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Chapter 8 Banking

History of Banking

The name bank is usually used in the sense of commercial bank.The word bank seems to have originated from the Germanic world banckwhich means a joint stock fund or heap. It is possible that the word has alsobeen derived from the French word banque and the Italian word banco.The Italian word banco refers to a bench at which the money changers ormediaeval bankers used to change one kind of money into another andtransact their banking business. Thus, the early banking was associated withthe business of money changing.

The first public banking institution was The Bank of Venice, foundedin 1157. The Bank of Barcelona and the bank of Genoa were established in1401 and 1407 respectively. These are the recognized forerunners of moderncommercial banks. Exchange banking was developed after the installationof the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609 and Bank of Hamburg in 1690.

The credit for laying the foundation of modern banking in Englandgoes to the Lombards of Italy who had migrated to other European countriesand England. The bankers of Lombardy developed the money lendingbusiness in England. The Bank of England was established in 1694. Thedevelopment of joint stock commercial banking started functioning in 1833.The modern banking system actually developed only in the nineteenth century.In India, the first modern bank Bank of Bengal was established in 1806 inthe Bengal presidency.

Development of banking habits

Before the Industrial Revolution, the size of business units was verysmall. After some years, there was a great increase in the size of the businessunits. Therefore, joint stock forms of business organisations were established.Such form of business organisation widened the circle of investors, by enablingpeople with small means to become share holders of big industrial enterprises.

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Still, some people did not want to undertake any kind of risk by investingtheir money. Hence, an institution was created to mobilize funds on termsacceptable by the people. Such an institution is called Bank, whose businessis to mobilize capital. And hence, banks are connecting link between thepeople, who have surplus money and the people who are in need of money.In addition to this, banks undertake the risk arising out of the possible defaultof the ultimate borrower.

The early stages of banks included three types of institutions

i) The merchant banker, who was primarily a trader. He acceptedcustomers money and kept it under safe custody.

ii) The money lender, who lent his surplus money to the needy personson deriving some interest payment.

iii) The gold smith, who accepted the valuables like gold and diamondof the customers and kept it under his safe custody. It will be returnedto the customer on demand and interest will be collected for that.

Modern banks retain all the characteristics of above three types ofinstitutions. The advancement of society and economic thinking, specializationand extended market resulting from Industrial revolution paved the way fordeveloping modern commercial banking system. The role of banks extendedfrom merely being institutions of deposits and discounts to custodians ofnational finance and trustees of the surplus balances of the public. The modernbanks have now become the lifeblood of our commercial and industrialactivities.

Definition of Banking

On account of multifarious activities of modern banks, the Bank orBanking has been defined by several economists as follows:

Dr.L. Herber and L. Hart define the banker, as one who in the ordinarycourse of business honours cheques drawn upon him by persons from andfor whom he receives money on current accounts.

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Chambers Twentieth century Dictionary defines a bank as an,institution for the keeping, lending and exchanging etc. of money.

According to Crowther, The bankers business is to take the debtsof other people to offer his own in exchange, and thereby create money.

Prof. Kent defines a bank as, an organisation whose principaloperations are concerned with the accumulation of the temporarily idle moneyof the general public for the purpose of advancing to others for expenditure.

It is evident from the above definitions that a bank is an institutionwhich accepts deposits from the public and in turn advances loans by creatingcredit.

Role of Banks in economic development

Banks play a very useful and crucial role in the economic life of everynation. They have control over a large part of the supply of money incirculation, and they can influence the nature and character of production inany country. In order to study the economic significance of banks, we haveto review the general and important functions of banks.

1. Removing the deficiency of capital formation

In any economy, economic development is not possible unless there isan adequate degree of capital accumulation (or) formation. Deficiency ofcapital formation is the result of low saving made by the community. Theserious capital deficiency in developing economies is reflected in small amountof capital equipment per worker and the limited knowledge, training andscientific advance. At this juncture, banks play a useful role. Banks stimulatesaving and investment to remove this deficiency. A sound banking systemmobilizes small savings of the community and makes them available forinvestment in productive enterprises. The important implications of this activityinclude

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i) Banks mobilise deposits by offering attractive rates of interest andthus convert savings into active capital. Otherwise that amountwould have remained idle.

ii) Banks distribute these savings through loans among productiveenterprises which are helpful in nation building.

iii) It facilitates the optimum utilization of the financial resources of thecommunity.

