Backup of Africa Inland Mission to Africa Inland Church, F ... · Mitchell who provided...

TheTransitionfromtheAfricaInlandMissiontotheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya,1939-1975

F. LionelYoungIII

FacultyofArtsandHumanities

DepartmentofHistoryandPolitics

UniversityofStirling

AthesissubmittedfortheDegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy

SupervisedbyProfessorDavidW.Bebbington

1March2017

i

Abstract

ThisthesisexaminestherelationshipbetweentheAfricaInlandMission(AIM)and

theAfricaInlandChurch(AIC)inKenyabetween1939and1975.AIMbeganlayingplans

foranAfricandenominationinKenyain1939andestablishedtheAfricaInlandChurchin

1943.Themissiondidnotclearlydefinethenatureofitsrelationshipwiththechurchit

founded.Thearrangementwasinformal,andevolvedovertime.Inaddition,the

relationshipbetweentheAIMandtheAICbetween1939and1975wasoftentroubled.

Africanindependentchurcheswereformedinthe1940sbecauseofdissatisfactionover

AIMpolicies.Themissionopposeddevolutioninthe1950s,evenwhenothermission

societieswerefollowingthispolicyinpreparationforindependenceinKenya.AIM

continuedtoresistamissionchurchmergerinthe1960sanddidnothandoverproperties

andpowerstothechurchuntil1971.

Thestudywillfocusonhowthemission’srelationshipwiththechurchitfounded

evolvedduringthisperiod.Itwillconsiderhowmissionprinciplesandpoliciescreated

tensionintherelationshipwiththechurchitfounded.First,itwillexaminehowmission

policycontributedtosignificantschismsinthe1940s,givingrisetoAfricanindependent

churches.Second,itwilllookathowAIMinterpretedandrespondedtopost-warreligious,

politicalandsocialchangesinKenya.Third,itwillexplorethereasonsforAIM’srejection

ofaproposedmission-churchmergerinthelate1950s.Fourth,thisstudywillinvestigate

missionmotivesforresistingincreasedAfricanpressurefordevolutionafterindependence

inKenya.Fifth,itwillconsiderwhathappenedtothemissionandthechurchinthe

aftermathofamission-churchmergerin1971.

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I,F.LionelYoungIII,declarethatthisthesishasbeencompletedbymeandthattheworkthatitembodiesismycreationandhasnotbeenincludedinanotherthesis.

F. LionelYoungIII,1March2017

iii

TableofContents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….i

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………iv

ListofMaps…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..vi

Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vii

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….1

TheAfricaInlandMission,theBirthoftheAfricaInlandChurchandthe‘EducationalWars’inKenya,1939-1947………………………………………………………….55

TheAfricaInlandMissioninaRapidlyChangingWorld:Modernism,Revival,MauMauandtheAdvanceofWesternCivilization,1948-1954……………………………………..98

TheAfricaInlandMission,theAfricaInlandChurchandthe‘WindsofChange’,1955-1963……………………………………………………………………………...140

TheAfricaInlandChurch‘TakeOver’oftheAfricaInlandMission,1964-1971………………………………………………………………………………179

TheDominanceoftheAfricaInlandChurchandtheRiseof‘Africa’sEvangelicals’,1972-1975………………………………………………………………………………214

Conclusion..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..250

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..273

iv

Acknowledgements

ThereareanumberofpeoplethatIwouldliketothankforthegraciousassistanceI

receivedonthisproject.Myadvisorandmentor,DavidW.Bebbington,Professorof

HistoryattheUniversityofStirling,hasprovidedableguidancethroughoutthecourseof

thisstudy.HisexpertiseonglobalEvangelicalismwasinvaluableforthisproject.Phia

SteynattheUniversityofStirlingprovidedsignificanthelpontheAfricanside.Staff

membersattheBillyGrahamCenterArchivesinWheatonofferedknowledgeable

assistancethroughoutmyresearch,especiallyKeithCall,BobSchuster,andKatherine

Graber.MembersoftheHenryMartynCentreinCambridge(nowtheCambridgeCentrefor

ChristianityWorldwide),especiallyEmmaWild-WoodandJesseZink,weregraciouswith

theirtime.StaffmembersattheOxfordCentreforMissionsStudies(OCMS)werevery

cooperative,offeringaplacetoconsulthard-to-findsecondaryworksonmissionstudies.

BenKnighton,tutorinAfricanstudiesatOCMS,providedexpertadviceduringmystayin

Oxford.TomHouston,whopastoredNairobiBaptistChurchinthe1960s(andwasafriend

toseveralAIMmissionaries),spentseveraldayswithmeatOCMStotalkabouttheproject.

TheAfricanInlandMissionInternationalArchivesinNottingham,closedtopersons

outsidethemissioncommunity,weremadeavailableforresearchthroughthekind

permissionofAndrewChard,theEuropeandirectorofthemission.Iwasgranted

unfetteredaccesstomissionrecords,andtheAIMstaffwelcomedmewithEnglish

hospitalityduringseveralextendedstays.ManyoftherecordsoftheAIMinNairobiare

difficulttoaccessastheyaredispersedincolonialpapersintheKenyaNationalArchives

(KNA).RichardAmbani,whobeganworkingasanarchivistatKNAin1964,thoughnow

retired,happilygavehistimetoassistwithfindingsourcesonthemission.Severalretired

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AIMmissionarieswhoservedinleadershippositionswithAIMinthe1960sand1970s

providedoralinterviewsattheAfricaInlandMissionRetirementCenterinMinneola,

Florida.RichardGehman,RoyEntwistle,RogerCoon,DorothyHildebrandtandJonathan

Hildebrandtsharedinvaluableinformationthathasbeenusedinthethesis.

TheLillyFoundationprovidedgenerousfundingthroughtheirClergyRenewal

Program,allowingmetodoimportantresearchduringstaysinCambridgeandNottingham

in2012.TheeldersandcongregationIserveatCalvaryChurchinValparaiso,Indiana,have

approvinglyallowedmetoworkasbothpastorandscholar.Thisprojectwouldnothave

beenpossiblewithouttheirsupport.IwanttogivepersonalthankstoTonyandRosas

MitchellwhoprovidedaccommodationsformeduringextendedstaysinScotland.My

executiveassistant,EmilyJohannes,managestheconstantdemandsonmytimesothatI

candotheworkIfeelmostcalledtodo.TracyHillwigandGabeJohannesprovided

technicalassistance.TimPeterscreatedthemapsforthethesis.MywifeStacyhasbeen

extremelysupportiveduringthemanydaysandweeksIhavespentawayfromhomeand

hasbeenaconstantsourceofencouragementduringtheentireproject.Ihopethiswork

willcontributetoabetterunderstandingofthehistoryofmissionsaswellasthe

remarkablegrowthoftheChristianfaithinthenon-Westernworld.

F. LionelYoungNairobi,KenyaFebruary2017

vi

ListofMaps

Map1ClimateMapofKenya…………………………………………………………………….……………………………25

Map2MainEthnicGroupsofKenya…………………………………….…………………………………………………27

Map3MapofStationsandMainStationsinKenyaandOtherAIMFields…………………….…………..29

vii

Abbreviations

AACC All-AfricaConferenceofChurches

ABCS AfricanBrotherhoodChurchandSchools

ACCS AfricanChristianChurchandSchools

AEAM AssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar

AEO AfricaEvangelicalOffice

AHC AmericanHomeCouncil(oftheAfricaInlandMission)

AIC AfricaInlandChurch

AIM AfricaInlandMission

AIPC AfricaIndependentPentecostalChurch

AOC AfricaOrthodoxChurch

BGC BillyGrahamCenter

BHS BritishHomeCouncil(oftheAfricaInlandMission)

CAM CentralAmericanMission

CIM ChinaInlandMission

CNEC ChristianNationalsEvangelismCommission

CCC CentralChurchCouncil(oftheAfricaInlandChurch)

CCK ChristianCouncilofKenya

CFC CentralFieldCouncil

CMS ChurchMissionarySociety

CSM ChurchofScotlandMission

ECWA EvangelicalChurchesofWestAfrica

EFMA EvangelicalForeignMissionAssociation

viii

GFF GospelFurtheringFellowship

GNCA GoodNewsChurchofAfrica

KAU KenyaAfricanUnion

KANU KenyaAfricanNationalUnion

KFC KenyaFieldCouncil

KNA KenyaNationalArchives

NAE NationalAssociationofEvangelicals

IC InternationalCouncil(oftheAfricaInlandMission)

ICCC InternationalCouncilofChristianChurches

ICOWE InternationalCongressonWorldEvangelism

IMC InternationalMissionaryCouncil

NCCK NationalCouncilofChurchesofKenya

PMC PhiladelphiaMissionaryCouncil

RVA RiftValleyAcademy

SIM SudanInteriorMission

SAGM SouthAfricaGeneralMission

STC ScottTheologicalCollege

SVM StudentVolunteerMovement

WEF WorldEvangelicalFellowship

WCC WorldCouncilofChurches

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‘InhumbledependenceuponourGodwehavemovedsteadilyforward,nodoubtinourblindnessmakingmistakes,forwearestillhuman.’

--PeterCameronScott(1867-1896)

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Introduction

TheAfricaInlandMission(AIM)wasfoundedin1895inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.

In1943AIMformallyestablishedtheAfricaInlandChurch(AIC)inKenyaandin1962-

1966ithelpedcreatetheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar(AEAM).

TheAICbecameoneofthelargestProtestantdenominationsinKenya,andtheAEAMwas

dedicatedtothediffusionofEvangelicalismthroughouttheAfricancontinent.1Several

EvangelicalnotablesweremembersoftheAIMmissioncommunity,includingArthurT.

Pierson(1837-1911)2,ReubenA.Torrey(1856-1928)3,CharlesE.Hurlburt(1860-1936)4,

1DavidB.Barrett,SchismandRenewalinAfrica:AnAnalysisofSixThousandReligiousMovements(Oxford:

2R.N.Shuff,‘Pierson,ArthurTappan’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals,TimothyLarsen,DavidBebbingtonandMarkNoll,eds.(Leicester,UK:Inter-VarsityPress,2003).

3W.V.Trollinger,Jr.,‘Torrey,ReubenArcher’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.

4RobertT.Coote,‘Hurlburt,CharlesE’,inBiographicalDictionaryofChristianMissions,GeraldH.Anderson,ed.(NewYork:Simon&SchusterMacmillan,1998).

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C. T.Studd(1860-1931)5,HarryA.Ironside(1874-1951)6,OswaldJ.Smith(1889-1996)7

andPhilipS.Henman(1899-1986).8AIMcomprisedpeopleoffaithfromAustralia,Canada,

SouthAfrica,theUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStateswhowereunitedaroundcommon

Evangelicalcommitmentsthattranscendednationhoodanddenomination.Giventhe

mission’simportantroleinthespreadofChristianityinAfricaduringthetwentiethcentury,

itisremarkablethattheonlypublishedhistoriesofAIMarehagiographicalaccounts

writtenbyformermissionariesormission-publishednarrativesusedlargelyfor

promotionalpurposes.9Inaddition,thehistoryofthemissionandthechurchitfoundedin

Africahasgarneredlittlescholarlyattention.Thisstudyisanattempttofillpartofthis

lacuna.ThethesiswillfocusonAIM’sresistanceduringdecolonisationtomergewiththe

churchitestablished.Itwillexploretherelationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurch

withinthelargercontextoftransatlanticEvangelicalism.

ThisstudycoversthehistoryoftheAIMbeginningin1939,whenacarefully

preparedmemorandumfromtheBritishHomeCouncilwascirculatedamongmissionaries

intheColonyofKenyaencouragingtheestablishmentofanAfricandenomination.The

thesisconcludesin1975,afewyearsafterthemissionfinallyhandedoveritspropertyand

powerstothechurchinKenyaandthesameyearthattheAfricanchurchheldacelebration

5J.J.Bonk,‘Studd,C.(Charles)T.(Thomas)’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.

6T.Gloege,‘Ironside,Henry(‘Harry’)Allen’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.

7D.A.Goertz,‘Smith,OswaldJeffrey’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.

8DavidJ.Jeremy,‘Henman,PhilipSydney’,inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,Volume26(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2004).

9Thehistoricalaccountsonthemissionwillbediscussedintheintroductionbelow,withamorethoroughreviewofthesignificantmaterialsintheconclusion.

