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How Globalization Affects Developed

Countries

April 22 2012| Filed Under Economics,Economies of Scale,Economy,Financial Theory,Foreign Investment,GDP,International Markets,International Trade,Macroeconomics,MicroeconomicsThe phenomenon ofglobalizationbegan in a primitive form when humans first settled intodifferent areas of the world; however, it has shown a rather steady and rapid progress in recenttimes and has become an international dynamic which, due to technological advancements, hasincreased in speed and scale, so that countries in all five continents have been affected andengaged.

What Is Globalization?Globalization is defined as a process that, based on international strategies, aims to expand

business operations on a worldwide level, and was precipitated by the facilitation of globalcommunications due to technological advancements, and socioeconomic, political andenvironmental developments.

The goal of globalization is to provide organizations a superiorcompetitive positionwith loweroperating costs, to gain greater numbers of products, services and consumers. This approach tocompetition is gained via diversification of resources, the creation and development of newinvestment opportunities by opening up additional markets, and accessing newraw materialsandresources. Diversification of resources is a business strategy that increases the variety of businessproducts and services within various organizations. Diversification strengthens institutions bylowering organizational risk factors, spreading interests in different areas, taking advantage ofmarket opportunities, and acquiring companies bothhorizontalandverticalin nature.Industrialized or developed nations are specific countries with a high level of economicdevelopment and meet certain socioeconomic criteria based on economic theory, such asgrossdomestic product(GDP), industrialization andhuman development index(HDI) as defined bytheInternational Monetary Fund(IMF), the United Nations (UN) and theWorld TradeOrganization(WTO). Using these definitions, some industrialized countries in 2012 are: Austria,United Kingdom, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Luxembourg, Norway,Sweden, Switzerland and the United States.

SEE: What Is The World Trade Organization?

Components of GlobalizationThe components of globalization include GDP, industrialization and the Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI). The GDP is the market value of all finished goods and services produced within acountry's borders in a year, and serves as a measure of a country's overall economic output.Industrialization is a process which, driven by technological innovation, effectuates socialchange and economic development by transforming a country into a modernized industrial, ordeveloped nation. The Human Development Index comprises three components: a country'spopulation's life expectancy, knowledge and education measured by the adult literacy, andincome.

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The degree to which an organization is globalized and diversified has bearing on the strategiesthat it uses to pursue greater development and investment opportunities.

The Economic Impact on Developed Nations

Globalization compels businesses to adapt to different strategies based on new ideological trendsthat try to balance rights and interests of both the individual and the community as a whole. Thischange enables businesses to compete worldwide and also signifies a dramatic change forbusiness leaders, labor and management by legitimately accepting the participation of workersand government in developing and implementing company policies and strategies. Riskreduction via diversification can be accomplished through company involvement withinternational financial institutions and partnering with both local and multinational businesses.

SEE: Evaluating Country Risk For International Investing

Globalization brings reorganization at the international, national and sub-national levels.

Specifically, it brings the reorganization of production, international trade and the integration offinancial markets. This affects capitalist economic and social relations, via multilateralism andmicroeconomic phenomena, such as business competitiveness, at the global level. Thetransformation of production systems affects the class structure, the labor process, the applicationof technology and the structure and organization of capital. Globalization is now seen asmarginalizing the less educated and low-skilled workers. Business expansion will no longerautomatically imply increased employment. Additionally, it can cause high remuneration ofcapital, due to its higher mobility compared to labor.

The phenomenon seems to be driven by three major forces: globalization of all product andfinancial markets, technology and deregulation. Globalization of product and financial marketsrefers to an increased economic integration in specialization and economies of scale, which willresult in greater trade in financial services through both capital flows and cross-border entryactivity. The technology factor, specifically telecommunication and information availability, hasfacilitated remote delivery and provided new access and distribution channels, while revampingindustrial structures for financial services by allowing entry of non-bank entities, such astelecoms and utilities.

Deregulation pertains to the liberalization ofcapital account and financial services in products,markets and geographic locations. It integrates banks by offering a broad array of services,allows entry of new providers, and increases multinational presence in many markets and morecross-border activities.

In a global economy, power is the ability of a company to command both tangible and intangibleassets that create customer loyalty, regardless of location. Independent of size or geographiclocation, a company can meet global standards and tap into global networks, thrive and act as aworld class thinker, maker and trader, by using its greatest assets: its concepts, competence andconnections.

Beneficial EffectsSome economists have a positive outlook regarding the net effects of globalization on economic

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growth. These effects have been analyzed over the years by several studies attempting tomeasure the impact of globalization on various nations' economies using variables such as trade,capital flows and their openness, GDP per capita, foreign direct investment (FDI) and more.These studies examined the effects of several components of globalization on growth using timeseries cross sectional data on trade, FDI and portfolio investment. Although they provide an

analysis of individual components of globalization on economic growth, some of the results areinconclusive or even contradictory. However, overall, the findings of those studies seem to besupportive of the economists' positive position, instead of the one held by the public and non-economist view.

Trade among nations via the use ofcomparative advantage promotes growth, which is attributedto a strong correlation between the openness to trade flows and the affect on economic growthand economic performance. Additionally there is a strong positive relation between capital flowsand their impact on economic growth.

Foreign Direct Investment's impact on economic growth has had a positive growth effect inwealthy countries and an increase in trade and FDI, resulting in higher growth rates. Empiricalresearch examining the effects of several components of globalization on growth, using timeseries and cross sectional data on trade, FDI and portfolio investment, found that a country tendsto have a lower degree of globalization if it generates higher revenues from trade taxes. Furtherevidence indicates that there is a positive growth-effect in countries that are sufficiently rich, asare most of the developed nations.

The World Bank reports that integration with global capital markets can lead to disastrouseffects, without sound domestic financial systems in place. Furthermore, globalized countrieshave lower increases in government outlays and taxes, and lower levels of corruption in theirgovernments.

One of the potential benefits of globalization is to provide opportunities for reducingmacroeconomic volatility on output and consumption via diversification of risk.

Harmful EffectsNon-economists and the wide public expect the costs associated with globalization to outweighthe benefits, especially in the short-run. Less wealthy countries from those among theindustrialized nations may not have the same highly-accentuated beneficial effect fromglobalization as more wealthy countries, measured by GDP per capita etc. Although free tradeincreases opportunities for international trade, it also increases the risk of failure for smallercompanies that cannot compete globally. Additionally, free trade may drive up production andlabor costs, including higher wages for more skilled workforce.

Domestic industries in some countries may be endangered due to comparative or absoluteadvantage of other countries in specific industries. Another possible danger and harmful effect isthe overuse and abuse of natural resources to meet new higher demands in the production ofgoods.

