Bamboo and Climate Changed

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Technical Report No.

Lou Yiping, Li YanxKathleen Buckingha

Giles Henley, Zhou Guom

Printed on recycled pa

Bamboos ast growth is one o its many attributes which make it a useul

resource or mankind. It is also commonly seen as an indication o a high

ability to capture and sequester atmospheric carbon and consequentlymitigate climate change, in a similar way that trees do. This report

analyses the work carried out to date to explore dierent aspects o

bamboos growth, management and use which impact bamboos carbon

sequestration potential. Using modeling and comparison studies, theindings o this report suggest that bamboos carbon sequestration rate

can equal or surpasses that o ast-growth trees over short time periods ina new plantation, but only when bamboo is actively managed. A review o

studies carried out in China indicates that bamboo is a relatively important

carbon store at the ecosystem and national level. While the results o thereport underline the gaps in knowledge in the ield, they suggest that

bamboo orest ecosystems can be leveraged to help mitigate climatechange, whilst simultaneously providing other important services or

human adaptation and development.

Bamboo and Clima

Change Mitigatio


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INBAR

The Inte rnational Network or Bamboo and Ra ttan ( INBAR) is a n intergove rnmentalorganization dedicated to reducing poverty, conserving the environment and creating

airer trade using bamboo and rattan. INBAR was established in 1997 and representsa growing number o member countries all over the world. INBAR's headquarters are

in China and there are regional oices in Ghana, Ethiopia, India and Ecuador. INBARconnects a global network o governmental, non-governmental, corporate and

community partners in over 50 countries.

All photographs by INBAR except:

The photos on page 1, 7, and 28 are by Anji Photographers Society, China, the photo onpage 34 is by Xia Pengei, the photo on page 36 is by Dasso Industrial Group Co., Ltd.

and the photo on page 37 is by Jeevanhandan Duraisamy.


Bamboo and Climate Change

Mitigation : a comparative analysi

o carbon sequestration

Lou Yiping, Li YanxiKathleen Buckingham

Giles Henley, Zhou Guom


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Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................................................Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................................................................Executive Summary .........................................................................................................................................................................................List o Acronyms ...............................................................................................................................................................................................Introduction: Purpose o the report ......................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 1 Bamboo and Climate Change ...............................................................................................................................................1.1 Bamboo and the MAD Challenge ..........................................................................................................................................................1.2 Current global issues -Introduction to climate change .................................................................................................................1.3 Climate change and the orestry sector ...............................................................................................................................................1.4 Bamboo in a world o growing timber demand and climate change ......................................................................................

Chapter 2 Mechanisms used or addressing Climate Change ....................................................................................................2.1 Carbon accounting ....................................................................................................................................................................................2.2 Carbon markets ............................................................................................................................................................................................

2.2.1 Kyoto Protocol and the Clean Development Mechanism ...................................................................................................2.2.2 Voluntary carbon credits ................................................................................................................................................................2.2.3 REDD .....................................................................................................................................................................................................

2.2.4 REDD+ ....................................................................................................................................................................................................

2.3 Carbon Credits or Bamboo .....................................................................................................................................................................2.4 Permanence and leakage .........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 3 Carbon sequestration at stand level ................................................................................................................................3.1 Data sources .................................................................................................................................................................................................3.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................................3.3 Comparative analysis o the carbon sequestration patterns o a newly aorested Moso bamboo plantation an

Chinese Fir plantation in subtropical locations ...............................................................................................................................

3.3.1 Dynamics o carbon sequestrated in a newly-established Moso bamboo plantation in the rst 10 years .......3.3.2 Comparative analysis o the carbon sequestration trends o a newly-established Moso bamboo and a

Chinese Fir plantation in the rst 10 years ..............................................................................................................................3.3.3 Comparative analysis o carbon sequestration trends o a newly-established Moso bamboo and a Chinese

plantation in two harvesting rotations (1-60 years) .............................................................................................................3.3.4 Carbon sequestration by unmanaged bamboo orest (without regular harvesting) ........................................

3.4 Comparative analysis o ield data or Moso bamboo and Chinese Fir .................................................... 3.5 Comparative analysis o carbon sequestration in a new Ma bamboo and an Eucalyptus plantati

under tropical growing conditions ........................................................................................................................................................

3.5.1 Comparative analysis o carbon sequestration within a new Ma bamboo and a new Eucalypt (Eucalypurophylla) plantation under regular management practices with harvesting rotations within the rst 10 years ..

3.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 4 Carbon sequestration capacity in bamboo orest ecosystems ............................................................................

4.1 Analysis o bamboo orestscarbon sequestration ..........................................................................................................................4.2 Comparison o carbon stock in bamboo and orest ecosystems (including bamboo, vegetation and soil carbosequestration) ..........................................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 5 Bamboo carbon stock estimates at the national level o China ...........................................................................

Chapter 6 Impact o management practices on carbon sequestration in Moso bamboo orests .............................

Chapter 7 Carbon sequestration in durable products ...................................................................................................................7.1 Carbon in Harvested Wood Products (HWP) .....................................................................................................................................7.2 Carbon in harvested bamboo products (HBP) ..................................................................................................................................7.3 Bamboo biochar ..........................................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 8 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................................................................Reerences ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................

Table o Contents

Copyright 2010International Network or Bamboo and Rattan

All rights reserved. No part o this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any orm or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recordingor any inormation storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing rom

the publisher. The presentation o material in this publication and in maps that appearherein does not imply the expression o any opinion on the part o INBAR concerning

the legal status o any country, or the delineation o rontiers or boundaries.

International Network or Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR)

P. O. Box 100102-86, Beijing 100102, P. R. ChinaTel:00 86 10 64706161; Fax: 00 86 10 64702166 ; Email: [email protected]


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Forewo

Foreword

The chal lenges broug ht on by Climate Change have been succinctly described by Proess

John Schellnhuber1 as a MAD Challenge; one which requires simultaneous action on Mitigatio

Adaptation and Development. Forests are recognized as having a crucial contribution

meeting these challenges due to the multiple services that they provide, notably carbo

sequestration, timber provision and income generation. The growing literature on bambo

repeatedly conirms the importance o this multiunctional orest resource in providi

livelihoods, as well the important environmental services that it provides at a local leve

including erosion control, watershed maintenance and a habitat or biodiversity.

Bamboos ability to provide global environmental services through carbon sequestration is al

now receiving high levels o interest, and is the subject o research by INBAR and partners. D

to its ast growth rate, bamboo has long been supposed to be a plant with a high sequestrati

capability, and the research to date indeed conrms that bamboo outperorms ast growi

trees in its rate o carbon accumulation. However, important questions remain, especially

how much carbon a bamboo orest can absorb, and how to store this carbon over longer tim

periods. An overview o these multiple and complex issues is presented in this report.

Whilst more research in this area is undoubtedly needed, it is important to recognize t

multiple benets that bamboo can provide on all three ronts o the MAD Challenge. At INBA

we aim to leverage these beneits through local and global initiatives, so that bamboo c

continue to provide development and adaptation at the local level, while simultaneou

contributing to tackling climate change at the global level.

Dr Coosje Hoogendoorn

Director General

International Network or Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR)

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all reviewers o this study, prominently among them:

Proessor Walter Liese, Dr. Jules Janssen and Dr. Till Nee.

The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Dr. Coosje Hoogendoorn, Wu Zhimin,

Violeta Gonzalez and Tim Cronin at INBAR or their encouragement and support to complete

this report. Thanks also to Jin Wei, Paulina Soria and Andrew Benton or their assistance in

editing and publishing the paper. Thanks also to Ms. Wang Fang in CAF (Chinese Academy o

Forestry) or her assistance in preparing the report.

1 Institute or Climate Impact Research, Potsdam, Germany


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iv

Executive Summary

Within the range o options available to mitigate high levels o carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere, orests and orestry practices have received a lot o attention. While global

deorestation is one o the most important sources o carbon emissions, it is thought to be

relatively easy to halt compared with other options. Through orestry practices including the

expansion o orest area and improvements in orest management, orests can act as important

carbon sinks. Although botanically bamboo is a woody grass and not a tree, bamboo orests

have comparable eatures to other types o orest regarding their role in the carbon cycle. They

sequester carbon through photosynthesis, and lock carbon in the bre o the bamboo and inthe soil where it grows. However, there are also important dierences between bamboo orests

and other orests. Bamboo has a rapid rate o early growth and high annual re-growth when

managed. The liecycle o individual bamboo culms (between 5-10 years) is comparatively

short. The products derived rom bamboo are commonly used in lower durability applications

than those rom timber orests. Consequently, INBAR and partners set out to determine how

bamboo behaves in terms o carbon storage, and how it compares to trees in its carbon

sequestration perormance.

