Backyard Wildlife - University of Tennessee · backyard bird feeders, most wildlife biologists...

Chapter 23

Backyard Wildlife

Learning Objectives1. Learn how a landscape may be

enhanced to improve property value, add beauty and benefit wildlife

2. Understand how to create an attractive habitat for wildlife

3. Learn how to properly feed desired wildlife

4. Learn how to reduce problems with nuisance animals

5. Learn how to properly and legally recommend how to remove wildlife

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InstructorCopy

Tennessee Master Gardener Handbook 602

Backyards are great places to observe and enjoy wildlife. They are also places where wildlife can become a nuisance.

Animals are attracted to areas that provide a suitable habitat. Therefore, care must be taken to present food, cover and water in a way that does not lead to unnecessary problems. There are ways to attract backyard wildlife and to manage associated habitats. There are also techniques for managing nuisance animals and managing associated damage.

Attracting WildlifeThe principles of wildlife management are basically the same for a backyard as they are for a wildlife management area. Wildlife has four basic needs: food, cover, water and space. Consideration should be given to each of these habitat features so that a backyard is most at-tractive for a variety of wildlife species.

To manage a backyard for wildlife, it is important to evaluate what is already pres-ent, to identify possible limiting factors and to identify additional features that could be put in place. This process should reach beyond the landscape. Backyards are relatively small in relation to most animals’ home ranges. Therefore, adjoining properties should be considered. Forming a cooperative neighbor-hood backyard management plan is an ideal way to attract both a wide variety of species and increased numbers of a particular species. Backyard management plans should include a map, plotting houses, other buildings, trees, shrubs and other plants, as well as existing

water sources, bird feeders, etc. A map will identify needed habitat improvements and where they should be placed.

Landscaping ConsiderationsLandscaping for wildlife contributes to the overall beauty of a yard and helps increase property value. Landscaping should be planned with available food and cover in mind. Certain plants provide both, but care should be taken with choosing plants. Many non-native plants, for example, can become invasive and displace native species that provide quality wildlife habitat. Consideration should also be given to the structure and arrangement of cover created, as well as the time of year food is available.

Edge, Vertical Structure and Arrangement

An edge is where two or more habitats come together. Many wildlife species find a niche along this area. Naturally, additional food and cover resources are often found where habi-tats come together, as each habitat represents a different suite of plant species or a differ-ent successional stage. Increased edge can be established by creating irregularly shaped borders around landscaped beds and the property perimeter. Planting islands of shrubs and flowers in the landscape is another way to provide additional edge.

Edge is also available vertically, where plants occur at various levels from the ground up. This vertical structure is very important for many wildlife species, particularly birds. For example, some birds feed and/or nest on the ground or amongst low-growing herbaceous vegetation and shrubs. Other birds feed and/or nest in shrubs and small trees. Still other birds feed and/or nest in the canopy of tall trees. Having all these layers present will help ensure more species of wildlife are able to use the site.

These features are easily incorporated into a backyard wildlife management plan. A “soft” edge can be created between a yard and woods by arranging plantings in a stair-step fashion.

Backyard Wildlife

Figure 1. Landscape Attracting Wildlife


For example, herbaceous flowers and native grasses can be planted in a 10- to 15-foot zone along the outer edge of the lawn. Shrubs and small trees can then be planted between this zone and the woods.

Inside the woods, girdling and spraying and/or removing individual trees that do not provide quality food or shelter for wildlife will allow the crown of adjacent trees that do produce food or shelter to grow larger. Trees that have been killed and are left standing are called snags. Many wildlife species, such as woodpeckers, wrens, bluebirds, kingbirds, owls, wood ducks, raccoons and squirrels, use snags for feeding, denning, nesting, roosting and perching. Additionally, pruning or remov-ing trees will increase the sunlight reaching

the forest floor. This stimulates plant growth and creates a lower layer of vertical structure for various wildlife species.

FoodFood for wildlife comes in many forms: hard mast, soft mast, seed, forage, nectar, eggs and prey. Managing and providing a variety of foods will attract a variety of wildlife species. Supplemental food can be provided for some species, such as seed for birds, but many wild-life species benefit from creative landscaping that provides food naturally. This is especially true when particular species of trees, shrubs and other plants are available that fruit at dif-ferent times. This helps ensure a year-round food source that supplies nutrition for various seasonal activities and requirements, such as nesting, brood rearing, pre-migration, migra-tion and winter survival.

Fruits from some trees and shrubs are highly preferred and sought-after soon after ripening, whereas some are not. These “sec-ondary” foods are equally important, however. Later in winter, when little else is available, fruits not selected earlier suddenly become a very necessary source of energy and are needed for survival. Berries of the American holly provide a secondary food for wildlife.

TreesTrees are a long-term investment for both wildlife and property value. Mast-producing trees are extremely beneficial for wildlife. Some of the hard mast producers include the oaks, hickories, American beech, pecan and black walnut. Squirrels, white-tailed deer, wild turkeys, wood ducks, ruffed grouse and others animals depend on hard mast as a source of

Examples of Wildlife Food

▪ Hard mast: Acorns, hazelnuts and walnuts

▪ Soft mast: Blackberries, grapes and cherries

▪ Seed: Millets and sunflower ▪ Forage: Plant leaves ▪ Nectar ▪ Eggs ▪ Prey: Grasshoppers, cardinals and

rabbits

Figure 2. Landscape with Edge and Vertical Structure

Desirable Vs. Undesirable Trees for Wildlife

The following trees provide shelter or food for wildlife:

▪ Oaks ▪ Persimmon ▪ Blackgum ▪ Cherry

The following trees do not provide good shelter or food for wildlife:

▪ Maple ▪ Elm ▪ Sourwood ▪ Sweetgum ▪ Ash


energy through fall and winter. Seed from pines are an important food source for sev-eral bird species. Soft-mast producers include black cherry, persimmon, apple, pear, dog-woods, blackgum, serviceberry, mulberries and American holly. These trees provide a quality food source from mid-summer through winter, depending upon the species. To encourage backyard wildlife, a variety of trees should be planted that provide quality food throughout the year.

Shrubs and VinesA wide variety of shrubs and vines produce important wildlife foods. As with trees, several species should be planted to provide a quality food source throughout the year. Wild plum, hawthorn, crabapple, viburnums, American beautyberry, chokeberry, blackberries, blue-berries, chinquapin, elderberry, hazelnut, winterberry, witch-hazel and spicebush all produce food beneficial to wildlife. Smaller shrubs such as blackberry and blueberry can be planted closest to the yard or other herbaceous vegetation. Taller shrubs, such as crabapple and chinquapin, can be planted closer to the wood’s edge. Specifically, it is best to plant these shrubs at least 15 feet from the wood’s edge where they can receive at least 4–6 hours of direct sunlight.

Vines that produce food enjoyed by wildlife include grapes, muscadine, Virginia creeper and poison ivy, whose seeds are readily sought after by many birds. Vines are best planted along a fence or trellis or at the base of a tree. When planted at the base of a snag, additional nesting cover-other than cavities- is provided as the vine matures.

Herbaceous PlantsHerbaceous plants should be at the edge of the yard and among many shrub plantings. Forbs, which are broadleaf herbaceous plants, and grasses can provide forage and nectar. Rabbits, deer and groundhogs consume many forbs and grasses. However, if the animals are numerous, managing their foraging habits to avoid nuisance problems can be challenging, see Managing Nuisance Wildlife, later in this chapter. Succulent forage can be a limiting factor for these species, especially in predomi-nately forested areas during winter. Strips of palatable forbs and grasses can be planted

along the edge of yards as a cover crop in the garden during the winter or as a prairie garden year-round. Clovers, winter grains, winter peas and Brassicas are all preferred winter forages by deer and rabbits. Herbaceous cover also harbors abundant insects and other inver-tebrates, which are a primary food of young turkeys, quail and grouse during summer.

A wide variety of herbaceous plants attract hummingbirds, bees, butterflies and moths for nectar. Tubular red flowers are especially attractive to hummingbirds and Baltimore orioles are attracted to red or orange flowers as they feed on the nectar or blossoms.