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inNairobimarkingits‘80thanniversary’.10ItwasalsotheyearinwhichtheWorldCouncil

ofChurches(WCC)helditsFifthAssemblyinthecityofNairobi,anattestationtotherapid

growthofChristianityontheAfricancontinentinthetwentiethcentury.11Theperiod

1939-1975allowsforanevaluationoftherelationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurch

beforeandafterindependenceinKenya.Thetimelinealsocallsforaconsiderationofsome

ofthechangesthatweretakingplacewithinEvangelicalismduringthe1940sthroughthe

1970swhileitwassimultaneouslybeingtransmittedtothenon-Westernworld.This

chapterwillprovideabriefintroductiontothelargerbackgroundforthethesis,alongwith

adiscussionoftherelevantliterature.Anorientationtothethesiswillbeprovidedthat

willincludeanexplanationofthedelimitationsoftheproject,abriefintroductiontothe

landandpeopleofKenya,aswellasnotesonnamesandplaces.Aconcisesurveyofthe

missionfromitsinceptionin1895willbegivenwithreferencetodevelopmentsthat

impingeonthehistoryofthemissionfortheperiod1939to1975.Anexcursusisalso

providedonthecomplexorganizationalstructureofthemission.Thefinalportionofthis

chapterwilldiscussthesourcesthatwereusedforthisprojectandprovideanoverviewof

thecontentsofthefollowingchapters.

10TheAICfrequentlymarkedthearrivalofAIMmissionariesin1895astheyearwhenitschurchwasestablishedinKenya.

11ErnestW.Lefever,AmsterdamtoNairobi:TheWorldCouncilofChurchesandtheThirdWorld(WashingtonD.C.:EthicsandPublicPolicyCenterofGeorgetownUniversity,1979),40-44.

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BackgroundandRelevantLiterature

TheAfricaInlandMissionwasanEvangelicalmissionsociety,influencedby

AmericanandBritishFundamentalisminthetwentiethcentury,carryingoutitswork

duringdecolonisationinEastAfrica.ThehistoryoftheAIMisthereforeintertwinedwith

transatlanticEvangelicalism,theAmericanandBritishFundamentalistmovement(s)and

ProtestantmissionsinAfricaduringthecolonialandpost-colonialperiods.Themission’s

relationshipwiththechurchitfoundedwasdirectlyaffectedbyitsidentityasan

Evangelicalmission,theinfluencesofAmericanandBritishFundamentalism,andthe

transitionfrommissiontochurchduringdecolonisation.Overthepasttwenty-fiveyears,

thesesubjectshavereceivedfreshtreatmentbyhistoriansandprovidenewdirectionsfor

exploringtherelationshipoftheAIMwiththechurchitestablishedinAfrica.

TransatlanticEvangelicalism

ThefoundingmembersoftheAfricaInlandMissionwerecard-carryingmembersof

theEvangelicalmovement.Asthisstudywilldemonstrate,themissionzealouslyguarded

itsEvangelicalidentityinthetwentiethcenturyandthisdirectlyinfluenceditsrelationship

withtheAfricanchurchitestablishedinKenya.Evangelicalsfoundtheologicaldirectionin

theworksoftheGermanreformerMartinLuther(1483-1546)andtheFrenchtheologian

JohnCalvin(1509-1563).Theyareparticularlyinspiredbythelivesandlegaciesofthe

NewEnglandtheologianJonathanEdwards(1703-1758),theEnglishclergymanJohn

Wesley(1703-1790)andtheBritishrevivalistGeorgeWhitefield(1714-1770).The

historiographyofEvangelicalismoverthepasttwenty-fiveyearshasbeendominatedby

DavidBebbington’sgroundbreakingstudyEvangelicalisminModernBritain:AHistoryfrom

the1730stothe1980sfirstpublishedin1989.Bebbington’sworkidentifiedfourcentral

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traitsofEvangelicalism:conversionism,thebeliefthatlivesneedtobechanged;biblicism,a

strikingemphasisontheBibleasGod’sword;activism,thecallforallbelieverstoengagein

gospelwork;andcrucicentrism,thebeliefthatChrist’sdeathisessentialforreconciling

mantoGod.12Bebbington’staxonomyisnowcitedderigueurinboththescholarlyand

popularliteratureonthemovement.13The1994publicationEvangelicalism:Comparative

StudiesofPopularProtestantisminNorthAmerica,theBritishIslesandBeyond,1700-1990

fleshedoutBebbington’squadrilateralinaglobalcontextoveraperiodofnearlythree

centuries.ThecentralargumentputforwardintheseessaysisthatEvangelicalismisheld

togetherby‘aconsistentpatternofconvictionsandattitudes’althoughithasbeen

characterizedbytransatlanticandinterdenominationaldiversitysinceitsinceptioninthe

earlyeighteenthcentury.14Evangelicalismis,therefore,amultinationalreligious

movementdispersedinavarietyofProtestantdenominationsofnearlyeverystripe.

ThestandardhistoryofglobalEvangelicalismistheseriesofmonographspublished

byInterVarsityPressunderthetitle‘AHistoryofEvangelicalism:People,Movements,and

IdeasintheEnglish-SpeakingWorld’(2004–).Involumeone,TheRiseof

Evangelicalism:TheAgeofEdwards,WhitefieldandtheWesleys(2004),MarkNollcovers

thebirthandearlydevelopmentoftheEvangelicalmovementintheeighteenthcentury.

Nollassertsthatwhiletherearedifficultiesin‘controllingthesubject’ofsuchadiverse

12DavidW.Bebbington,EvangelicalisminModernBritain:AHistoryfromthe1730stothe1980s(GrandRapids:MI:Baker,1989),1-19.

13TimothyLarsen,‘TheReceptionGivenEvangelicalisminModernBritainSinceItsPublicationin1989’inMichaelA.G.HaykinandKennethJ.Stewart,eds.,TheEmergenceofEvangelicalism:ExploringHistoricalContinuities(Nottingham:Apollos,2008),21-36.Forarecentexampleofitsuseinpop-culturepublications,seeAaronClineHandbury,‘TheEvangelicals’,RelevantMagazine,Issue81(May/June2016),44-45.

14MarkA.Noll,DavidW.BebbingtonandGeorgeA.Rawlyk,eds.Evangelicalism:ComparativeStudiesofPopularProtestantisminNorthAmerica,theBritishIsles,andBeyond,1700-1990(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1994),6.

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movement,‘itisstillpossibletopresentacoherenthistoryofevangelicalism’.15Heargues

thatEvangelicalism‘shouldneverbelookeduponasahard-edged,narrowlydefined

denomination’.16ItisinsteadamovementofChristianswhoholdto‘asetofdefining

beliefsandpractices’andarerelatedtoeachotherthrough‘alargenetworkofchurches,

voluntarysocieties,booksandperiodicals,andpersonalnetworks’.17InTheExpansionof

Evangelicalism:TheAgeofWilberforce,More,ChalmersandFinney(2007),JohnWolffe

coversthehistoryofEvangelicalismduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.He

arguesthatEvangelicalsmaintainedtheirdiversityinthenineteenthcentury,buttheyalso

‘maintainedanunderlyingsenseofsharedspiritualidentity’andsoughttoexpressthisin

theformationofnetworks,missionsocietiesandassociationsliketheEvangelicalAlliance

(1846).18BebbingtoncoversthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyinTheDominanceof

Evangelicalism:TheAgeofSpurgeonandMoody(2005).Hedescribessomeofthecausesof

Evangelicalvariety,whichincludefactorslikegeography,denominationandclass,while

alsoarguingthattherepersistedinthenineteenthcentury‘strongevangelicalbonds’that

heldthemovementtogether.19Healsoshowsthatthelatenineteenthcenturywasanera

inwhichEvangelicalismbecamethedominantformofreligionintheEnglish-speaking

world.GeoffreyR.TreloarcoversthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyinTheDisruptionof

15MarkA.Noll,TheRiseofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofEdwards,WhitefieldandtheWesleys(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsity,2003),20.

16Ibid.,21.

17Ibid.,19-21.

18JohnWolffe,TheExpansionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofWilberforce,More,ChalmersandFinney(DownersGrove,IL:InverVarsity,2007),246.

19DavidBebbington,TheDominanceofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofSpurgeonandMoody(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,2005),52-81.

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Evangelicalism:TheAgeofTorrey,Mott,McPhersonandHammond(2016).Treloarargues

thattheeighteenth-century‘evangelicaltradition’wascarriedforwardintothenineteenth

centuryandthatit‘intensifiedduringthefindesiècleyears’.20Evangelicalismduringthe

firsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyisthereforemarkedbycontinuitywiththeprevioustwo

centuries,eventhoughthemovementenduredaperiodof‘disruption’duringthe

Modernist-Fundamentalistcontroversiesandtheonslaughtoftwoworldwars.Brian

Stanley’sTheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofBillyGrahamandJohnStott

(2013)providesatreatmentofthespreadofglobalEvangelicalismduringthesecondhalf

ofthetwentiethcentury.HegivesprominencetotheworkofEvangelicalmissionsocieties,

notonlyforthespreadofglobalEvangelicalisminthetwentiethcentury,butalsoforwhat

hecallsthe‘increasinglymultidirectionalnatureofevangelicalinternationalism’.21

Stanley’scontributiontotheseriesalsosituatesthemovementinthetransatlanticrevivals

oftheeighteenthcentury,heldtogetherbycommonEvangelicaltraits,butcarriedforward

byEvangelicalChristiansanddiffusedinthenon-Westernworldthroughtheworkof

Evangelicalmissionagencies.HeidentifiestheInternationalCongressonWorld

Evangelism(ICOWE)heldatLausannein1974astheeventatwhichitbecameclearthat

‘evangelicalismwasnowamulticulturalglobalcommunitythatincludedalargeand

rapidlygrowingsectorthatwasneitherwhitenoraffluent’.22AIM’sdesiretoprotectits

EvangelicalidentityinKenyahaddirectimplicationsforitsrelationshipwiththechurchit

established.Themissionwasnotadenomination,butitfunctionedinsomewayslikea

20GeoffreyR.Treloar,TheDisruptionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofTorrey,Mott,McPhersonandHammond(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsity,2016),6.

21BrianStanley,TheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofBillyGrahamandJohnStott(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsity,2013),61.

22Ibid.,155.

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denomination,asitincreasinglydiffusedits‘brand’ofChristianitytothenon-Western

world.

DouglasSweeney’s2005monographTheAmericanEvangelicalStory:AHistoryof

theMovementprovidesasurveyofAmericanEvangelicalismfromtheseventeenthcentury

tothelatetwentiethcentury.Sweeney’sworkmaybeconsideredtheAmerican

counterparttoBebbington’sstudyonthehistoryofEvangelicalisminBritain(stylistic

variationsnotwithstanding).HebuildsonBebbington’staxonomyandshowsthestrong

correlationbetweentheEvangelicalimpulsetoevangelizetheworldandthemodernglobal

missionsmovement.Sweeneyputsitsimply:‘Evangelicalscareaboutnothingmorethan

evangelizingtheworld’.23HisworktiestogetherBebbington’squadrilateral,arguingthat

EvangelicalsbelievetheBible(biblicism)teachesthatlivesneedtobeconverted

(conversionism),thatthecross(crucicentrism)isthemeansofthisconversionandthatall

Christiansshouldactivelyworktotakethisnewstothenations(activism).Assuch,these

inheritedconvictionsgaveriseto‘unprecedentednumbersofpeopleengagedinmissions

abroad,withthebackingofanunprecedentedevangelisticnetwork’.24AIMinheritedthese

Evangelicalconvictions,anditsdeterminationtoremainfocusedon‘evangelizingtheworld’

evenasconditionsevolvedinKenyacreateddifficultiesforthemission.

AmericanandBritishFundamentalism

FundamentalismwasamovementthatarosewithintheEvangelicalmovementasa

responsetotheriseoftheologicalchangesinlatenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-century

23DouglasA.Sweeney,TheAmericanEvangelicalStory:AHistoryoftheMovement(GrandRapids,MI:BakerAcademic,2005),79.

24Sweeney,TheAmericanEvangelicalStory,24,79-106.

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Protestantism.Fundamentalistsbecameincreasingconcernedoverthegrowing

acceptanceofDarwinianevolution,theapplicationofthehistorical-criticalmethodto

biblicalinterpretation(causingsometoquestiontheBible’sreliability)andtheshiftfrom

evangelisticworktowhatbecameknownastheSocialGospel.‘Liberal’theologians

workedtocreateaprogressiveProtestantismthatwasinstepwithmoderntimes,while

conservativeEvangelicalscriticizedthisagendaandlabouredtodefendthe‘fundamentals’

ofthefaith.25ThesecontroversiescreatedariftinProtestantismduringtheearly

twentiethcentury,dividingclergymen,laypersons,denominationsandmissionsocietiesin

theUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdom.ThisbackgroundisimportantbecauseAIM

boardmembers,missionofficials,andmissionariesfromCanada,theUnitedKingdomand

theUnitedStatesweresignificantlyinfluencedbythedebatesoftheModernist-

FundamentalistControversiesandthisisreflectedinmissionpolicy.26Fundamentalist

leaderslikeA.C.Dixon(1854-1925)andR.A.Torrey(1856-1928)wereboardmembersof

AIMduringthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.DixonandTorreyco-editedThe

Fundamentals(1910-1915),aseriesofessayspublishedbyacross-sectionofEvangelical

leaderswhowereopposedtotheologicalliberalism.HarryA.Ironside,aprominentNorth

AmericanFundamentalist,waselectedtoserveasthepresidentoftheAmericanHome

CounciloftheAIMbetween1942and1947.27MostAIMmissionariesduringthefirsthalf

25GarryDorrien,TheMakingofAmericanLiberalTheology:ImaginingProgressiveReligion,1805-1900(London:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,2001).

