t i on s o f L a ng u ag e , 3 : 2 6 1 - 2 8 3 .
' R e c e n t D e v e l o pm e n t s i n M o rpho l og y ' . I n J o h n
L yo n s ( e d . ) , pp . 9 6 - 1 1 4 .
ME T C ALFE , C h r i s tophe r D .
( 1 9 7 1 )
NEKE S , H e rm a n n .
( 1 9 3 9 )
' A T e n t a t i ve P hon em i c S t a t e me n t o f t h e B a � d i
Abo r ig i n a l L a n g u a g e ' . I n P ap e r s o n t h e L ang -
uag e s o f A u s t r a l i an Abo r i g i n a l s ( C a nbe r r a ,
A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Abo r ig i n a l S tu d i e s) 82-92 .
' T h e P ro n o u n in t h e N yo l - N yo l ( N y� l -N y ul ) and
R e l a t e d D i a l e c t s ' . In A . P . Elkin ( ed. ) , pp . 139-163 .
2 8 6
N E KE S , H e rmann a n d E r n e s t A . WO RM S .
( 1 9 5 3 ) ' A u s t r a l i a n L a ng ua g e s ' . M i c ro - B i b l i o t he c a
A n t h ropo s , V o l . 1 0 . ( F r i b o u rg , A n t hropo s
I n s t i t ut ) .
O ' GRADY , G e o f f r e y N . , S t ephe n A . WU RM a n d Ke n ne t h HALE .
( 1 9 6 6 ) ' Ab o r i g i n a l L a ng ua g e s o f A u s t r a l i a ' ,
B . C . , U n i v e r s i t y o f V i c t o r i a ) .
( V i c t o r i a
P E RLMU TTE R , D . M .
( 1 9 7 0 )
P O S TAL , P a ul M .
( 1 9 6 2 )
' S ur f a c e S t r u c tu r e C o n s t r a i n t s i n S y n t ax ' ,
L i ng u i s t i c I nqu i ry , 1 : 1 8 7 - 2 5 5 .
' S ome S y n t a c t i c Rul e s i n M o h awk ' .
e d P h . D . T he s i s , Y a l e U n i ve r s i t y .
U npub l i s h -
RO B I N S ON , M i c h a e l V .
( fo r t h com i ng ) ' C h a ng e a n d A d j u s tm e n t Among s t t h e B a ;d i o f
S un d a y I s l a n d , N o r th - We s t e r n A u s t r a l i a ' .
T he s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f We s t e r n Au s tr a l i a .
M . A .
SAP I R , E dw a r d a n d H a r r y HO I JE R .
( 1 9 6 7 ) ' T he P ho no l o g y a nd M o r pho l o g y o f th e N a vaho
L a n guag e ' . U n i ve r s i ty o f C a l i fo r n i a P ub l i c -
a t i o n s i n L i n g u i s t i c s , N o . 5 0 , U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i fo r n i a P r e s s .
S HARP , M a r g a r e t C .
( 1 9 7 0 ) ' A l awa C a s e Re l a t i on s h i p s ' . I n D o n a l d C .
L a y c o c k ( e d . ) , L i ng u i s t i c T r e n d s i n A u s t r a l i a
( C a nb e r r a , A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Abor i g i n a l
S tu d i e s ) . pp . 3 9 - 5 0 .
S OMME R , B r uc e A .
( 1 9 7 0 ) ' Ku n j e n S y n t a x ' . o f Haw a i i .
P h . D . T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i ty
STANLE Y , R i c h a r d J .
( 1 9 6 9 ) ' T h e P hono l o g y o f the N a vaho V e r b ' . P h . D .
T h e s i s , M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i tu t e o f T e c hn o l o g y .
2 8 7
TAY LO R , A n d r e w J .
( 1 9 7 0 ) ' S yn tax a nd P ho n o l o g y o f M o tu ( P apua ) : A
T r a n s fo rma t i on a l Appro a c h ' . U npub l i sh e d P h . D .
T he s i s , Au s t r a l i a n N a t i on a l U n i v e r s i t y .
WO RM S , E r n e s t A .
( 1 9 3 8 )
( 1 9 4 2 )
( 1 9 4 4 )
( 1 9 5 0 a )
( 1 9 5 0b )
( 1 9 5 2 )
( 1 9 5 7 )
' O n om a to p o e i a i n S om e K imbe r l e y T r i b e s o f
N o r th - W e s t A u s t r a l i a ' , O c e a n i a , 8 : 4 5 3 - 4 5 7 .