SEE: The Globalization Debate

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The Bottom LineOne of the major potential benefits of globalization is to provide opportunities for reducingmacroeconomic volatility on output and consumption via diversification of risk. The overallevidence of the globalization effect on macroeconomic volatility of output indicates thatalthough direct effects are ambiguous in theoretical models, financial integration helps in a

nation's production base diversification, and leads to an increase in specialization of production.However, the specialization of production, based on the concept of comparative advantage, canalso lead to higher volatility in specific industries within an economy and society of a nation. Astime passes, successful companies, independent of size, will be the ones that are part of theglobal economy.

Read more: http://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/10/globalization-developed-countries.asp#ixzz2K9NQ4S4J

Effects of Globalization

By: EconomyWatch Date: 14 October 2010

About The Author

The core Content Team our economy, industry, investing and personal finance reference articles.

EconomyWatch, Content Team

inShare1

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The effects of Globalization are manifold, affecting various aspects of the

world economy to bring about overall financial betterment.

The effects of Globalization exert intense influence on the financial condition

as well as the industrial sector of a particular nation. Globalization gives birth

to markets based on industrial productions across the world. This in turn,

widens the access to a diverse variety of foreign commodities for consumption

of the customers, owing to the marketing strategies undertaken by different

corporations.

In the world economic arena, Globalization facilitates the formation of a

common worldwide market, on the basis of the liberal exchange of both cash

and kinds.

As far as Political Globalization is concerned, it helps in the formation of a

world government to normalize the existing interactions among countries. It

also ensures the rights emerging out of Economic and Social Globalizations.

Promotion of liberal trading activities is perhaps the greatest contribution of

Globalization, acting as a boon to the world economy. Following are the

advantages enjoyed by countries engaged in mutual free trades:

Considerable reduction in the cost of transportation, especially with the

development of containerization with respect to overseas ocean shipments

Decrease or abolition of control over capital and the capital market

Formation of free zones for carrying out commercial activities, against

payment of little or no tariffs at all

Decrease, abolition or synchronization of subsidies in domestic trades

Decrease or abolition of every kind of tariffsHowever, the concept of free

trade emerging from Globalization suffers from limitations as well:

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Restrictions imposed on the supernatural identification of intellectual

properties. This means that the patents granted by a particular nation will by

recognized in another country.

Synchronization of intellectual asset laws across most states are subject to

additional restrictions.

The Effect of Globalization on the World

Economy

Sean Rooney,Yahoo! Contributor Network

Dec 21, 2007 "Share your voice on Yahoo! websites.Start Here."

More: Globalization tweet Print

FlagPost a commentIndustrialization required raw materials and industrialized countries could not always supply all

of those raw materials themselves. They therefore turned to other countries, includingunderdeveloped countries, for raw materials. This created a pattern of every increasingglobalization. Asglobalizationproduced a world economy in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries,local economies around the world changed the way they produced and distributed raw materials.They specialized in the things they were best at, imported everything they needed to import, andshared ideas and technology.

Increased trade led to an ever increasing network interdependency in the countries of the world.When Britain looked to other countries to satisfy their demand for coal, those countries began torely on the revenues they could gain by exporting coal. Those countries, in turn, could use thoserevenues to buy British goods or import raw materials that they need for their own

industrialization. As countries traded with each other more regularly and more extensively, theystopped producing they things they could import more cheaply and concentrated on producingthe things they made well. In time, individual countries lost their abilities to produce certaingoods completely, relying on other countries exclusively to meet that demand.

That process of specialization also had an important effect on the raw materials were produced.As countries specialized, they found that they actually produced more value of goods than theyhad when they produced many different types of goods. Specialization also meant that countries

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known to be particularly skilled at producing one or two products became world leaders in themanufacture of those products. As other countries wanted to branch out into producing andproducing those goods, they could use the technology and expertise developed by that country tohelp them. Even relatively underdeveloped countries often found at least one importantcommodity they could offer the world. This connected them to the world economy and pulled

them away from subsistence agriculture.

As trade between far-flung parts of the world produced a global economy, ideas and technologywere exported just as easily as raw materials. As countries had more and more contact with eachother, they shared their cultures including their political philosophy. This is how Smith and Marxcame to be read all over the world. Globalization meant that people could no longer think only interms of their local area, they had to consider the outside world as well. Some areas were morereceptive to new ideas, but no area could shut out new ideas completely.

Because of globalization, most of the countries of the world no longer concentrated on localmarkets. Their focus became on regional or even world markets. It also changed the way they

produced goods domesticity including which goods they produced at all. Just because a countrymight have the resources and ability to produce a particular commodity no longer meant thatthey would necessarily produce it. If someone else in the world could produce it more cheaplyand with a higher quality, they might just concentrate on what they were better at producing.

The Effects of Economic Globalization on

Developing Countries

by Angie Mohr, Demand Media

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Related Articles

The Benefits of Free Trade for Developing Countries Effects of the Economic Crisis on Free Trade The Advantages of Free Trade in Developing Countries

About Globalization in Retailing How to Start a Business in Developing Countries The Effects of Globalization on Coffee Companies

Financial and industrial globalization is increasing substantially and is creating newopportunities for both industrialized and developing countries. The largest impact has been ondeveloping countries, who now are able to attract foreign investors and foreign capital. This hasled to both positive and negative effects for those countries.

Increased Standard of Living

Economic globalization gives governments of developing nations access to foreign lending.When these funds are used on infrastructure including roads, health care, education, and socialservices, the standard of living in the country increases. If the money is used only selectively,however, not all citizens will participate in the benefits.

Access to New Markets

Globalization leads to freer trade between countries. This is one of its largest benefits todeveloping nations. Homegrown industries see trade barriers fall and have access to a muchwider international market. The growth this generates allows companies to develop newtechnologies and produce new products and services.

Widening Disparity in Incomes

While an influx of foreign companies and foreign capital creates a reduction in overallunemployment and poverty, it can also increase the wage gap between those who are educatedand those who are not. Over the longer term, education levels will rise as the financial health ofdeveloping countries rise, but in the short term, some of the poor will become poorer. Noteveryone will participate in an elevation of living standards.

Decreased Employment

The influx of foreign companies into developing countries increases employment in manysectors, especially for skilled workers. However, improvements in technology come with thenew businesses and that technology spreads to domestic companies. Automation in themanufacturing and agricultural sectors lessens the need for unskilled labor and unemploymentrises in those sectors. If there is no infrastructure to help the unemployed train for the globalizedeconomy, social services in the country may become strained trying to care for the newunderclass.

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Globalization economic in verious countrie

Irreversibility

According toChina's prominent economistGao Shanguan, economic globalization is anirreversible trend due to the fact that the world markets are in great need of science andinformation technologies. With the growing demands of science and technology, Shanquan statesthat with world markets take on an "increasing cross-border division of labor" that works its waydown to every facet of globalized markets from both developed and developing nations.