This report attempts to a ddress the main issues which inlue nce how bamboo should be

seen within the climate change context. Chapter 1 gives a global overview o bamboo and

its importance to global and local economies, societies and environments and its potential in

dealing with the climate change challenge, a nd Chapter 2 describes the mechanisms that have

been created to tackle climate change, and examines how bamboo ts within these. Chapters

3 to 5 analyse to what extent bamboo could contribute to carbon storage at the plantation

stand, ecosystem, and national level using calculations based on ield data o bamboo

and comparable tree species. Chapters 6 and 7 look at issues o management and productdurability which could aect carbon storage perormance.

The ndings and conclusions are summarized as ollows.

The compara tive analys is o c arbon sequestr ation betwee n a monopod ial Moso bamboo

plantation and ast growing Chinese Fir plantation modelled or subtropical growing conditions

in South East China showed that a Moso bamboo ( Phyllostachys pubescens) plantation at a

density o 3,300 culms/ha and a Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) plantation at a density

o 2,175 trees/ha have comparable eatures regarding their rapid growth rates and climatic

requirements. The study analysed their growth patterns and used dynamic biomass and carbon

models to ascertain their relative rates o carbon sequestration. The research concluded that

both species had a comparable sequestration rate, but ollowed a dierent pattern.

The calculation of the annual net carbon storage for a newly aorested Moso bamboo

plantation showed a peak o 5 .5 t C/ha in the 5th year. The bamboo sequestered more

carbon than the Chinese Fir in the rst 5 years, but less than the Chinese Fir during the

next 5 years. Under regular management practices (which include stand and soil

management combined with common harvesting regimes) the study ound that the Moso

bamboo plantation sequestrated an equal or greater amount o carbon than the Chinese

Fir plantation within the latters rst 30 years har vesting rotation as well as the second 30

year rotation.

Executive Summ

In contrast, if the bamboo forest wasnt managed through annual harvesting practices, itwould be signicantly less eective at carbon sequestration. Compared with the rst 30

year o the Chinese Fir plantation, the bamboo plantation only sequestered about 30% o

the total carbon that the r plantation sequestered. In other words, r is likely to be muc

more eective at sequestering carbon than bamboo when a bamboo plantation is

unmanaged and un-harvested.

A literature review conrmed that the level o carbon stored in Moso bamboo orests andChinese Fir in various provinces o China are indeed comparable.

For tropical conditions, the carbon sequestration capacity o Eucalypt plantations w

compared to sympodial Ma bamboo (Dendrocalamus latilorus) in the same area. This is

suitable comparison due to their relative rapid growth rates and similar climatic requiremen

The study analys ed t heir respecti ve growth patter ns a nd calcul ated their relativ e ca rb

sequestration capacity. The results indicated that both plantations had comparable carb

sequestration capacity and perormance.

Under regular management practices with annual harvesting for the bamboo, the Eucalyplantation outperormed the bamboo in the rst 5 years until it was cut, to be replaced b

a new Eucalypt plantation. In the second 5 years, the Ma bamboo started to outperorm

the Eucalypt plantation.

The results indicate that sympodial bamboo in the tropics is likely to sequester equal or

more carbon than Eucalypt plantations. The review o the data calculated and collectedrom the literature also has clearly shown that more carbon is likely to be sequestered by

species growing in tropical areas (both bamboo and trees), than by species growing in

sub-tropical areas.

A literature review indicated that the carbon stock in vegetation (including understory spec

and other mixed vegetation) o Moso bamboo is within the range o 27-77 t C/ha. The major

o carbon appears to be sequestered in the arbour layer accounting or 84-99%; the shr

layer and the herbaceous layer accounted or very small contributions, especially in intensive

managed bamboo orests. When looking at the whole ecosystem, including the soil, Mo

bamboo orest ecosystem carbon storage capacity was reported to be between 10 2 t C/ha a

289 t C/ha, o which 19-33% was stored within the bamboo culms and vegetative layer an

67-81% stored within the soil layer (rhizomes, roots and soil carbon). This indicates that the s

layer carbon content is likely to be about 2-4 times greater than the vegetative layer. Bamb

ecosystems were ound to have an equal or somewhat lower carbon stock (between 102- 2

t C/ha) when compared with other orest types (between 122 - 337 t C/ha). The total carbo

stock in bamboo orests is obviously aected by climatic actors. The carbon stock o bamb

in Fujian province (Qi, 2009), where the climate is more suitable or bamboo growth than

Zhejiang province (Zhou, 2004), surpassed Pinus elliottii in its 19th year, Chinese Fir in its 15

year, and showed comparable carbon stock to broad-leaved orest (262.5 t C/ha) and tropic

orest (230.4 t C/ha).


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vi

List o Acrony

At the national level in China, the carbon stock in bamboo orests has been estimated by

combining carbon density data with inventory data on bamboo resources in C hina. The results

varied greatly between dierent studies. The total carbon stock in bamboo orests in Ch ina was

estimated between 605.5 - 837.9 Tg C and carbon density or bamboo between 130.4 -173.0 t

C/ha.

The e ect s o man age men t reg ime s on car bon sto rag e were als o stu die d. Int ens ive

management o Moso bamboo seems to be able to increase the carbon storage capacityin above ground biomass. It was also noted that the carbon in rhizomes, roots and soil

may be lower under intensive management. The role o management practices on carbon

sequestration by bamboos needs urther study.

As with other orest products, bamboo products retain their carbon content until they either

biologically deteriorate or are burnt. Although bamboo has many advantageous eatures over

many timber species such as high tensile strength, lexibility and hardness, it is argued that

bamboo products are not as durable as many wood based products, thereore having a shorter

lie cycle. However, this appears to be more due to customs than to technical limitations, and in

recent years many more durable bamboo products have entered the market. This investment

in producing more high quality, durable bamboo products needs to continue, because it is

a key issue in order to optimize and prolong carbon storage. Prolonged storage o carbon is

only possible when the culms are processed into durable products with long liecycles, such as

construction materials, panel products and urniture.

An alternative is to utilise bamboo as a bio- energy resource as an alternative or ossil uel,or or charcoal products, including biochar. The promotion and development o bamboo

management and utilization or such purposes could provide additional opportunities to

mitigate climate change.

In conclusion, within this comparative analysis considering Eucalypt and Chinese Fir, rapid

growing trees rom tropical and subtropical regions respectively, bamboo plantations seemed

to be highly comparable to ast-growing trees. Moreover, the beneits appear to extend to

the ecosystem and regional level due to bamboos carbon sequestration capacity, stemming

rom its re-growth capacity and annual harvesting regimes. Sustainable management and

appropriate utilization o bamboo resources can increase the amount o carbon sequestered,

through management changes which increase storage capacity within the ecosystem in the

short-term, and through transormation o carbon into durable products in the long-term.

Bamboo is managed and utilized by hundreds o millions o people globally, who rely on it

or many dierent uses, rom household uses and protection o riverbanks to being a source

o income. Many bamboo armers live in less developed regions and are aected by poverty.

The promotion o bamboo as a sustainable carbon sequestration tool will not only create new

opportunities or mitigating climate change but can improve and protect millions o rural

livelihoods through investment in sustainable bamboo management, industry and technology.

List o Acronyms

AFOLU: Agriculture, orestry and other land use

AGB: Above ground biomass

A/R: Aorestation/ Reorestation

CA: Carbon accumulation

CAF: Chinese Academy o Forestry

CDM: Clean Development Mechanism

CO2e: Carbon dioxide equivalent

COP: Conerence o the PartiesFAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

GHG: Greenhouse gas

GIS: Geographical Inormation System

HBP: Harvested Bamboo Products

HWP: Harvested Wood Products

INBAR: International Network or Bamboo and Rattan

IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

JI: Joint Implementation

MAD: Mitigation, Adaptation and Development.

MBC: Microbial biomass carbon

MC: Mineralizable carbon

Pg: Petagram (a unit o weight equal to 1015 grams)

REDD: Reduce Emissions rom Deorestation and Degradation

REDD+: REDD+ goes beyond deorestation and orest degradation, and includes the

role o conservation, sustainable management o orests and enhancement o

orest carbon stocksSBFM: Sustainable Bamboo Forest Management

SFM: Sustainable orest management

Tg: Teragram (a unit o weight equal to 1 012 grams)

TOC: Total organic carbon

UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

WSOC: Water-soluble organic carbon

YNC: Yearly net carbon


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1. Bamboo andClimate Change

Introduction: Purpose o the report

The c halleng e invo lved in a ddressing the concurren t nee ds o Mitigatio n, Ada ptation and

Development - the MAD Challenge (Schellnhuber, 2009) requires an investigation into the

interaction between all natural systems and people to determine how natural systems can be

better utilised.

Bamboos ability to sequester carbon at high rates based upon its ast growth has long been an

important part o its green credentials. However, given the complexities o establishing models

or vegetative sinks, there are a number o questions regarding bamboos ability to sequesterand store carbon over dierent time horizons. Among the complications o quantiying carbon

sequestration, there are important questions regarding bamboos comparative advantage

when compared to other ast growing trees, the length o time over which it sequesters carbon

at higher rates than competing species, the role o a bamboo ecosystem in acting as a carbon

store, the role that management o bamboo plays in its perormance, and the durability o

bamboo-derived products2.