2) Provision of finance and credit

Banks are very important sources of finance and credit for industryand trade. It is observed that credit is the lubricant of all commerce andtrade. Hence, banks become nerve centers of all trade activities and thereforecommerce and trade could function in the presence of sound banking system.

The banks cover foreign trade transactions also. Big banks alsoundertake foreign exchange business. They help in concluding deferredpayments, arrangements between the domestic industrial undertakings andforeign firms to enable the former import machinery and other essentialequipment.

3) Extension of the size of the market

Commercial bankers help commerce and industry in yet another way.With the sound banking system, it is possible for commerce and industry forextending their field of operation. Commercial banks act as an intermediarybetween buyers and the sellers. Goods are supplied on bank guarantees,making it viable for industry and commerce to cultivate and locate marketsfor their products. The risks are undertaken by the bank. When the riskshave been set free by the banks, the industry can look forward to deriveeconomies of the large size of the market.

4) Act as an engine of balanced regional development

Commercial banks help in proper allocation of funds among differentregions of the economy. The banks operate primarily for profits. When the

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banks lend their funds for more productive uses, their profits will bemaximized. Introduction of branch banking makes it possible to choosebetween different regions. A region with growth potential attracts more bankfunds. But in recent years, the approach of banks towards regional growthhas been undergoing a change. Banks help create infrastructure essential foreconomic development. Thus banks are engines of balanced regionaldevelopment in the country.

5) Financing agriculture and allied activities

The commercial bank helps the farmers in extending credit foragricultural development. Farmers require credit for various purposes likemaking their produce, for the modernization and mechanization of theiragriculture, for providing irrigation facilities and for developing land.

The banks also extend their financial assistance in the areas of animalhusbanding, dairy farming, sheep breeding, poultry farming and horticulture.

6) For improving the standard of living of the people

The standard of living of the people is estimated on the basis of theconsumption pattern. The banks advance loans to consumers for the purchaseof consumer durables and other immovable property, which will raise thestandard of living of the people.

Stimulating human capital formation, facilitating monetary policyformulation and developing entrepreneurs are some of the other roles playedby commercial banks in the economic life of every nation.

Commercial Banks

A commercial bank is an institution that operates for profit. Thetraditional functions of a commercial bank relate to the acceptance of depositsfrom the public and provision of credit to different sectors of the economy.However, with the evolution of modern banking and growth of banking systemas an integral part of the national economy, there has been a perceptiblechange in the attitude and outlook of the commercial banks. These banks

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have started providing a host of banking services to their customers.Nevertheless, the basic character of commercial banking remains unchanged.In the early days, commercial banks are organized as a joint stock companyto earn profit. They cater to the needs of short-term, medium term creditand provide capital to businessmen and industrialists. In the recent days, thebanks lend long term funds to businessmen and industrialists.

Functions of Commercial Banks

The various functions performed by commercial banks can beclassified as follows:

1. Accepting or attracting deposits

Commercial banks accept deposits by mobilizing the savings of thepeople. These deposits can be of three forms.

a) Savings deposits: It is a kind of safety vault for the people withidle cash. These deposits are kept under savings account. Deposits in thisaccount earn interest at nominal rates and the banks are entitled to releasedeposits on demand by the deposit holder. In practice, the bank imposes alimit on the number and amount of withdrawals during a period. Chequefacilities are also given to the deposit holder.

b) Demand deposits: Demand deposits are kept under currentaccount. The depositor can withdraw the money on demand. But, the accountholder should specify the amount and the number of withdrawals. Banks donot pay any interest on these accounts. On the contrary, bank imposes servicecharges on maintaining these accounts.

c) Fixed deposits: These are also known as time deposits. The amountdeposited cannot be withdrawn before the maturity period for which theyhave contracted. These deposits carry interest at higher rates varying withthe length of the contract.

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2) Advancing of loans

Banks adopt several ways for granting loans and advances. Theseoperations take different forms.

a) Cash credit: The bank sanctions loans to individuals or firms againstsome collateral security. The loan money is credited in the account of theborrower and he can withdraw the amount as and when it is required. Theceiling of the loan amount is determined by the bank on the basis of the stockvalue of the borrower which in turn becomes Bankers possession. Theborrower can withdraw the cash within or upto the credit limit. The bankcharges interest for the amount withdrawn only.

b) Provision of overdraft facilities

The respectable and reliable customers enjoy these facilities. Thecustomer can issue cheques and overdraw the money in times of need, evenif there is no adequate balance in his account. The customer will pay theinterest to the bank for the amount overdrawn.

c) Discounting bills of exchange

This operation is done through discounting of commercial papers,promissory notes and bills of exchange, usually for three months. The banksafter deducting interest charges and collection charges from the face value ofthe bills, give the balance amount to the customer. When the exchange billmatures, the banks collect the payment from the party.