[14]

Nevertheless,Princeton UniversityprofessorRobert Gilpinargues that though economicglobalization seems to be irreversible, nations' various economic policies have suppressed theimpetus for their own economies to move forward, which he states has been shown in the past,thus debunking Shanquan's theory of economic globalization as a primarily irreversiblephenomena.[15]Further, in his recent book entitled Globalization: Power, Authority, and

Legitimacy in Late Modernity, Antonio L. Rappa agrees with Gilpin's argument of economicglobalization as being reversible and references International Studies professorPeter J.Katzensteinaccessing that due to the symbiotic nature of globalization and regionalism, so doesthe conflict between economic regionalism and multiculturalism.

[16]

Effects

Positive effects

There are at least three positive financial effects of economic globalization. "Per capita GDPgrowth in the post-1980 globalizers accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9

percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. Thisacceleration in growth is even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declinesin growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries did much worse than the globalizers, with the former's annualgrowth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances ofChina and India in the 1980s and 1990s18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases ingrowth, many of them quite substantial."[17]

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Growth Rate of Real GDP per capita

Despite many analysts' concerns about the inequality gap between developed and developing

nations, there is no evidence to suggest that inequality increases as international trade increases.Rather, growth benefits of economic globalization are widely shared. While several globalizershave seen an increase in inequality, most notably China, this increase in inequality is a result ofdomestic liberalization, restrictions on internal migration, and agricultural policies, rather than aresult of international trade.[17]

Economic globalization also has helped to decrease poverty around the world. Poverty has beenreduced as evidenced by a 5.4 percent annual growth in income for the poorest fifth of thepopulation of Malaysia. Even in China, where inequality continues to be a problem, the poorestfifth of the population saw a 3.8 percent annual growth in income. In several countries, thoseliving below the dollar-per-day poverty threshold declined. In China, the rate declined from 20 to

15 percent and in Bangladesh the rate dropped from 43 to 36 percent.

[17]

The final positive effect to be mentioned is the narrowing gap between the rich and the poor.Evidence suggests that the growth of globalizers, in relation to rich countries, suggests thatglobalizers are narrowing the per capita income gap between the rich and the globalizing nations.China, India, and Bangladesh, who were among the poorest countries in the world twenty yearsago, have greatly influenced the narrowing of worldwide inequality due to their economicexpansion.

[17]

Negative effects and solutions

TheEconomic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean(ECLAC) has proposed anagenda to support conditions for developing countries to improve their standing in the globaleconomy.

[18]Economists have theories on how to combat the disadvantages faced by developing

countries. However, the advantaged countries continue to control the economic agenda. In orderto rectify the social injustice dilemma, international economic institutions (such as theWorldBankand theInternational Monetary Fund) must give voice to developing countries.

[19]A

solution is to issue global rules that protect developing countries. It is still difficult for leaders ofdeveloping nations to influence these global rules.[20]

In his article, Gao Shangquan elaborates this point saying that economic globalization has in factexpanded rather than reduced the gap between the North and South. He is referring to some UN

report in 1999, in order to show that the number of developing countries that have benefited fromeconomic globalization is smaller than 20, that the average trade deficit of developing countriesin 1990s increased by 3% as compared with that in 1970s, and that over 80% of the capital is

flowing among US, Western European and East Asian countries.[21]

The influx of international corporations not only brings positive advantages regarding globalfinancial transactions. Some may emphasize that the multinational corporations may raiseeducation levels as well as the financial health in developing countries, but that only applies to

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the long term effects of economic globalization. In the short term, poor countries will becomepoorer and unemployment rates may soar. Automation in the manufacturing and agriculturalsectors always follows the appearance ofmultinational corporations. This lessens the need forunskilled and uneducated workers thus raising unemployment levels. Also, in the developingcountries where this phenomenon occurs, infrastructure to re educate these unskilled workers are

not properly established which means a redirection of the governments focus from socialservices to education.[22]

In order to create better economic relations globally, international lending agencies must workwith developing countries to change how and where credit is concentrated as well as worktowards accelerating financial development in developing countries.[23]There is a need for socialrespect for all persons worldwide. The Economic Commission of Latin America and theCaribbean suggests that in order to ensure such social respect, the United Nations should expandits agenda to work more rigorously with international lending agencies. Despite their title,international lending agencies tend to be nation-based. The ECLAC suggests that internationallending agencies should expand to be more inclusive of all nations and they propose that there is

a need for universal competitiveness. Key factors in achieving universal competition is thespread of knowledge at the State level through education, training and technologicaladvancements.[24]Economist,Jagdish Bhagwati, also suggests that programs to help developingcountries adjust to the global economy would be beneficial for international economicrelations.

[25]

Several movements, such as thefair trademovement and theanti-sweatshopmovement, haveworked towards promoting a more socially just global economy. The fair trade movement hasplayed a significant role in alleviating exploitation due to economic globalization. For example,fair trade sales account for 1.6 billion US dollars each year.

[26]The fair trade movement works

towards improving trade, development and production for disadvantages producers. Furthermore,the movement works to raise consumer awareness of exploitation of developing countries. Fairtrade works under the motto of "trade, not aid", to improve the quality of life for farmers andmerchants by participating in direct sales, providing better prices and supporting thecommunity.[27]

Effects on world cultures

Economic globalization may have various strong impacts on different world cultures.Populations may mimic the international flow of capital and labor markets in the form ofimmigration and the merger of cultures. Foreign resources and economic measures may impactdifferent native cultures and may cause assimilation of a native people.[28]Researchers are now

studying the effects of economic globalization on the youth in various world populations such asArab, South American, South East-Asian, Caribbean, and African populations. As thesepopulations are exposed to the English language, computers, western music, and North Americanculture, changes are being noted in shrinking family size, immigration to larger cities, morecasual dating practices, and gender roles are transformed.

Yu Xintian wrote in a cultural impact study that there were two contrary trends in culture due toeconomic globalization.[29]Xintian argues that culture and industry not only flows from the west

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while affecting people, but he says there is also a cultural nationalization or an effect oflocalization that wishes to promote and protect individual cultures. He also points out thateconomic globalization began after WWII, whereasinternationalizationbegan over a century agoand is something completely different.

[30]

George Ritzer wrote about theMcDonaldizationof society and how fast food businesses spreadthroughout the United States and the rest of the world, forcing world populations to adopt fastfood culture.[31]In this book, Ritzer also writes about how other businesses have copied theMcDonalds Corporation'sbusiness model for expansion and influence. In 2006, 233 of 280 orover 80% of the new McDonalds opened were overseas. In 2007, Japan had 2,828 McDonaldslocations and serves as just one example of the globalized effect of international corporations.The Body Shop, a British ecologically conscious cosmetic company, represents the process ofMcDonaldization working in all directions.