This p ublication examines these questions through modelling studies and a review o the

existing work that has been carried out on quantiying carbon sequestration o bamboo

systems.

2 This report approaches the question o climate change mitigation by looking at the rate carbon sequestration and carbon storagein the bamboo ecosystems, as determined by growth models. It does not address rates o removal o carbon dioxide rom theatmosphere directly, or the ux in carbon dioxide within the bamboo ecosystem. It ocuses rather on carbon sequestration based

upon volumes o carbon stored in bamb oo over its growth period, and compares the eects o dierent management practices onthis process. This is the only area which has been researched in detail or bamboo to date, although it is hoped that this work can bebuilt upon to look at the other aspects o carbon dynamics in the bamboo ecosystems

1. Bamboo andClimate Change


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1.1 Bamboo and the MAD Challenge

Bamboo holds signicant importance or humanity on numerous levels. Throughout history, its

properties have been repeatedly used by dierent cultures to provide the goods and services

needed or their lives. Today, it remains highly important as a basic livelihood crop and material

or rural people living in Asia, Latin America and Arica, as well as a growing number o higher-

income people who purchase green bamboo products throughout the world. Bamboo should

be seen as a useul tool to tackle the MAD Challenge o Mitigation o, Adaptation to and

Development in the ace o Climate Change. Whilst the main ocus o this publication is on

the mitigation potential o bamboo systems, this section briey describes the importance obamboo to human development and adaption.

1.1.1 Bamboo botany, distribution and use

The way bamboo grows and its wide distribution throughout the world makes it an important

natural resource or hundreds o millions o people across the globe (INBAR Strategy, 2006).

Taxonomically a g rass, bamboo h as properties o ast growth and rejuvenation a ter cutting,

which means it can provide a harvestable yield every 1-2 years once maturity is reached. This

makes it a quick and reliable source o bamboo bre; a versatile material which lends itsel to

processing into many dierent orms and products (Scurlock, 2000). Its ability to rejuvenate

itsel rom its below-ground rhizome stock means that it does not require replanting,

needs little tending, and generally has little need or capital, labour or chemical inputs to

provide adequate levels o bre. As such it is highly suited to a diversied agricultural system,

constituting one o several livelihood resources or armers (INBAR, 2004).

The wide distribution o ba mboo across the tropi cs and subtropics o Asia, Arica an d LatinAmerica, with an annual production estimated at between 15-20 million tonnes o bre implies

that it is highly signiicant as a livelihood material (Williams, 1994). Although traditionally

associated more closely with Asian cultures, a number o economically important species

are ound in Latin America and Arica, where they too constitute important crops or local

inhabitants. Dual characteristics o lightweight and high tensile strength oGuadua angustioliahave resulted in its main use as a building material throughout its range in Colombia, Ecuador

and Peru. Arundinaria alpine, which is distributed in mountainous parts o East Arica, is an

important source o construction material and uel. With the highest concentration o species

occurring in South and Southeast Asia, bamboo has occupied a central role in the development

o culture and civilisation there with both a utilitarian, unctional as well as spiritual signicance.

Used or ood, clothing and shelter, inusing writing, spoken language and art, bamboo has

traditionally contributed to the multiple physical and spiritual requirements o mankind.

1.1.2 Bamboo and development

Bamboo is relied on heavily by some o the worlds poorest people, and can be a signiicantpathway out o poverty (Belcher, 1995). It is commonly available as a common-pool resource

and relatively easy to harvest and manage. Low investment costs or processing inputs

and lexible time requirements or undertaking seasonal work means that bamboo-based

employment is suitable to both ull and part-time employment opportunities (INBAR, 2004). The

development o the bamboo industry has lead to job creation and raising rural incomes with

associated benets. For example, a conservative estimate indicates that there are 5.6 million

people working in Chinas bamboo sector, 80% o whom are working in orest cultivation (Jiang,

1. Bamboo and Climate Chan

2002a). Case studies on bamboo counties in Eastern China demonstrate the important ro

that the development o the bamboo sector can have in reducing rural poverty, maintaini

high levels o rural employment. Impact assessments o INBAR project communities in northe

India show that bamboo-based interventions have high value-addition through enhanci

incomes, generating extra rural employment and empowering women in their communit

(Rao et al., 2009). The expansion o global trade in bamboo is expected to contribute t

development in bamboo growing areas. Currently bamboo contributes to between 4-7%

the total tropical and subtropical timber trade (Jiang, 2007).

1.1.3 Bamboo and Adaptation to Climate Change

Human beings are undamentally dependent upon the low o ecosystem services (ME

2005). Enhanced protection and management o natural ecosystems and more sustainab

management o natural resources and agricultural crops can play a critical role in clima

change adaptation strategies (World Bank, 2010; TEEB, 2009).

Bamboo is an important part o many natural and agricultural eco-systems, providing

number o crucial ecosystem services. It provides ood and raw materials (provisioning servic

or consumers in developing and developed countries. It regulates water lows, reduc

water erosion on slopes and along riverbanks, can be used to treat wastewater and can act

windbreak in shelterbelts, oering protection against storms (regulating services).

As poor people will be worse hit by the eects o climate change, action plans or adaptatio

need to be tailored to their situation (UNFCCC, 2007). Investing in ecological inrastructureincreasingly acknowledged to be a cost-eective means o adapting to climate-change relat

risks, in many cases surpassing the use o built inrastructure (TEEB, 2009). For instance, t

use o mangrove orests to protect shorelines provides an equal level o protection at a low

cost. Using bamboo orests as part o a comprehensive approach to rehabilitating degrade

hillsides, catchment areas and riverbanks has shown promising and quick results (Fu and Ban

1995).

The light-weight and versatility o harvested bamboo also lends itsel to innovations to co

with increased loods, such as raised housing in Ecuador and Peru and loating garde

in Bangladesh (Oxam, 2010). Bamboo thus has a high potential to be used in adaptati

measures to alleviate threats imposed by local changes in climate on vulnerable populations


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1.2 Current global issues -Introduction to

climate change

Climate change is considered to be one o the greatest threats acing humanity. According

to the IPCC, global warming is unequivocal, with evidence rom increases in average air

and ocean temperatures, melting o snow and ice and sea level rise (IPCC, 2007). I global

emissions continue down the Business as Usual (BAU) trajectory, the scientiic evidence

points to increasing risks o serious, irreversible impacts (Stern, 2006). In order to avoid the

most damaging eects o climate change, it is estimated that global levels o atmospheric

greenhouse gases (GHGs) need to be stabilized at approximately 445-490 parts per million

CO2e (CO2 equivalent) or less. To achieve this target, it is essential that urgent international

action is taken. Forests will have a central role in meeting this target (Eliasch, 2008).

1.3 Climate change and the orestry sector

Forests have been discussed very specically in the climate change research and discussions

because o the high contribution that deorestation makes to increasing atmospheric stocks o

carbon, and the potential to remove carbon rom the atmosphere through improvement and

expansion o orests.

i) Halting deorestation There is increased interest in reduced deorestation as a tool or

climate change mitigation, as avoided deorestation is a relatively low-cost carbon abatement

option (Gullison et al., 2007). Forests accounts or the largest store o carbon amongst terrestrial

plant communities, and the reduction o this store through the process o deorestation is

responsible or approximately 17 per cent o global emissions (Eliasch, 2008). This ranks it as

the third largest source o GHG emissions ater the burning o coal and oil (Brickell, 2009). The

IPCC (2007) estimated emissions rom deorestation in the 1990s were 5.8 GtCO2/year. Other

estimates suggest that 1-2 billion tonnes o carbon were released rom orestry during the

1990s (Mahli and Grace, 2000). McKinsey and Company (2009) mapped the costs o abatement

practices on a greenhouse gas cost abatement curve showing that the costs within orestry

are relatively low, with high beneits to be attained rom carbon sequestration projects

incorporated within carbon markets. In order to reduce deorestation it is estimated that a

minimum annual cost o US$2.5 billion is needed to achieve signicant reductions in emissions.

This est imate i s equiva lent to approx imately 500 Mt CO2e /year o reduc ed emissi ons at an

average cost o US$5/tCO2e (Nee et al., 2009). Recent technical research and policy proposals

have ocused on viable mitigation approaches using mechanisms to pay or keeping orests

standing, which are collectively grouped under the Reduced Emissions rom Deorestation and

Degradation (REDD) initiative.

ii) Sequestering more carbon through vegetation Increasing the level o carbon

sequestration- the process in which plant communities capture carbon dioxide through

photosynthesis and transorm the gas into solid biomass- is one o a range o viable options

or reducing the total amount o carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and thus mitigating uture

dangerous climate change-related scenarios. By converting land containing relatively low levels

o carbon (e.g. shrub and pasture lands, agricultural elds, or degraded orests) into orested

land, which contains more carbon in the vegetation and soil, more atmospheric CO2 could

potentially be sequestered in terrestrial ecosystems. This is the more relevant research area or

bamboo, as bamboo orests are important or production, and are not at risk rom deorestation

to the same extent that primary tropical orests are.