3) Creation of money or credit

Every loan sanctioned by the banker creates a deposit. Because,when a bank sanctions loan to a customer, an account is opened in his nameand the loan amount is credited into his account. The borrower withdrawsmoney whenever the amount is required. The creation of such deposits leads

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to increase in the money stock of the economy and through its circulationcreates new money.

4) Other functions

Some of the other important functions performed by these banksare as follows:

a) Transfer of funds

In the complexity of trade and commerce in the modern days, thetransfer of funds from one place to another becomes difficult. Banks help ineliminating this difficulty through the use of various credit instruments likecheques, bank drafts and pay orders, traveller cheques, etc. This process iscalled clearing and it is efficiently done by bank operations.

b) Agency functions

Commercial banks are increasingly acting as financial agents for theirclients. They make all sorts of payments on behalf of their clients like insurancepremium, pension claims, dividend claims or capital demands etc. Likewise,they buy and sell gold, silver and securities on behalf of their clients.

c) General utility services

A commercial bank performs general utility services such as

i) providing safety lockers for the safer custody of valuablesof the customers.

ii) Issuing of letter of credit to the customers.

iii) Under-writing loans to be raised by public bodies andcorporations.

iv) Compiling statistics and information relating to trade,commerce and industry.

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Thus, commercial banks render valuable services to the community.Developed banking system ensures industrial and economic progress. Itconstitutes the lifeblood of an advanced economic society. In developingcountries like India, commercial banking may be described as developmentbanking. It plays a critical developmental role in making their funds availableto the priority sectors, weaker sections and employment-oriented schemes.

Central Banks

The banking system of a country can work systematically incoordinated manner, only if there is an apex institution to direct the activitiesof the banks. Such apex institution is popularly known as central bank.The central bank of the country is an autonomous institution, entrusted withpowers of control and supervision. It controls the monetary and bankingsystem of the country. After World War II, the International Monetaryconference held at Brussels in 1929 recommended the setting up of a centralbank in every country. The central bank of our country, known as ReserveBank of India was set up in 1935. The central bank of England called Bankof England was established in 1694. It is known as the mother of centralbanks, since it provides the fundamentals of the art of central banking.

The central bank of France called Bank of France was founded in1800. The USA established a central banking system in the form of FederalReserve Banks in 1914.

Definition of a central bank

A central bank has been defined in terms of its functions. The followingare some of the definitions given by economists.

According to Smith, the primary definition of central banking is abanking system in which a single bank has either complete control or aresiduary monopoly of note issue.

H.A. Shaw defines a central bank, as a bank which controls credit.

In the words of Hawtrey a central bank is that which is the lender ofthe last resort.

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According to Samuelson, a central bank is a bank of bankers. Itsduty is to control the monetary base and through control of high-poweredmoney to control the communitys supply of money.

Distinction between central banks and commercial banks

The central bank is basically different from commercial banks in thefollowing respects.

1. The central bank is the apex institution of the monetary and bankingsystem of the country. A commercial bank is only a constituentunit of the banking system and a subordinate to the central bank.

2. While the central bank possesses the monopoly of note-issue,commercial banks do not have this right.

3. The central bank is not a profit making institution. Its aim is topromote the general economic policy of the government. But, theprimary objective of commercial banks is to earn profit for theirshareholders.

4. The central bank maintains the foreign exchange reserves of thecountry. The commercial banks only deal in foreign exchange underthe directions of the central bank.

5. The central bank is an organ of the government and acts as itsbanker and the financial advisor, whereas commercial banks actas advisors and bankers to the general public only.

Functions of Central bank

The main functions of a central bank are common all over the world.But the scope and content of policy objectives may vary from country tocountry and from period to period depending on the economic situations ofthe respective country. Generally all the central banks aim at achievingeconomic stability along with a high growth rate and a favourable external

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payment position through proper monetary management. The commonfunctions of central banks are discussed below.