[32]Various countries export their own versions of

McDonaldization but have the same influences in standardizing world culture.

Global media news companies export information through news, radio, and internet. This creates

a mostly one-way flow of information, and exposure of mostly western products and values.Companies likeCNN,Reuters, and theBBCdominate the global airwaves while having aparticular western point of view. Other media news companies such asAl Jazeeramay offer adifferent point of view, but have a far smaller audience and thus effect fewer people ininfluence.[33]

Migration

With an estimated 210 million people living outside their country of origin (International

Labour Organization [ILO] 2010), international migration has touched the lives of almosteveryone in both the sending and receiving countries of the Global South and the Global

North.[34]

Because of advances made in technology, human beings as well as goods are able tomove through different countries and regions with relative ease. The origins of globalization canbe traced as far back as colonialism and it is what provided the blueprint for the economicglobalization that is seen today. The geography of contemporary globalization is related closelyto the history of colonialism and imperialism even if this is not usually made explicit inglobalization theory.

[35]Colonialism created lines between tribes and various societies in

different parts of the world and it is because of this that some people leave their predeterminedcountries of citizenship to work in a neighboring country. Globalization theories have, by andlarge, neglected race and ethnicity in their accounts of the making of the new global order.

[35]International migrants facilitate globalization processes by linking together disparate peoplesand places into an increasingly single, shared global political-economic context (Glick Schiller,

Basch and Szanton Black 1995; Portes, Guarnizo and Landolt 1999).[36]

Those who are notseparated from their families still have a desire to migrate because knowledge of living

standards and social conditions across countries has become increasingly more available,especially through travel; both the real and symbolic reduction of time and distance have createdpowerful incentives for people to move.

[34]This impacts women the most because from agender perspective, we have witnessed the feminization of most migration flows, especially sincethe 1990s, with profound transformations in the structure of families and gender roles in theinternational division of labor.[34]Another reason for individuals to migrate is to make more

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money according to UNDP estimates, in 1970 the average income of countries in the highest 25percent GDP group was 23 times higher than that of the lowest 25 percent group; this figureincreased to 29 times by 2010 (UNDP 2010: 42), thus increasing the economic incentive tomigrate.

[37]

Integrating All Countries into the Increasingly

Globalized Economy

Eduardo Aninat

Deputy Managing Director, International Monetary Fund

At the High-Level Meeting of the UN Economic and Social Council

New York, July 5, 2000

Espaol Deutsch Franais

Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, I am honored to participate in this year's high-level

meeting of ECOSOC, but at the same time, I would like to convey the regrets of our newManaging Director, Horst Khler, who was unable to attend. As you know, he isundertaking intensive travel to a number of countries in various regions as part of hiseffort to learn from the membership their views on the role of the IMF, and this week, hehas begun his travels in Africa.

Your themethe role of information technology in a knowledge-based economy, or inshorthand, bridging the "digital divide"raises the critical issue of what I would call"connectivity." What I am referring to is not the fact that some people, or sections ofsociety, are connected to the Internet and the latest in high-tech communications, whileothers are not. Rather, it is the fact that some people, or sections of the global

community, are connected to the global economy, while others are not. Some arepartaking in the immense opportunities of globalizationhigher investment, jobcreation, and growthwhile others are not.

Not surprisingly, the "disconnected" also happen to be the world's poor. Those who donot share the benefits of global growth, because they lack access to basic social services,essential infrastructure, and income and employment opportunitieslet alone access tothe Web. These days, being disconnected bears an ever higher cost; a cost of isolationand marginalization, at a time when there is already a growing gap between the rich andpoor within and among nations.

So what can the UN familyand in particular, the IMFdo to help integrate allcountries into our increasingly globalized economy? I would like to explore this questionin my remarks today, but first a word on the world economic outlook, as it will largelyshape our room for maneuver.

A brighter world economic outlook

The encouraging news is that the global economy has recovered remarkably quickly

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from the financial crises of 199798. After two years of slowdown, world growth shouldbe around 4 percent this yearthe highest since 1988and continue at close to thispace next year. The global slowdown in the wake of these crises now looks to have beenrelatively brief. Most of the emerging market countries that experienced crises areenjoying impressive growth, reflecting in part resolute action by policymakers to stick to

adjustment and reform efforts, although much remains to be done. Other developingcountries, as well as a number of economies in transition, are also contributing to thepickup.

Even so, we cannot afford to be complacent. Three key concerns come to mind: (1) Arewe doing enough to ensure a gradual rebalancing of global growth, and thus externalimbalances, among the principal currency areasthe United States, where growthremains strong; Japan, where a fragile recovery from recession is under way; andEurope, where a recovery from a period of weakness is on track? (2) Are the values ofthe key currencies in line with their medium-term fundamentals, notably the euro againstthe dollar? and (3) Are we doing enough to ensure that any needed adjustments in

financial markets occur in as orderly a manner as possible?

Thus, it is more urgent than ever that we secure a smooth transition to a more balancedpattern of global growth. In the United States, this means containing excess demandpressures, being careful not to unduly loosen the fiscal stance. In Japan and Europe, thismeans tackling structural rigidities, including intelligent deregulation of key sectors. InLatin America, this means continuing to reduce fiscal deficits to build investorconfidence and contain the risks associated with high external financing requirements. InAsia, this means persevering with bank and corporate restructuring. In Africa, this meansstepping up economic and institutional reforms to broaden the economic base and createa welcoming atmosphere for the private sector, the future engine of growth.

A safer global economic environment

What all this adds up to is a world economy that is basically in good shape, giving us amuch-needed opportunity to step up our efforts to spread the benefits of globalization tothe disconnected. Globalization, of course, is not just a recent phenomenon. But what isdifferent about the current episode is the enormous impact that new informationtechnologies are having on market integration, efficiency, and industrial organizationalong with its implications for human capital development.

How do these new technologies help? They boost efficiency and growth by reducinginformation and transaction costs. Lowering these costs tends to lower barriers to entry,increase competition, and contributes to higher investment. Higher market efficiency,and the structural change in the ways businesses operate, represent a positive supplyshock that could lead to a quantum shift in overall productivity.

Advances in information processing, financial innovation, and financial liberalizationhave also unleashed a dramatic expansion in domestic and international financial flows,even after accounting for recent crises. Overall, capital flows have become more

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important than trade flows in determining the short-term evolution of exchange rates(worldwide, less than 10 percent of foreign exchange transactions are trade-related).