26JamesAlanPatterson,‘TheLossofaProtestantMissionaryConsensus:ForeignMissionsandtheFundamentalist-ModernistConflict’inJoelA.CarpenterandWilbertR.Shenk,eds.,EarthenVessels:AmericanEvangelicalsandForeignMissions,1880-1980(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,1990),73-91.

27AdiscussionontheinvolvementofearlyFundamentalistleadersintheAIMcanbefoundinBernardK.Nzioka,‘EducationAmongtheAkambaPeople,1895-1970:AnInvestigationoftheEducationalPoliciesofthe

10

ofthetwentiethcenturyreceivedtheirtrainingatFundamentalistBiblecollegesand

espousedFundamentalistconvictions,significantlyflavouringthemakeupofthemission.

Forexample,AIMmissionariesweresingle-mindeddevoteesofevangelisticlabour,

somethingthatcreatedconflictswhenAfricanswantedthemissiontoadoptmore

progressiveeducationalpolicies.Fundamentalistswerealsohawkishaboutecumenical

relationships,andthiscreatedsignificanttensionbetweentheAIMandtheAICwhen

Africanchurchleadersseemedlessconcernedaboutecclesiasticalseparation.

Severalimportantstudiesprovidethebackgroundforunderstandingthe

Fundamentalistmovement.TimothyP.Weber’s1979workLivingintheShadowofthe

SecondComing:AmericanPremillennialism,1875-1925assertsthatnineteenth-century

millennialviewsmergedwithFundamentalistconcernsintheearlytwentiethcentury.

Webberarguesthatwhilemillennialviewswerepresenton‘thefringesofAmerican

evangelicalism’inthelatenineteenthcentury,duringtheearlytwentiethcenturythese

viewsbecamemorepronounced.28TheGreatWar(1914-1918)becamethe

Fundamentalistexempligratiathattheworldwascomingtoanendandthatmankindwas

livinginthefinalageorlast‘dispensation’beforethereturnofChrist.Webber’sworkalso

notesthatthereisaclearconnectionbetweenlatenineteenth-centurypre-millennialism

andtheindependentmissionsmovementwhereevangelismbecamethemostpressing

matter.Oneofthemostsignificanteffectsofthistheologicalworldviewwasan

internalizedsenseofurgencyintheworkofmissionscoupledwithasingle-mindedfocus

AfricanInlandMissionandtheDevelopmentofEducationintheAkambaCommunity’(PhDdiss.,TrinityEvangelicalDivinitySchool,2010),219-244.

28TimothyP.Weber,LivingintheShadowoftheSecondComing:AmericanPremillennialism,1875-1925(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1979),177.

11

onevangelisticwork.29TheseriesofessaysinEarthenVessels:AmericanEvangelicalsand

ForeignMissions,1880-1980focusesoneffectsoftheModernist-Fundamentalist

ControversiesonEvangelicalmissions.DanaRobert’scontribution‘“TheCrisisof

Mission”:PremillennialMissionTheoryandtheOriginsofIndependentEvangelical

Missions’observeshowpremillennialdoctrineshapedthewaymissionariescarriedout

theirwork.Fundamentalistmissionarieswenttothefieldwith‘asingle-issuementality

andaquickresultspragmatism’thatrenderedothercauseslessimportant.30Joel

Carpenter’scontribution,‘PropagatingtheFaithOnceDelivered:TheFundamentalist

MissionaryEnterprise,1920-1945’showshowFundamentalismandmissionsbecame

intertwinedthroughwhathetermeda‘FundamentalistNetwork’thatincludedBible

colleges,interdenominationalmissionnetworksandmissionsocietiesliketheSudan

InteriorMission,theChinaInlandMissionandtheAfricaInlandMission.31Carpenteralso

arguesthatFundamentalistswhowereleadingnon-denominationalmissionagencieslike

AIMwere‘generallymoderateto“progressive”alongthespectrumofattitudestoward

otherChristians’.32Thesenseof‘urgency’inmissionaryworkandthesingle-minded

devotiontoevangelisticworkdirectlyaffectedAIM’srelationshipwiththechurchit

founded.Carpenter’sclaimaboutthehueofinterdenominationalmissionswillbe

consideredinthethesis.

29Ibid.,74-75.

30DanaRobert,‘“TheCrisisofMissions”:PremillennialMissionTheoryandtheOriginsofIndependentEvangelicalMissions’inJoelA.CarpenterandWilbertR.Shenk,eds.,EarthenVessels:AmericanEvangelicalsandForeignMissions,1880-1980(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,1990),32.

31JoelA.Carpenter,‘PropagatingtheFaithOnceDelivered:TheFundamentalistMissionaryEnterprise,1920-1945’inCarpenterandShenk,eds.,EarthenVessels,101.

32Ibid.,125.

12

ThemostinfluentialstudyonAmericanFundamentalismisGeorgeMarsden’s

FundamentalismandAmericanCulture.Firstpublishedin1982andreprintedin2006,

Marsden’sworkissignificantforitsemphasisonFundamentalismasaresponsetochanges

takingplaceinbothreligionandthewiderculture.HearguesthatFundamentalistswere

justasconcernedaboutthegrowingpopularityof‘worldlyamusements’likealcohol

consumption,dancing,theatreattendanceandsmokingastheywereaboutthe

proliferationofevolutionandtheinfluenceofliberaltheology.33Thesocialandthe

religious(aswellasthepolitical)convergedandFundamentalistsbecamemilitantsocial

criticsandfrustratedculturaloutsidersmoredeterminedthanevertosaveasmanypeople

aspossiblebeforethereturnofChrist.AIMmissionariesoftenexhibitedthesesame

Fundamentalistsattributesinawaythatcreatedtensionbetweenthemissionandits

converts.

JoelA.Carpenter’s1997studyReviveUsAgain:TheReawakeningofAmerican

FundamentalismisinsomewaysasequeltoMarsden’swork.Carpentercoversthe

evolutionofFundamentalismfromthe1930sintothe1950s.Heshowshowthemost

influentialFundamentalistseventuallyemergedinthelate1940sasnewEvangelicals,

intentonlosingthe‘Fundamentalistbaggage’whileretainingtheirconservativetheological

credentials.‘NewEvangelical’leaderswantedtodownplay(orabandon)the

Fundamentalistpreoccupationwiththeinconsequential(drinking,smoking,theatre

attendanceetal.)andrecoverarobustsocialagenda(concernfortheworld’smodern

problems)whileretainingtheirevangelisticfervour.Duringthe1940sand1950s,

conservativeEvangelicalslikeHaroldOckenga(1905-1985),CarlF.H.Henry(1913-2003)

33GeorgeM.Marsden,FundamentalismandAmericanCulture(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),153-164.

13

andBillyGraham(1918-)abandonedtheFundamentalistlabelandhelpedcreate

institutionsliketheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals(1943),theEvangelical

TheologicalSociety(1949)andtheWorldEvangelicalFellowship(1951).These

organizationswereintentondiscardingtheFundamentalistnonessentialswhile

preservingtheessenceofhistoricEvangelicaltheology.Assuch,theywerealsoaggressive

intheiroppositiontothegrowinginfluenceoftheWorldCouncilofChurchesandits

enlarginginternationalnetwork.Asthisstudywillshow,globetrottingEvangelicalleaders

likeHenryandGrahaminspiredmissionleaderstoguideAIMawayfromextreme

FundamentalismandcreateindigenousEvangelicalnetworksliketheAfricaEvangelical

Office(1962)andtheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar(1966).

InEvangelicalismandFundamentalismintheUnitedKingdomduringtheTwentieth

Century,scholarsfrombothsidesoftheAtlanticexplorethesimilaritiesanddifferences

betweenEvangelicalismandFundamentalismintheUnitedKingdomandprovide

comparisonswithcounterpartmovementsinNorthAmerica.34Thestudyarguesthat

whileFundamentalismdidinfluenceBritishEvangelicalism,itseffectswereless

pronouncedintheBritishIsles.BritishFundamentalistsingeneralheldmoredivergent

viewsoneschatology,werelesscriticalofsocialreform(especiallythrougheducation),and

theyoftendefinedpersonalandecclesiasticalseparationdifferently.TheAfricaInland

MissionwasanEvangelicalmissioninfluencedbytheFundamentalistmovementbut

comprisedofpersonsfrombothsideoftheAtlanticwhowereshapedtoagreaterorlesser

extentbytheirownnationalexperiences.Transatlanticdifferencesweretoprovecrucial

inmissionpolicy.

34DavidBebbingtonandDavidCeriJones,eds.,EvangelicalismandFundamentalismintheUnitedKingdomDuringtheTwentiethCentury(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013).

14

Missions,ColonialismandDevolution

NationalismbecamemorepalpableintheColonyofKenyaaftertheSecondWorld

Warandgainedmomentuminthe1950swiththeMauMauUprising(ca.1952-1956).As

thisstudywillshow,colonialism,nationalismandthecomingofindependenceon12

December1963directlyaffectedtherelationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurchin

Kenya.StephenNeill’sAHistoryofChristianMissionsservedasthestandardintroduction

tothehistoryofChristianmissionuntilthe1990s.Thechaptersentitled‘TheHeydayof

Colonialism,1858-1914’(chapter10),‘FromMissiontoChurch’(chapter12)and

‘YesterdayandToday,1914andAfter’(chapter13)provideanarrativethatportraysthe

Christianmissionarymovementasinseparablylinkedwithcolonialexpansion.Tousehis

words:‘ThecolonizingpowersweretheChristianpowers.’35Neill’s1966sequel

ColonialismandChristianMissionswasanexplorationoftherelationshipbetweenChristian

missionsandcolonialismingreaterdepth.HecreditsRolandOliver’smasterfulstudyThe

MissionaryFactorinEastAfricaforinfluencinghisthinkingonthesubject.Oliverhad

arguedthatduringthecolonialperiod,‘thedesiretocommunicatewesterncivilisation

alongwithChristianitywasbothfullydevelopedandunselfconscious’.36Neilldoesnotcast

allmissionariesandtheirparentbodiesinthesamelight,nordidheportrayall

missionariesasde-factoagentsofthecolonialpowers.Hisworkdid,however,presenta

tightlywovennarrativethatportrayedChristianmissionariesandcolonialpowersas

inseparablebedfellows,eveniftheyenduredtheoccasionallover’squarrel.AIM’s

relationshipwiththecolonialauthoritieswillbeconsideredinvariousplacesinthisthesis.

35StephenNeill,AHistoryofChristianMission(London:PenguinBooks,1964),414.

36RolandOliver,TheMissionaryFactorinEastAfrica(London:Longmans,1952),289.

15

Inthe1990sR.E.Frykenberg,DanaRobert,BrianStanley,AndrewWallsanda

communityofmissionhistoriansintheirwake,beganpublishingscholarlystudiesthat

exploredingreaterdepththerelationshipbetweenChristianityandcolonialismusing

moreindepthcasestudies.Stanley’sground-breakingmonographTheBibleandtheFlag:

ProtestantMissionsandBritishImperialismintheNineteenthandTwentiethCenturies

counteredtheprevailingassumptionthatmissionariesalwaysworked‘handinhandwith

colonialpowers’,arguingthatthedynamicinteractionbetweenimperialpowersand

missionarieswas‘complexandambiguous’.37In1996AndrewWallspublishedhis

influentialcollectionofessaysTheMissionaryMovementinChristianHistory:Studiesinthe

TransmissionofFaith.Wallswantedtolookmorecarefullyatthereligiousandtheological

motivationsofmissionsandmissionaries.HearguedthatChristianmissionaryendeavours

havehistoricallybeenmarkedby‘twoopposingtendencies’,whichheidentifiesas

‘indigenization’and‘transformation’.38Hemadethecasethatmissionariesgenerally

attemptedtoworkwithinindigenouscultures(‘indigenization’)andthattheirworkoften

‘liberated’(orledtotheirliberation)andevenattimespreservedcultures(e.g.,developing

writtenlanguages,preservinghistoricalmemory).Atthesametime,hewentontosaythat

missionariesalsoworkedtobringaboutchangeortransformationwithintheculture.His

conclusionwasthatthe‘tension’thatiscausedbythesetwoprinciplesoftenproduceda

‘battleground’onthemissionfield.

37BrianStanley,TheBibleandtheFlag:ProtestantMissionsandBritishImperialismintheNineteenthandTwentiethCenturies(Leicester:Apollos,1990),11,184,passim.