A butterfly or insect garden can quickly become the centerpiece of a backyard land-scape. In general, the best plants for these types of gardens are dogbanes and milkweeds. Others bee and insect friendly plants include asters, thistles, goldenrods, ironweed, fleabane, peppermint, purple coneflower and blazing stars. Among the best bee plants are the ones that are available when bees first emerge in the spring: grape hyacinth, jonquil and daffodil. Other good bee plants are evening primrose, penstemons, petunia, phlox, salvia, sedum, goldenrods, globe thistle, obedient plant, cor-alberry, snowberry, marigolds and clovers.

Hummingbirds

Because of its high metabolism, a ruby-throated hummingbird may eat more than one-half of its weight in food and eight times its weight in fluids daily. Flower nectar and tiny insects are pre-ferred diet items.

Herbaceous Border Planted for Habitat and Aesthetics

Figure 3.


Sweet William, fireweed, showy evening primrose, petunias, sweet mock orange and phlox attract several species of moths. Sphinx moths are attracted to Sweet William, dwarf blue gentian, heliotrope, dame’s rocket, madonna lily, white lilies, flowering tobacco, cardinal flower and phlox.

Although most herbaceous plants are used for forage and nectar, a few produce fruit con-sumed by wildlife. Strawberry and pokeberry attract many animals such as birds, mammals and reptiles.

Supplemental FoodsFeeding wildlife through supplemental sources is a common practice for many people, but it can lead to many problems and should be done with caution, especially when mammals are concerned. In fact, with the exception of backyard bird feeders, most wildlife biologists recommend against artificial feeding, which can elevate local populations to unnatural levels, alter natural behavior patterns, increase spread of diseases and parasites, and lead to nuisance wildlife complaints. However, most

Figure 4. Hanging Tube-type Feeder

Table 1. Native herbaceous plants that attract hummingbirds and butterflies.

Species Habit Wildlife Benefit

Aster (Aster) annual butterfly

Bergamot (Monarda) perennial butterfly/hummingbird

Black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia) annual butterfly

Blazingstar (Liatris) perennial butterfly/hummingbird

Butterflyweed (Asclepias) perennial butterfly/hummingbird

Cardinal flower (Lobelia) perennial butterfly/hummingbird

Columbine (Aquilegia) perennial butterfly/hummingbird

Coneflower (Echinacea) perennial butterfly

Evening primrose (Oenothera) perennial butterfly/hummingbird

Goldenrod (Solidago) perennial butterfly

Joe-Pye Weed (Eupatorium) perennial butterfly

Milkweed (Asclepias) perennial butterfly

Sedges (Carex) perennial butterfly

Spotted touch-me-not(or jewelweed; Impatiens) annual butterfly/hummingbird

Sunflower (Helianthus) perennial butterfly

Tickseed sunflower (Bidens) perennial butterfly

Turk’s cap lily (Lilium) perennial hummingbird

Violets (Viola) perennial butterfly


problems can be avoided if certain precautions are made.

Bird feeders give gardeners a chance to observe a variety of bird species up close. This is not only exciting, but also provides oppor-tunities for education and photography. Birds are attracted to feeders year-round, though some species are more prevalent during differ-ent seasons as a result of migration patterns, territoriality and/or a change in diet. During spring and summer, the nesting season, many birds switch to a high-protein diet of insects. Adding fruit, sugar, nectar and/or insects to feeder offerings will attract additional bird species during the summer.

Insect FeedersBreeding birds’ preference for insects during the nesting season can be met by offering a handful of mealworms or grubs on a tray. This buffet will bring a parade of warblers, wrens, bluebirds, vireos, tanagers, woodpeckers and many other birds to the feeder. Live insects can be purchased locally at pet stores and bait shops.

Fresh fruit attracts a variety of birds that otherwise seldom come to feeders. Half an orange on a tray, or nailed to a tree trunk, attracts orioles, tanagers, warblers, thrushes, jays, catbirds, mockingbirds, thrashers and woodpeckers. These birds also enjoy sliced apples and bananas. Bananas also attract fruit flies, which attract hummingbirds.

Nectar FeedersHummingbirds and orioles are attracted to ar-tificial nectar – or sugar water. Artificial nectar provides energy, while nutrients are obtained from insects. Nectar feeders should be put out in mid-April and left up through mid- October. Leaving hummingbird feeders out after October will not cause hummingbirds to delay migration. It is most important to clean nectar feeders at least weekly to prevent bac-teria build-up and discourage mold. They are best cleaned with a bottlebrush using hot water and a little vinegar. Feeders should be filled daily to prevent spoilage. Hummingbirds, like many other birds, are attracted to red. Most hummingbird feeders have a red flower at the base of the feeder. For best results, nectar feed-ers should be hung near flowers where hum-mingbirds are feeding. Other birds, such as orioles, house finches, woodpeckers, mocking-birds, chickadees and tanagers will use nectar feeders; however, they may require a feeder designed differently than those used to attract hummingbirds.

Some birds, such as cardinals, chickadees, titmice and goldfinches, will continue to eat traditional winter seed mixes throughout the summer; however, the number of birds visiting feeders may decrease because of their territorial nature during the breeding season.

Figure 5. Fly-through Hopper Feeder

Recipe for Artificial Nectar

To make artificial nectar, take one part boiling table cane sugar to four parts water and boil for 5 minutes to flash off chlorine and fluoride from the treated water.

Food coloring is not needed for the nectar. However, because hummingbirds and nectar feeding birds are attracted to bright colors like red and yellow, these colors should at least be a part of the feeder. Unused sugar-water should be stored in the refrigerator.

***Note: there is no evidence that dye causes problems for birds


Regardless of the season, a variety of foods should be provided if a variety of bird species is expected. Naturally, some are seed-eaters, others eat fruit, some eat insects and some, like hummingbirds, feed on flower nectar.

There are many types of bird feeders avail-able commercially, or they can be made with a little effort at home. Simple seed feeders can be made from an empty milk carton or other container, or from a piece of wood -about 12 by 18 inches- used as a platform. Most seed feeders protect seed from rain or snow, are easy to fill and clean, and dispense feed gradually so spillage is reduced. However, some spillage is good because several birds prefer to feed on the ground. Squirrels and other rodents will also eat seed knocked onto the ground.

Hopper-type seed feeders are quite popu-lar and versatile. Some can even limit feed-ing to certain birds. For example, dowels or wire surround one design so that only small birds can enter. Another design has a counter-balanced perch that allows only lightweight

birds to feed; larger, heavier birds trip the perch, which closes the feeder door. Other specialty feeders include tube feeders, nectar feeders and suet feeders. Hanging, tube-type feeders attract goldfinches, pine siskins, purple finches, chickadees and a variety of other species. These feeders allow smaller birds to avoid harassment from more aggressive birds such as blue jays, red-bellied woodpeckers and grackles.

Most seed feeders are suspended from a wire or placed on a pole. However, ground feeders, like juncos, white-throated sparrows and towhees, will often feed below the plat-forms as seed is dropped or spilled from above.

Different bird species have different food require ments and some species prefer differ-ent types of feeders. With a variety of feeders providing a variety of foods, a variety of birds will be attracted. Backyard birders in Tennes-see should be able to attract at least 30 species of birds at some time during the year. Com-mercial seed mixtures are readily available

and provide a conve nient way to feed birds. However, some commercial mixtures contain large amounts of seed that most birds do not prefer. An alternative is to purchase preferred seed and mix your own. Research has shown that many backyard birds prefer the black, oil-type sunflower seed and the white proso millet. Actually, the small, oil-type sunflower seed is probably preferred by more birds than any other seed, including the larger blackstripe or graystripe sunflower seed. Table 3 lists food preferences of birds commonly found in back-yards during winter across Tennessee.

Other food sources attractive for birds during the winter include stale breads, suet, spreadable jellies, fruits and peanut butter smeared on pinecones or on the side of a tree. Of all the winter foods, few can match suet for producing the body heat birds need to stay warm. Suet is beef fat and is available at most butcher shops or large groceries with meat

Tips for Backyard Bird Feeders

▪ Place feeders where cats cannot ambush feeding birds

▪ Place feeders away from the house to avoid attracting rodents

▪ Continue feeding throughout win-ter without interruption

▪ Use a variety of feeders with a variety of foods to attract a variety of species

▪ Clean feeders with bleach water once a month

▪ Use good food – avoid seed that ap-pears moldy or smells musty

Table. 2. Alternative Foods During Nesting Season

Mealworms & Grubs Fresh Fruit Nectar

Bluebirds Catbirds Hummingbirds

Tanagers Hummingbirds

Warblers Jays

Woodpeckers Mockingbirds

Wrens Orioles

Vireos Tanagers

Sunflowers

Annual sunflower, Helianthus annuas, releases a compound that is toxic to veg-etation. These toxins are not a problem for birds and animals.