1. Regulator of currency

The issue of paper money is the most important function of a centralbank. The central bank is the authority to issue currency for circulation,which is a legal tender money. The issue department of the central bank hasthe responsibility to issue notes and coins to the commercial banks. Thecentral bank regulates the credit and currency according to the economicsituation of the country. In the methods of note issue, the central bank isrequired to keep a certain amount or a fixed proportion of gold and foreignsecurities against the total notes issued. The Reserve Bank of India is requiredto keep Rs.115 crore in gold and Rs.85 crore in foreign securities, but thereis no limit to the issue of notes.

Having the monopoly of note issue, central bank gains advantages as

i) Ensuring uniformity of the notes issued and a proper control overthe supply of money can be exercised.

ii) Bring stability in the monetary system and creates confidence amongthe public.

iii) Government is able to earn profits from printing currencies.

2. Banker, Agent and Adviser to the Government

The central bank of the country acts as the banker, fiscal agent andadvisor to the government. As a banker, it keeps the deposits of the centraland state governments and makes payments on behalf of governments. Itbuys and sells foreign currencies on behalf of the government. It keeps thestock of gold of the country. As a fiscal agent, the bank makes short-termloans to the government for a period not exceeding 90 days. It floats loansand advances to the State governments and local bodies. It manages theentire public debt on behalf of the government. As an adviser, the bank gives

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useful advice to the governments on important monetary and economicproblems like devaluation, foreign exchange policy and budgetary policy.

3. Custodian of cash Reserves of commercial banks

Commercial banks are required to keep a certain percentage of cashreserves with the central bank. On the basis of these reserves, the centralbank transfers funds from one bank to another to facilitate the clearing ofcheques.

4. Custodian and Management of Foreign Exchange reserves

The central bank keeps and manages the foreign exchange reservesof the country. It fixes the exchange rate of the domestic currency in terms offoreign currencies. If there are any fluctuations in the foreign exchange rates,it may have to buy and sell foreign currencies in order to minimize the instabilityof exchange rates.

5. Lender of the last resort

By giving accommodation in the form of re-discounts and collateraladvances to commercial banks, bill brokers and their financial institutions,the central bank acts as the lender of the last resort. The central bank lendsto such institutions in order to help them when they are faced with difficultsituations so as to save the financial structure of the country from collapse.

6. Clearing Function

The central bank acts as a clearing house for other banks and mutualobligations are settled through the clearing system. Since it holds cash reservesof commercial banks, it is easier for the central bank to act as a clearinghouse.

7. Controller of credit

The most important function of the central bank is to control the creditcreation power of commercial banks in order to control inflationary and

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deflationary pressures within the economy. For this purpose, the central bankadopts Quantitative methods and Qualitative (selective) methods. Quantitativemethods aim at controlling the cost and quantity of credit by adopting i)bank rate policy ii) open market operations iii) variations in reserve ratios ofcommercial banks. Qualitative methods control the use and direction of credit.It involves i) regulation of margin requirements ii) regulation of consumercredit, iii) rationing of credit, iv) direct action by the central bank, and v)moral suasion

Besides the above functions, the central bank performs many additionalfunctions. It has to study all problems relating to i) credit, ii) fluctuations inprice level iii) fluctuations in foreign exchange value. It has to collect monetaryand financial statistics, conduct research and provide information. It has tolook after the matters relating to IMF and the World Bank. All together, thecentral bank is the financial and monetary guardian of the nation.

Methods of credit control employed by the central bank

Credit control is an important function of the central bank. Variousmethods are employed by the central bank to control the creation of creditby the commercial banks. The principal methods are classified under twoheads viz. Quantitative methods and Qualitative methods. Quantitative creditcontrol methods are used to expand or contract the total volume of credit inthe banking system. For example, the central bank of India believes that thesafe limit for bank credit is Rs.50, 000 crore. Suppose, at a particular timethe actual bank credit is Rs.75, 000 crore. Reserve Bank of India may nowuse bank rate as a weapon to reduce the volume of credit by Rs.25,000crore. As such the volume of bank credit is reduced in the country. On theother hand, Qualitative credit control methods are used to control and regulatethe flow of credit into particular industries or businesses depending on theeconomic priorities set by the government. Suppose RBI estimates that theinflationary pressure in India is due to commercial banks loan to speculatorsand hoarders who have managed to control the supply of inflation-sensitivegoods and thus have pushed up the price level. Now RBI may directcommercial banks not to lend to speculators and hoarders. It is concluded

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from the above analysis that Quantitative controls are indirect, while Qualitativecontrols are direct.