' S e n s e o f Sme l l o f t h e A u s tr a l i a n Abo r ig i n e s :
a P s y ch o l o g i c a l a nd L i ng u i s t i c S t udy o f t h e
N a t i v e s o f t h e K i mbe r l e y D i v i s i o n ' , O c ea n i a ,
1 3 : 1 0 7 - 1 3 0 .
' Abo r i g i n a l P l a c e N ame s i n K imbe r l e y , We s t e r n
A u s t r a l i a : a n E tymo l og i c a l a n d M y t ho l o g i c a l
S t u dy ' , O c e a n i a , 1 4 : 2 8 4 - 3 1 0 .
' D j am a r , t h e C r e a to r : A M y th o f t h e B a d ( We s t
K imbe r l e y ) A u s t r a l i a ' , A n t h r opo s , 4 5 : 6 4 1 - 6 5 8 .
' F e u er u n d F e u e r z e ug e i n S a g e und B r a u c h d e r
n o r dwe s t - au s t r a l i e r ' , A n t h r opo s , 4 5 : 1 4 5 - 1 6 4 .
' D j ama r a n d H i s R e l a t i on t o O t h e r C u l tu r e
H e ro e s ' , A n t h r opo s , 4 7 : 5 3 9 - 5 6 0 .
' T h e P o e tr y o f t h e Y a o r o a n d B a d , N o r t h -We s t
e r n A u s t r a l i a ' , A n na l i L a t e r a n en s i , 2 1 : 2 1 3 - 2 2 9 .
WU RM , S t e p h e n A .
( 1 9 7 0 ) ' L i n g u i s t i c C l a s s i f i c a t i on a n d t h e P r e h i s to r y
o f A u s t r a l i a ' . I n D o n a l d c . L a y c o c k ( e d . ) ,
L i ng u i s t i c T r e n d s i n A u s t r a l i a ( C a nb e r r a , A u s t
r a l i an I n s t i tu t e o f A bo r ig i n a l S tu d i e s ) .
YOUNG , Rob e rt A .
( 1 9 6 4 ) ' T h e P r im a r y V e rb i n B e n a B e na ' .
( e d . ) : 4 5 - 8 3 .
I n E l so n
S u p p l em e n t t o :
SAR D I V E RB M O R P H O L O G Y
-A T r a n s fo rma t i o n a l A n a l y s i s
by C . D . M e t c a l fe .
TH E R U L E S
T h i s S upp l em e n t b r i n g s t o g e th e r t h e d e r iv a t i on a l r ul e s a s
t h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e B a s e , L e x i c a l , T r a n s f o rm a t i on a l ,
Re a l i s a t i on a n d P ho n o l o g i c a l C ompo n e n t s . T he y a r e p ro -
v i d e d for c o n v e n i e n c e o f r e f e r en c e , p a r t i c u l a r ly whe n f o l l
ow i ng t h r o u g h a d e r iv a t i o n a l e x amp l e f rom th e B a se t o s ur -
f a c e f o r m s . T h e p a g e n umb e r s a r e tho s e o f th e th e s i s .
2 . 0
2 . 1
B . l
B . 2
B . 3
B . 4
B . 5
B . 6
B . 7
B . 8
B . 9
B . 1 0
B . 1 1
T HE B A S E COMPON E N T
T h e B a s e Ru l e s
s ..... ( S C o n j ) ( P r e S ) NP
Qu e s t i o n P r e s { }
I MP E RAT
N E G ( E MP H ) P r e dP >- ( { } ) VP ( {
P O T E N T I AL
VP ����- ( I N T E N S ) VbNu c Aux
C omp l e
P o s tp o s P
N P
Aux
Adv e r b
P o s tp o s
Co n j
1 ( P o s tp o s P I A dv e rb )
--�•- N P P o s tp o s
N orn ( S )
--��- A s p e c t T e n s e
( Tim e I Qu a n t i t ) 1
I n s t r um
D a t i v e
Ab l a t i v e {S e qu } P urp
T emp
J 2
P r e dP
N P } ) ( C omp l e )
EMPHAT
1 L i n k e d p a r e n t h e s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t a t l e a s t o n e c a t e go ry mu s t be
cho s e n .
s
s [ B -
- .-' / -
-- /
Conj P r �S [ B 2 ]
\ \
Que s t i o n Norn S { } IMPE RAT
--
- .......................