Table 3. Native trees and shrubs beneficial to wildlife.

Species* Form Wildlife Benefit (cover, fruit-type)

Americancan beautyberry (Callicarpa) deciduous shrub drupes

American beech (Fagus) deciduous tree nuts

American holly (Ilex) evergreen tree winter clover, berries

American mountain ash (Sorbus) deciduous tree pomes

Apple (Malus) deciduous tree pomes

Blackberry and raspberry (Rubus) deciduous shrub aggregates of drupelets

Blackgum (Nyssa) deciduous tree drupes

Blueberry (Vaccinium) deciduous shrub berries

Cherry (Prunus) deciduous tree drupes

Chininquapin (Castanea) deciduous shrub/tree nuts

Crabapple (Malus) deciduous tree pomes

Devil’s walking stick (Aralia) deciduous shrub drupes

Dogwood (Cornus) deciduous tree drupes

Eastern hemlock (Tsuga) evergreen tree winter clover

Eastern redcedar (Juniperus) evergreen tree winter clover

Elderberry (Sambucus) deciduous shrub drupes

Firethorn (Pyracantha) evergreen shrub winter clover, pomes

Fringe-tree (Chionanthus) deciduous tree drupe

Hackberry (Celtis) deciduous tree drupes

Hawthorn (Crataegus) deciduous shrub pomes

Hazel-nut (Corylus) deciduous shrub nuts

Hickory (Carya) deciduous tree nuts

Honeylocust (Gleditsia) deciduous tree egumesl

Hucllberries (Gaylussacia) deciduous shrub berries

Mountainlaurel (Kalmia) evergreen shrub winter clover

Oak (Quercus) deciduous tree acorns

Pawpaw (Asimina) deciduous tree aggregate of berry-like structures

mmoniPers (Diospyros) deciduous tree esiberr

Pine (esp. White pine; Pinus) evergreen tree winter clover, seeds

Plum (Prunus) deciduous tree drupes

Red Mulberry(Morus) deciduous tree drupes

Rhododendron (Rhododendron) evergreen shrub winter clover

Serviceberry (Amelanchier) deciduous tree pomes

Southern magnolia (Magnolia) evergreen tree winter clover

Spicebush (Lindera) deciduous shrub drupes

Staghorn sumac (Rhus) deciduous shrub drupes

Strawberry-bush (Euonymus) deciduous tree seeds

Viburnum (Viburnum) deciduous shrub drupes

Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus) deciduous vine berries


Suet – Cornmeal – Peanut Butter Mixture

3 cups melted suet

3 cups yellow cornmeal

1 cup chunky peanut butter

Melt suet in a pan and add cornmeal and peanut butter. Birdseed, raisins, rolled oats, unsalted nut meats, dehy-drated egg, apple bits, brown sugar, honey or syrup can also be added. Add or subtract ingredients depending on what is handy, but do not use ingredi-ents with rich seasoning.

Pour the suet mixture into cupcake papers in a pan to harden. Remove the papers and the cakes are ready for the birds. The melted suet mixture also can also be poured into cut-down cardboard milk cartons or into 1-inch holes drilled into a small log. These can be put out di-rectly for feeding.

High-Protein Suet Mixture for Insect-Eating Birds

4½ cups ground fresh suet

¾ cup dried and finely ground bak-ery goods (whole or cracked wheat bread and crackers are best)

½ cup hulled, raw and unsalted sun-flower seed

¼ cup white proso millet

¼ cup dried and chopped berries

¾ cup dried and finely ground meat

Melt suet in a saucepan. Mix together the rest of the ingredients in a large mix-ing bowl. Mix well. Allow suet to cool un-til slightly thickened and then add it to the mixture in the bowl. Mix well. Next, either pour or pack into forms or suet feeders; smear onto tree trunks, over-hanging limbs and branches; or pack into pinecones.

Table 4. Food preferences of birds common to backyard feeders in Tennessee.

Species Preferred Food

Mourning doves black oil-type sunflower seeds, white proso millet

Woodpeckers, chickadees, titmice, nuthatches

black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet

Blue jay sunflower seeds (all types), peanuts, cracked nuts and corn, suet

Mockingbirds, brown thrashers, robins, thrushes, catbirds

cut apples, oranges, raisins and bread crumbs

Cardinals sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, shelled and broken peanuts

Eastern towhees white proso millet, sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, and shelled and broken peanuts

Evening grosbeak sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, and shelled and broken peanuts

Goldfinches niger thistle, hulled sunflower seeds, black oil-type sunflower seeds

House finch black oil-type sunflower seeds, niger thistle

Purple finch sunflower seeds (all types)

Sparrows, juncos white proso millet, black oil-type sunflower seeds, wheat, bread crumbs

Grackles hulled sunflower seeds (all types)


departments. Although almost all birds will occasionally sample suet, birds most likely to feed on suet are the ones that depend heavily on insects, like chicka dees, jays, nuthatches, woodpeckers and titmice. Other birds likely to show up at suet feeders are finches, warblers, wrens and robins.

Several different styles of suet feeders and pre formed suet “cakes” are available at pet stores, lawn and garden centers, and feed stores. Suet cakes can be made at home by: heating the suet until it is fluid, pouring the semi-liquid suet into a cake or bread mold, adding a variety of grain, and allowing the mixture to cool. Birds will readily accept plain suet as well. Extra suet can be stored in the freezer until needed. Suet is usually provided in mesh vegetable bags, wire soap dishes and wire cages. Wire cages keep non-target species, such as dogs, skunks and foxes, from

eating the suet. Suet can also be offered in a small log or snag by drilling 1-inch diameter holes that are about an inch deep. Like peanut butter, suet can be smeared in a pinecone and hung from a tree or simply smeared directly onto the tree bark.

Suet Tidbit Cakes

1/2 pound fresh ground suet

1/8 cup canary seed

1/4 cup chopped peanuts

1/4 cup raisins or currants

1/8 cup cooked oatmeal

1/8 cup cooked rice

1/4 cup sunflower seeds

1/4 cup fine cracked corn

Mix suet into saucepan. In a large mix-ing bowl, mix together the rest of the in-gredients. Allow melted suet to cool until it starts to thicken, then add dry mix and stir until evenly distributed. Pour into pie pan or form, or pack into suet feeders. Many variations are possible with this mixture. Other ingredients worth includ-ing are: millet or other birdseed, corn-meal, cooked noodles, chopped berries, and dried fruits of all kinds. You can ex-periment to see which proportions birds like best.

Soft Peanut Butter Mixture

Relished by a wide variety of birds, this mix is great for packing into feeders or smearing on tree trunks.

1 cup freshly ground suet

1 cup peanut butter


½ cup enriched white or whole-wheat flour

Melt suet in a saucepan. Add peanut butter, stirring until melted and well blended. In a separate bowl, mix to-gether the last two ingredients. After suet-peanut butter blend has cooled and started to thicken, add dry mixture and blend into dough. It is now ready to serve.

Hard Peanut Butter Mixture

Outdoors, this mixture will last longer then the soft mixture.

2 cups suet

1 cup peanut butter


2 cups fine cracked corn

Melt suet, allow it to cool thoroughly and then reheat. Add peanut butter, stir-ring until melted and blended well. Add dry ingredients to liquid and blend well. Pour into forms or suet feeders and cool until hardened.


Dust and GritMany wild birds use dust and grit to satisfy special needs. Birds, ranging from small song-birds to wild turkeys, squat in beds of fine, dry soil and take dust baths to reduce external parasites. Dusting beds of fine soil can be provided in backyards or woodlots by clearing a 3- to 5-foot area of vegetation and working the soil until it is loose and fine. Vegetation may be kept clear by continued tilling or by us-ing herbicides. If an herbicide is used, one that does not harm wildlife should be selected.

Grit is fine to coarse sand or gravel and is another important habitat component. Birds ingest grit to help the gizzard grind up seeds and other foods. Birds probably have little trouble finding grit, but it may help increase the number and variety of birds seen in a back-yard if grit is available in a tray or bed of sand near a bird feeder. Sand can even be mixed into the contents of a bird feeder.