However, the major drawback is that many of these flows have been highly volatile.Until a few years ago, when crises erupted, they were mainly rooted in macroeconomic

disequilibria and associated with current account imbalances. But now crisesincreasingly originate in the capital account and are associated with weaknesses in thedomestic financial sectors. Indeed, in all of the recent financial crises, weaknesses inbanking supervision emerged. These were exacerbated, in some cases, by theliberalization of short-term flows before longer-term ones. Not helping matters was theabsence of complete or timely information on the extent of foreign currency exposuresespecially short-term debtmaking it difficult to detect emerging vulnerabilities anddesign appropriate policy responses.

So what can the UN family, and in particular the IMF, do to create a safer globaleconomic environment? Policymakers in developed and developing countries should

now tackle the critical structural adjustments that in too many cases have been delayed,awaiting better times. In support of this, the IMF should strengthen its focus on its coreactivitiesmacroeconomic stability; monetary, fiscal, and exchange rate policies; andfinancial sector issuesand step up its work with its development partners in otherareas, mainly the social realm.

In the past year, the IMF, working closely with the international community, hascontinued to explore ways to better prevent crises and better manage those thatinevitably do occurwhat is often referred to as strengthening the international financialarchitecture. We have also continued to explore ways to make the institution itself morefocused and more effective, seriously weighing the many reform recommendations being

made by governments and task forces. We are listening, and we are carefully assessingthe possible avenues of reform.

In many areas, much progress has been made, although a good deal of the work is stillexperimental or in its pilot stages. These include:

promoting transparency and accountability; developing internationally recognized standards and codes; strengthening domestic financial systems; increasing the capacity to assess countries' external vulnerability; and carrying forward the debate over the choice of exchange rate regimes.

Let me elaborate on a few of these. First, the IMF has been beefing up its surveillance ofnational economic developments and policies, especiallyfinancial system stabilityissues. This is to help ensure the creation and maintenance of strong and well-regulatedfinancial systems. One initiativea particularly innovative oneis the Financial SectorAssessment Program, begun last year as a pilot project with the World Bank. It is aimedat identifying strengths and vulnerabilities, assessing the observance of financial sectorstandards, and helping countries in identifying and sequencing necessary financial sectorreforms. It draws on a large and expanding number of cooperating institutions, such as

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central banks, supervisory agencies, and standard-setting bodies. This has greatly helpedthe international acceptance of the peer-review concept embedded in the whole exercise.The feedback so far is quite favorable, prompting us recently to increase the size of theprogram to 36 countries from the original 12.

Second, countries and market participants need guideposts for health checks of financialsystems and economies in general, and that is why the international community has beenworking on setting better international standards and codes of good practice. The IMFnow has standards for data dissemination, and codes of good practice for thetransparency of fiscal, monetary, and financial policies. In fact, the data standards wererecently strengthened to better pinpoint international reserves, and public and privateexternal debt. Other agencies have developed, or are developing standards, for bankingsupervision and regulation, securities and insurance regulation, payment and settlementsystems, accounting and auditing, corporate governance, and insolvency regimes. TheIMF is also contributing to these efforts.

Third, the IMF has been releasing more information than ever as part of its commitmentto greater transparency and accountability, both for itself and its member countries. Alook at our Website,www.imf.org , should convince any skeptics. We firmly believethat timely and detailed information can prevent the accumulation of problems byforcing governments to take appropriate measures at the right time. Of course, this onlyworks if policymakers and the public take the information seriously and use it in theiranalyses. We also firmly believe that better information and standards should benefitand help integratethe poor countries as well as the rich ones.

Here, the theme of your conference ties in strongly, for the revolution in informationtechnology has revolutionized communications. The challenge now is to make sense of

all the information that is out there. Until about 15 years ago, the IMF was the major, ifnot the only source of information on the economies of very many countries. It was ourob to develop information, store large amounts of it, and make it compatible through

time and across countries. Although we still play this role for some countries,increasingly our activities have shifted toward setting standards and codes for theinformation that countries themselves gather. This includes amassing timely,comprehensive information in a common format from countries worldwide.

Turning to other areas of the reform agenda, however, the bulk of our work is still ahead.This pertains in particular to the role of the private sector in preventing and resolvingcrises, but even here, some principles are emerging. The Managing Director, HorstKhler, has made it clear that he favors "constructive engagement"cooperation amongthe borrowing countries, the private sector, and the official international sector, in goodtimes as well as in crises. As one part of this strategy, he envisages establishing a CapitalMarkets Consultative Group, with representatives of the private financial sector.

A sharpened focus on poverty reduction

What does this push for a safer global economic environment mean for the world's poor?

http://www.imf.org/external/index.htmhttp://www.imf.org/external/index.htmhttp://www.imf.org/external/index.htmhttp://www.imf.org/external/index.htm

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It means that the international community is trying to ensure that the benefits ofglobalization are shared by all. It means that we are striving for inclusive growth, not justgrowth for the elite. It means that the IMF, working closely with the World Bank, theUN, and other partners, will continue to place a high priority on poverty reduction. HereI would like to emphasize that poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon,

encompassing not only a lack of adequate income, but also a lack of access to basicsocial services and general social exclusion.

We now better understand the complex links between growth and poverty. We had longknown that sound macroeconomic policies favor growth. We had also long known thatsound macroeconomic policies and growth-enhancing structural reforms favor the poor,since growth is the single most important source of poverty reductiona point I cannotstress enoughas well as a key source of sustained financing for targeted social outlays.

But there now is greater acceptance that causation also runs in the other direction.Poverty reduction and social equity can help policies such as investing in primary

education and basic health that boost the potential of the poor to contribute to output,helping to speed up economic growth itself. Without poverty reduction, it is difficult tosustain sound macro policies and structural reforms long enough to eradicate inflationand increase the growth ratethere is unlikely to be the political support to persevere.Thus, what is needed is a virtuous cycle of poverty alleviation, sustained growth, highersaving and investment, and rising productivity.

This does not happen overnight. But it can happen in a reasonably limited period of time.If I might be permitted to offer an example from my own country: in about a decade,poverty in Chile has fallen drastically, from 45 percent of the population in 1987 to 23percent in 1998. This was achieved in an environment of very strong economic growth

and gains in price stabilitywhich led to real wage growth of more than 3 percent peryear and the rapid expansion of employment. Social outlays were increased and carefullytargeted, and protected and inefficient sectors opened up to competition and mobility.

What can we hope to achieve globally? At the UN summit in 1995 in Copenhagen,countries formally pledged to reduce by half the proportion of people living in extremepoverty by 2015. This is an ambitious goal, and important progress has been made.However, while some regions, such as East Asia and the Pacific are likely to meet thesetargets, othersincluding Africa and large segments of Latin America and theCaribbeanare far behind.

Our best hope now lies with a new approach to poverty reduction endorsed by theinternational community last September, as it builds on good practices in countries anddonor agencies. The main innovation is deriving programs from comprehensivestrategies for poverty reduction drawn up by individual governments, with theinvolvement of a broad range of stakeholders, including civil society and the donorcommunity. The emphasis is on ownership, transparency, good governance, andaccountability.