1. Bamboo and Climate Chan

1.4 Bamboo in a world o growing timber

demand and climate change

The demand or timber and agricultu ral commodities will continue to increase as the glob

population expands and becomes wealthier. Global policies will need to shit towards mo

eicient and sustainable production methods in order to satisy the rising demand

commodities. The sustainable management o orests will play a key role in meeting th

demand.

Bamboo has an important role to play in reducing pressure on orestry resources. For instan

in China, since nationwide logging bans o certain orests came into eect in 1998, bamb

has increasingly been seen as a possible substitute to timber and has entered many mark

traditionally dominated by timber. The successul use o bamboo in dierent product lin

ranging rom urniture and ooring to paper and packaging demonstrates the high potent

or bamboo as a more sustainable alternative material in production o many products.

As discussed in section 1.3, given the increasing levels o atmospheric carbon dioxide, anoth

major environmental service that humans rely on orests to provide is carbon sequestratio

and a major part o orestry research is now ocussed on quantiying how dierent ore

perorm as sinks (i.e. whether they absorb more carbon than they emit, and or how long) an

as stores (how much carbon do they hold in their standing static state).

Questions have similarly been raised over how well bamboo perorms as a carbon sin

Although bamboo is a woody grass and not a tree, bamboo orests have comparable eatur

and unctions to other types o orests regarding their unction in the carbon cycle. Bambo

have rapid growth rates, high annual re-growth ater harvesting and high biomass productioBamboos are believed to perorm roughly equivalent to ast growing plantation species wi

an increment biomass of between 5 and 12 t C/(hayr) (Lobovikov et al., 2009). It is therefohypothesised that bamboo has a capacity o carbon sequestration that is similar to that o a

growing orests.

However, given the complexity o natural systems, and the act that scientic research in carb

cycle research in orests and especially in bamboo has started only recently, there are a numb

o issues which have been raised about actors which inuence the perormance o bamboo

a carbon sink.

1.) The relationship between rates o bamboo growth and carbon sequestration

Magel et al (2005) argue that growth o the new shoots in a bamboo orest occurs as a resu

o transer o the energy accumulated in culms through photosynthesis in the previous ye

As such, the growth o a bamboo culm is not driven by its own carbon sequestration, but b

sequestration in previous seasons in other parts o the bamboo system, and as such growo new shoots is not an indicator o sequestration rate. On the other hand, Zhou (2009) argu

that as the bamboo system requires more inputs in the shooting season o young culms (wh

new shoots grow), high growth in bamboo shoots can be equated with a high rate o carb

sequestration.

It can be argued o course that as long as carbon sequestration is determined by measuri

the dierence in standing carbon between Year(t+1) and Year(t) (a stock change approach)

doesnt matter whether and how the relocation o carbon between old and new culms occu

Thereore in this study, we ocus on carbon per unit area, rather than carbon/ culm.


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6

2.) Storage length o carbon in a bambo o system

Bamboo culms o most species reach maturity ater approximately 7-10 years, ater which they

deteriorate rapidly, releasing carbon rom the above-ground biomass back into the atmosphere

(Liese, 2009). Thereore in a natural state, bamboo will reach a stable level o above ground

carbon relatively quickly, where carbon accumulation through sequestration is oset by carbon

release through deterioration o old culms. In order or the bamboo system to continue to be

a net sink, carbon has to be stored in other orms, so that the total accumulation o carbon in

a solid state exceeds the carbon released to the atmosphere. Chapters 7 and 8 discuss these

questions, amongst other issues that can aect the length o storage o carbon.

3.) The threat o bamboo owering

As a member o the grass amily, many (although not all) bamboos have a gregarious owering

characteristic where the plants die ater owering, with oten all plants rom the same species

dying at the same time. As a risk typical to bamboo systems, this has received special attention

in the literature. Such lowering in bamboo species results in the loss o all carbon in the

biomass o the plant. Although little is known about the lowering determinants, relatively

ixed lowering cycles are known or important species. For instance, Melocanna bacciera

(the common species in Northern India) is known to lower ever 45-50 years. Whether or

not bamboo lowering presents a threat to carbon sequestration is largely a question o risk

assessment and based upon the state o the inormation known about the owering cycle o

the particular species in question. O course, where mechanisms are designed or the use o

bamboo in carbon osets, careul consideration o the owering risk should be made. For the

species considered in Chapters 3-5 o this report, Phyllostachys pubescens has been observed

to ower with intervals o at least 67 years (Watanabe, 1982), and Ma bamboo ( Dendrocalamus

latiforus) has been observed to have sporadic owering but only very occasionally resulting ina large area o the bamboo orest dying.

In order to explore the potential o bamboo sequestration, and address the concerns raised

above, this study has identied the ollowing key questions which currently shape the debate

on bamboo sequestration:

1) Does the higher rate o rapid canopy closure and plantation maturation o bamboo

equate to a higher absorption rate o CO2 rom the atmosphere compared with

other comparable ast growing trees in subtropical and tropical regions? I n other

words, does a bamboo plantation have a higher rate o carbon sequestration than

other species?

2) A special eature o bamboo stands is the annual harvesting and re-growth pattern.

How does this eature relate to accumulation o biomass and thus carbon

sequestration?

3) Are there any signicant dierences between carbon uptake by bamboo orests and

by ast growing tree species in the long term?4) What is the dierence between carbon storage in a bamboo orest ecosystem and

other comparable orest ecosystems?

5) How does a bamboo orest perorm in terms o carbon sequestration at a landscape

and regional level compared to other orest types?

6) What are the impacts o current bamboo orest management on the carbon

sequestration capacity o bamboo orests? Do current management practices

improve or worsen the carbon sequestration capacity in bamboo orests?

7) To what extent are the management options able to ull the multiple goals o the

bamboo industry, local communities and sustainability o bamboo orests?

2. Mechanisms usedor addressing Climate

Change

2. Mechanisms usedor addressing Climate

Change

2 Mechanisms used or addressing Climate Chan


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8

2.1 Carbon accounting

Scientists have raised the issue o carbon sinks permanence within the terrestrial biosphere

(Schlamadinger and Marland, 2000), since carbon storage in orests is nite and thereore not

permanent, whereby ater a period o time, carbon locked in vegetation and soil is released

into the atmosphere through respiration, decomposition, digestion, or ire (Locatelli and

Pedroni, 2004). Nevertheless, carbon sequestration through orestry is commonly considered to

contribute to mitigating climate change.

Carbon osetting involves the purchase o carbon credits rom greenhouse gas reductionprojects to negate the equivalent o a ton o CO 2 emitted in one area by avoiding the release

o a ton o CO2 or sequestering a ton o CO2 in another place. Oten these are equated using

so-called CO2 equivalents (CO2e) Carbon markets allow CO2e to be traded as a commodity. The

key characteristic o carbon osets is additionality. Additionality reers to emissions reductions

being additional to what occurs under a business-as-usual scenario (Taiyab, 2006).

2.2 Carbon markets

2.2.1 Kyoto Protocol and the Clean Development Mechanism

The Kyoto Protocol was the irst legally bin ding agreemen t to reduce GHG emissions, which

aimed to curb GHGs by 5% o 1990 levels (Boyd, 2009). The Protocol created two classes o

countries with dierent obligations and opportunities or greenhouse gas emissions and

trading o emissions credits. Countries listed as Annex I o the Protocol (developed countriesand economies in transition) have commitments to limit GHG emissions, while those countries

not listed (developing countries) have no such commitments.

The Kyoto Protocol provide s th ree le xibili ty me chani sms to r educe the cost o meetin g

emissions targets.

1) Emissions Trading

Countries that have satised their targets can sell their excess carbon allowances to other countries.

2) Joint Implementation (JI)

Purchase o emissions credits rom GHG oset projects in Annex I countries (industrialized countries)

3) The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

Purchase o emission credits rom projects in non Annex-I countries (Taiyab, 2006). Under

the protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developed countries to

oset carbon dioxide through industry or orestry projects (reorestation or aorestation),

which allows developing countries to voluntarily participate in reducing CO 2 through

receiving payments rom developed countries (Boyd 2009). In 20 06, CDM projects were

estimated at US $5.3 billion (EcoSecurities, 2007).Presently there are 8 registered orestryCDM projects.