SaltSalt and other trace elements are essential components in the diet of many wildlife spe-cies. For most species, salt requirements are met as trace elements in food. Nonetheless, several animals are attracted to a salt lick. White-tailed deer, for example, will use salt licks regularly during spring and summer. Squirrels, chipmunks and other animals will also visit the site. To attract salt licking wild-life, a salt block containing trace elements can be placed near the edge of a yard or field where deer and other wildlife can be seen. Salt can also be placed in a small covered trough, lined with aluminum flashing. This will keep the salt off the ground, which helps prevent deer from picking up parasites while licking the site. The trough may be cleaned periodically with soapy water containing a couple capfuls of bleach.

CoverCover or shelter is another requirement for wildlife. Some type of dense vegetative cover is often needed to escape from predators and adverse weather. Cover for nesting and raising young often varies between species and is often different from escape cover. Roosting and loaf-ing cover is also variable among species. Some type of cover is needed for traveling between habitats, which is critical for connecting local populations of many species. Artificial cover

can be provided through nest boxes, roost boxes and other structures.

Natural CoverAlthough gardeners pay more attention to food than cover, cover can be a more limiting factor than food. Gardeners should remember that food attracts wildlife, but cover keeps wildlife. In many cases, if quality cover is available, so is a food source. This is certainly true for preda-tors and many herbivores. Natural cover is provided through various types of vegetation, alive and dead, from the ground up. Diversity of vegetative types provides cover for a diver-sity of wildlife species. Different cover types are important to a variety of wildlife species found in Tennessee.

Many animals find all of their cover re-quirements in the leaf litter and/or amongst ground vegetation in the forest. Terrestrial salamanders and shrews search for prey under leaf litter and in downed woody debris such as logs and large limbs. Chipmunks also forage in this area. Cutting or felling selected trees can provide logs and other coarse, woody debris. This process is discussed further in the section, Edge, Vertical Structure and Arrangement.

Forbs and ferns in the forest understory provide cover while feeding for several species of songbirds such as the wood thrush, hermit thrush, ovenbird and worm-eating warbler, and upland game bird poults such as wild turkey and ruffed grouse. Many birds such as eastern towhee, ovenbird, worm-eating warbler, golden- and blue-winged warbler also nest on the ground amongst herbaceous vegetation in the forest understory. Others, such as the Kentucky warbler, black-and-white warbler, Swainson’s warbler, wild turkey and ruffed grouse, nest on the ground amongst the brush and downed woody debris. In many forest stands, a lush understory of herbaceous cover or woody shrubs is absent, particularly where white-tailed deer are overabundant. Where lacking, removing or killing selected trees can stimulate understory vegetation by allowing additional sunlight to reach the forest floor.

Herbaceous shrub cover should also be established around the house and in a mosaic around the rest of the landscape. Many of the herbaceous plants listed in Table 4 will provide quality cover as well as nectar. A variety of native warm-season grasses should be planted


along with forb cover. The native bunchgrasses provide nesting sites as well as overhead cover. Forbs and grasses should not be planted too dense, but sparse enough so small wildlife can travel about under the “umbrella cover.”

The birds that use the trees in the overstory of the forest are different from the birds that use the plants in the understory. Songbirds typically found nesting and foraging in trees

include the rose-breasted grosbeak, scarlet tanager, cerulean warbler, blue-gray gnatcatch-er, ruby- and golden-crowned kinglet, brown creeper, red-eyed vireo, yellow-throated vireo and orchard oriole. Forest-dwelling raptors include the great-horned owl, eastern screech owl and Cooper’s hawk. Wild turkeys often use mature forest stands for roosting and for-aging, whereas ruffed grouse are usually found in younger, 8- to 25-year-old, stands. Mam-mals, such as the gray squirrel and raccoon, also use mature woods for cover; tree cavities are used for denning or nesting sites.

Dead, standing trees are used for cover by lots of animals including birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Woodpeckers feed on the insect larvae com monly found under the bark and in the soft wood of snags, they also excavate cavities for nesting. Other birds also use the cavities for nesting and roosting. Ad-ditionally, snags are used as perches by many birds. In forested habitats, at least 5 to 6 snags per acre are desirable. If located near water, belted kingfishers and green-backed herons will perch on snags. Snags within view of a house always provide quality wildlife viewing opportunities; however, snags within reach of a house may pose a threat and should be felled, regardless of the wildlife benefits.

Several birds are specifically associated with conifers. For example, crows often select pines for communal roosting sites; pine warblers are found in mature, open stands of loblolly and shortleaf pine; and the pine siskin and blackburnian warbler primarily inhabit mature coniferous woods, especially those with hemlock. Conifers and other evergreens, such as American holly, provide critical habitat for many other species during the winter as well. Conifers such as the eastern red cedar, white pine and eastern hemlock provide excellent thermal cover for birds during harsh winter weather. Conifers are also used by many bird species for nesting. If there are none to a few conifers present in the landscape, a variety of conifers should be planted. Conifers do espe-cially well as a windbreak planted along the windward side of a home -usually the west and north sides. They also can provide an excellent screen or hedge. Deciduous trees should be planted along the south side, providing shade in the summer and allowing the sun’s warming rays to come through during the winter when the sun is slanted to the south.

Table 5. Birds native to Tennessee that may use standing dead trees.

Bird Feeding Nesting/Roosting Perching

Wood duck X X X

Hooded merganser X X

Turkey vulture X X

Black vulture X X

Peregrine falcon

American kestrel X X

Barn owl X X

Screech owl X X

Barred owl X X

Saw-whet owl X X

Chimney swift X

Common flicker X X X

Pileated woodpecker X X X

Red-bellied woodpecker X X X

Red-headed woodpecker X X X

Yellow-bellied sapsucker X X X

Hairy woodpecker X X X

Downy woodpecker X X X

Great-crested flycatcher X X

Tree swallow X

Purple martin X X

Black-capped chickadee X

Carolina chickadee X

Tufted titmouse X

White-breasted nuthatch X

Red-breasted nuthatch X

Brown-headed nuthatch X

Brown creeper X

House wren X

Winter wren X

Bewick’s wren X

Carolina wren XList adapted from Scott et al. 1977, USFS Agriculture Handbook 511


Shrubby or brushy habitats along the edges of woods and fields provide cover for a host of songbirds, including the yellow-breasted chat, hooded warbler, common yellowthroat, yel-low warbler, eastern towhee, brown thrasher, gray catbird, Carolina wren, house wren, white-eyed vireo and song sparrow. Deer and mid-size mammals also regularly use the cover provided in this ecotone.

Cover available in brushy edge habitats can be improved further by establishing brush piles and rock piles, which provide escape cover, nesting sites and den sites for rabbits, weasels, groundhogs and foxes. Because brush piles also attract animals such as skunks and snakes, it is not wise to place them close to the house. Brush piles should be at least 12 to 15 feet in diameter and 5 feet high. They should be constructed with the larger limbs on the bottom and the smaller limbs on top. A foundation of big rocks, stumps and logs helps to keep the brush pile from decom posing too quickly. If placed on the edge of a small pond so part of the brush is submerged, brush piles can provide an important reptile and amphib-ian habitat. Rock piles can be placed along the side of ponds also. The rocks should be 1 to 3 feet in diameter and can be dumped along the water’s edge, up the bank 3 or 4 feet, and below the water level to depths of 2 to 3 feet. These sites provide aquatic shelter for frogs, toads and salamanders and sunny basking sites for turtles, snakes and lizards.

A different suite of wildlife species use the herbaceous and brushy vegetation found in old fields. Rabbits, voles, foxes, coyotes, ground-

hogs and others all rely on this habitat type for cover. Female white-tailed deer commonly hide their fawns in the protective cover of an old field. Many songbirds, including the in-digo bunting, blue grosbeak, eastern bluebird, eastern kingbird, American goldfinch, prairie warbler, field sparrow, grasshopper sparrow and eastern meadowlark regularly nest and/or forage in old field habitats. Other birds that regularly use old fields include bobwhite quail, loggerhead shrike and wild turkeys. By far, the best way to enhance and maintain quality early successional cover in an old field is by using prescribed fire every 2 to 3 years. Burning the field stimulates the seed bank to germinate, recycles nutrients and encourages fresh vegeta-tive growth. Burning also consumes leaf litter and other debris at the ground level, which facilitates travel through the field for small wildlife and makes seed produced in the field for birds to glean after it falls to the ground. The vegetation found in an old field that is pe-riodically burned is the perfect example of how quality cover provides a quality food source. Maintaining these habitats adjacent to a gar-den or woodlot will increase wildlife viewing opportunities and provide a habitat for species that otherwise may not be present.