38AndrewWalls,TheMissionaryMovementinChristianHistory:StudiesintheTransmissionofFaith(Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,1996),3-9.

16

TheStudiesintheHistoryofChristianMissionsserieseditedbyBrianStanleyandR.

E. Frykenbergcastsmorelightonmission‘battlegrounds’,wheretensionoftenflared

duringtheperiodofimperialexpansionanddecolonisation.Sometwentyvolumes

containingmorethantwohundredessayshavebeenpublishedsince2000.Theessaysare

theworkofestablishedandemerginghistoriansprovidingin-depthanalysesofWestern

missionsocietiesworkinginAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmericanduringthemodernperiod(ca.

1700-2000).WhilenoneoftheworksfocusesonthehistoryoftheAIM,theseriesoffers

freshinterpretationsthatchallengesimplisticassumptionsabouttherelationshipbetween

Christianmissionsandcolonialism.Mostimportantforthisstudyaretheinsightfulessays

inMissions,Nationalism,andtheEndofEmpireexaminingtheresponsesandreactionsof

missionsocietiestotheriseofnationalismandrapiddecolonisationinIndia,China,Central

Africa,Kenya,SouthAfricaandNigeria.Theaccumulatedevidenceputforthinthese

essays‘highlightsthedangerofgeneralizing’giventheuniquepoliticalcontexts,thearray

ofdifferentmissionsocieties,theinfluenceofvariedtheologicalassumptions,andthe

viewsofindividualmissionaries.39Especiallyrelevantistheassertionthatmission

societies‘weremadeupofindividualmenandwomen,manyofthempeopleofnogreat

politicalsophistication.’40Whilegeneralizationsremainpossible,theseessaysencourage

scholarstolookattherelationshipbetweenaparticularmissionorganizationandits

churchinagivencolony/nationwithadegreeofopenness.

InConvertingColonialism:VisionsandRealitiesinMissionHistory,1706-1914(2008),

severalscholarscountertheclaimthatmissionarieswereenthusiasticsupportersofthe

39BrianStanley,‘ChristianityandtheEndofEmpire’inBrianStanley,ed.,Missions,Nationalism,andtheEndofEmpire(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,2003),8.

40Ibid.,9.

17

ideaofcolonialexpansion.Whilethisworkfallsoutsideoftheperiodizationforthisthesis,

itdoesoverlapwiththefoundingoftheAIMin1895.Theeditorforthisvolume,Dana

Robert,synthesizesresearchonmissionsocietiesinIndia,China,EastAfrica,WestAfrica

andSouthAfrica(overatwohundredyearperiod)andarguesthatmissionarieswere

simply‘pragmatic’evangelistswhowerecarryingouttheirworkwithinacolonial

framework.Missionsocieties,andindividualmissionariesrepresentingthem,‘converted

colonialism’fortheirownaims,onlycooperatingwithcolonialgovernmentswhenitwas

consistentwiththe‘gospelvalues’theycherishedmorehighly.41Seeninthislight,

missionarieswereineffect‘gospelpragmatists’.

Inanotherworkinthisseries,BritishMissionariesandtheEndofEmpire:East,

Central,andSouthernAfrica,1939-1964(2011),JohnStuartarguesthatsomemissionaries

didnotfavourimmediatedevolutionbecausetheyweresincerelyconcernedthatrapid

decolonisationinthe1960swouldleavethechurchestheyhadestablishedwithout

adequatelytrainedclergyandessentialfinancialresources.Assuch,missionariesoften

‘provedlessabletoadapttothechangingcircumstancesthaneitherthegovernmentin

LondonornationalistsinAfrica’.42ItisworthconsideringwhetherornotAIM’shesitancy

toturnoveritspropertyandministriestotheAfricanchurchwasinfluencedinpartbyits

concernforthechurch’swellbeing.DanaRobert’sChristianMission:HowChristianity

BecameaWorldReligionprovidesasurveyofChristianmissionsthatreflectsmorerecent

interpretationsontherelationshipbetweenmissionsandcolonialism.Robert’swork

41DanaRobert,ed.,ConvertingColonialism:VisionsandRealitiesinMissionHistory,1707-1914(GrandRapids,MI/Cambridge:Eerdmans,2008),1-20.

42JohnStuart,BritishMissionariesandtheEndofEmpire:East,Central,andSouthernAfrica,1939-1964(GrandRapids,MI/Cambridge:Eerdmans,2011),199,passim.

18

providesahistoricalsurveyofthemissionarymovementwithcriticalassessmentson

variousthemesinthehistoryofChristianmissions.Thesethemesincludeareviewof

critiquesofthemissionarymovementinscholarshipandliterature,thecomplex

relationshipbetweenmissionaries,humanrightsandlandinthenon-Westernworldand

thesignificantroleofwomeninmissionsocieties.HerworkeffectivelyupdatesNeill’s

introductiontoChristianmissions.

AdrianHastings’AHistoryofChristianityinAfrica,1950-1975hasservedformore

thanthirty-fiveyearsasthestandardworkonChristianityinAfricaduringtheperiodof

decolonisation.HeidentifiestheSudanInteriorMissionandtheAfricaInlandMissionas

thelargestofthenondenominationalsocietiesworkingontheAfricancontinent.43He

observesthatduringthelate1950s‘thedominantandprevailingaim’wasthedevolution

ofthemissionandthat‘somemissionarieswiselyhandedovertheirpropertyand

responsibilitiesfromthestarttothenewchurch’thoughothersdevelopedan‘uneasy

“partnership”’thatendedupfrustratingthechurch.44Hastings’largerconclusionisthat

decolonisationinAfricaisaperiodoftransitionfrommissionChristianitytoAfrican

Christianity.Hisotherwisehelpfulworkonlydevotesasingleparagraphtothetopicof

devolutionandnoexamplesorreferencesareprovided.ZablonNthamburi’ssurveyFrom

MissiontoChurch:HandbookofChristianityinEastAfricadiscusses(albeitbriefly)the

devolutionofthelargestProtestantmissionsworkinginEastAfrica.Hisworkshowsthat

theChurchMissionarySocietyandtheMethodistMissionarySocietyhandedovertheir

propertyandauthoritytotheirrespectivechurchesin1955,whiletheChurchofScotland

43AdrianHastings,AHistoryofAfricanChristianity,1950-1975(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1979),45.

44Ibid.,160.

19

Missiondevolveditsauthorityin1956.TheAfricaInlandMissionwasrelativelylate

amongthesemajormissionsocietiesanddidnothandoveritsauthoritytothechurchuntil

1971.45NoreasonsaregivenforthelatenessofAIM’sdevolution.W.B.Anderson’sThe

ChurchinEastAfrica,1840-1974brieflydiscussestheAIM‘handover’ofthemissiontothe

churchbysayingthattherewere‘GreatrevoltsintheAfricaInlandChurchinTanzaniaand

KenyaovercontinuingA.I.M.power’andthat‘in1971,afteranexplosionofdiscontent,the

propertyandpersonneloftheMissionwasturnedovertotheA.I.C.’46Thisthesis

endeavourstoprovideacasestudyindevolutionandshedsomelightonthe‘greatrevolts’

intheAIMandtheAIC.

Thescholarlyoutputonthehistoryofthemissionismeagre.Thismaybeduein

parttosomeoftheproblemswithsources(whichwillbediscussedbelow).JohnA.

Gration’s1974dissertation‘TheRelationshipBetweentheAfricaInlandMissionandIts

NationalChurchbetween1895and1971’47iswrittenbyanobserver-participantofthe

missionandcontainssomeinformationthatcouldonlyhavebeenobtainedfrombeing

personallypresentatmeetingsduringwhichmission-churchfusionwasbeingdiscussed

thelate1960s.(Hecullsfromafewsourcesnotavailableinarchives.)Gration’sthesis,

writtenmorethanfortyyearsago,istheonlyworkthatcoverstherelationshipbetween

themissionandthechurchduringdecolonisation.Hearguesthattheriseofnationalism

playedacentralroleinthestrainedrelationshipbetweenthechurchandthemission,and

hegivesconsiderabledetailabouttheargumentsthatensuedinthelate1960s.His

45ZablonNthamburi,FromMissiontoChurch:AHandbookofChristianityinEastAfrica(Nairobi:UzimaPress,1995),24-25.

46W.B.Anderson,TheChurchinEastAfrica,1840-1974(Dodoma:CentralTanganyikaPress,1977),145.

47JohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyaBetween1895and1971’(Ph.D.diss.,NewYorkUniversity,1974).

20

dissertationcoversawideperiod(1895-1971)andhasthefeelofawell-informed

historicalnarrativeratherthanatightlyarguedthesis.Hisstudyendsin1971and

providesnodiscussionofthechurch’sfirstbishoportheeventsthatfollowedthehand-

overofthemissiontothechurch.Gration’sworkpavedthewayforthepresentstudy,

providingsomeimportanthistoricalmarkersinthehistoryofthemission,aswellas

eyewitnessaccountstotensionsthatexistedinthemissioninthelate1960s.

StephenMorad’s1997thesis‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMission

andTheirInteractionwiththeAfricanContextinKenya,1895-1939’wasalsowrittenbyan

AIMmissionary.48Histhesisprovidesastudyoftheearlyyearsofthemissionandthe

tensionsthatexistedbothwithinthemissionaswellasbetweenmissionariesandAfricans

upto1939.MoradarguesthatthefoundingprinciplesoftheAIMasanindependentfaith

missionoftencreatedconflictonthefield.AIMwasafield-managedmission(ratherthan

beingmanagedbyhomecouncils),itwasnondenominational(ithadnoparentbody),itdid

notallowmemberstosolicitfundsanditwassingle-mindedinitscommitmentto

evangelisticwork.Ineffect,missionconvictionsbecamesourcesofconflictforAIMasit

carriedoutitsworkinKenya.JamesKaranja’s2009dissertation‘TheMissionary

MovementinColonialKenya:TheFoundationofAfricaInlandChurch’highlightscultural

tensionsthatexistedbetweenmissionariesandKikuyuChristiansinthe1930s,leadingup

totheformationofAfricanchurchin1943.49Hisstudyislimitedtotherelationship

48StephenMorad,‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMissionandTheirInteractionwiththeAfricaContextinKenyafrom1895to1939:TheStudyofaFaithMission’(PhDdiss.,UniversityofEdinburgh,1997).

49JamesKaranja,TheMissionaryMovementinColonialKenya:TheFoundationofAfricaInlandChurch(Göttingen:Cuvillier,2009).

21

betweenAIMandtheKikuyu,andendsinthe1950s.Thereisnodiscussionofdevolution,

buthedoesdealwithsomeoftheproblemsonmission-churchtensionsduringthe1940s.

Therearetwostandardhistoriesofthemissionandonerecentworkonthehistory

oftheAIC.AlloftheseworksarewrittenbyformerAIMmissionariesandhavethefeelof

promotionalpieces.Thefirstgeneralhistoryofthemission,GardenofMiracles:TheStory

oftheAfricaInlandMission,waswrittenbyAIMmissionaryKennethRichardsonand

publishedin1968.50Thebookwasrepublishedin1976withanadditionalchapterwritten

byAIMmissionaryEdwardArensen,whoalsoservedasaneditorforInlandAfrica,the

mission’sofficialorgan.Thebookprovidesageographicalsurveyofthemission,covering

theexpansionofAIMinKenya,Tanganyika,theBelgianCongo,WestNile-Uganda,the

CentralAfricanRepublicandSouthernSudan.Thereisanunfortunateerrorintheepilogue

thatcanbemisleadingtotheoverallnarrative.Richardsonlists16October1961(rather

than16October1971)asthe‘historicday’whenthe‘MissionturnedovertotheNational

Church’itsauthorityandleadership.51Theepiloguebrieflymentionsthechurch’sfirst

bishop,butthereisnoinformationonhimorhisworkinthe1970s.TheEastAfricaRevival

isbrieflytouchedoninRichardson’shistory,andthereareonlypassingreferencestothe

churchorAfricanworkers.Therearenoreferencestobreakawaydenominationsinthe

1940sorhintsthatsignificantmission-churchtensionsexistedinthe1960s.

50KennethRichardson,GardenofMiracles:TheStoryoftheAfricaInlandMission(London:AfricaInlandMission,1968).

51Ibid.,256.