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Of course, this is a collaborative effort, with the countries concerned in the driving seat,and each partner playing a vital but specialized role. The World Bank, along with theregional development banks and UN agencies, takes the lead on discussions withauthorities on the design of policies aimed at poverty reductionincluding social safetynets to protect the poor and vulnerable. The IMF does its part by supporting economic

policies that provide an environment conducive for sustainable, inclusive growth. Ourkey instrument is our new concessional lending facility, the Poverty Reduction andGrowth Facility, which replaced ESAF.

Stepped up debt relief

Another important component of this new approach is an enhanced debt initiative,agreed by the international community last September, to give the world's heavilyindebted poor countries deeper, faster, and broader debt relief. We are now talking about36 countries, most of which are in Africa, instead of the original 29. It should result in areduction of their external debt burdens, in aggregate, by nearly two thirds.

Why isn't the debt relief process going faster? Is it a case of the IMF and World Bankinsisting on rigid or unreasonable conditions? Let us take a look at some of the earlycases where we are being held back from going faster. The reasons have been armedconflict, civil unrest, governance issues, and major slippages in economic, social, andstructural programsnot delays, I would submit, due to "rigid or unreasonableconditions." For the initiative can only contribute to poverty reduction and growth ifconditions are in place to use the additional resources effectively and to support thecountry's development agenda.

The IMF and World Bank are committed to do everything we can to speed up the

process. Indeed, we have recently established a Joint Implementation Committee tooversee the timely and effective delivery of these programs. However, more generousdebt relief brings with it higher financing requirements. For multilateral creditors, thiswill come to around $14 billion in 1999 net present value terms. Not all of the financingis yet in place; in fact, there is still a financing gapexcluding the IMF and the WorldBankof around $5.5 billion. I cannot stress strongly enough the urgency of developedcountries fulfilling their stated commitments.

* * * *

In closing, let us join together and seize the immense opportunities afforded to us by themore stable economic environment and current economic calm. We must now tacklehead-on the more intractable areas of reform that are turning out to be so critical in anera of globalized marketsand yes, globalization is here to stay. Ultimately, our goal ishigher living standards, the elimination of poverty, and shared global prosperity--and toaccomplish that, we must ensure that all nations are fully connected to the globaleconomy. We have not a moment to waste!

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Pasal yang mengaturtetang hak dan

kewajiban.

Hak dan Kewajiban warga negara diatur dalam undang -undang sbb:

Pasal 27 ayat 1-3Mengatur tentang Kedudukan warga negara , Penghidupan dan pembelaan terhadap negara.

Pasal 28 ayat AJMengatur tentang segala bentuk Hak Asasi Manusia.

Pasal 29 ayat 2Mengatur tentang kebebasan atau hak untuk memeluk agama (kepercayaan )

Pasal 30 ayat 1-5Mengatur tentang Kewajiban membela negara , Usaha pertahanan dan keamanan rakyat,Keanggotaan TNI dan Tugasnya , Kepolisian Indonesia dan tugasnya , Susunan dan kedudukan

TNI & kepolisian Indonesia.

Pasal 31 ayat 1-5Mengatur tentang Hak untuk mendapat pendidikan yang layak , kewajiban belajar ,Sistempendidikan Nasional ,dan Peran pemerintah dalam bidang Pendidikan dan kebudayaan

Pasal 33 ayat 1-5Mengatur tentang pengertian perekonomian ,Pemanfaatan SDA , dan Prinsip PerekonomianNasional.

Pasal 34 ayat 1-4Mengatur tentang Perlindungan terhadap fakir miskin dan anak terlantar sebagai tanggung jawabnegara.

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PASAL-PASAL YANG MENGATUR HAK DAN KEWAJIBAN WNI

I.I Pendahuluan

Hak dan Kewajiban merupakan sesuatu yang tidak dapat dipisahkan, akan tetapi seringterjadi pertentangan karena hak dan kewajiban tidak seimbang. Sangat jelas bahwa setiapwarga negara memiliki hak dan kewajiban untuk mendapatkan penghidupan yang layak, akantetapi pada kenyataannya banyak warga negara yang belum merasakan kesejahteraan dalammenjalani kehidupannya. Semua itu terjadi karena pemerintah dan para pejabat tinggi lebihbanyak mendahulukan hak dari pada kewajiban.Keadaannya seperti ini,sering menimbulkankesenjangan sosial yang berkepanjangan.

Seperti yang sudah tercantum dalam hukum dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku. Jika hak

dan kewajiban seimbang dan terpenuhi, maka kehidupan masyarakat akan aman sejahtera.Hak dan kewajiban di Indonesia ini tidak akan pernah seimbang. Apabila masyarakat tidakbergerak untuk merubahnya. Karena para pejabat tidak akan pernah merubahnya, walaupunrakyat banyak menderita karena hal ini. Mereka lebih memikirkan bagaimana mendapatkanmateri dari pada memikirkan rakyat, sampai saat ini masih banyak rakyat yang belummendapatkan haknya.Olek karena itu, kita sebagai warga negara yang berdemokrasi harus bangun dari mimpi kitayang buruk ini dan merubahnya untuk mendapatkan hak-hak dan tak lupa melaksanakankewajiban kita sebagai rakyat Indonesia. Warga Negara adalah penduduk sebuah negara ataubangsa berdasarkan keturunan, tempat kelahiran, dan sebagainya, yang mempunyai kewajibandan hak penuh sebagai warga negara itu. memiliki domisili atau tempat tinggal tetap di suatu

wilayah negara, yang dapat dibedakan menjadi warga negara asli dan warga negara asing(WNA).

Menurut pasal 26 ayat (2) UUD 1945

1) Penduduk adalah warga negara Indonesia dan orang asing yang bertempat tinggal diIndonesia.

2) Bukan Penduduk, adalah orang-orang asing yang tinggal dalam negara bersifatsementara sesuai dengan visa.

3) Istilah Kewarganegaraan (citizenship) memiliki arti keanggotaan yang menunjukkanhubungan atau ikatan antara negara dengan warga negara, atau segala hal yang

berhubungan dengan warga negara.4) Pengertian kewarganegaraan dapat dibedakan dalam arti:

-Yuridis dan Sosiologis, dan- Formil dan Materiil.

I.II. Hak Warga Negara Indonesia.

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1) Hak atas pekerjaan dan penghidupan yang layak: Tiap warga negara berhak atas pekerjaan

danpenghidupan yang layak bagi kemanusiaan (pasal 27 ayat 2).

2) Hak untuk hidup dan mempertahankan kehidupan: setiap orang berhak untuk hidup serta

berhak mempertahankan hidup dan kehidupannya. (pasal 28A).