Artificial CoverMany wildlife species use artificial structures that simulate natural cavities. Erecting nest/roost boxes and other structures can be an important and rewarding part of a backyard wildlife program, especially in areas where natural cavities are in short supply. Birds, as well as a few mammals, can be attracted to nest/roost boxes.

Figure 6. Roost boxes for bats

Attention Birdwatchers

The Tennessee National Wildlife Ref-uge is an excellent place to see a myriad of migratory birds. It was established in 1945 and is located in northwestern Ten-nessee along the Kentucky border. The 50,000 acre refuge is composed of wet-lands, woodlands and agriculture fields that provide foraging, nesting and rest-ing habitats for birds. For more informa-tion, visit their website, it is listed in the Resources section of this chapter.


Table 6. Dimensions of nest boxes for various wildlife species, recommendedheight above ground and preferred habitats.

Floor of Cavity

Depth of Cavity

Entrance above floor

Diameter of Entrance

Height above Ground or Water (W)

Preferred habitat codes4

Species Inches Inches Inches Inches Feet

House Wren 4x4 6 - 8 4 - 6 1 - 1 1/4 5 - 10 2, 7

Carolina Chickadee 4x4 9 7 1 1/8 5 - 15 2

Bewick’s Wren 4x4 6 - 8 4 - 6 1 1/4 5 - 10 2, 7

Tufted Titmouse 4x4 9 7 1 1/4 5 - 15 2

Downy Woodpecker 4x4 9 7 1 1/4 5 - 15 2, 6

Prothonotary Warbler 4x4 6 4 1 3/8 5 - 12, (W) 3, 5

Nuthatches2 4x4 9 7 1 3/8 5 - 15 2

Carolina Wren 4x4 6 - 8 4 - 6 1 1/21 5 - 10 2, 7

Eastern Bluebird 4x4 8 - 12 6 - 10 1 1/21 5 - 6 1

Tree Swallow 5x5 6 - 8 4 - 6 1 1/21 10 - 30 1

Hairy Woodpecker 6x6 12 - 15 9 - 12 1 5/8 12 - 20 2

Great-Crested Flycatcher 6x6 8 - 10 6 - 8 1 3/4 8 - 10 1, 2

Red-headed Woodpecker 6x6 12 9 2 10 - 20 2

Purple Martin 6x6 6 1 2 1/4 10 - 20 1

Flicker 7x7 16 - 18 14 - 16 2 1/2 6 - 30 1, 2

Screech Owl (also gray squirrel and flying squirrel) 8x8 12 - 15 9 - 12 3 10 - 30 2, 6

American Kestrel 8x8 12 - 15 9 - 12 3 10 - 30 1, 4

Barn Owl 10x18 15 - 18 0 - 4 6 12 - 18 4

Wood Duck 12x12 22 17 3x4 oval 10 - 20 (W) 3, 5

Eastern Phoebe 6x6 6(2) (2) 8 - 12 8 - 20 7, 8

Barn Swallow 6x6 6(2) (2) 8 - 12 8 - 20 7, 8

Robin 6x8 8(2) (2) 6 - 15 5 - 10 7

Tips for Making Nest Boxes More Effective

▪ Wood is generally the best material to use. Choose a species that is not prone to quick decay ▪ A few small holes should be drilled into the bottom of the box for adequate drainage ▪ A ¼- to ½-inch gap should be left under the eaves to allow adequate ventilation ▪ Exit holes should be exactly the dimension recommended to attract targeted species and keep out

unwanted species ▪ Perches at entrances are not recommended. They are not needed and only attract unwanted species ▪ A strip of hardware cloth attached inside the box just below the hole will provide structure for young

birds to climb out of the box ▪ Nest boxes should be cleaned out after use. This increases occupation and improves the likelihood

that the next brood will be healthy


A well-built box that is durable, rainproof and easy to clean will attract wildlife and add to the attractiveness of a backyard. It is most important, however, that boxes are built specifically for the species targeted. Using the correct dimensions will help attract desired species and keep out many unwanted species.

WaterWater is essential for wildlife and is often a factor limiting the presence of wildlife in landscapes. Various animals need water for drinking, acquiring food, reproduction, bath-ing, temperature regulation, breathing and escape. Several classes of wildlife-including birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians- can be observed with regularity around water, de-pending on the source and surrounding habi-tat. However, providing a water source that attracts a variety of wildlife in a backyard can be the most challenging aspect of a backyard wildlife management plan.

BirdbathsThe most common water source in backyards is a birdbath. Birdbaths can be as formal as a concrete structure or as simple as either a garbage can lid supported by bricks, or a tree stump with a chiseled out depression lined with plastic. Regardless of the type used, the surface should be rough to provide sure foot-ing and the water container should be fairly shallow -no more than 3 inches deep- with a gradual slope. The basin should be 24 to 36 inches in diameter with a small lip or edge that

Nesting Boxes

Recommended wood for nesting boxes includes eastern red cedar, cypress, black locust, oak and chestnut. These species are slower to decay. Using these species will help eliminate the need to paint the box. Natural, unpainted boxes usually receive more use by more species than painted boxes.

Figure 8. Backyard Pond

Figure 7. Bird Bath

Birdbath Water Depth

Most garden birds will not use water more than 2 or 3 inches deep.


provides birds a dry place to land or sit. Bird-baths should be about 3 feet above the ground with a high perch and/or dense, shrubby cover about 15 feet away. This gives birds a place to watch for predators and escape if danger ap-proaches while they are at the bath. Birdbaths should be kept clean and filled with fresh wa-ter. Bird use is increased if there is a consistent supply of clean, fresh water.

PondsSmall backyard ponds are magnets for many species of birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects and mammals. The addition of a small pond to a backyard will do more to ensure a diversity of wildlife than any other practice. Normally, a small pond becomes the center of activity. A minimum size for a backyard pond to attract wildlife is 8 to 10 feet across and 1 to 2 feet deep. Ponds can be constructed by digging out the appropriate-sized hole in the ground. The hole can be left natural or it can be lined with cement, plastic or a preformed plastic or fiberglass liner. Oak barrels cut in half also make easy and inexpensive pools for a back-yard. Aquatic plants greatly enhance the at-tractiveness of a pond. They can be included in the pond by placing potted plants in the pond or by covering the bottom of the pond with soil -if the pond bottom is lined- and actually rooting water-loving plants in the pond. An-other way to encourage aquatic plant growth is to use soil from another existing wetland site around the pond bank. Seed in the “borrowed” soil will germinate and increase aquatic plant growth naturally. Rocks can be added and plants planted around the outside edges of the

pond to beautify as well as to provide food and cover. Rocks placed in the center of the pond will serve as sunning sites for various species.

It is a good idea to locate the pond where it will receive plenty of light. Adequate light will stimulate the growth of aquatic plants. Install-ing a submerged pump in the pond allows for the possibility of flowing water. Where space and topography allow, a larger pond can ac-commodate dozens of wildlife species. If no fish are present, the pond may harbor crayfish, salamanders and several species of frogs, toads and turtles. A large pond should be at least 30 to 40 feet across and at least 4 feet deep. Stocked with fish and provided with perching sites, the pond will attract fish-eating birds. Rock piles placed along the north side of the pond at the water’s edge can serve as sunning sites for harmless snakes and turtles.

SpaceSpace requirements vary greatly among wildlife species. Various species have unique space or territorial needs in relation to find-ing food, selecting a mate, raising young, etc. For example, several purple martin gourds may be placed side by side; however, bluebird boxes should be placed no closer than about 80 yards due to territorial battles among males. Personal landscapes and adjacent habitats can “contain” the home range of only a few species. Naturally, most animals will use a much larger area, with the personal landscape serving as a portion of the overall home range. Home ranges are highly influenced by habitat quality. Better habitat -that is, food, cover and water resources- generally leads to smaller home ranges.