- - --
-�- _r �- - -
- --
............ - - -- ........... - -NEG ( EMPH ) VP NP C ornp l e { } [ B 4 ] { } POT EN T IAL
,,, /
/
/� EMP HAT
INTEN S VbNuc Aux Comp l e [ B� ]
,,/�- b.. "
NEG ( EM PH ) IN TEN S V bN uc { } POTENT IAL
Aux
A A s p e c t T e n s e
/
P o s tpo s P
/\ N P N P P o s tpo s
" Adve rb
[ B \7 ] [ B \ 7 ] \ \ \ P o s tpo s Ad e rb \ \ \ [ B 1 1 0 ] [�] \
\ / \ \ N orn s N orn s {Com i t a tJemp Quan t i t
{ } I ns t rurn EMPHAT D a t ive Abl ativ
B . l
B . 2
B . 3
B . 4
B . 5
B . 6
B . 7
B . 8 B . 9 B . 1 0 B . 1 1
L . l
L . 2
L . 2 . 1
L . 2 . 2
L . 2 . 3
L . 2 . 4
L . 2 . 5
L . 2 . 6
L . 2 . 7
L . 3
L . 4
L . 5
L . 6
2 . 3 L e x i c a l Ru l e s ( L . )
6 9
N orn --..... •� + N
-N
N umbe r
P e r s on
- I
- I I
[+ I
.+ I I
) + S i n g
+ I + I I [+ S i n g
] [- S i n g
]
+ I [
+ S i n g] + I I I
+ N
VbN u c
T e mp o r a l A d v e r b
A sp e c t
...
�
...
,.
[ a. P e r s o n , SN umbe r ]
� S i n g
+ I
+ I I
+ I I I
+ D u a l
+ I n c l u s i ve
+ E x c l u s i ve
[ y F e a tur e , ( ! S i n g ) ]
( + P r e - S t em ( + A c t i on C h a n ge ) ) ,
+ C l a s s , ( + P a r t Re dup ) , + VbS ,
( + T ran s i tV ) ,
( + Ob l i g Re t r o ) ,
( + I mp e r s ) ,
( + I r re g : n ) ,
+ N : + N : ---
:t Dur a t ]
7 0
L . 7 T e n s e + P e r f -
L . 7 . 1 - P e r f ,. + P r e s
L . 7 . 2 - P r e s + P ro j
L . 7 . 3 + P e r f + D e f i n i t e -
L . 7 . 4 + D e f i n i t e : c o n t e mp
L . 7 . 5 + C o n t e mp + I mme d
L . 7 . 6 - I mme d + N e a r
L . 7 . 7 - C o n t e mp + M i d
L . 7 . 8 - M i d + D i s t
T . l
s . o .
s . c .
T . 2
3 . 1 T r a n s f o rma t i o na l Ru l e s
O BL I G P RON OM INAL AF F I X
x [�: er s o n l y
SN umb e r
1 2 3
1 TP r o A f l 3
a.P e r s o n
BNumbe r
O B L I G S U BJE CT P RO N OM I N AL P RE F I X
1 1 5
1 1 8
1 2 0
S . D . X [ !N ] [ + P ro A f ] ( S ) Y VbN u c Aux z ( Comp l e )
1
s . c . 1
T . 3
S . D .
s . c .
T . 4
S . D .
s . c .
2 3 4 5 6 7
5 3 + 6 + 7
O B L I G O B JE CT P RO N OM I N A L S U F F I X
X A u x '-----...,.---'
1
1 + 3
[ + P roA f ]
2 3
O BL I G N UM B E R P RE F I X
X [ +P ro A f ] ____________...
1
+ VbN u c Y .....____....,_
2
1 + N umbe r + 2
( s )
4
8 9
8 2 4 9
1 2 4
y ( Comp l e )
5 6
5 2 4 6
1 2 8
T . 5 O B L I G E X T RA - AC T I ON 1 3 5
S . D . x [ + P r o A f ] + Y + [ + p ro A f ] z
1 2
s . c . 1 + n + 2
T . 6 O B L I G I N T RA -ACT I O N 1 3 6
S . D . x [ + P ro A f ] + y
�
1 2
s . c . 1 + !l + 2
Co n d i t i o n : 2 do e s no t i n c l u d e [ +P r oA f ]
T . 7 . 1 O BL I G P RE - S T E M P LACEME NT 1 3 7
S . D . x [ + P r o A f ] + Y + �
[ P r e - S t em ( +A c t i o n C ha ng e ) , Z ]
1
s . c . 1
T . 7 . 2
S . D .
s . c .