2.2.2 Voluntary carbon credits

A voluntary market or carbon has emerged as an alternative to CDM, operating outside o

international agreements. The voluntary market is driven by Corporate Social Responsibility

(EcoSecurities, 2007), involving companies, governments, organisations, organizers and

individuals, taking responsibility or their carbon emissions by voluntarily purchasing carbon

osets. These voluntary osets are oten bought rom retailers or organisations that invest in

oset projects and are sold to customers in relatively small quantities. The voluntary market is

2. Mechanisms used or addressing Climate Chan

not required to adhere to the strict guidelines o CDM, thereore voluntary oset projects te

to be smaller, have a greater sustainable development ocus, have lower transaction costs a

involve a wider range o methods or techniques (House o Commons Environmental Au

Committee, 2007).

The voluntary carbon oset market grew by 200% between 2005 and 20 06. In 2007 there we

over 150 retailers o voluntary carbon credits worldwide, with a record 65 million tonnes

carbon being traded, worth US $330 million (Hamilton et al, 2008). A key dierence betwee

regulatory and voluntary markets is the variety o orestry related carbon abatement activit

in the latter. Forest conservation projects have been traded on voluntary markets since t

early 1990s (EcoSecurities, 2007).

There are two categories o carbon credits within voluntary carbon markets:

CDM/JI:These projects are registered with CDM or JI projects and aim to generate CERs (Certi

Emissions Reductions) and ERUs (Emissions Reduction Units)

Non CDM/JI: These projects are registered under CDM/JI, but are considered VERs (Veriie

Emission Reductions)

A buyer can voluntarily purchase credits rom a CDM or a non-CDM project, however volunta

credits cannot be used to meet regulatory targets (Taiyab, 2006).

2.2.3 REDD

The ir st commitme nt period o the Kyoto Protocol (ending in 20 12) co nsidered addre ssi

industry and energy-related emissions as more important than emissions related to agricultu

orestry and other land uses (AFOLU). Although rewarding reorestation and aorestatiothe CDM did not address emissions stemming rom avoided deorestation as a proje

class, thereore leaving the largest source o GHG emissions in many developing countr

unaddressed (Nee et al., 2009). Since 2005 international GHG abatement talks have ocus

on producing a mechanism that could reduce emissions rom deorestation and degradatio

(REDD) in developing countries. The 13th Session o the Conerence o the Parties o t

UNFCCC, held in Bali in December 2007, addressed a post-Kyoto ramework which encourag

the implementation o demonstration activities to sequester carbon through orestry (Nee

2009). A number o policy options on how to incentivize REDD are being proposed, includin

both market-based and non-market-based approaches (Streck, 2008). REDD primarily inten

to provide inancial incentives to help developing countries voluntarily reduce nation

deorestation rates and associated carbon emissions (Gibbs et al., 2007).

2.2.4 REDD+

REDD ocuses only on reducing emissions rom deorestation and orest degradation. REDD

intends to go urther by rewarding activities that improve orest health; including better oremanagement, conservation, restoration, and aorestation. This could potentially impro

environmental services and biodiversity whilst enhancing carbon stocks. The REDD+ mod

may be more suitable or smallholders who can be rewarded or orest conservation activitie

The activ ities that can contri bute to mitiga tion under a R EDD+ mechan ism are reduci

emissions rom deorestation, reducing emissions rom orest degradation, conservation

orest carbon stocks, sustainable management o orests; and enhancement o orest carbo

stocks (Bleaney et al., 2010). Although enhancement o orest carbon stocks generally reers

aorestation, reorestation and restoration activities on deorested and degraded lands, it c

also be interpreted to include the sequestration o carbon in healthy standing orests (Blean

et al., 2010).

2 Mechanisms used or addressing Climate Chan


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10

2.3 Carbon Credits or Bamboo

Since bamboo is botanically a grass and not a tree, many carbon accounting documents ail

to include bamboo, or dont consider bamboo within orestry. Bamboo thereore does not

adequately it under the terminology or a orest in either the Kyoto Protocol, Marrakech

Accords or IPCC. I bamboo were to be adequately recognized within orestry, bamboo could

potentially occupy an important position in climate change mitigation, adaptation, and

sustainable development (Lobovikov et al., 2009).

Forest denitions are myriad. However, common to most denitions are threshold parameters

including minimum orest area, tree height and level o crown cover. Under the Kyoto Protocol,

a orest is deined according to these three parameters as selected by the host country. To

be eligible or voluntary credits and REDD, project orests must meet internationally accepted

denitions o what constitutes a orest, e.g., based on UNFCCC host-country thresholds or FAO

denitions (UNFCCC, 2009).

Discussions are ongoing on the acceptance o tall and medium height woody bamboos as

trees under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, and in the uture, under REDD and REDD+. The

Executive Board o the CDM, in its 39th meeting, decided that Palm (trees) and bamboos can

be considered equivalent to trees in the context o A/R. However, the nal decision on what

constitutes a orest lies with the country Designated National Authorities (DNAs), thereore

potentially aecting whether CDM or other schemes include palms and/or bamboos (Lobovikov

et al., 2009).

Since bamboo is oten managed by rural households with little nancial capital or investment,

monitoring A/R projects or REDD+ would be impossible without external project unding.

Moreover, due to bamboo being outside conventional orestry projects, bamboo projects

would ace considerable challenges regarding sampling designs, carbon assessment methods

and deault parameters devised or timber trees (Lobovikov et al., 2009). Any mechanism which

generates payments or orest carbon, whether through a und or a market, will not unction

eectively unless consistently and eectively regulated. Well-aligned policies depend on

well-coordinated institutions and eective governance practices. Coordination depends on

inormation ow and participation particularly at the grassroots level (Saunders et al., 2008),

and such policies are currently not yet common or, and not yet adapted to bamboo.

However, bamboo orests constitute an important livelihood source or millions o rural people;

the current extent o bamboo orests and area o potential distribution justies amending the

IPCC guidelines and additional methodological tools to allow or the inclusion o bamboo in

carbon schemes (Lobovikov et al., 2009). To make this happen, more insights are needed in the

potential contribution o bamboo to mitigating climate change.

2. Mechanisms used or addressing Climate Chan

2.4 Permanence and leakage

As vegetation is an unstable dynamic system, emission credits generated by carbon ose

ace the risks o premature expiration due to unoreseen shocks which can destroy standi

carbon. A cause or concern is the leakage associated with mitigation projects. The magnitud

o leakage can be large enough to negate the carbon benets o a project (Dutschke, 2003).

Due to the potential magnitude o natural disturbance events at the individual project lev

integrated approaches to address orest oset project reversal risk need to be consider

adequately. Bamboo orests ace the same types o risk as many other types o orest, includi

ire, pest attacks, drought and extreme weather events, as well as gregarious lowering (s

Chapter 1).

In addition, climate change is predicted to aect orestry and agriculture in a number o way

thus potentially debilitating the eiciency o orests to act as a carbon sink. There is gener

agreement amongst climate scientists that natural disturbances are highly likely to increa

in requency and intensity and extreme climate events will become more requent wi

an increase in spring temperature luctuations and summer drought (IPCC, 2007). Clima

extremes and higher average temperatures will negatively aect orest ecosystems a

increase their susceptibility to pests and diseases (Hemery, 2008)

Policymakers should ensure that orest oset policies and programmes do not provide

incentive to maximize carbon storage at the expense o risk management (Galik and Jackso

2009).

3. Carbon sequestration at the stand lev


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12

3. Carbonsequestration at the

stand level

q

As part o the analysis o how bamboo can play a role in ulilling demand or timber a

sequestering atmospheric carbon, this chapter looks at how the carbon sequestration (lev

and patterns) o bamboo compares with other ast growing trees which are commonly us

or providing timber. The analysis concentrates on the situation in China, because it is t

only country or which sufcient data could be ound or both bamboo and comparable a

growing species. The models deal with the accumulation o carbon in the bamboo plant, an

do not describe the ux in carbon dioxide between the plant and the atmosphere.

From the literature, data were collected or growth patterns o Moso bamboo, Ma bambo

Chinese Fir and Eucalypt plantations. The longest period covers 60 years, which is the typic

length o a Chinese Fir plantation in China, consisting o two rotations o 30 years. The harve

method or Chinese Fir and Eucalypt plantation are clear cutting, which removes all abo

ground carbon stock, while or bamboo, cutting takes place every year, which is equivale

to leaving a xed amount o carbon stock standing every year (or Moso bamboo 5/6, or M

bamboo 2/3 o the above ground carbon stock) which is replaced in the year ollowing th

harvest.

3.1 Data sources

The secti on is based on an exten sive litera ture review, ocus ing on bioma ss a nd carbo

sequestration in the biomass o the whole plant o bamboo (above and below ground) a

rapid growing tree species such as Eucalypt and Chinese Fir plantations. The methodology

calculating carbon sequestration was based on techniques used within the cited literature.

order to veriy data, authors were contacted on occasion.