The size of a landscape naturally determines the extent of habitat developments that can be undertaken. Larger spaces have more potential for habitat development and a greater variety of wildlife. Not everyone, however, has a large area for potential habitat improvements. Land-owners with small acreages should consider joining together and forming a backyard habi-tat cooperative. Several adjoining homeowners with a common backyard wildlife management plan can influence usable space for wildlife over a broad area and attract and benefit many more species and individuals than a single homeowner. Nonetheless, even those with smaller landscapes, or no yards at all, can still provide essential habitat elements and attract

Landscape diagram pro-viding the four wildlife components: food, water, cover and space.

Figure 9.


wildlife. For example, a window box planter with a variety of flowers will attract hum-mingbirds and butterflies. Nest shelves may attract robins, barn swallows or phoebes and nest boxes can be attached to building walls to attract chickadees, house wrens or even squir-rels.

Common InterferencesIt is irresponsible to take the time and effort to develop an attractive wildlife habitat and allow house cats to roam around the area. House cats are not native to North America and have no place in this region’s natural communities.

House cats are extremely proficient predators and can severely reduce the number of birds and small animals around a house. Research has shown that house cats, both feral and pets, kill millions of birds and untold numbers of native small mammals each year. Therefore, to encourage an abundant and diversified outdoor wildlife, house cat pets should be kept indoors and feral house cats should be removed from the area.

Female deer regularly hide their fawns in high weeds and grasses and leave them while feeding in the surrounding area. Although the doe may give birth to two or three fawns, they are kept hidden and separate from each other until approximately 3 weeks of age when they join the doe in her daily travels. This strategy aids in the fawn’s survival. Fawns give off very little scent early in life and by keeping still and hidden, the probability of surviving predation is higher than by trying to run with undevel-oped legs.

Survival of young wildlife is relatively low – most die before reaching 1 month of age. That is nature. Exposure and predation are primary causes of mortality during this period. Young foxes, bobcats, hawks and owls have to eat as well. In addition, it is a violation of Tennessee state law to take animals from the wild and keep them in captivity while trying to “raise” them. Although it may seem cruel, it is best

Caring for Fledglings and Nestlings

Fledglings

People often see baby birds that are partially feathered sitting on the ground below a tree and automatically as-sume that they fell out of the nest and need to be helped. At this stage in a bird’s development, they are considered “fledglings”. Fledglings NORMALLY will jump or fall out of the nest. This is their “flight training” stage. The mother bird will then continue feeding the bird on the ground until the bird is able to fly –it usually only takes a few days. Unless injured, these birds should be left where they are. Efforts should be made to keep cats, dogs and curious chil-dren away from the bird so the mother can continue to feed it. Once the fledglings become fairly proficient flyers, their survival rate increases dramatically.

Nestlings

Baby birds that are naked for the most part -featherless or feathers just starting to come in- are considered to be “nestlings”. These birds stay in the nest and the parents come to feed them there. These babies, when found, are usually on the ground directly below the nest. This occurs either because the baby fell out, blew out (common after wind storms), or was “pushed” out by a sibling. One must realize that this last behavior is actually adaptive for some species. This way, only the strongest of the brood survive and go on to raise young themselves.

If a dog or cat is threatening the baby animal, do not instantly bring the baby indoors. Rather, keep the pet restrained the short time the baby is there. However, if the animal has already been attacked or picked up by the family pet and is injured, bring the baby in as soon as possible.

Figure 10.


to let nature take its course and leave young wildlife alone.

Considerations and ExpectationsDeveloping a backyard wildlife management plan should be a primary consideration for Master Gardeners interested in enhancing wildlife habitat and viewing opportunities around their home. Learning more about the specific needs of targeted species will also help greatly. A variety of field guides provides con-siderable information on the natural history of all types of wildlife. As practices are imple-mented, records should be kept. For example, tracking the number of bluebird nests in boxes per year, the number of species visiting the feeder through the winter, and the date the first purple martin arrived in the spring can be fun and rewarding activities.

Enhancing backyard wildlife habitat provides other benefits as well. Plantings can help with energy and soil conservation, while the natural beauty increases property value -in some cases as much as 10–20 percent. Of course, few of these improvements are realized in the short term. It takes time for plants to grow and a habitat to develop. Master Garden-ers and their clients should be patient. As the habitat develops, the wildlife will come.

However, when planning and maintaining a backyard wildlife habitat, always carefully con-

sider how habitat manipulation will affect vari-ous species and possible future “consequences.” For example, various flowers planted to attract hummingbirds and butterflies will also attract bumblebees, honeybees and other insects. A bird feeder will probably attract squirrels and chipmunks, which might try to nest in the attic and dig holes around sidewalks and foun-dations. The woodpeckers attracted to the snag might also drum on the side of the house. The rabbit attracted to the soft edge around the landscape might eat veges out of the garden,

What if I already touched the birds, will the mother come back?

People often believe this is true and therefore think that they need to keep the babies. This is simply NOT TRUE and is just an old wives tale. Birds in general have a very poor sense of smell and will not mind the fact that you have handled the babies. Therefore, after picking them up, place the birds back in the nest. If the nest is on the ground, it should be replaced, with the baby birds, back in the tree. At this point, you should back off because although parent birds do not mind the fact that you have handled the babies, they will be bothered by your presence around the babies.

What to do if you find a nestling that is out of the nest:

If a nestling is found out of the nest, the best thing to do is to try to place the bird back in its nest, if at all possible. If the nest cannot be reached, the following works very well. This is also the procedure to use if you find the whole nest on the ground.

▪ Make a “makeshift” nest out of a clean Cool-Whip container or margarine dish ▪ Make holes in the bottom of it to allow for water drainage ▪ Line the bowl with paper towels ▪ Tack the makeshift nest back up in the tree as close to the original nest as possible ▪ Place the baby bird(s) into this and leave. The parents will usually come back in a short time and will feed the

babies in it, just like it was the original nest. Often, you will see the mother going back and forth between each “nest”, feeding both sets of babies

The only time it is recommended to bring baby birds indoors is if you KNOW that the mother is dead or if the babies are injured in any way. The natural parents do a much better job at raising their young than people could ever do. A baby bird that is featherless must be fed every 15-20 minutes from about sunrise to 10 pm! This obviously requires a large time commitment on the part of the foster parent.


and the raccoon attracted to the pond might raid the garbage can or eat the dog’s food.

Managing Nuisance Animals and Associated DamageMost gardeners want to attract wildlife to their garden – that is, until they become a nuisance! Often, there is a fine line between wanted and unwanted wildlife. This section describes ways to balance the situation and ways to manage nuisance animals and the problems they cause.

Wildlife damage management essentially involves making conditions in the landscape unfavorable by removing those resources that attract unwanted animals. Most wildlife spe-cies are creatures of habit. Identifying and addressing potential problems before they occur is always easier than trying to correct a problem after it has become habit. Almost always, patience and persistence are required to successfully manage nuisance wildlife.

The initial step in addressing wildlife dam-age is perhaps the most important: Identify the problem animal and learn something about its ecology and behavior. Once this is done, one might understand why the animal is creating the problem. The solution is usually a matter of common sense. People are com-monly frustrated with their lack of success in managing nuisance wildlife because they are trying to control the wrong species or habit. For example, trapping rabbits is not going to reduce damage to plants when voles or deer are the culprit.

There are many strategies to managing nuisance wildlife in the garden and around the home. Before implementing a strategy, it is

If you do find a REAL orphan or injured baby bird, please

do the following:

Get it to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator as soon as possible; the longer the delay, the less chance it has of surviving

Keep the baby bird WARM and in a qui-et, dark place until you can bring it to the facility. A small cardboard box works well

DO NOT give the baby bird any liquids. They get all they need from their food and very often will inhale any liquid. However, if you must feed the bird, soak dry dog food or baby food (meat) in wa-ter and feed the bird small amounts at a time with a tweezers. Let the bird reach up for the food.

Figure 11. Deer Eating Hosta

Table 7. Gardening with Deer: Plants Preferred by Deer

Gold-dust plant (Acuba japonica)

Camellia (Camellia spp.)

Dogwood (Cornus spp.)

Crocus (Crocus spp.)

Daylilies (Hemerocallis spp.)

Hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.)

Hosta (Hosta spp.)

Hydrangea (Hydrangea spp.)

Candytuff (Iberis spp.)

Garden lilies (Lillium spp.)

Impatiens (Impatiens spp.)

Apple (Malus spp.)

Indian hawthorn (Raphiolepsis indica)

Sedum (Sedum spp.)

Yews (Taxus spp.)

Arborvitae (Thuja spp.)