VbN uc
2
3
O B L I G AC T I ON C HAN GE
X P r e - S t e m + A c t i o n C h a ng e �
1 2
1
3
2 +
[ + P ro A f ]
3
3 +
VbN uc
4
4
1 3 9
+ .!l + y
4 5
n + 5
T . 8 . 1 O B L I G RE T RO - A C T I ON I 1 4 1
s . o . x [ + P r oAf ] + n + Y + A ux + [ + P r oA f ]
1 2 3 4 5 6
s . c . 1 2 4 + i n a i + s
C o n d i t i o n : 2 6
T . 8 . 2 OP T I ON A L RE T RO -A C T I ON I I 1 4 4
S . D . X + C l a s s + Y + i n o i + Z
s . c .
T . 9 . 1
1 2 3
1 m 3
O BL I G P OT E N T IA L 1 4 5
z
7
7
s . o . w P OT E N T I AL X + { �} + Y + A sp e c t + Z !l
1 2
s . c . 1
T . 9 . 2 O BL I G
S . D . w N E GAT I V E
1 2
s . c . 1 a r a
3 4 5 6
3 5
N E GAT IVE 1 4 7
X + { .!l} + Y + A sp e c t + Z . .!l.
3 4 5 6 7
3 5 7
7
7
T . 1 0 . l O BL I G VE R B S T EM R E DU P L I CA T I ON
S . D . x I N TE N S Y + V b S + Z
1 2 3 4 5
s . c . 1 3 4 + 4 5
C o nd i t i on : 3 d o e s no t i n c l u d e P r e - S t em .
T . 1 0 . 2 O B L I G P RE - STEM R E DU P L I C A T I ON
S . D . x I N TE N S P r e - S t em y
1 2 3 4
s . c . 1 3 + 3 4
T . 1 1 O B L I G I N TRA -AC T I ON E M P HA TI C
S . D . x T e n s e EMP HAT y
1 2 3 4
s . c . 1 2 + { l!:. } # 4 �
C o n d i t i o n : 2 i s no t ma r k e d [ + P r o j ] .
T . 1 2 O B L I G N E GAT I V E E M P H A S I S
S . D . N E G E M P H x + V e rb N u c l e u s
1 4 9
1 5 0
1 5 1
1 5 3
C + i n a i > + z # [ + P r o A f ] + Y ..________.... '-��---------��---../
1 2 3 4 5 6
s . c . a r a + � 3 m a + 5 + n
T . 1 3 O P T I O NAL
s . o . x f) a n ,a a
1 2
s . c . 1
Y E S - N O Q U E S T I ON S
Y + A ux '-------...,,------'
3
3 + �
z
4
4
T . 1 4 O BL I G I M P E RAT I V E
S . D . IMP E RAT
1
s . c .
T . 1 5 . 1 O P T I ON A L
s . o . x A ux �
1
s . c . 1 + .!l + 4
T . 1 5 . 2 O P T I ON A L
S . D . x Aux '-----...-----'
1
1 + 4 [ + Re f e r ]
X + A ux
2
2
3
3 I + P r o j ]
y
4
4
A S S OC IAT I V E S U F F I X
y [ :!:N ] [ + P r oA f ]
2 3 4
2 3 +
i
RE FE R E NT I A L S U F F I X
y [ + N ] [ + P r oA f ]
2 3 4
2 3 +
C o nd i t i on s : ( i ) 3 i s ma r k e d [ +A n ima t e ] .
1 5 6
1 5 8
1 5 9
{ I n s t r um } C om i t a t
z
5 6
5 6
1 6 3
{ D a t i v e } A b l a t i v e
z
5 6
5 6
( i i ) 2 i s no t l s t . o r 2 nd . P e r s o n P r o n om i n a l Ob j e c t .
T . 1 6 . 1
s . o .
s . c .
T . 1 6 . 2
s . o .
s . c .
T . 1 7 . 1
s . o .
1
s . c . 1
T . 1 7 . 2
s . o .
1
s . c . 1
w '-
O B L I G T IM E ADVE R B / AU X I L I A R Y AGRE EME NT 1 6 7
x + T e n s e y T i m e z [ o T e n s e ]
'--
1 2 3
1 2 3 [ o T e n s e ]
OBL I G ' T H E M ' D E LE T I ON
A ux +
'-"'
1
1
OP TIONAL
{ a m b a } a a m b a
2
2
x + [+ P roA f ] y / + I I I ..........