Quantitative or General Credit control methods

The important general methods of credit control are as follows:

1) Bank Rate (or) Discount Rate Policy

The rate of interest of every central bank is known as Bank Rate. Itis otherwise known as discount rate. At this rate the central bank rediscountsbills of exchange and government securities held by the commercial banks.When the cash reserves of the commercial banks tend to fall below the legalminimum, the banks may obtain additional cash from the central bank eitherby rediscounting bills with the central bank or by borrowing from the centralbank against eligible securities. The central bank charges interest rate for thisservice. The central bank controls credit by making variations in the bankrate. A rise in the bank rate makes borrowing costly from the central bank.So commercial banks borrow less and in turn they raise their lending rates tocustomers. This discourages business activity. Thereby there is contractionof demand for goods and services and ultimately fall in the price level.Therefore bank rate is raised to control inflation. In the opposite case, loweringthe bank rate offsets deflationary tendencies.

2) Open Market Operations

Direct buying and selling of securities, bills, bonds of government aswell as private financial institutions by the central bank, on its own initiative,is called open market operations. In periods of inflationary situation, thecentral bank will sell in the money market first class bills. Buyers of this billsay commercial banks make payments to the central bank. It reduces thesize of the cash reserves held by the commercial bank with the central bank.Some banks are forced to curtail lending. Thus, business activity based onbank loans and which is responsible for boom conditions are curtailed. Intimes of depression, the central bank will buy bills and securities from thecommercial banks. The central bank will pay cash to the commercial banksfor such purchases. Hence, the cash reserves of the commercial banks are

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increased. Thereby banks expand their loans resulting in the expansion ofinvestment, employment, production and prices. Thus central bank throughits open market operations influences business activity and economicconditions of the country.

3. Variable Reserve Ratio

Every commercial bank is required by law to maintain a minimumpercentage of its time and demand deposits with the central Bank. The excessmoney remains with the commercial bank over and above these minimumreserves is known as the excess reserves. Commercial banks create creditonly based on these excess reserves. Central bank may bring changes inreserve requirements. Consequently, it will affect the amount of reserves thatcommercial bank must maintain as deposits with the central bank as well asthe amounts available for lending or investing. For instance, when the centralbank fixes the reserve requirement as 10 percent, a commercial bank willhave to maintain a cash reserve of Rs.100 for every deposit of Rs.1000 andhence it can lend only upto Rs.900. To check inflation the central bank mayraise the cash reserve ratio from 10 percent to 15 percent. This will force thecommercial banks to deposit additional 5 percent by reducing their amountavailable for lending. On the other hand, to check a deflation the centralbank may reduce the reserve ratio from 10 percent to 7 percent. This willraise the excess cash with the commercial banks; consequently credit will beexpanded.

Qualitative or selective credit control

Qualitative methods of credit control mean the regulation and controlof the supply of credit among its possible users. The aim of such methods isto channelise the flow of bank credit from speculative and other undesirablepurposes to socially desirable and economically useful uses. Importantselective credit controls are given below.

a) Margin Requirements

The aim of this method is to prevent excessive use of credit to purchasesecurities by speculators. The central bank fixes minimum margin requirements

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on loans for purchasing securities. Suppose the central bank fixes a 30 percentas margin requirements, then for Rs.1000 worth of security, commercialbank may keep Rs.300 as margin and the remaining Rs.700 may be usedfor lending. If the central bank wants to curb speculative activities, it willraise the margin requirements. On the other hand, if it wants to expand credit,it reduces the margin requirements.

b) Regulation of consumer credit

Under this instrument, the central bank regulates the use of bank creditby consumers in order to buy durable consumer goods in instalments. Toachieve this, it adopts two devices i) Minimum down payment ii) Maximumperiods of repayment.

c) Rationing of Credit

Credit rationing is employed to control and regulate the purpose forwhich credit is granted by the commercial banks. Credit rationing takes twoforms i) variable portfolio ceilings, wherein central bank fixes ceiling on theaggregate portfolios of the commercial bank. They cannot advance loansbeyond this ceiling. ii) Variable capital assets ratio wherein the central bankfixes in relation to the capital of a commercial bank to its total assets.

d) Direct Action

Direct action refers to directives of the central bank to enforce thecommercial banks to follow a particular policy. The central bank givesdirection to commercial banks in respect of i) lending policies ii) the purposefor which advances may be made iii) the margins to be maintained in respectof secured loans.

e) Moral suasion

Moral suasion implies persuasion and request made by the centralbank to the commercial banks to follow the general monetary policy in thecontext of the current economic situation.