Linden (Tilia spp.)

Tulip (Tulipa spp.)

Pansey and violet (Viola spp.)


critical to know which technique or practice works for various species and what is, and what is not, legal. Several wildlife species are pro-tected under federal or state law. In addition, there may be local ordinances limiting what is possible in particular areas.

Federal laws prohibit killing or molesting migratory birds and all threatened or endan-gered species with few exceptions. A permit is required from the US Fish and Wildlife

Service to trap or kill migratory species. To get a permit, a referral from the USDA Wildlife Services is required. There is a $25 application fee, which is non-refundable if the request is denied. In Tennessee, a permit is required from the Tennessee Wildlife Re-sources Agency to kill big game species, such as white-tailed deer, black bear, wild turkey and wild boar, outside the designated hunt-ing seasons. Landowners may trap and/or kill any rodent, furbearer or small game species-if it is not threatened or endangered- without a permit if that animal is destroying or depre-dating property. The following animals are not protected in Tennessee and can be trapped or killed at any time without a permit: house mouse, Norway rat, roof rat, black rat, pigeon, house sparrow, English sparrow and European starling.

Backyard wildlife problems usually can be handled safely and effectively. There are several basic approaches to solving nuisance wildlife problems. These approaches include habitat modification, exclusion, chemical repellants, visual repellents, frightening agents and removal. When possible, a combination of several techniques is always more effective than a single technique.

Habitat ModificationAs rural areas become suburban and people move into the country, people often find that they are “living with wildlife.” This can lead to problems. Unless the surrounding habitat is altered significantly, most wildlife species are going to continue to dwell there. One effec-tive way to deal with nuisance wildlife is by modifying the habitat surrounding the home to create less favorable conditions for wildlife.

Problem animals are usually present because there is attractive food, cover and/or a water source present. Some simple adjustments can make the habitat less attractive to wildlife and reduce wildlife activity around the home.

Food resources, such as dog and cat food, should not be left out where it is available to wildlife. Bird feeders should be moved away from the house to reduce the possibility of attracting rodents and, in turn, snakes into the house.

Sources of cover near the house should be removed. Weedy patches near the house should be mowed to make the area less attrac-tive to rodents, snakes and skunks. Branches

Table 8. Deer Resistant Plants

Groundcovers Vines Periennials

Aarons beard (Hypericum calycinum)

Trumpetvine (Campsis radicans)

Yarrow (Achillea)

Mondo grass (Ophiopogon japonica)

Carolina jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens)

Monkshood (Aconitum)

Pachysandra (Pachysandra terminalis)

Climbing hydrangea (Hydrangea anomala)

Chives or ornamental onion (Allium spp.)

Ribbon grass (Phalaris arundinacea var. picta)

Star jasmine (Trachelopsermum jasminoides)

Blue star (Amsonia spp.)

Thyme (Thymus spp.)

Anemone (Anemone spp.)

Asiatic jasmine (Trachelospermum asiaticum)

Columbine (Aquilegia sp.)

Santolina (Santolina spp.)

Wormwood (Artemisia spp.)

Butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa)

Aster (Aster spp.)

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum x morifolium)

Tickseed (Coreopsis spp.)

Delphinium (Delphinium spp.)

Bleeding heart (Dicentra spp.)

Foxglove (Digitalis spp.)

Garden sage (Salvia officinalis)

Meadow sage (Salvia azurea)


Table 8. Deer Resistant Plants (cont)

Trees Shrubs

Fir (Abies spp.) Red buckeye (Aesculus pavia)

Red maple (Acer rubrum)

Barberrry (Berberis thunbergii)

River birtch (Betula Nigra)

Butterfly-bush (Buddleia davidii)

Deodara cedar (Cedrus deodara)

Littleleaf boxwood (Buxus microphylla)

Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis)

Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens)

Fringtree (Chionanthus virginicus)

Smoketree (Cotinus coggygria)

Hawthorn (Crataegus sp.)

Cranberry cotoneaster (Cotoneaster apiculatua)

Leyland cypress (Cupressocyrparis x leylandii)

Rockspray cotoneaster (Cotoneaster horizontalis)

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)

Forsythia (Forsythia x intermedia)

Gingko (Ginkgo biloba)

Witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana)

Thornless honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis)

Oakleaf hydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia)

American holly (Ilex opaca)

Hollies (Ilex spp.)

Crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia spp.)

Foster holly (Ilex x attenuata)

Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflau)

Burford holly (Ilex cornuta ‘Burfordii’

Southern Magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)

Carissa holly (Ilex crenata ‘Carissa’)

Saucer magnolia (Magnolia x soulangiana)

Dwarf Japanese holly (Ilex crenata ‘Compacta’)

Star Magnolia (Magnolia stellata)

Dwarf Japanese holly (Ilex crenata ‘Compacta’)

Moles Vs. Voles

Moles

▪ Most commonly found in lawns and flower beds ▪ Identified by long, pointed snout, rounded front paws

and stout claws ▪ The number of tunnels is no indication of the number

of moles ▪ Mice usually do the plant damage that is blamed on

moles ▪ Feed exclusively on insects, worms, grubs, etc

Controlling Moles

▪ Use a soil insecticide to eliminate food supply ▪ Install underground fencing to a depth of 12 inches.

Use concrete blocks, wood, sheet metal or hardware cloth

▪ Trap with either a harpoon/plunger trap or a choker trap

Voles

▪ Small rodents, 4- to 6-inches-long ▪ Feed on grasses and roots ▪ Live in areas with heavy ground cover such as or-

chards, fields and gardens ▪ Search for food day and night over about ¼ acre ▪ Seldom venture into an exposed location; they use

tunnels instead ▪ Plant damage can be identified by chewed root sys-

tems or girdling of the main stem of the plant

Controlling Voles

▪ Eliminate ground cover ▪ Keep grass next to flowerbeds at a short height ▪ Minimize the amount of mulch in flowerbeds ▪ Trap with a mousetrap placed at the entrance to tun-

nels and baited with peanut butter and oatmeal or with sliced apples

NOTE: It is important to distinguish between moles and voles because control efforts are different.


that reach near the house should be cut to reduce the potential for squirrels getting on the roof and in the attic. Lights can be placed in the attic or crawl space to repel squirrels and other rodents, snakes and skunks.

Heavy-duty, galvanized hardware cloth can be buried just under and around flower-beds to discourage vole and chipmunk activ-ity. Hedgerows of dense shrubbery planted as a border between the pond or lake and the landscape will discourage geese from walk-ing up into the landscape and feeding on the grass. Finally, other than bird feeders, wildlife should not be fed!

ExclusionBlocking entry for an animal can be accom-plished in many ways and is successful for several species and associated problems. For example, crawl spaces under houses should be closed using plywood; heavy-duty, galvanized hardware cloth; or some other material. Hard-ware cloth is better than screening because animals can tear through screening relatively easily. Hardware cloth is also effective at keep-

ing bats and squirrels out of attics and birds out of chimneys. Fine-mesh netting is another material that can be used successfully to keep birds out of areas. Draped netting from the edge of the roof down the side of a wall can keep woodpeckers from hammering the wall. Draping over blueberry bushes or cherry trees will keep birds from consuming the fruit just before it ripens.

FencingFencing works well for repelling animals in some situations. A 2- to 3-foot high fence of chicken wire or hardware cloth will help keep rabbits and groundhogs out of gardens. An electric fence with two or three strands ap-proximately 4 or 5 inches apart, with the bot-tom strand about 3 inches aboveground, also helps keep rabbits, groundhogs and raccoons out of gardens. To keep dogs out of gardens, a 2-strand electric fence should be used. Strands should be approximately 12 inches apart and the bottom strand should be 8 inches aboveground.

To repel deer, a 3-strand electric fence should be used, with strands approximately 1 foot apart. Aluminum tabs smeared with pea-nut butter should be placed along the middle strand. Because deer are attracted to peanut butter, when their noses or mouths contact the aluminum tab, they will receive a shock and will subsequently learn to avoid the area. A woven wire fence that is 10-feet high will also exclude deer. However, it is costly to erect, especially around a large landscape or garden.