3) Hak untuk membentuk keluarga dan melanjutkan keturunan melalui perkawinan yang sah(pasal 28B ayat 1).

4) Hak atas kelangsungan hidup. Setiap anak berhak atas kelangsungan hidup, tumbuh, dan

Berkembang

5) Hak untuk mengembangkan diri dan melalui pemenuhan kebutuhan dasarnya dan berhakmendapat pendidikan, ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, seni dan budaya demimeningkatkan kualitas hidupnya demi kesejahteraan hidup manusia. (pasal 28C ayat 1)

6) Hak untuk memajukan dirinya dalam memperjuangkan haknya secara kolektif untukmembangun masyarakat, bangsa, dan negaranya. (pasal 28C ayat 2).

7) Hak atas pengakuan, jaminan, perlindungan, dan kepastian hukum yang adil sertaperlakuan yang sama di depan hukum. (pasal 28D ayat 1).

8) Hak untuk mempunyai hak milik pribadi.

9) Hak untuk hidup, hak untuk tidak disiksa, hak kemerdekaan pikiran dan hati nurani, hakberagama, hak untuk tidak diperbudak, hak untuk diakui sebagai pribadi di hadapanhukum, dan hak untuk tidak dituntut atas dasar hukum yang berlaku surut adalah hak

asasi manusia yang tidak dapat dikurangi dalam keadaan apapun. (pasal 28I ayat 1)

I.III. Kewajiban Warga Negara Indonesia.

1) Wajib menaati hukum dan pemerintahan. Pasal 27 ayat (1) UUD 1945 berbunyi: segala

warga negara bersamaan kedudukannya di dalam hukum dan pemerintahan dan wajibmenjunjung hukum dan pemerintahan itu dengan tidak ada kecualinya.

2) Wajib ikut serta dalam upaya pembelaan negara. Pasal 27 ayat (3) UUd 1945 menyatakan: setiap warga negara berhak dan wajib ikut serta dalam upaya pembelaan negara.

3) Wajib menghormati hakasasi manusia orang lain. Pasal 28J ayat 1 mengatakan: Setiaporang wajib menghormati hak asai manusi orang lain.

4) Wajib tunduk kepada pembatasan yang ditetapkan dengan undang-undang. Pasal 28J ayat2 menyatakan : Dalam menjalankan hak dan kebebasannya, setiap orang wajib tundukkepada pembatasan yang ditetapkan dengan undang-undang dengan makasud semata-mata untuk menjamin pengakuan serta penghormatan atas hak kebebasan orang lain dan

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untuk memenuhi tuntutan yang adil sesuai dengan pertimbangan moral, nilai-nilai agama,keamanan, dan ketertiban umum dalam suatu masyarakat demokratis.

5) Wajib ikut serta dalam usaha pertahanan dan keamanan negara. Pasal 30 ayat (1) UUD1945 menyatakan: tiap-tiap warga negara berhak dan wajib ikut serta dalam usaha

pertahanan dan keamanan negara.

Konsep Hak dan Kewajiban dalam UUD 1945

Memasukkan hak-hak asasi manusia ke dalam pasal-pasal konstitusi merupakan salahsatu ciri konstitusi moderen. Setidaknya, dari 120an konstitusi di dunia, ada lebih dari 80 persendiantaranya yang telah memasukkan pasal-pasal hak asasi manusia, utamanya pasal-pasal dalamDUHAM ( Deklarasi Universal Hak Asasi Manusia). Perkembangan ini sesungguhnyamerupakan konsekuensi tata pergaulan bangsa-bangsa sebagai bagian dari komunitasinternasional, utamanya melalui Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB)

Sejak dideklarasikannya sejumlah hak-hak asasi manusia dalamDeklarasi Universal HakAsasi Manusia(DUHAM )1948, (Universal Declaration of Human Rights), yang kemudiandiikuti oleh sejumlah kovenan maupun konvensi internasional tentang hak asasi manusia, makasecara bertahap diadopsi oleh negara-negara sebagai bentuk pengakuan rezim normatifinternasional yang dikonstruksi untuk menata hubungan internasional. Dalam konteks sejarahdan secara konsepsional, Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 yang telah lahir sebelumDUHAMmemiliki perspektif hak asasi manusia yang cukup progresif, karena sebagaimana ditegaskandalam Pembukaan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 alinea 1 :

Bahwa sesungguhnya kemerdekaan itu ialah hak segala bangsa dan oleh sebab itu, maka

penjajahan di atas dunia harus dihapuskan, karena tidak sesuai dengan perikemanusiaan dan

perikeadilan.

Sebagai warga negara yang baik kita wajib membina dan melaksanakan hak dan kewajiban kitadengan tertib. Hak dan kewajiban warga negara diatur dalam UUD 1945 meliputi :

1.1 Hak dan kewajiban dalam bidang sosial budaya

Pasal 32 menyatakan bahwa Pemerintah memajukan kebudayaan nasional Indonesia.

Arti pesan yang terkandung adalah :

A. Hak memperoleh kesempatan pendidikan pada segala tingkat, baik umum maupun

kejuruan.

B. Hak menikmati dan mengembangkan kebudayaan nasional dan daerah.

C. Kewajiban mematuhi peraturan-peraturan dalam bidang kependidikan.

D. Kewajiban memelihara alat-alat sekolah, kebersihan dan ketertibannya.

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E. Kewajiban ikut menanggung biaya pendidikan.

F. Kewajiban memelihara kebudayaan nasional dan daerah.

G. Hak untuk mengembangkan dan menyempurnakan hidup moral keagamaannya,

sehingga di samping kehidupan materiil juga kehidupan spiritualnya terpeliharadengan baik.

H. Kewajiban untuk percaya terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa.

1.2 Hak dan kewajiban dalam bidang Ekonomi.

Pasal 33 ayat (1), menyatakan, bahwa Perekonomian disusun sebagai usaha bersamaberdasar atas azas kekeluargaan.

Pasal 33 ayat (2), menyatakan bahwa Cabang-cabang produksi yang penting bagi negara

dan yang menguasai hajat hidup orang banyak dikuasai oleh negara.

Pasal 33 ayat (3), menyatakan bahwa Bumi dan air dan kekayaan alam yang terkandung didalamnya dikuasai oleh negara dan dipergunakan untuk sebesar-besarnya kemakmuranrakyat.

Pasal 34 menyatakan bahwa Fakir miskin dan anak-anak terlantar dipelihara oleh negara.

Hak & kewajiban warga negara serta pasal-pasalnya .