22

DickAnderson’s1994bookWeFeltLikeGrasshoppers:TheStoryofAfricaInland

MissionhasbecomethestandardhistoryoftheAIM.52Andersonworkedasamedical

missionarywiththeAIMfrom1956andservedinseveralcapacitieswiththemission,

includinggeneralsecretary,apositionhehelduntilhisretirementin1990.Anderson

coversthehistoryofthemissionfromitsfoundingin1895tothelate1980s.Thestoryof

AIMisrecountedbyhighlightingtheworkofcelebratedmissionariesbeginningwithPeter

CameronScott,andasthemissionexpands,followingotherwell-knownfigureslike

CharlesHurlburt,C.T.Studd(whoservedbrieflywithAIM),LeeDowning,CarlBecker,Tom

Collins,ErikBarnett,andJonathanHildebrandt.AndersonhighlightstheworkofAfricans

inafewplaces,givingbiographicalsketchesofafewAfricanevangelistsandpastors,

thoughthefirstbishopoftheAICismentionedonlyinpassing.Thereissomeinformation

ontheproblemsassociatedwithmission-churchrelationships,andhehelpfullydiscloses

thattherewerefrustrationsanddisagreementsonmissionorganizationduringthe1950s

and1960s.Thereisacandidconfessionthatthemissionmismanagedtheeducational

crisisinthe1940sbutnomentionoftheindependentchurchesthatemerged.The

problemssurroundingdevolutionareblamedonthe‘windsofchange’inAfrica,butthere

isnofurtheranalysis.

RichardGehman’sFromDeathtoLife:TheBirthoftheAfricanInlandChurchinKenya,

1895-1945isahagiographicalworkthatprovideshistoricaldetailgleanedfrom

documentedconversationswithothermissionariesandprimarysourcematerialsinhis

52DickAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers:TheStoryofAfricaInlandMission(Nottingham,UK:Crossway,1994).

23

possession.53Gehman’sworkdoesnotprovidecriticalreflectiononthehistoryofthe

mission,andthereisnoattempttointeractwiththerelevantscholarshiponthehistoryof

Christianmissions.HisworkdoesgivedueattentiontotheleadershipofAfricansand

showsthattheAICwaspressingfordevolutioninthe1960s.Healsoobservesthatthe

missionhaddifficultyadjustingtotheriseofnationalismandAfricanisation.Themission’s

reluctancetohandoveritsauthoritytotheAfricanchurchitestablishedandtheacrimony

thatensuedislargelymissingfromofficialhistoriesofthemission.

TheDelimitationsoftheStudy

Thisthesisisparticularlyconcernedwiththeattitudesofmissionariesandmission

leaderstowardtheAfricanchurchanditsleadersduringtheperiodunderconsideration.

WhilethestudyconsidersAfricanperspectives,itprovidesamorepenetratingexamination

ofmissionarybeliefsandattitudesduringdecolonisationinKenya.ThoughtheAfrican

voiceisheard,thearchivalmaterialavailableforthestudycalledgreaterattentiontothe

deliberationsofmissionaries.54Thetimeperiod1939-1975waschoseninordertotrace

theevolvingrelationshipoftheWesternmissionwiththeAfricanchurchbeforeandafter

independenceinKenya.ThestudyislimitedtoKenya,themission’sstrongholdinEast

Africaanditsoldestterritory.WhileAIMplantedchurchesintheProtectorateofUganda,

Tanganyika,theBelgianCongo,theCentralAfricanRepublicandtheSudan,theemerging

53RichardGehman,FromDeathtoLife:TheBirthoftheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya(AnnArbor,MI:C-MBooks,2013).

54TheAfricanvoiceispresentbutmutedinmissionrecords(asonemightexpect).DuringtheresearchfortheprojectconsiderableeffortwasmadetoaccessthearchivesoftheAfricaInlandChurchinNairobi.ImadeseveralenquiresandvisitstotheAICofficeinanefforttodosoandwasfinallyinformedbyamemberofthestaffthatspecialpermissiontoexaminerecordsmustbegrantedbytheAICbishop.OnoneparticularoccasionIsecuredanappointmentwiththebishop,andafteraconsiderablewaitwasinformedbyanassistantthatthearchiveswerenotcurrentlyavailableforconsultation.

24

Africanchurchesdevelopedindependentlyineachterritory.(Thiswillbediscussedmore

fullyinchapter2.)However,developmentsinadjacentcoloniesandterritorieswillbe

mentionedastheyimpingedontherelationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurchin

Kenya.

TheLand,thePeopleandtheMission

Themodernnation-stateofKenyahasalandmassof224,960squaremiles,making

itnearlyidenticalinsizetotheIberianPeninsula.Kenya’sgeographymaybedividedinto

fourregions:thecoastalarea,thedrylands(oraridplains),thehighlandsandtheLake

Victoriaregion.55ThetotalpopulationofKenyain1900wasapproximately1millionand

increasedtoamorethan8millionby1962,theyearbeforeindependence.56The

indigenousinhabitantsofKenyaarelargelycomprisedoffourlinguisticfamilies:Nilotic,

Bantu,Hamitic(orCushitic),andNilo-Hamitic(thelattertwofamiliesaresometimes

groupedtogether).57Thoughasettlercolony,onlyonepercentofKenya’spopulationhas

historicallycomprisedmembersofthesegroups(Arabs,AsiansandEuropeans).The

coastalareaismostlyhumidtosub-humidandstretchessome250milesfromtheborder

ofSomaliainthenorth,downtoTanzaniainthesouth.Kenya’scoastlineresemblesa

tropicalparadiserimmedbywhite-sandbeaches,lushvegetationandtoweringpalms.

WillisR.Hotchkiss,oneoftheoriginalsevenmissionariestoarriveinKenyain1895,wrote

55MarioAzevedo,ed.Kenya:TheLand,ThePeople,TheNation(Durham,NC:CarolinaAcademicPress,1993),63-66.

56SurveyofKenya,NationalAtlasofKenya(Nairobi:KenyaGovernment,1970),48.

57WilliamR.Ocheing’,AHistoryofKenya(London:Macmillan,1985),13-35,passim.OcheingprovidesahelpfuloverviewofthehistoryoftribalfamiliesandtheirmigrationpatternsinKenya.

25

ofthe‘lovelyharbour’ofMombasa,callingit‘breathtakinginitssheerallurement’.58Inhis

now-famoustraveloguedescribingthedangersofworkingontheUgandaRailway,J.H.

PattersonrecallshissurpriseastheshipcameintotheportofMombasain1899.He

recountsthe‘delightfulandbeautifulpicture’ofan‘oldArabcityfringedwithpalmsand

washedbythewarmwatersoftheIndianOcean’.59ThecoastalareawhereAIM

missionariesarrivedbyshipisheavilycultivatedwithmango,cashew,coconut,and

sprawlingcommercialorchardsandishometotheCoastalBantuethnicgroups,the

Mijikenda,theTaitaandtheSwahili.Sweepingnorthandnorthwestfromthecoast,and

arcingwideofMountKenya,theclimateismostlyaridtoveryaridandissparsely

populated.Thegeographicfeaturesofthedrylandsinthenorthandnorthwestresemble

theneighbouringnationsofSomalia,EthiopiaandSouthSudan.TheHamitic(orCushitic)-

speakingGalla,SomoliandRendilleinthenorth,andtheNilo-Hamiticethnicgroups,the

SamburuandTurkana,inhabitthisregion.

58WillisR.Hotchkiss,ThenandNowinKenyaColony:FortyAdventurousYearsinEastAfrica(LondonandEdinburgh:FlemingH.Revell,1937),14.

59Col.J.H.Patterson,TheMan-EatingLionsofTsavo(Chicago:FieldMuseumofNaturalHistory,1925),3.

26

Approximately200kilometresinlandfromMombasa,beyondVoiandtheTsavo

River,thelandgraduallyrisessome5,000feetabovesealeveltoformthegatewaytothe

KenyanhighlandsnearthecityofMachakos.Thehighlandscovermorethan12,000square

milesofthebestagriculturallandinthecountryandaretypicallysubdividedintothe

eastern,centralandwesternregions.Theclimaterangesfromhumidtosemi-humidand

thelandisextensivelyplantedwithcoffee,tea,sisal,mangoandpineapple.Theeastern

highlandsareoftenreferredtoasUkambanibecausetheyarehometotheKambapeople.

Map1.ClimateMapofKenya

27

ThesprawlingcityofNairobiformsthesouthernnodeofthecentralhighlands.Thispartof

thehighlandsstretchesnorththroughthetownofThika,thenslopesupwardtowardthe

AberdareMountainstothenorthwestandMountKenyatowardthenortheast.Mount

Kenyaisthesnow-cappediconofthecountry,toweringmorethan17,000feetabovesea

level,andisvisiblefromadistanceofmorethanfiftymiles.Thecentralhighlandsare

hometotheKikuyuandtheMeruwiththeareaaroundNairobiformingacomplexmixof

ethnicgroups.ThehighlandsflanktheGreatRiftValley,thenstretchtotheborderof

UgandatowardMountElgon.TheGreatRiftValleyishometotheNilo-HamiticMassai

people,theBantu-speakingLuhya,andamixtureofotherethnicgroups.Thehighlands

westoftheGreatRiftValley,inthevicinityofthecityofEldoret,arehometotheKalenjin-

speakingNilo-Hamiticpeople,theKipsigi,theMarokwet,theNandi,thePokotandthe

Tugen.TheKenyanhighlandswerehometolargesettlercommunitiesinthe1920sdown

tothe1950s,madefamousbythemostinfluentialBritishsettler,LordDelamere(1870-

1931),andthepleasure-seekingadventurersfromAustralia,SouthAfricanandGreat

Britain,whobecameknownasthe‘HappyValleyset’.60Thefertilelandandpleasantyear-

roundclimesofthehighlandsflankingtheGreatRiftValleybecameattractionsfor

Europeans.AsElspethHuxleyrecountedintheclassicstoryofherchildhoodinThika,‘Oh,

butthewholecountryisagarden;agardenGodhasplanted.’61ThefamedIsakDinesen

(KarenBlixen)wouldwriteofher‘farminAfrica,atthefootoftheNgongHills’inKenya’s

centralhighlands:‘Inthehighlandsyouwokeupinthemorningandthought:“HereIam,

60NicholasBest,HappyValley:TheStoryoftheEnglishinKenya(London:ThistlePublishing,2013).

61ElspethHuxley,TheFlameTreesofThika:MemoriesofanAfricanChildhood(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1959),12.

28

whereIoughttobe.”’62TheLakeVictoriaregion,alsoknownasNyanzaDistrict,isinthe

extremesouthwestcornerofKenya.TheareaaroundLakeVictoriahasahumidtosemi-

humidclimate.Thoughsmall,itisthemostdenselypopulatedregionofKenyaandishome

totheNilotic-speakingpeople,theLuo.

AIMbeganitsworkintheeasternandcentralhighlandsamongtheKambaandthe

Kikuyu.Together,thesetwogroupscomprisenearlyone-thirdoftheindigenous

population.Dueinparttothelargenumbersofinhabitants,thetownsandvillagesof

62IsakDinesen,OutofAfrica(NewYork:RandomHouse,1938),4.

Map2.MainEthnicGroupsofKenya

29

UkambaniandKikuyulandintheKenyanhighlandsbecameAIMstrongholdsduringthe

colonialperiodandcontinuedtobecentresofchurchgrowthafterindependence.The

completionoftheUgandaRailwayconnectedtheportofMombasatotheshoresofLake

VictoriaandallowedmissionariestobeginspreadingtootherpartsofKenya(aswellas

borderingcolonies)withgreaterease.Themissionexpandedtothewesternsideofthe

GreatRiftValleyextendingitsworkintheEldoretareawhereitgainedawidefollowing

amongtheKalenjin-speakingpeople.The‘EldoretArea’alsobecameknownasthe‘British

Sphere’becausemostoftheAIMmissionariesassignedtothisregionwerefromtheUnited

Kingdom.(Thiswillbediscussedbelow.)Themissionalsogainedasignificantfollowingin

thedenselypopulatedregionofNyanzaamongtheLuoaroundLakeVictoria(nearthe

terminusoftheUgandaRailway).AIMhadsomesuccessduringthecolonialperiod

workingwiththeMasaiintheGreatRiftValleyalongtheKenya-Tanganyikaborderaround

Syabei.AIMwaslesssuccessfulworkingwiththeTurkanaandtheSamburuinthesparsley

populateddesertregionsofthenorth.Themissionlargelybypassedthetropicalcoastal

areaswhereAnglican,MethodistandCatholicmissionshadalreadyestablishedapresence

priortothearrivaloftheAIMin1895.AIMwantedtoworkinlandandestablishstations

amongwhatitcalled‘unreachedpeoples’.Themissionestablishedtwomainstationsin

theColonyofKenyaaftertheconstructionoftheUgandaRailway,oneinKijabe(inthe

centralhighlands),andanotherinKapsabet(inthewesternhighlands).Italsomaintained

sometwentyotherstationsthroughoutthecolonyalongwithsmalleroutstationsinremote

areas.AIMsupervisedtheAfricanchurchitestablishedthroughaCentralChurchCouncil

dividedintofourregionalcouncils:UkambaniRegionalCouncil(intheeasternhighlands)

nearMachakos,theKikuyuRegionalChurchCouncil(centralhighlands)nearKijabe,Lake

30

RegionalCouncil(LakeVictoriaregion)nearKisumu,andtheEldoretChurchCouncil(on

thewesternsideoftheGreatRiftValley)inthevicinityoftheEldoret.Thesecouncils

representedthefourstrongestregionsofthemissioninKenya.63Themission’swork

amongsmallerethnicgroupswasusuallymanagedthroughremoteoutstationswherea

missionarywouldbeassigned.