Chemical RepellentsChemical repellents are generally classified by taste or area-otherwise known as smell. Taste repellents generally have a bitter or hot taste, which some animals find offensive. Area repellents give off an offensive odor to some animals. Over the long term, most chemical repellents are relatively ineffective. Animals learn there is no real harm associated with the smell and if they are hungry enough, it does not matter if the flower or vegetable tastes bit-ter or hot. A variety of repellents is available at lawn and garden stores, home centers, nurser-ies, chemical supply companies, and some-times, directly from the manufacturers.

A commonly used area repellent is moth-balls containing naphthalene. However, these are only effective in areas with little air circu-

Desired Fruits and Wildlife

To protect desired fruits, consider plant-ing preferred food sources for wildlife in another location in the landscape: Serviceberry can be planted to protect cherries, mulberry can be planted to pro-tect raspberries, and wild cherry can be planted to protect blackberries.

Trees and Shrubs to Attract Birds and Mammals

Holly (Ilex sp.)

Hackberry

Elderberry

Beautyberry

American bittersweet

Viburnum (Viburnum sp.)


lation such as attics, between stud walls and crawl spaces. Thus, they are primarily used to repel bats, squirrels and other rodents.

Area repellents may be sprayed directly on the plant, sprayed along a cotton rope strung around the protected area or sprayed along a braided electric fence. This “repellent fence” has worked fairly well at reducing deer damage to crop fields and gardens.

When chemical repellents or fences are used to protect flowers/shrubbery/vegetables, it is important to have an alternative food source nearby to reduce grazing pressure on protected plants. For example, a clover patch planted adjacent to a vegetable garden that has been sprayed with a chemical repellent and/or fenced will provide rabbits, groundhogs and

deer something to eat outside the valued area. A combination of techniques is almost always more effective than a single technique.

Another type of repellent is polybutenes. These are sticky substances that can be spread on decks, walls and other surfaces to repel squirrels and other rodents, woodpeckers and pigeons.

Visual Repellents and Frightening AgentsScarecrows, plastic owls and snakes, “scare eyes” balloons, Mylar® tape, flagging, and aluminum pans are examples of visual repel-lents that may be marginally effective when used alone, but certainly help when used in combination with other techniques. Visual re-pellents are most often used around vegetable and flower gardens and on decks with large windows or sliding glass doors where birds’ “flogging” their reflection is a problem.

Noise-making devices are often used in combination with visual repellents. Fireworks, gun shots, pans banged together and propane exploders are audible repellents used to keep blackbirds and starlings from roosting in trees and various birds and deer from damag-ing crops. Noisemakers and visual repellents should be moved around the problem area every day or two to help prevent animals from becoming habituated to the scare device.

Another frightening agent that should not be overlooked is a dog. When allowed to stay outdoors, a dog is a real deterrent to deer feeding around houses and nearby gardens. A dog will also deter raccoons and skunks from causing problems around homes. Currently,

Repellents

Success using chemical repellents is generally measured as a percentage of damage reduction rather than elimina-tion of the problem.

Canada Geese

Where resident Canada geese are over-abundant and causing problems, a goose roundup might be appropriate. When warranted, USDA-WS personnel will trap flocks of Canada geese by rounding them up using drift fences and pens. During June and July, Canada geese undergo an entire molt and are unable to fly. Thus, they can be herded into pens and placed in boxes where they can be transported to another site.

Keys to Controlling Nuisance Wildlife

▪ Correctly identify the offending animal. Several reference books are available to help identify animals, their sign and different types of wildlife damage

▪ Learn about the animal’s require-ments and behavior causing the problem

▪ Choose the appropriate, effective damage reduction technique(s). Multiple approaches are almost al-ways better than a single technique

▪ Begin control efforts as soon as the problem starts. If a problem is anticipated, control efforts should begin before the problem starts. Do not wait until an animal has devel-oped a habit

▪ Be patient and persistent. It may take several days/nights to control the offending animal. In some cases, several animals may be involved


dogs are being trained to repel resident Canada geese around golf courses and residential areas.

RemovalRemoval is often the most effective technique for managing nuisance animals. Trapping and shooting are two methods of animal removal. However, keep in mind that it is illegal to release trapped animals on state- or federally-owned land in Tennessee and written permis-sion must be obtained to release a trapped animal on someone else’s property. Also, keep in mind that deer and geese can only be shot during the designated hunting seasons.

Toxic BaitsToxic baits are registered for only a few animals such as moles, voles, rats and mice. Trapping is the most effective technique for reducing mole damage; however, an insecticide application to reduce the white grub popula-tion in a landscape will remove a considerable amount of food for moles and make the site less attractive. “Poison peanuts” and other such baits for moles are rarely, if ever, effective.

Zinc phosphide is a single-dose rodenticide commonly used to control voles and other rodents. Zinc phosphide is a restricted-use pesticide and is available as impregnated bait on grains such as oats, corn, wheat and pea-

nuts. Several anticoagulants are also approved for rodent control.

If a pesticide is going to be used, it should only be used in accordance with its label. Any time pesticides or other toxic baits are used, take care to avoid contact with non-target ani-mals, household pets and young children.

Who To CallCounty Extension OfficeGeneral information

Tennessee Wildlife Resources AgencyGame speciesFurbearersSummer blackbird problems

TWRA Central Office – NashvilleWildlife DivisionEllington Agricultural CenterP.O. Box 40747Nashville, TN 37204(615) 781-6610

TWRA Region I – Jackson225 Martin Luther King Blvd.State Office Building, Box 55Jackson, TN 38301(731) 423-5725Toll free: (800) 372-3928

TWRA Region II – NashvilleEllington Agricultural CenterP.O. Box 40747Nashville, TN 37204(615) 781-6622Toll Free: (800) 624-7406

TWRA Region III – Crossville464 Industrial BoulevardCrossville, TN 38555(931) 484-9571Toll free: (800) 262-6704

TWRA Region IV – Morristown3030 Wildlife WayMorristown, TN 37814(423) 587-7037Toll free: (800) 332-0900

Avitrol

A restricted-use pesticide for repelling or frightening birds called AvitrolTM is available to professional applicators. Master Gardeners should only recommend this as an option if clients wish to hire a professional with a Tennessee Department of Agriculture state pes-ticide certification in Category 7: Industrial, Institutional, Structural and Health Related Pest Control. Category 8: Public Health is also ac-ceptable for government employees.

AvitrolTM is a restricted-use chemical frightening agent (4-amino-pyridine) that has been effective in repelling house sparrows, star-lings, blackbirds and pigeons. Although registered as a frightening agent, many of the birds that ingest the bait will die. Therefore, it is important to pick up and/or bury dead birds found to avoid a potential hazard to non-target species, especially hawks and owls. AvitrolTM has a different dilution rate for various species. Extreme care should be taken to avoid impacts on non-target birds that are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.


SummaryControlling nuisance wildlife sometimes demands creativity. A combination of tech-niques is almost always more effective than a single technique. Control efforts should begin as soon as there is sign of damage activity or, better, as soon as it is anticipated. Patience and persistence are usually required. Special consideration should be given to lethargic animals -especially raccoons, skunks and bats- because they are common carriers of rabies. Suspicious animals should be reported to the county health department and USDA Wildlife Services.

Terms To KnowEcotoneEdgeForbHabitatInterspersionMastMigrationMoltSuccessionVertical structure

Test Your Knowledge1. Mast-producing trees are extremely

beneficial for wildlife. What are three examples of species of both hard and soft mast producers?

2. Herbaceous plants provide what for wildlife?

3. Name two ways to resolve nuisance wild-life problem?

4. What is one way to discourage vole and chipmunk activity?

5. Toxic baits are most effective for which species of animals?

ResourcesUniversity of Tennessee Extension

Publicationsutextension.tennessee.edu

Who To CallUSDA Wildlife Services

Migratory birdsNon-game speciesPigeonsHouse sparrowsWinter blackbird roostsWildlife problems associated with

commercial and industrial sitesWildlife problems around airports

USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services537 Myatt DriveMadison, TN 37115(615) 736-5506Knoxville, TN 37921(865) 588-0299USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services-West36 Brentshire Square, Suite A-2Jackson, TN 38305(731) 668-3388

USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services-Middle537 Myatt DriveMadison, TN 37115(615) 736-5506

USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services– East4708 Western Avenue, Suite AKnoxville, TN 37921(865) 588-0299National Wildlife RefugeP.O. BoxParis Tennessee 38242(731) 642-2091http://southeast.fws.gov

Hunters for the HungryP.O. Box 304Big Island, Virginia, 245261-800-352-HUNT

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