3.2 Methodology

Bamboo biomass data were used to calculate the bamboo orest carbon stock increase

based on the compiled data and research indings rom various authors. Through screenin

comparison and verication o the compiled research, we selected the most credible bioma

ormula and models:

(1) The development o newly aorested Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) plantation

Simulations o the changes in biomass rom the initial shooting to canopy closure with

bamboo stands were modelled using observational data (number o newly grown bambo

culms, diameter at breast height (DBH), and biomass). The simulation model on DBH chang

simultaneously with the age o the plantation (Chen et al, 2004a, 2004b):

D=5.2000+0.5722 y+0.0452 y2-0.0056 y3 (R=0.9990, y[1, 7]) [1]

H=0.5702+1.6426D-0.0465D 2 (R=0.727, D[D (y=1), D (y=7)]) [2]

Where D represents the DBH o bamboo stands (cm), y presents aorestation years (year

H is the height o bamboo stand in metres (m). The bamboo orest that was used to colle

the data rom 1997 to 2003 is located in a hilly area o Zhejiang province (2831-2920

11841-11906E).

3. Carbonsequestration at the

stand level



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14

(2) Living individual biomass o Moso bamboo model [3] and whole bamboo stand living

biomass [4] (Chen 1998):

W=213.4164D -0.5805H2.3131 (R=0.8321) [3]

Bw=W*DS [4]

Where W is the biomass o the whole individual bamboo culm including rhizomes and roots (g/

culm), D is the DBH (cm), H is the height o the bamboo stand (m); the data rom year 1 to year

7 reported by Chen (2004b) are used or calculations using ormula [3]. DS is the density o the

bamboo (culms per hectare), a common density o 3,300 culms/ha or a mature bamboo orest

is used in the calculations using [4]. Bw is the biomass o the orest (t/ ha). The bamboo orest

that was used to collect the data or the ormula (in 1998 ) is located in northern Fujian province

(2614-2820N, 11702-11907E).

(3) Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) biomass model (Tian, 2005):

W1=217.8639(1-e -0.118053t)3.3402 (R=0.99) [5]

W2=168.91357(1-e -0.13344t)3.4170(R=0.999) [6]

W1 and W2 are respectively the rst and second cycle o the total living biomass o Chinese Fir in

a plantation, t is the Chinese Fir trees age. The data or the ormula were collected rom Hunan

Huitong Forest Ecosystem Research Station [1979-2004] (2650N, 10945E). Equation [4] is

used to calculate total biomass in the Chinese Fir orest, using the common density o 2,175

trees/ha.

(4) DBH module or Ma Bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiforus) aorestation (Chen, 2002):

D=1.960772+1.039603 X (R=0.5324, X [1, 5]) [7]

D is the DBH o Ma Bamboo(cm), X is the aorestation years. Data or the ormula were

collected rom 1995 to 1999 in a orest in southern Fujian province (2431N, 11721E).

(5) Total biomass o Ma Bamboo (Liang, 1998):

W=0.540093D1.9305 (R=0.945) [8]

W is the biomass (kg); D is diameter at breast height (cm). Data or the ormula were collected

in 1997 in a Ma bamboo stand in Fujian province (2524-2529N, 11823-11850E). Equation [4]

above is used to calculate the whole stand biomass, using a density o 1728, 1612, 1504, 1750

and 1723 culms/ha respectively or the rst ve years.

(6) The Eucalyptus urophylla orest living biomass:

Equation [4] above is used to calculate the Eucalyptus urophylla orest living biomass. Where W

is the total biomass o an average individual Eucalyptus urophylla tree (kg/ individual tree) as

measured per year during a 5 year rotation, DS is the density o the Eucalyptus urophylla orest

(1,350 trees per hectare).The data were collected rom 1996 to 2000 in an Eucalyptus urophylla

orest located in Fujian province (2437N, 11728E) (Lin, 2003) .

(7) Carbon stock in biomass (Xu et al., 2007)

C=0.5B [9]

Where C is the carbon stock in biomass, 0.5 is the carbon raction commonly used or trees a

bamboo (Xu et al., 2007; Zhou at al., 2004; Xu et al., 2009; Qi et al., 2009).

3.3 Comparative analysis o the carbo

sequestration patterns o a newly aoreste

Moso bamboo plantation and a Chinese Fi

plantation in subtropical locations3.3.1 Dynamics o carbon sequestrated in a newly-established Moso bambo

plantation in the frst 10 years

In subtropical regions, monopodial bamboo species (such as Phyllostachys pubescens a

P. bambusoides) can achieve canopy closure within 6-8 years ater planting and can rea

maturity or regular harvesting rom the 9th or 10th year. One o the most requently ask

questions regarding bamboo carbon sequestration is to what extent the rapid canopy closu

and early harvest inuences the creation o biomass and carbon sequestration.

The pattern o net annual carbon increment in the rst 10 years ater planting is shown in Figu

3-1 and Table 3-1, demonstrating the luctuations in bamboo carbon sequestration duri

stages o growth. The gure is based on the bamboo growth pattern ormula [1, 2], bamb

biomass ormula [3, 4] and bamboo carbon ormula [9]. From the 6th year onwards bambo

culms are harvested. The harvested culms are included in the total carbon sequestration o t

Moso plantation.

Fig. 3-1 Change in annual net carbon sequestrated in the Moso plantation in the rst 10 years t C/(ha yr)

q

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



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16

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

YNC 1.0 1.4 1.8 3.8 5. 5 3.7 1.2 3.3 4.8 4.4

CA 1.0 2.5 4.3 8.1 13.5 17.2 18.5 21.8 26.5 31.0

Table 3-1 Yearly net carbon (YNC) sequestration and carbon accumulation (CA) in the Moso plantation in the rst 10 years

Figure 3-1 and Table 3-1 demonstrate that within the initial ten year period there are two peaks

o carbon sequestration at years 5 and 9. The increase in culms reaches its peak at Year 5, when

there are approximately 2,175 culms/ ha, and reaches a constant level o 3,300 culms/ ha in year

10, which is a common density o a mature Moso orest. In the year 5, the net annual carbon

stock increase is about 5.5 tonnes. The increase in growth is smaller in the 6th and 7th year dueto less culms being added every year, but increases again rom the 8th year onwards because

new culms have increasingly bigger diameters during this phase. In the irst ten years, the

annual average net carbon stock in the new bamboo plantation is approximately 3.1 tons/ha.

3.3.2 Comparative analysis o the carbon sequestration trends o a newly-

established Moso bamboo and a Chinese Fir plantation in the frst 10 years

Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is one o the most rapidly growing plantation species in

subtropical China. Chinese Fir and Moso bamboo orests naturally grow at similar sites and require

similar climatic conditions3. Due to similarities in distribution and use, a comparison o carbon

sequestration between Chinese Fir and Moso bamboo can reveal how bamboos ability to sequester

carbon compares with that o a ast growing tree.

The growth patterns o Chinese Fir (Tian, 2005) and Moso bamboo are very dierent, as shown

in Table 3-2. The Chinese Fir plantations are even-aged whereas Moso is uneven-aged. Whilst aplantation o Chinese Fir younger than 10 years resides in the young orest phase, a Moso bamboo

plantation achieves canopy closure and maturation already in its 8th year. Normally, ater 8 years, an

individual Moso bamboo culm ages and dies, and thereore it should be harvested beore that time

in order to provide utility and store carbon or a longer period.

Age

Species

=36

C hi ne se Fi r You ng s ta nd Me di um ag e C los e t o m at ur it y Mat ure d O ld

MosoIndividual Culm Matured Dying

Stand Young to mature Matured

Table 3-2 The growth patterns o Chinese Fir and Moso bamboo plantations

3 Since the calculations or bamboo and r are based on data rom comparable but not identical locations in China, the dierences

and similarities in sequestration between bamboo and Chinese Fir should be considered as an indication only, not as absolute andquantitative.

Fig. 3-2 Comparison o modelled carbon sequestration patterns o the Chinese Fir and Moso bamboo plantations durinthe rst 10 years.

(The bars show net annual carbon sequestration t C/ (hayr))

Fig. 3-3 Patterns o modelled aggregate carbon accumulation during the rst 10 years o the Chinese Fir and Mosoplantations t C/ha

Fig. 3-2 shows that Moso bamboo sequesters carbon rapidly in the rst 5 years, and then slows do

with a 2nd peak at 8 and 9 year, while Chinese Fir starts relatively slowly but increases steadily duri

the initial growth period. Fig. 3-3 indicates that by the 9th and 10th year the carbon sequestrated

both plantations presented here would be comparable.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6 Moso Chinese fir

Moso Chinese fir



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18

3.3.3 Comparative analysis o carbon sequestration trends o a newly-established

Moso bamboo and a Chinese Fir plantation in two harvesting rotations (1-60

years)

Chinese Fir plantations are composed o even-aged stands which are commonly clear-elled

as they reach maturity at approximately 30 years. A managed Moso bamboo orest has an

annual continuous production o biomass. The rst mature culms are harvested ater 3 years,

and thereater 1/3 o all the culms are harvested biannually ater the 5 th year4. A Moso bamboo

stand is considered to be in biological balance when 1/3 new biomass re-grows ater 1/3 o the

total biomass is harvested and removed rom a bamboo plantation.