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f) Publicity

The central bank publishes weekly or monthly or quarterly statementsof the assets and liabilities of the commercial banks for the information of thepublic. It also publishes statistical data relating to money supply, prices,production, employment and of capital and money market etc.

Nationalisation of Banks

The Indian banking system passed through a series of crises andhence its growth was very slow during the first half of the 20th century. Butafter Independence, the Indian banking system recorded rapid progress.This was due to planned economic growth, increase in money supply, growthof banking habit, setting up of the State Bank of India and its associatebanks in the 1950s, the control and guidance by the Reserve Bank of Indiaand above all nationalization of the 14 commercial banks in July 1969, and 6more banks in 1980 by the Government.

Prior to nationalization, it was believed by some economists that Indiancommercial banking system did not play its role in the planned developmentof the nation. The banking system was controlled by the leading industrialistsand business magnates. They used public funds to build up private industrialempires. Small industrial and business units were consistently ignored.Agricultural credit was never seriously considered. Therefore Governmentof India took over 14 commercial banks in July 1969 and 6 other banks inApril 1980.

The commercial banking sector in India has within its fold the followingbanks.

a) The State Bank of India

b) The seven associated banks of State Bank of India.

c) Twenty nationalized Banks.

d) Indian joint stock commercial banks

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e) Foreign banks functioning in India

f) Regional Rural Banks.

Performance of Nationalized Banks

The most important benefit of nationalization of commercial bankswas the achievement of homogeneity and strength as well as cohesion in thebanking structure of India, affording a better environment for effectivelyimplementing banking and monetary policies of the government.

The working of the commercial banks after nationalization show thatthey have made a complete departure from the old conservative bankingpractices and moving towards the objectives set forth in various fields oftheir operations. They have made significant achievements in the sphere ofbranch expansion, deposit mobilization, production-oriented financing,extension of credit to neglected sectors and creating new vistas in banking.

Chapter 8Exercise

PART A

I Choose the correct answer

1. The first bank in India was established in

a. 1770 b. 1806

c. 1801 d. 1782

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2. Minimum reserve system relates

a. Method of note issue

b. Commercial banks keep certain portion of their deposits with the RBI.

c. Commercial banks should keep certain portions of their deposits in cash

d. Customers are compelled to keep certain minimum balance with their deposits

3. Separate the bank whose motive is not profit-making

a. Andhra bank b. Canara bank

c. IOB d. RBI

4. The 14 commercial banks were nationalized in the year

a. 1969 b. 1951

c. 1949 d. 1980

5. The primary functions of the commercial bank is

a. making loans and advances

b. discounting bills of exchange

c. accepting deposits

d. participating in the inter-bank borrowing

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II Fill in the blanks

6. EXIM Bank provides credit for .. trade.

7. RBI controls credit supply by changing bank rate or ..

8. NABARD provides finance to medium and long term basis.

9. The RBI was set up in April.

10. The amount of cash kept by commercial banks to meet the day today transactions is known as

III Match the followings

11. Monopoly of note issue - commercial banks

12. C R R - Official minimum rate

13. Bank rate - Facility offered to businessmen

14. Overdraft - 3-15 percent of total deposits

15. Nationalisation - Reserve bank of India

IV Answer the following in one or two

16. Name the first bank that was nationalized in India.

17. Who operates the current account deposits?

18. Which organization established EXIM bank?

19. Which organization is called the lender of last resort?

20. Can the commercial bank print and circulate currency notes?

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PART B

Answer the following in four or five lines

21. What do you mean by a bank?

22. Write a note on commercial banks.

23. What is Central Bank? Give example?

24. What is Open market operations?

25. What is moral suasion?

PART C

Answer the following question in about a page

26. Explain the role of banks in economic development.

27. Distinguish between central bank and commercial bank.

28. Give definitions of central bank by various monetary theorists.

29. Explain various quantitative credit control methods of RBI.

30. Explain the different types of loans and advances made by thecommercial banks.

PART -D

31. Describe the functions of commercial banks.

32. Examine the functions of central bank.