63CharlesWilliamTeasdale,‘AnEvaluationoftheEcclesiologyoftheAfricanInlandChurch’(MAthesis,WheatonCollege,1956),50.

Map3.MapofStationsandMainStationsinKenyaandOtherAIMFields(circa.1950).

31

NotesonNamesandPlaces

Bantu-speakingethnicgroupsutilizeprefixesandsuffixestosignifyplaces,names

andlanguages.Forexample,theword‘Kamba’referstothepeople,while‘Kikamba’

denotesthelanguage,and‘Ukambani’theland.Thenamesofterritories,coloniesand

nationsinEastandCentralAfricaduringtheperiodunderwentchangesduringtheperiod

1939to1975.Theprimarysourcesusuallyreflectthesechangesaccurately,thoughthere

aregeneralexceptions.Forexample,‘Kenya’isusedinterchangeablywith‘colonialKenya’

orthe‘ColonyofKenya’duringthecolonialperiod,though‘Kenya’isusedexclusivelyafter

independencein1963.‘Tanganyika’and‘TanganyikaTerritory’isusedintheprimary

sourcesfortheperiodpriortoindependence,while‘Tanzania’isreservedfortheperiod

after1964whenTanganyikamergedwithZanzibar.Missionariesused‘Congo’(or‘Congo

Field’)and‘BelgianCongo’interchangeablyupto1960,andtheyfrequentlyused‘Congo’as

shorthandforthe‘DemocraticRepublicofCongo’(1960-1971).Zairewasusedexclusively

after1971.Thethesishasusedpropernamesforpoliticalentities,butthismayvarywhen

directlyquotingarchivalmaterial.Oneunusualvariationistheuseof‘WestNile’and

‘Uganda’(seemap3).AIMacceptedaninvitationbytheChurchMissionarySociety(CMS)

toworkintheWestNileDistrictofUgandalocatedinthenorthwest‘BritishProtectorateof

Uganda’;thusthenames‘Uganda’,‘WestNile’and‘WestNile-Uganda’areused

synonymouslybythemissioncommunitywhenreferringtotheAIMmissionfieldin

‘Uganda’,while‘Uganda’issometimesusedtorefertotheentireBritishProtectorate.In

mostinstances,thecontextwillmakethereferentsforplacesclear.Otherunusual

variationswillbeexplainedinthefootnotesandaglosswillbeprovidedforthemodicum

ofSwahiliwordsusedinthethesis.

32

AShortHistoryoftheMissionto1938

Beginninginthe1940s,AIMmissionarieswerereferringtotheerafrom1895tothe

beginningoftheSecondWorldWarasthe‘pioneer’phaseofthemission.The1941

minutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil(BHC)statedthattheworkinKenyaisnow‘emerging

fromthepioneerstagetowardsbecomingaself-supportingunit’.64Missionariesbegan

referringtothedecadeofthe1940sasa‘modern’periodintheworkofthemission.Asthe

Kenyafielddirectorputin1942,‘Kenyaisnolongerapioneermissionfieldbutacivilized

countrywithmodernproblems.’65Someofthe‘modernproblems’themissionfaced,

however,begininthe‘pioneerstage’.

TheFoundingofanEvangelicalMission,1895-1896

ThehistoryoftheAIMfromitsinceptionin1895totheformalestablishmentofthe

churchintheearly1940smaybedividedintothreeperiods:thefoundingoftheAIMby

Evangelicalmissionenthusiasts(1895-1896);theestablishmentandexpansionoftheAIM

throughtheenergeticleadershipofCharlesE.Hurlburt(1897-1925);andthecontinued

growthoftheAIMduringaperiodofturmoil(1926-1938).66TheScottishmissionaryPeter

CameronScott(1867-1896)andtheAmericanclergymanA.T.Piersonwereinstrumental

inthefoundingoftheAIM.Scottwasbornon7March1867inGlasgowandemigratedto

theUnitedStateswithhisparentsandfoursiblingsattheageoftwelve.Scottattendedthe

64MinutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil,13March1941,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

65HarmonNixontoRalphT.Davis,16March1942,AIMInternational,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81.

66RichardGehman,FromDeathtoLife:TheBirthoftheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya(AnnArbor,MI:C-MBooks,2013),9.Gehmanhelpfullydividestheperiod1895to1945intothreesimilarphases,andIhaveborrowedthistaxonomywithsomemodification.

33

MissionaryTrainingInstitute(laterNyackCollege),aBibleschoolinNewYorkfoundedby

theCanadianEvangelicalministerA.B.Simpson(1843-1919)forthepurposeoftraining

Evangelicalmissionaries.67Inlate1890,afteronlyoneyearofcoursework,Scottsetsail

forAfricatoservewiththeInternationalMissionaryAlliance(laternamedtheChristian

andMissionaryAlliance),arrivingatthemouthoftheCongoRiverinearly1891.68Scott’s

brotherjoinedhimforthisexpedition,buttragicallydiedintheCongowithinafewmonths.

Hecontinuedhisserviceforlessthantwoyearsbeforeleavingthefieldinpoorhealth.

WhilestayingwithfriendsinLondon,ScottattendedaprayergatheringoftheChinaInland

Mission(CIM)andvisitedthegraveoftheScottishmissionary-explorerDavidLivingstone

(1813-1873)inWestminsterAbbey.Duringthisrespite,Scottrenewedhiscommitmentto

returntoAfricaandbegandevisingplanstoenterthecontinentfromMombasaonAfrica’s

eastcoastinordertoavoidthedisease-riddenwatersoftheCongoBasin.69

ScotttravelledbacktoAmericaandsoughtthecounselofArthurT.Pierson,an

AmericanpastorandamissionenthusiastwhofrequentlylecturedinEnglandandScotland.

PiersonwasaneruditeEvangelicalleaderwhoenjoyedclosefriendshipswithinfluential

EvangelicalslikeD.L.Moody(1837-1899),C.I.Scofield(1843-1921),GeorgeMüller(1805-

67RichardGehman,FromDeathtoLife,15.

68LarryPoston,‘ChristianandMissionaryAllianceMissions’inEvangelicalDictionaryofWorldMissions.

69BiographicalinformationonPeterCameronScottwastakenfromthefollowingsources:CatherineMiller,TheLifeofPeterCameronScott:TheUnlockedDoor(London:ParryJackmanLimited,1955);D.F.Wright,DictionaryofScottishChurchHistoryandTheology(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1993),s.v.‘Scott,PeterCameron(1867-1896)’;MabelS.Grimes,LifeOutofDeath,orTheStoryoftheAfricaInlandMission(London:AfricaInlandMission,1917),9-20;‘Scotland’sUnknownWarrior’(London:AfricaInlandMission),AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham);RobertT.Coote,BiographicalDictionaryofChristianMissions(NewYork:Simon&SchusterMacmillan,1998),s.v.‘Scott,PeterCameron.’;KennethRichardson,GardenofMiracles:TheStoryoftheAfricaInlandChurch(London:AfricaInlandMission,1976),21-36;Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,13-38;StephenMorad,‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMissionandTheirInteractionwiththeAfricaContextinKenyafrom1895to1939:TheStudyofaFaithMission’(PhDdiss.,UniversityofEdinburgh,1997),13-15.

34

1898)andCharlesH.Spurgeon(1834-1892).Pierson’sthoughtfulleadership,andhis

relationshipwithwell-knownEvangelicalpersonalities,allowedhimtowieldsignificant

influenceforthecauseofforeignmissions.Heisconsideredthespiritualfatherofthe

StudentVolunteerMovement(SVM),organizedin1888forthepurposeofrecruiting

missionariesatcollegesanduniversities.SVMadoptedthesloganpopularizedbyPierson

himself,‘TheEvangelizationoftheWorldinthisGeneration’.70Piersonhadareputationfor

encouragingyouthfulidealismforthecauseofforeignmissionarylabour.In1895Pierson

agreedtoformthePhiladelphiaMissionaryCouncil(PMC)andtheAfricanInlandMission

(AIM)inordertohelpScottrealizehisdream.ThePMCwouldserveastheparentbodyof

themission,collectingsupportandrecruitingmissionaries,whiletheAIMwouldserveas

thefieldagencyontheAfricancontinentwithScottasthegeneralfieldsecretary.

AIMwasestablishedasanindependent‘faithmission’,similartoEvangelical

missionsliketheChinaInlandMission(1865)theLivingstoneInlandMission(1878)and

theSudanInteriorMission(1893).71Faithmissionsenergeticallyrecruitedtheirworkers

fromavarietyofdifferentProtestantdenominations,whetherAnglican,Congregational,

Methodist,Presbyterian,orBaptist.Thespecificaimoffaithmissionswastofillavoid,so

tospeak,toencouragelaypersonstovolunteerfortheworkoftakingthegospelinland,to

movebeyondthecoastalareaswheredenominationalmissionslaboured,inordertoreach

‘unevangelized’people.Thename‘faithmissions’isderivedfromthebeliefthat

70DanaRobert,OccupyUntilICome:A.T.PiersonandtheEvangelizationoftheWorld(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,2003),150,passim.

71EdwinL.Frizen,Jr.,75YearsoftheIFMA,1917-1992:TheNondenominationalMissionsMovement(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,1992),139-176.

35

missionariesshouldgoout‘infaith’withoutthepromiseofasalaryfromadenomination.72

Thesemissionswerenotaffiliatedwithadenomination.Theyweretobefield-managed,

theyweretomakeevangelismtheirhighestpriority,andtheiraimwastoworkamong

whatthemissioncalled‘unreachedpeople’.73

On27October1895apartyofsevenmissionariesledbyScottlandedontheshores

ofBritishEastAfricaandbegantheirjourneyinlandfromMombasaon12November.The

missiontravelledwitha‘Governmentcaravan’ofsomeforty-twocamelsand300porters

thatwasenroutetoUganda.74On12December1895,theymissionariesarrivedatNzaui

intheeasternhighlandstobegintheirworkamongtheKambapeople.Machakoswasa

colonialoutpost,andtheareaaroundNzauiwasagatewayintotheinteriorthathadbeen

usedasacrossroadfornineteenth-centuryEuropeanexploration.75Thesmallteam

immediatelysettoworkbuildingastationtoserveasamakeshiftheadquartersfortheAIM

whileScottcontinuedexploringtheregionofUkambani.76On4December1896,aftera

littlemorethanayearinBritishEastAfrica,Scottsuccumbedtohaematuriaanddiedat

NzauiStation.Followinghisdeath,onemissionaryresigned,twofellsickandreturnedto

72Ahistoryofthe‘faithprinciple’innineteenth-centuryEvangelicalismisrecountedinDavidW.Bebbington,TheDominanceofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofSpurgeonandMoody(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,2005),185-190.

73KlausFiedler,TheStoryofFaithMissions:FromHudsonTaylortoPresentDayAfrica(Oxford:RegnumBooksInternational,1994),11-69.

74Hotchkiss,ThenandNowinKenyaColony,23.

75SurveyofKenya,NationalAtlasofKenya(1970),82-83.

76AmemorialtoPeterScottisbeingconstructedinthetownofNzaui,locatedsome75kilometerssoutheastofMachakos.Iamgratefultoaformerstudentfortakingmetovisitthesite.

36

Mombasa,andtwodiedoftropicalfever.Onemissionary,WillisHotchkiss,remainedata

smallstationinKangundo(seemap3).77

EstablishingtheMissioninAfrica,1897-1925

CharlesE.Hurlburt(1860-1936)wastheactingstatesecretaryofthePennsylvania

YMCAandpresidentofthePhiladelphiaMissionaryCouncilwhenScottdiedinDecember

1896.In1898HurlburtpaidavisittoBritishEastAfricatoassessthesituationfirsthand.

Hesentreinforcementsthefollowingyearand1901HurlburtmovedtoKenyawithhis

wifeandfivechildren.78Between1901and1925,themissionenvisionedbyScottand

PiersonbecamefirmlyestablishedinAfricaunderhisleadership.Hurlburtpossesseda

strongphysicalconstitutionaswellasavarietyofpracticaltalentsnecessaryforsurvivalin

theclimesofEastAfrica.HehadtheappearanceofayoungAbrahamLincolnwithfacial

featuresthatevincedanunyieldinginnerdetermination.Oneofhiscolleaguesobserved

thathewas‘agooddoctor,dentist,carpenter,bricklayer,andalmostanythingneededona

missionstation’.79Hewasalsoaneffectiverecruiterandpossessedararecharismathat

attractedadventuresomeidealiststojointhemissioninEastAfrica.Duringhistenureas

generaldirectorofthemission,hesuccessfullyenlistednearlytwohundredmissionaries

fromtheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain.80Hurlburtalsoencouragedthesuccessful

recruitmentofindigenousconverts,believingthat‘native’evangelistswereessentialtothe

77MabelS.Grimes,LifeOutofDeath;or,thestoryoftheAfricaInlandMission(London:AfricaInlandMission,1917),20.

78Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,51;RobertT.Coote,‘Hurlburt,CharlesE’inBiographicalDictionaryofChristianMissions.

79JohnStauffacher,citedinGehman,FromDeathtoLife,53.

80Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,53;DickAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,38.

37

successofthemission.Hewrotein1924that‘few,ifanyofourmissionariescanhopeto

beasusefulingeneralevangelismasthenative’andthat‘ouridealmustalwaysbeaself

supportingandselfdirectingnativechurch,ledandtaughtbynativeministers.’81Hurlburt

believedthatmissionariesshouldworkhand-in-handwithconvertstocreateastrong

indigenouschurchthatcouldbehandedovertoAfricans.

In1903HurlburtreplacedthePhiladelphiaMissionaryCouncilwiththeAmerican

HomeCouncilandaddedaBritishHomeCouncilthreeyearslaterinordertorecruit

missionariesandraisesupportintheBritishIsles.In1906hemovedtheAIM

headquartersfromUkambanitoalargecentralmissionstationatKijabeinthecentral

highlands,wherethemissionsecuredmorethan2,500acresfromthecolonial

administration.82Inthesameyear,heestablishedtheRiftValleyAcademy(RVA)atKijabe

toprovideprimaryandsecondaryeducationformissionarychildren.Theschoolwould

eventuallybecomeoneofthemostprestigiousprivateboardinginstitutionsontheAfrican

continent.MissionariesboastedthatKijabewas‘possiblythelargestmissionstationinthe

world’andbecamewhatmightbecalleda‘missionaryestate’withschoolbuildings,

dormitories,hospitalfacilities,recreationalandconferencefacilitiesandanimpressive

homeforthemissionaryincharge.83In1908,duringavisittotheUnitedStatestopromote

theworkofthemission,HurlburtwassummonedtotheWhiteHousebyPresident

TheodoreRoosevelt(1901-1909),ostensiblytoconsultwithhimonEastAfricanpolicy.(It

81CharlesE.Hurlburt,‘AnnualReport’,InlandAfrica(Brooklyn),Vol.VIII,no.7[July1924],1.

82DavidP.Sandgren,ChristianityandtheKikuyu:ReligiousDivisionsandSocialConflict(NewYork:PeterLang,1989),30.

83TheRiftValleyAcademyhasbeenthesubjectofseveralbooksincludingEdithDevitt,OntheEdgeoftheRiftValley(Langley,BC:UniversityPrinters,1992);PhilipE.Dow,‘SchoolintheClouds’:TheRiftValleyAcademyStory(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,2003);andMaryAndersonHoner,TheDowningLegacy:SixDecadesatRiftValleyAcademy(Bloomington,IN:iUniverse,2010).

38

wasmorelikelythatRooseveltwishedtogainsomeknowledgeofthebestplacesfor

huntingbiggame).WhenRoosevelttravelledtoKenyain1909onahuntingexpedition,he

paidHurlburtapersonalvisitandparticipatedinthededicationofthenewbuildingforthe

RiftValleyAcademy.HurlburtalsosuccessfullyenlistedthehelpofRoosevelttopetition

KingAlbertofBelgiumforAIMaccesstotheBelgianCongo.84HerepresentedAIMatthe

WorldMissionaryConferencein1910andservedasthechairofthe1913Kikuyu

ConferenceinKenya,agatheringofProtestantmissionsocietiesthatgavebirthto

ecumenicalmissionaryeffortsinKenya.85DuringHurlburt’stenure,themissionalso

extendedintoGermanEastAfricain1908,theWestNileregionoftheBritishProtectorate

ofUgandain1918andFrenchEquatorialAfricain1924.86

Hurlburtwasaneffectiveleader,butheoftenmadeimportantdecisionsunilaterally,

seldomconferringwithhismissioncolleaguesormembersofthehomecouncil.In1918he

madethedecisiontomovethemissionheadquartersfurtherinlandtoAlbaintheBelgian

Congo,insistingthatAIM’sworkinKenyahadbeenlargelyfinished.Hebelievedthatitwas

timetoturnthechurchovertoAfricanleadershipintheColonyofKenyasothatthe

missioncouldcontinueworkingin‘unevangelized’areasofAfrica.87TheAmericanHome

Councilandthemissioncommunityopposedthischangeindirection,insistingthatthe

‘native’churchneededtobestrengthenedthroughcontinuededucation.Hurlburtignored

84J.N.KanyuaMugambi.ChristianMissionandSocialTransformation:AKenyanPerspective(Nairobi,Kenya:NationalCouncilofChurchesofKenya,1989),29-30.

85M.G.Capon,TowardsUnityinKenya;TheStoryofCo-OperationBetweenMissionsandChurchesinKenya1913-1947(Nairobi:ChristianCouncilofKenya,1962),10;Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,35.

86Richardson,GardenofMiracles,ix-x;Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,60.

87Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,60.

39

theiradviceandaseriesofdisputesfollowedoverthemission’slocusofauthority,creating

ariftbetweenhimandthecouncil.Inafitoffrustration,Hurlburtofferedhisresignationto

in1925,fullyexpectingthatitwouldaskhimtoremainasgeneraldirector.88Hewas

surprisedwhenhisresignationwasaccepted.Afterhisdeparturein1925,Hurlburtserved

forashortperiodoftimeastheSuperintendentoftheBibleInstituteofLosAngeles

(BIOLA),andin1927usedhisconsiderableinfluencetofoundhisownmission,the

UnevangelizedAfricaMission.89Afterhisresignationin1925,themissionappearstohave

largelyabandonedtheideaofestablishingafullyindigenouschurchguidedbyAfrican

pastors.90

ExpandingtheMissioninCrisisandConflict,1926-1938

Theperiod1926to1938wasmarkedbycontinuedgrowthandexpansionasAIM

simultaneouslystruggledthroughpersistentorganizationalturmoilandrising

dissatisfactionbyAfricanconvertsovermissionpractices.TheresignationofHurlburtin

1925createdapowervacuumthatwasfilledwithsomesuccessbytheAmericanHome

Council(AHC)andthemission’shomesecretary,HenryD.Campbell(1864-1941).91

CampbellhadservedformanyyearsonthestaffofMoodyChurchinChicago,an

independentBiblechurchestablishedbythewell-knownAmericanpastorD.L.Moody

88StephenDanielMorad,‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMissionandTheirInteractionwiththeAfricaContextinKenyafrom1895-1939:TheStudyofaFaithMission’(PhDdiss.,UniversityofEdinburgh,1997),143-169.Morad’sthesisprovidesconsiderabledetailaboutthedisputebetweenHurlburtandthehomecouncil.

89JackE.Nelson,ChristianMissionizingandSocialTransformation:AHistoryofConflictandChangeinEasternZaire(Wesport,CT:PraegerPublishers,1992),29-32.

90Morad,‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMission,’413.

91HenryD.Campbell,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81,PersonnelFiles.

40

(1837-1899).In1922CampbellbecametheactingpastorofMoodyChurchfollowingthe

resignationofthewell-knownAmericanrevivalistDanielPaulRader(1878-1938).He

remainedonthechurch’sstaffbeforebecomingthegeneralsecretaryforAIMin1926.

UnderCampbell,thebalanceofpowershiftedfromthefieldtothehomecouncil,with

CampbellreigningovertheworkoftheAIMfromthemission’sheadquartersinNewYork.

Theshiftinpowertothehomeofficewasintendedasacorrectivetotheautocraticfield

leadershipofHurlburt.92Thischange,however,immediatelyuncoveredanotherproblem,

thatofhomecouncilsupremacy.93CampbellinsistedthattheAmericancouncilshould

serveasthepower-baseforthemission,andhisgenerallackofdiplomacyimmediately

createdtensionbetweentheAmericanandBritishhomecouncils.In1928heresistedthe

BritishHomeCouncil’smovetocreatea‘BritishSphere’intheregionaroundEldoretasa

possiblesolutiontotheproblemofsharedoversight,andheinterpretedthe

recommendationasapowermoveonthepartoftheBHC.Thisareainthewestern

highlandshadalargesettlerpopulationfromAustralia,SouthAfricaandtheUnited

Kingdom.TheBritishHomeCouncil(BHC)hadpressedfordirectadministrative

supervisionofthisareabecausethenon-AmericanmissioncommunityaroundEldorethad

becomeincreasinglydiscontentwithAmericanoversight.TheBHCalsoarguedthatits

constituentsintheBritishIslesviewedAIMasanAmericanenterpriseandbelievedthat

creatingaBritishspherewouldhelpwithraisingfunds.94Afterseveralyearsofpressure

fromtheKenyaFieldDirector,andAmericanmissionarieswhofearedtherealpossibilityof

92Morad,‘FoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMission’,162.

93Ibid.,175.

94ThisishelpfullydiscussedinSamuelKiptalaiElolia,‘ChristianityandCultureinKenya:AnEncounterBetweentheAfricanInlandMissionandtheMarakwetBeliefSystemsandCulture’(PhDdiss.,TrinityCollege,UniversityofToronto,1992),166-173,passim.

41

aschisminthemission,Campbellreluctantlyagreedtotheproposal.In1932,whenthe

BHCcreatedacommitteeinCanadatoraiseawarenessforthemission,Campbellwas

adamantthattheAHChadjurisdictionoverallNorthAmerica.TheBHCforitspartargued

thatCanada’stiestotheUnitedKingdommadeitnaturalforthenewlyformedcommittee

toworkundertheBHC.ThroughthediplomaticinterventionofOswaldJ.Smith,an

influentialEvangelicalpastorinToronto,theCanadianCommitteewasfinallybrought

underthejurisdictionoftheAmericanHomeCouncilinordertoappeaseAmerican

concerns.In1934,whentheBritishHomeCouncilbeganunilateraltalkswiththeSouth

AfricaGeneralMission(SAGM)aboutajointstationinthenewlyestablished‘British

Sphere’,Campbellbecameirate.HeangrilyinformedtheBHCthatitsmembersshould

considerformingtheirownmission,andAmericanandBritishmissionariesonthefield

hadtointervenetomollifyCampbell’sanimosity.95ThesedisputesillustrateinpartAIM’s

on-goingstrugglewiththeissueofgovernanceasthemissiongrewlarger,aproblemthat

continuedcausingdifficultiesforAIMbetween1939and1970.

Campbell’slackofstatecraftwascounterbalancedbythesteadyleadershipofLee

HarperDowning(1866-1942),whoservedinKenyaasthefielddirectorofBritishEast

Africabetween1926and1938.DowningwasabookishPresbyterianwhotaughtLatinand

GreekatPhiladelphiaCollegeoftheBible.HewasachartermemberofthePhiladelphia

MissionaryCouncilandtheAfricaInlandMission.96Hispassionforforeignmissionsled

himtoleavehispostasalecturerin1899toserveonthefieldinKenyaandprovidea

95Interestingly,CampbellaccusedtheAmericanmissionariesonthefieldofbeing‘Britishloyalists’fornotsupportinghim.SeeMorad,‘FoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricanInlandMission,’181-196.Moradprovidesathoroughexaminationofthesedisputes.Thereisnotraceoftheirexistenceinthestandardhistoriesofthemission,andtheyarecuriouslyabsentfromGration’sthesis.

96MaryAndersonHoner,TheDowningLegacy:SixDecadesatRiftValleyAcademy(Bloomington,IN:iUniverse,2010),1-7;Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,84-85;Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,78-79.

42

steadypresenceinKenyauntilHurlburt’sarrivalin1901.HeworkedcloselywithHurlburt

duringhistenure,andin1921hewasappointedtoserveashisdeputygeneraldirector.

Eventhoughorganizationaltensionsexistedwithinthemission,AIMcontinuedgrowing,

guidedinlargemeasurebyDowning,whoservedonthefieldasaveritablefirst-among-

equals.In1926themissionexpandedfurthernorthinKenya,buildingastation,church

andschoolatKabartonjo(seemap3),whereKenya’ssecondpresidentDanielArapMoi

(1924-)waseducatedbyAIMmissionaries.97Themissionpresseddeeperinto

TanganyikaTerritory,erectingastationinBuduhe(seemap3).Themissionalsoopeneda

newstationinGoli(seemap3)intheWestNileregionoftheUgandaProtectoratein1929

andunderDowning’sleadershipsolidifieditsworkinthe‘BritishSphere’aroundEldoret.