The ormula used or the Chinese Fir plantation is based upon a 2 x 30 year harvesting rotation

cycle, ater which the land is put to other use. This is currently the most common practice in

China. Fig. 3-4 shows that the annual carbon increase or the Moso bamboo peaks at year 5

and for the Chinese Fir at year 13, at a similar level of 5.5 t C/(ha year). For the Moso bamboo,

carbon increase becomes level at 3.8 t C/ha at year 10. For the Chinese Fir, the calculations

show diminishing increases until the end o the irst cycle, at 30 years, when all the carbon

in the ir is removed (and or the purpose o this study assumed to be converted to durable

products) and a new plantation is established that ollows a similar pattern. Due to some level

o soil degradation, the second cycle o Chinese Fir produces a lower amount o biomass and

thereore carbon in comparison with the rst cycle 5. At the end o the rst cycle o Chinese Fir

(year 30), the carbon calculated to be sequestered by both plantations is roughly equal, while

ater 60 years the calculated total carbon accumulation or the Moso bamboo plantation was

217 t C/ha and or the Chinese Fir 178 t C/ha 6.

4 For the purposes o this study, this has been converted to annual harvests o 1/6 o the culms. This is shown in the graphs presentedin this study.5 No studies were ound that reported soil degradation and thereore less biomass production or a regular Moso orest between the30th and 60th year.6 For both Moso bamboo and Chinese Fir in the model, harvested culms and stems are included in the total amount o carbonsequestered.

Fig. 3-4 Annual net carbon sequestration patterns adopting regular harvesting patterns within a 60 year period t C/(ha yr)

3.3.4 Carbon sequestration by unmanaged bamboo orest (without regul

harvesting)

Moso orests without human interventions, or Moso plantations that are planted b

not managed are rare in China. However, or the beneit o this analysis, it is important

compare and contrast the dierences between carbon sequestration between managed a

unmanaged bamboo stands.

Liese (2009) states that an unmanaged, naturally regenerating bamboo orest contains culmo all ages, including many dying and dead ones. The underground rhizome system also m

suer rom deterioration. Such orests are oten situated ar rom human settlements a

have not been researched. According to FAO (2005), in Asia about 30% o bamboo orests a

planted and 70% are natural, and only a part o that is managed by communities or orest

entities.

For the calculations a complete biological deterioration o the dead bamboo culms was assum

so that these would not contribute anymore to plant carbon stock.

Fig. 3-5 Calculated accumulation o carbon sequestration patterns with regular bamboo harvesting within a 60 yeartimescale t C/ha

Fig. 3-6 Modelled annual net carbon sequestration patterns without regular bamboo harvesting over a 30 year time periodt C/(ha yr)

Moso Chinese fir6

5

4

3

2

1

0

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

01 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 2 5 2 8 3 1 34 3 7 4 0 43 4 6 49 5 2 5 5

Moso Chinese fir

58

6

5

4

3

2

1

01 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55

Moso Chinese fir

58



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20

Figure 3-6 and Figure 3-7 show that the patterns o the accumulated above-ground carbon

in the Chinese Fir plantation is about 3.2 times greater than the accumulation o carbon in an

unmanaged Moso bamboo plantation within a 30 year period 7. Xiao et al. (2007) reported that

the carbon stock in Chinese Fir at 15 years is 2.13 times higher than Moso bamboo at 10 years.

Figure 3-7 shows that carbon in the Chinese Fir at 15 years is 1.9 times higher than the Moso

bamboo equilibrium level (which is reached at 10 years).

Thes e data ind icat e tha t carb on sequ este red in Moso bamb oo ore sts onl y woul d be

comparable or exceeding that o Chinese Fir orests when managed with regular harvesting

cycles. Where Moso bamboo orests are not managed with regular harvesting, the carbon

sequestration o Chinese Fir is likely to be higher. This identiies the need or Moso bamboo

management to be encouraged and developed or carbon stock management, and suggestMoso bamboo plantation carbon projects merit inclusion under initiatives such as CDM A/R

and potentially the inclusion o management o currently unmanaged Moso bamboo stands

under a REDD+ scheme.

3.4 Comparative analysis o feld data or Moso

bamboo and Chinese Fir

The results o the calculations and the studies o the pattern o carbon sequestration or Moso

bamboo and Chinese Fir as presented above are compared with eld data rom a large variety

o Chinese studies in Table 3-3. Total standing biomass carbon or Moso plantations at a similar

density as that used or the calculations vary between 25 t C/ha to 91 t C/ha. The gures or

Chinese Fir range rom 17 to 48 t C/ha (at approximately 10 years); rom 37 to 62 t C/ha (at 15

years); and rom 70 to 81 t C/ha (at maturity-approximately 25 years). Chinese Fir plantations

older than 30 years contain around 195 t C/ha in standing biomass. These eld data are in the

same range as the ones presented in Figures 3-1 to 3-6, and support the conclusion that Moso

bamboo can contribute to carbon sequestration in a similar way as Chinese Fir, provided that

the harvested product is turned into durable products that continue to store carbon or long

periods.

7The sharp drop in carbon increment from 4.5 to 0 tC/(hayr) in Fig. 3-6 is due to the calculation used, which provides incrementalgrowth only in the rst 10 years. Following this, an equilibrium is maintained as loss due to dying plant material is matched by newgrowth. Whilst in the eld, lower levels o incremental growth may be seen in the rst ew years ater the 10 year mark in some

situations, a zero-net gain equilibrium or bamboo orests around the 10 year mark is common.

Fig. 3-7 Calculated accumulation patterns o carbon stock without regular harvesting within a 30 year time period t C/ha

Type Location DensityAbovegroundCarbon

BelowgroundCarbon

Total Age( ye ar s) R e .

Moso

Culms/ha (ton/ha) (ton/ha) (t on/ha)

Nanjing, Fujian (2452'N, 11714'E) \ 28.29 10.68 38.97 \ Li,1993

Fujian (2614'-2820'N, 11702'-11907' E) \ 29.39 11.49 40.88 \ Chen, 1998

Yongchun, Fujian

(2614'-2820'N, 11702'-11907'E)\ 23.38 8 .99 32.37 \ Peng, 2002

Wuyishan, Fujian

(2733'-2754'N, 11727'-11751'E)

\ 35.47 19.88 55.35 \He, 2003

\ 29.38 11.49 40.87 \

Yongan, Fujian (2521'-2531'N, 11740'E)

2,551~2,801 51.18 22.97 74.15 \

Qi, 20092,251~2,776 44.61 16.69 61.30 \

2,201~2,751 37.33 13.70 51.03 \

Miaoshanwu, Fuyang, Zhejiang (3004' N) \ 36.65 34.00 70.65 \ Huang, 1987

Miaoshanwu, Fuyang, Zhejiang (3004'N)3,750 64.63 26.57 91.19 24

Huang, 19932,700 29.09 30.97 60.06 24

L in ' a n, Z he ji an g ( 30 1 4'N, 1 19 4 2'E) 2 ,0 00 ~4 ,5 00 1 9. 08 1 1. 50 3 0. 58 \ Z ho u, 2 00 4

Tianmushan, Lin an,

Zhejiang (3018'-3024'N, 11923'-11928'E)4,642 26.81 8.88 35.69 \ Hao, 2010

Changning, Sichuan \ 17.55 8.21 25.76 \ He, 2007

Huitong, Hunan (2650'N, 10941' E) 2,100 15.54 27.31 42.85 10 Xiao, 2007

Modelling

MosoWithharvesting

Quzhou, Zhejiang 3,30022.3 8 .7 31.00 10 This study, 201

\ \ 105.20 30

Chinese

Fir

Nanping, Fujian (11757'E, 2628'N)1,061 153.09 37.69 190.78 40

Zhong, 20081,316 169.03 29.20 198.23 87

Huitong, Hunan (2648'N, 10930' E) 1,530 43.59 8.95 52.54 15 Xiao, 2007

Nandan, Guangxi

(2458'-2501'N, 10729'-10730'E)

2,200 14.54 2.54 1 7.08 8He, 2009

2,000 21.82 5.41 2 7.23 11

1,967 30.74 6.54 3 7.28 14

Dagangshan, Fenyi, Jiangxi

(2730'-2750'N, 11430'-11445'E)

1,667 42.26 5.34 4 7.60 12Duan, 2005

1,667 48.58 6.20 5 4.78 14

1,667 54.72 6.99 6 1.71 16

Sichuan

\ \ \ 23.30 36

Chinese

Fir

modelling

Huitong, Hunan (2648'N, 10930'E) 1,530 \ \ 32.00 10 This study, 20

Table 3-3 Carbon sequestration reported or Moso bamboo and Chinese Fir plantations

Moso Chinese fir100

75

50

25

01 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29



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3.5 Comparative analysis o carbon

sequestration in a new Ma bamboo and an

Eucalyptus plantation under tropical growing

conditions

Ma bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiforus) is a medium-large-sized sympodial bamboo plantation

species distributed extensively across tropical regions, particularly South Asia. Ma bamboos

rapid growing orest counterpart is Eucalypt. Eucalypt is one o the astest growing plantationspecies on the planet, demonstrating high yielding characteristics. Introduced to China

rom Eastern Indonesia in 1890, the rapid development o Eucalypt plantations has led to

a current coverage o 1.4 million hectares, which ranks China second only to Brazil in terms

o the national Eucalypt plantation area. (Wen, 2000). This section will compare the carbon

sequestration patterns o Ma bamboo and Eucalyptus urophylla, the most commonly grown

Eucalyptus species in tropical China. Because o the rapid growth patterns o these tropical

species, the analysis has been limited to dierences during the rst 10 years.