Hak dan Kewajiban merupakan sesuatu yang tidak dapat dipisahkan, akan tetapi sering terjadi

pertentangan karena hak dan kewajiban tidak seimbang. Sangat jelas bahwa setiap warga negara

memiliki hak dan kewajiban untuk mendapatkan penghidupan yang layak, akan tetapi pada

kenyataannya banyak warga negara yang belum merasakan kesejahteraan dalam menjalani

kehidupannya. Semua itu terjadi karena pemerintah dan para pejabat tinggi lebih banyak mendahulukan

hak daripada kewajiban. Padahal menjadi seorang pejabat itu tidak cukup hanya memiliki pangkat akan

tetapi mereka berkewajiban untuk memikirkan diri sendiri. Jika keadaannya seperti ini, maka tidak ada

keseimbangan antara hak dan kewajiban. Jika keseimbangan itu tidak ada akan terjadi kesenjangan

sosial yang berkepanjangan. Untuk mencapai keseimbangan antara hak dan kewajiban, yaitu dengan

cara mengetahui posisi diri kita sendiri. Sebagai seorang warga negara harus tahu hak dan

kewajibannya. Seorang pejabat atau pemerintah pun harus tahu akan hak dan kewajibannya. Seperti

yang sudah tercantum dalam hukum dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku. Jika hak dan kewajiban seimbang

dan terpenuhi, maka kehidupan masyarakat akan aman sejahtera.

Hak dan kewajiban di Indonesia ini tidak akan pernah seimbang. Apabila masyarakat tidak bergerak

untuk merubahnya. Karena para pejabat tidak akan pernah merubahnya, walaupun rakyat banyak

menderita karena hal ini. Mereka lebih memikirkan bagaimana mendapatkan materi daripada

memikirkan rakyat, sampai saat ini masih banyak rakyat yang belum mendapatkan haknya.

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Olek karena itu, kita sebagai warga negara yang berdemokrasi harus bangun dari mimpi kita yang buruk

ini dan merubahnya untuk mendapatkan hak-hak dan tak lupa melaksanakan kewajiban kita sebagai

rakyat Indonesia. Sebagaimana telah ditetapkan dalam UUD 1945 pada pasal 28, yang menetapkan

bahwa hak warga negara dan penduduk untuk berserikat dan berkumpul, mengeluarkan pikiran dengan

lisan maupun tulisan, dan sebagainya, syarat-syarat akan diatur dalam undang-undang. Pasal ini

mencerminkan bahwa negara Indonesia bersifat demokrasi.

Pada para pejabat dan pemerintah untuk bersiap-siap hidup setara dengan kita. Harus menjunjung

bangsa Indonesia ini kepada kehidupan yang lebih baik dan maju. Yaitu dengan menjalankan hak-hak

dan kewajiban dengan seimbang. Dengan memperhatikan rakyat-rakyat kecil yang selama ini kurang

mendapat kepedulian dan tidak mendapatkan hak-haknya.

Kewarganegaraan

Warga Negara adalah penduduk sebuah negara atau bangsa berdasarkan keturunan, tempat kelahiran,

dan sebagainya, yang mempunyai kewajiban dan hak penuh sebagai warga negara itu. memiliki domisili

atau tempat tinggal tetap di suatu wilayah negara, yang dapat dibedakan menjadi warga negara asli dan

warga negara asing (WNA).

Menurut pasal 26 ayat (2) UUD 1945,

Penduduk adalah warga negara Indonesia dan orang asing yang bertempat tinggal di Indonesia.

Bukan Penduduk, adalah orang-orang asing yang tinggal dalam negara bersifat sementara sesuai

dengan visa

Istilah Kewarganegaraan (citizenship) memiliki arti keanggotaan yang menunjukkan hubungan atau

ikatan antara negara dengan warga negara, atau segala hal yang berhubungan dengan warga negara.

Pengertian kewarganegaraan dapat dibedakan dalam arti: 1) Yuridis dan Sosiologis, dan 2) Formil dan

Materiil.

Hak dan Kewajiban warga negara diatur dalam undang -undang sbb:

Pasal 27 ayat 1-3

Mengatur tentang Kedudukan warga negara , Penghidupan dan pembelaan terhadap negara.

Pasal 28 ayat A J

Mengatur tentang segala bentuk Hak Asasi Manusia.

Pasal 29 ayat 2

Mengatur tentang kebebasan atau hak untuk memeluk agama (kepercayaan )

Pasal 30 ayat 1-5

Mengatur tentang Kewajiban membela negara , Usaha pertahanan dan keamanan rakyat, Keanggotaan

TNI dan Tugasnya , Kepolisian Indonesia dan tugasnya , Susunan dan kedudukan TNI & kepolisian

Indonesia.

Pasal 31 ayat 1-5

Mengatur tentang Hak untuk mendapat pendidikan yang layak , kewajiban belajar ,Sistem pendidikan

Nasional ,dan Peran pemerintah dalam bidang Pendidikan dan kebudayaan

Pasal 33 ayat 1-5

Mengatur tentang pengertian perekonomian ,Pemanfaatan SDA , dan Prinsip Perekonomian Nasional.

Pasal 34 ayat 1-4

Mengatur tentang Perlindungan terhadap fakir miskin dan anak terlantar sebagai tanggung jawab

negara.

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Asas Kewarganegaraan di Indonesia :

Asas kelahiran (Ius soli) adalah penentuan status kewarganegaraan berdasarkan tempat atau daerah

kelahiran seseorang.

Asas keturunan (Ius sanguinis) adalah pedoman kewarganegaraan berdasarkan pertalian darah atau

keturunan.

Asas Perkawinan : Status kewarganegaraan dapat dilihat dari sisi perkawinan yang memiliki asas

kesatuan hukum, yaitu paradigma suami isteri atau ikatan keluarga merupakan inti masyarakat yang

mendambakan suasana sejahtera, sehat dan bersatu.

Unsur Pewarganegaraan (Naturalisasi) :

Bersifat aktif yaitu seseorang yang dapat menggunakan hak opsi untuk memilih atau mengajukan

kehendak untuk menjadi warga negara dari suatu negara.

Bersifat Pasif, seseorang yang tidak mau diwarganegarakan oleh suatu negara atau tidak mau diberi

status warga negara suatu negara, maka yang bersangkutan menggunakan hak Repudiasi yaitu hak

untuk menolak pemberian kewarganegaraan tersebut.

Status Kewarganegaraan Indonesia :

Apatride ( tanpa Kewarganegaraan ) adalah seseorang yang memiliki status kewarganegaraan hal ini

menurut peraturan kewarganegaraan suatu negara, seseorang tidak diakui sebagai warga negara dari

negara manapun.

multipatride, yaitu seseorang (penduduk) yang tinggal di perbatasan antara dua negara.

Bipatride ( dwi Kewarganegaraan ) adalah kewarganegaraan yang timbul apabila peraturan dari dua

negara terkait seseorang dianggap warganegara ke dua negara tersebut.

Hak Warga Negara Indonesia :

1.