- S i n g
2
S E QU E NT I A L C ONJU N CT I ON
S [ X + Aux
2 ---------
3 4
3 + a m b a 4
1 6 9
n i d i z /
.............
3
3
1 7 0
OP T I ON A L P U RP O S I V E C ONJUN CT I ON 1 7 3
2
s [ x 2
3
3
[ + P r o A f ] + Y + V bN u c ( + i n o i ) + Z # ] ._________..... ._______.....
s 2
4 5 6
m a + 5 + n
T . 1 8 . 1
s . o .
s . c .
T . 1 8 . 2
[ s . o . w s l
1
s . c . 1
C o n d i t i o n :
T . 1 8 . 3
S . D .
s . c .
C o n d i t i o n :
O P T I ONA L T E MP ORA L RE LAT OR 1 7 7
s l { ma r a b } [ x + T e n s e + y ] s m a r a b a s 2 [ + D i s t ] 2 .....________.. ......... ./
.............
1 2
1 2 + b #
O P T I ONAL EM B E D DE D N OM I N AL RE LATO R 1 7 9
N orn s 2 [ x ( P r e - S tem ) [ + P r oA f ] + y [ � N ] z
2 3 4 5 6
2 3 b a + 4 jZS 6
2 i s c o - r e f e r e n t i a l w i th 5 •
OP T I ON A L P RON OM I NA L S U F F I X RELA T O R 1 8 1
X + [ +P roA f ] Y .......______..
1 2
1 + b a + 2
J s 2 ] s l
1 do e s n o t i n c l ud e e i th e r t h e S e qu e n t i a l c o n -
j u n c t i o n s u f f i x a m b a o r t h e A s s o c i a t i v e s u f f i x � .
3 . 2 Re a l i s a t i o n R u l e s
R . l S U BJE CT P R ONOM I NA L P RE F I X
r+ P roA f l + I � + S i n g
+ I I m i + S ing
+ I I I + S i ng
+D u a l a
+ { I n c } -+ � E x e
+ I I -+ � - S i ng
+ I I I _!_.Q_ - S i ng
R . 2 A UX I L I A RY
R . 2 . 1 [ -P e r f ]
[ + D u ra t , - P e r f ]
[ - D e f i n i t e ]
[ + Co n t emp ]
X + [ + D u r a t , + C o n t emp ]
[ +M i dd l e ]
[ + D u r a t , +M i dd l e ]
[ + D i s t a n t ]
[ + D u r a t , + D i s t a n t ]
1 8 2
1 8 6
+ X +V b N u c
1 8 8
a -
n ( a )
a -
g a l ( a >
)lo n ga I ( a >
i a
i n a
n a
n a n a
C o nd i t i o n : X doe s n o t i n c l u de t he P o t e n t i a l m o r p h em e
R . 2 . 2 X + N umb e r + Y __ ..... .,.,. X + .9_ + Numb e r + � + T e n s e
[ + P r o j ]
C on d i t i on : X do e s no t i n c l ud e t h e P o t e n t i a l mo rphem e
R . 2 . 3 [ - P e r f ] a
x + + y + [ { + C� n t emp } ] + M i d d l e
n a
R . 3
f + P roA f l + I + S i ng
+ I I + S i ng
+ I I I + S i ng
+ D u a l
+ I I - S i ng
+ I I I - S i ng
R . 4
Numbe r
[ + D i s t ] n a n a
O BJE C T /A S S OC I A T I V E P RON OM INAL S U F F I X
-+ r i
-+ V bN u c+ X +
m u d u
-+
r
N U M B E R P RE F I X
f + P roA f l + X +
[ � l � l:: �:: j
1 9 2
1 9 4
R . 5 RE F E R E N T I A L S U F F I X 1 9 5
r+ P r o A f l + R e f e r
+ I { a a n } + S i n g a n
+ I I -+
{ � } + S i ng I
+ I I I -+
{ � i n } + S i ng 1 n
+ Du a l a o w u
+ { I n c } E x e �
+ I I a u g a r a - S i n g
+ I I I a i r - S i n g
4 . 3 Mo rphop h o n em i c Ru l e s
M . l S U B J E C T P RE F I X MOD I F I CA T I ON
M . 1 . 1 T H I RD P E R S O N
2 0 2
2 0 3
+ I l ( . . . )
!!_ ( • • • ) / -- -
M . 1 . 2
M . 1 . 2 . 1
M . 1 . 2 . 2
M . 2
M . 2 . 1
M . 2 . 2
S E C ON D P E R S ON P RO J E C T E D
[:J + A c t io n +
T yp e g_ T e n s e
[ + P ro j ]
a + !l [+ P r o A f ] + I I + S i n g
�
� !l +
E XT RA -AC T I ON MARKE R D E LE T I ON
n � / · · · !l +
[ + P r oA f ]
r. n
n .. � +
I .....