3.5.1 Comparative analysis o carbon sequestration within a new Ma bamboo and

a new Eucalypt (Eucalyptus urophylla) plantation under regular management

practices with harvesting rotations within the frst 10 years

The calculations or Ma bamboo have been made using equations [4], [7] and [8]. For Eucalypt,

a model based upon a new plantation oEucalyptus urophylla was used, with the density about

1,350 individual/ha.

Fig. 3-8 shows that annual carbon increment in the Ma bamboo plantation peaked at year

8 when the culms/ha start reaching a maximum, and the annual replacement o harvested

culms becomes balanced. The Eucalypt is elled ater 5 years, the calculated pattern or annual

increment is similar or the two cycles (years 1-5 and years 6-10). The annual increments or the

Eucalypt are both lower (e.g. years 1, 6, 7, 8 and 9) and higher (years 2,3,4,5 and 10) than the

Ma bamboo. The pattern o accumulated carbon sequestered or both plantations is shown in

Fig 3-9, and appears to be at similar levels, with the Eucalyptus rising earlier but levelling o in

comparison with the Ma bamboo plantation in the second 5 year period.

Fig. 3-8 Modelled annual net carbon sequestration patterns under regular harvesting Ma bamboo and Eucalyptplantation practices over a 10 year period t C/(ha yr)

3.6 Summary

Moso bamboo and Chinese Fir plantations have comparable eatures regarding their rap

growth rates and climatic requirements. The study analysed their respective growth patter

and used biomass and carbon calculations to ascertain their relative carbon sequestrati

patterns and capacity. The results indicate that bamboo and trees have very diere

sequestration patterns, but are likely to have comparable carbon sequestration capacity,

long as the bamboo orest is managed and the total amount o harvested ibre rom bo

species is turned into durable products.

The Moso bamboo orest used or the modeling parameters in this study had an initial plant

density o 315 culms/ha, then grew up to 2,550 culms/ha in year 7. This study assumes th

the orest canopy closure and maximum density o 3,300 culms/ha is reached at the 10

year with an average DBH o 10cm. However, under intensive management practices in Mo

bamboo orests in China, a density o 4,500 culms/ha and higher can be reached. In th

case, the carbon stock and annual sequestrated carbon in the above ground biomass in

intensively management bamboo orest would be higher than the modelling data used

this study. However, the total eect is unclear, as it is expected that intensive manageme

may reduce the sequestration capacity o the soil layer (see also Chapter 6). There may also b

higher emissions resulting rom the management practices, such as rom ertiliser inputs. Mo

research is needed on carbon models under dierent management regimes.

The carbon sequestration capa city o Eucalypt plantati ons were compared to sympodial M

bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiforus) due to the relative rapid growth rates and similar clima

requirements o both species. The study analysed their respective growth patterns and tresults indicate that both species may have a comparable carbon sequestration capacity an

perormance.

Fig. 3-9 Calculated patterns o accumulation o carbon sequestration under regular harvesting practices or the Mbamboo and the Eucalypt plantation over a 10 year period t C/ha

Ma Bamboo Eucalypt

150

120

90

60

30

Ma Bamboo Eucalypt


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Species

ClimateBamboo Tree

Subtropical 31 (Moso bamboo) 32 (Chinese Fir)

Tropical 128 (Ma bamboo) 115 (Eucalypt)

Table 3-4 Modelled accumulated carbon at 10 years t C/ha

Table 3-4 lists the calcul ated accumul ated carbon /ha ater 10 years or the 4 planta tions

included in this study. As explained previously these two bamboo species and two tree species

were chosen because they are commonly grown and recognised as having the highest rate o

biomass accumulation amongst bamboos and tree species in tropical and subtropical China.It is clear that that in the tropics in Southern China, more carbon is sequestered by both trees

and bamboo species. This is likely to be due to the climatic conditions that include higher

temperatures, longer growing seasons, and more sunlight, all stimulating photosynthesis and

thus carbon sequestration. Since Ma bamboo and Moso bamboo are grown under climatically

dierent conditions, the comparison between the two bamboo species cannot be used as an

indication o the importance o genotypic dierences or carbon sequestration. For this, urther

experiments would be needed involving several high perorming bamboo species that would

be grown under comparable climatic conditions.

It is evident that sustainable bamboo management is the key to achieving sustained carbon

sequestration within bamboo plantations, which then can compare at least with tree species.

Management techniques should be advocated or both bamboo plantations and natural

bamboo orests to realize the ull potential o bamboo carbon sequestration.

4. Carbonsequestration

capacity in bambooorest ecosystems

4. Carbonsequestration

capacity in bambooorest ecosystems

4. Carbon sequestration capacity in bamboo orest ecosyste


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The study has shown that when compared to Chinese Fir and Eucalyptus in managed plantation

sites, bamboo is at least equal to the other species in terms o its carbon sequestration capacity.

However, results rom studies ocusing on bamboo carbon sequestration capacity vary greatly

as they adopt dierent methodologies and management practices. Recent research conducted

in China indicates that Moso bamboo plays a signicant role in regional and national carbon

budgets in China. The adoption o Geographical Inormation Systems (GIS) and remote sensing

has expanded the scope to attempt to estimate biomass stocks (Lu, 2006).

The ol lowing section presents an a nalysis o C hinese research ocusing on th e cap acity o

bamboo orests to sequester carbon at the ecosystem level (including bamboo, vegetation, and

orest soil carbon stocks). An attempt is made to compare the bamboo orest ecosystems with

comparable orest ecosystems, whereby the carbon sequestration o each respective oreststrata has been analysed to provide more comprehensive results.

4.1 Analysis o bamboo orests carbon

sequestration

Table 4.1 sh ows that above-ground carbon sequestration storage capacit y o Moso bamboo

orests including shrubs and litter has been reported at levels varying between 27-77 t C/ha.

The majority o carbon was ound to be sequestered in the arbour layer, accounting or 84-99%

o the total. The shrub layer and the herbaceous layer accounted or very small contributions,

especially in intensively managed orests.

LocationStand

management

Veget ation Soil sampling dept h and layer Ecosystem Re.

Arborplant

Shrub Grass Litte r Sum 0-20cm

20-40cm

40-60cm

Sum Total

Linan

Intensive 32.991 0 0 0.602 33.593 34.017 21.56 12.385 67.962 101.56 Zhou,

2004,

2006a

Ex te nsi ve 2 9. 456 4 .16 6 0. 666 0 .66 9 34 .95 7 39 .73 4 22 .13 8 1 2. 309 74 .18 1 1 09 .14

Med ium 30. 58 3.17 0.481 0.656 34.887 36.96 22.294 12.221 71.475 106.36

HuitongHigh-yielding 31.97 0 0.64 0.74 33.35 56.91 55.71 26.97 139.59 172.94 Xiao,

2007,

2009

Medium-yielding 25.59 0 0.63 0.53 26.75 49.66 36.04 25.26 110.96 137.71

Dagangshan

31.2 3.8 0.2 0.16 35.36 48.66 48.23 17.02 113.91 149.27 Wang2007

Yongan

Intensivemanagement 74.15 0 0 2.59 76.74 45.34 52.2 53.1 150.64 227.38 Qi,

2009

Medium 61.3 0 0 3.01 64.31 83.55 56.71 57.11 197.36 261.67

Extensivemanagement 51.03 0 0 4.88 55.91 95.41 76 61.15 232.56 288.47

Table 4-1 Carbon stock within Moso bamboo ecosystems (t C/ha)

Table 4-1 also shows that the distribution o carbon storage varies between dierent layers

soil. Within Moso bamboo orests, the carbon storage down to a depth o 60cm is reported

have a range between 68.0 -232.6 t C/ha, which includes rhizomes, roots and soil carbon. T

carbon storage decreases wi

Bamboo and Climate Changed

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