+ X +Aux [ + P r o j ]
2 0 4
[: + A c t i o n T yp e
a
2 0 8
( . . . ) + x +
l
Aux
[ + { P r e s } ] Imm e d
M . 3 Q P RE F I X D E LE T I ON 2 1 1
( • • • ) _g_ .. + I
+ X + V bN u c + Aux
[ + { P r e s } ] Imm e d
M . 4 P LU RA L MARKER D E LE T I ON
r l /--+ J_ • • • + x
C ond i t ion : X do e s n o t i n c l u d e a n O b j e c t p r o n om i na l s u f f i x .
M . 5 CLA S S MARKE R D E LE T I ON 2 1 5
M . 5 . 1
M . 5 . 2
C o n d it i o n :
M . 5 . 3
M . 5 . 4
C l a s s
C l a s s / �+-· +x
X i n c l ud e s a n O b j e c t p r o nom i n a l s u f f ix .
� /�+��+ X + A ux
[ +P r o j ]
+ v
M . 6
M . 6 . 1
M . 6 . 2
M . 6 . 3
M . 7
VE RB STE M VOWE L MORP HOP HONEM I C S 2 2 1
I . . . ..
E P EN THE T IC V O WE L
c + c c + v1
+ c
/c l a s s + _
2 2 4
���+ X + ( . . . ) V l I V bNu c ]
C o n d i t io n s : C + C i s n o t t h e s e qu e n c e o f : b
( i ) !l + ( g) g_
( i i ) n + { �} g_
[ + P ro j ]
( i i i ) n + C ( . . . ) + X + A ux
[ { +P r e s } ] + I mm ed
( iv ) r + C ( . . . ) + X , whe r e X do e s no t i n c l u d e a n
O b j e c t p r o n om i n a l s u f f ix .
M . 8 C LA S S MARKE R AS S I M I LAT I ON
M . 8 . 1 [:J [:J / M . 8 . 2 .Q_ [:J / M . 9 o P RE CE D E NC E
( • • • ) a ( • • • ) ( • • • ) o ( • • • )
M . 1 0 r - F I N A L VE RB S TEM S
I. + n ( • • • ) Q_ ( • • • )
M • l l P RON OM I NA L S U F F I X MOD I F I C AT I ON
M . 1 1 . 1 O B J E C T /A S SOC IAT I VE S U FF I X
M . 1 1 . 1 . 1 � a a r l) a �u
r i a i r j
w a y i a a r w a y i
m u d u a a r m u d u
� a a r g u r
r a i r -
2 2 8
V+
+ [:J 2 3 0
/ __ + x +� < · . . >
[ V b S ]
2 3 1
2 3 2
( . . . ) c +
M . 1 1 . 1 . 2
M . 1 1 . 2
M .. 1 1 . 3
M . 1 1 . 3 . 1
M . 1 1 . 3 . 2
M . 1 2
M . 1 2 . 1
[] [J / { � } + a m b a --
REFE RE N T I A L S U F F I X 2 3 5
[:'. n l r�r
�n l �( . . . ) C + � �
a 1 r 1
a i r i n a 1 n
D I -T RA N S I T IVE SUF F IXE S 2 3 6
O a n + r l [O� r� n l /( . . . ) C +_ a i + r a 1 r 1
a i n + r o i r i n
o a n + r a a n + i r
a i + r a + i r
a i n + r o i n + i r
a o w u + r a o w+ i r
a a d a + r o a d + i r
a u g a r a + r o u g a r + i r
o i r + r a i r + i r
SUF F I X VOWE L ADJU STME N T 2 3 8
a [: : :l / [ ( . . . ) { �) l +
{ . . . ) { -} a
f Vb S ]
M . 1 2 . 2
M . 1 2 . 3
M . 1 3
M . 1 3 . 1
M . 1 3 . 2
M . 1 4
i . . . w + i . . .
y_ + i . . .
( • • • ) V + V ( • • • )
S U F F I X C ON S ONANT ADJU STME N T
( • • • ) u
( • • • ) � +
( . . . ) �
[ Vb S ]
v ( . • . )
2 4 2
[�] �
[ o a m b a ] / �
+ -REMOVAL 2 4 3
+