Duringthedecadeofthe1930s,AIMopenedanotherseventeenmissionoutposts,creating

anever-enlargingwebofmissionstationsintheKenya,WestNile-Uganda,Tanganyikaand

theBelgianCongo.98Between1926and1939,Downingandhiscolleaguesonthefield

wereresponsibleforplantingmorethanonehundredchurchesinKenyaalone,utilizingan

enlargingpoolofAfricanworkerstohelpthemintheirlabours.99Inthe1930s,nearly

ninetypercentofthechurchesplantedinKenyaweretheresultof‘native’evangelists

workingwithWesternmissionariesorinsomecasesworkingalone,thoughresponsibleto

amissionary.100

97AndrewMorton,Moi:TheMakingofAnAfricanStatesman(London:MichaelO’MaraBooks,1988),10,33-37.

98Richardson,GardenofMiracles,x-xi.

99Morad,‘TheSpreadingTree’,14.

100Ibid.

43

Thesuccessof‘native’evangelistsinthe1920sand1930s,andtheincreasing

numberofchurchesneedingministers,createdanevengreaterdemandfortrainedAfrican

workers.In1928AIMfoundedtheUkambaBibleSchoolinMachakostotrainKamba

workers.ThefollowingyearthemissionestablishedtheW.Y.MoffatMemorialBible

InstituteinKijabe,aschoolthatbecameatrainingcentreforKikuyu,Luo,Nandeand

Massaievangelists.TheseschoolsprovidedrudimentaryBibleinstructionfor‘native’

evangelistsusinganintroductorycoursepreparedbytheScofieldMemorialChurchin

Dallas,Texas,andtranslatedintovariouslanguages.TheBibleschoolsforAfrican

evangelistswereledbymissionarieswhoheldcertificatesfrominstitutionslike

PhiladelphiaCollegeoftheBibleandMoodyBibleInstituteinChicago.AIMmissionaries

largelyreplicatedthebasicBibleschoolinstructiontheyhadreceived,thoughwithless

formality.Thefundingfortheseinstitutionswasmeagre,thequalityofinstructionwas

unevenandenrolmentwasoftenlow.Africanswerenottobetrainedforministerial

ordinationortheologicalcompetence,andthemissionarieswhotaughtthemwerenot

formallytrainedtheologiansorevenproperlycredentialedministers.Themissionary-

instructorswere,touseanexpressioncoinedbyD.L.Moody,‘gapmen’,Evangelical

laypersonsthathadacceptedacalltoproclaimthegospelinforeignfields.101AIM

missionariesreceivedabasiceducation,weresentoutto‘fillthegap’andwereinturn

teachingAfricanworkerstodothesame.AfricansweregivenageneralsurveyoftheBible

withanemphasisonEvangelicaldoctrine,andthentaughtbasicskillsforpreaching

101VirginiaLiesonBrereton,TrainingGod’sArmy:TheAmericanBibleSchool,1880-1940(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress),59-60.

44

sermons,leadingworshipservicesandteachingBiblelessons.102Thiseducationalscheme

wouldbesufficienttoincreasethenumberofconvertsinAfrica,butitwouldbeinsufficient

toprovidecompetentclergytoleadtheAfricanchurchinthe1940sandonintothe1960s.

Duringthisperiodofnumericalgrowthinthemission,Africanresentmentwasalso

growingtowardsmissionarycontrol.Thisresentmenteruptedin1929-1931inwhathas

beentermedinKenyanhistoriographytheFemaleCircumcisionCrisis.103In1921,when

DowningwasservingasassistantfielddirectorunderHurlburt,themissionhadruledthat

anyonepractisingfemalegenitalcircumcisionwouldbeexcommunicatedfromthe

church.104Themission’spolicywasenforcedonmissionstationswheremissionaries

exerciseddirectcontrol,butapplicationoftherulingwaslaxinruralchurches.(These

churcheswereoftenreferredtobymissionariesas‘out-churches’or‘bush-churches’.)A

divisiondevelopedbetweenthosechurchesthatremainedloyaltomissionaries(usually

thoseonmissionstations)andthosechurchesthatbeganlobbyingforautonomyfrom

missioncontrol.105In1928,inanefforttobreakAfricanresistance,AIMfieldcouncils

throughoutKenyaintroducedaloyaltyoathrequiringAfricanchurchmemberstoleave

theirthumbprintasapublicstatementoftheiroppositiontofemalecircumcisionandasa

testoftheirobediencetothemission.106EventhoseChristianswhonolongerpractised

102Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,223-242.Gehman,whoservedasamissionary-professorwithAIMinthe1960s,cullsfromprimarysourcematerialinhispossessionandprovidesthemosthelpfuloverviewoftheearlyBiblecollegesofthemission.Inourpersonalconversations,hereiteratedtheinformalnatureoftheseearlyinstitutions.

103LynnThomas,‘“Ngaitana(IWillCircumciseMyself)”:LessonsfromColonialCampaignstoBanExcisioninMeru,Kenya’inBettina-ShellDuncanandYlvaHernlund,eds.FemaleCircumcisioninAfrica:Culture,ControversyandChange(Boulder,CO:LynneReinnerPublishers,2000),132.

104Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,223-242.



45

femalecircumcisiontookumbrageatthehigh-handedtacticsofthemissionaries,causing

anti-Europeansentimentstoescalate.LargenumbersofKikuyuChristiansleftthemission-

controlledchurchtoattendindependentAfricanchurches.Forexample,churchattendance

atthemission’slargeststationatKijabefellfrom700tofewerthanfifty.Student

enrolmentatthegirls’primaryschoolonthesamestationfellfrom300studentstowell

underahundred.107ItisestimatedthatnearlyninetypercentoftheKikuyuabandoned

themission.

OnNewYear’sDay1930,AIMmissionaryHuldaStumpf(1867-1930)wasfound

deadinherhomeinKijabe.Thewindowofhercottagehadbeenshattered,glassandrocks

werestrewnacrossthefloorandherbodyhadbeenbrutallybeaten.Rumourquickly

spreadthatshehadalsobeenforciblycircumcised.Anautopsyrevealedthatshehadbeen

rapedandphysicallybeatentodeath.ThemurderofHuldaStumpfwasnaturally

consideredbymissionariesandcolonialofficialstohavebeenaprotestagainstEuropean

oppositiontofemalecircumcision.TheBritishgovernmentrespondedbyissuinga

compromiserulingthatallowedindigenouspeopletopractisefemalecircumcisionwhile

alsoprovidingprotectionforAfricangirlswhodidnotwishtoundergotheprocedure.AIM

missioncontinuedtoopposefemalecircumcisiononhumanitariangroundsbutrescinded

therequirementthatmemberspubliclyendorsemissionpolicy.Duringthe1930s,AIM

churchesamongtheKikuyuunderwentagradualrecovery,thoughmanyAIMconverts

becamepartofAfricanindependentchurchesamongtheKikuyu.Tensionsremained

107Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,210-218.

46

duringthe1930sbetweenthemissionanditsconvertsthatwouldresurfaceduringthe

educationalcrisisinthe1940s.108

InadditiontomanagingtheFemaleCircumcisionCrisis,Downingandthefield

councilsweregiventhetaskofimplementingthemission’sincoherentmissionpolicyon

education.Themissiondisplayedwhatmightbetermeda‘love-haterelationship’with

education.Primaryeducationwasasuccessfulaidforthemissioninitseffortstoconvert

AfricanstoChristianity.Whenmissionariescametoanewareatobuildastation,they

oftenbegantheirworkbyholdinginformalclasses,tellingBiblestories,andteaching

childrenhowtoreadandwrite.WhenachurchwasestablishedinanAfricanvillage,italso

functionedduringtheweekasthevillageschool.Unabletokeepupwiththedemand,the

missionbeganestablishingTeacherTrainingprogramsforthepurposeofenlistingAfricans

ineducationalwork.Thisprimitiveeducationalschemebecamethemostimportant

methodofevangelisminthepioneereraofthemission.In1924Downingobservedthat

‘uptothepresent,fullyninety-fivepercentofchurchmembershavepassedthru’[sic]our

schools’.109Hurlburtsimilarlystatedthesameyearthat‘fromtheseschoolsnearlyallof

ourconvertshavecome’.110Themissionwaselatedwithlargenumbersofconversionsin

theschools,butitwasconcernedthateducationcouldeventuallybecometheprimary

focus,distractingfromevangelisticwork.

108Helpfuloverviewsofthe‘FemaleCircumcisionCrisis’andthemurderofHuldaStumpfcanbefoundinJohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricanInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenya’,130-139;Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,87-89;Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,207-218.AcollectionofpapersonthemurderofHuldaStumpfishousedintheAIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

109GeneralDeputyDirectortoC.E.Hurlburt,10May1924,citedinGration,‘‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricanInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenya’,158.

110CharlesE.Hurlburt,‘AnnualReport’,InlandAfrica(Brooklyn),Vol.VIII,no.7[July1924],2.

47

Africandemandforeducationbecameapparentinthe1910s.In1911thecolonial

governmentestablishedaneducationofficeandgraduallyincreaseditsroleinthe

supervisionofcolonialeducation.In1915thegovernmentalsobeganofferinggrants-in-

aidtohelpmissionsocietiesmeettheincreaseddemandforAfricaneducation.111Under

Campbell’sadministration,AIMfrequentlyvacillatedinitspolicyregardingeducationand

acceptinggrants-in-aids.Therewasgrowingconcerninthemissioncommunityabout

becomingtooentrenchedineducationalprogrammes.Inthelate1930s,Africansbeganto

complainthatthemissionwassimplynotdoingenoughforthemintheareaofeducation.

SomeAIMconvertsthreatenedtoleavethemissioninordertojoinmissionsocietieswith

moreprogressiveeducationalpolicies.Thisstrugglewouldfinallyeruptinthe1940s,

leadingtotheclimaxofwhattheAfricannovelistNgũgĩwaThiong’otermedthe

‘educationalwarsofthetime’.112Asthemissionexpandedandgrewbetween1926and

1938,developmentswerealreadyunfoldingwithinthemissionstructureandonthe

missionfieldthatwouldcreatefurthercomplicationsasitbeganlayingplansin1938-1939

toestablishanAfricanchurch.

Insummary,between1895and1938,theAIMbecamefirmlyestablishedinthe

ColonyofKenyaandexpandedintoTanganyika,WestNile-Uganda,theBelgianCongo,and

FrenchEquatorialAfrica.AsthechurchgrewinKenya,adebateensuedovertheautocratic

field-basedleadershipofCharlesHurlburt.Hewantedtoleavetheworkofthemissionin

thehandsofAfricansinordertoexplore‘unevangelizedfields’.Undertheleadershipof

HenryCampbellthemission’slocusofauthorityshiftedtotheAmericanHomeCouncil,

111SorobeaNyachieoBogonko,AHistoryofModernEducationinKenya,1895-1991(Nairobi:EvanBrothersLtd.,1992),23.

112NgũgĩwaThiong’o,DreamsinaTimeofWar:AChildhoodMemoir(NewYork:AnchorBooks,2010),114.

48

creatingtensionbetweenAHCandtheBHCwhileleavingapowervacuumonthefield.The

missioncontinuedtoexpandinthe1930sevenwhileitfacedacrisisoveritsoppositionto

femalegenitalcircumcision.Italsovacillatedoveritspolicyregardingeducationwhile

Africanconvertsthreatenedtoleavethemission.SomeoftheverysamequestionsAIM

encounteredduringthe‘pioneerstage’wouldbecomeevenmoreperplexinginthe1940s

throughthe1960s.Whoshouldmanagethemission,themissionariesonthefieldorthe

homecouncils?HowshouldthemissionrespondtotheAfricandemandforeducation?

WhenshouldthemissionleavethechurchinthehandsofAfricanconverts?These

questionscontinuedtosurfaceduringtheriseofnationalismandthroughtheperiodof

decolonization,directlyaffectingAIM’srelationshipwiththechurchitestablished.

SourcesfortheStudy

Asanindependentmissionorganization,AIMdidnotpossessadenominational

apparatusforpreservingthedocumentsofitsorganization.Sourcesarescatteredin

variousplaces,requiringsignificantglobetrottingduringthecourseoftheresearch,and

someinventivewaysofgettingtoprimarysourcematerialsthatarenothousedinproper

archives.Somemissionfileswerediscarded,whileothersbecamethepossessionof

individualmissionaries.Significanttimewasspentonthisprojectsearchingforsourcesto

fillinsignificantgaps.OneofthelargestcollectionsofmaterialsforthestudyoftheAfrica

InlandMissioniseasilyaccessibleandpreservedintheBillyGrahamCenter(BGC)archives

atWheatonCollege.MostofthematerialsarepreservedinCollection81,butother

collectionscontaininformationfromAIMmissionarieswhobequeathedpersonalpapersto

thecenter.Collection81includesminutesoftheAmericanHomeCouncil,minutesfrom

some(thoughnotall)fieldcouncils,somepersonnelfiles,miscellaneouscorrespondenceof

49

missionariesandmissionofficials,andinterviewsofretiredAIMmissionaries.TheBGC

alsocontainsarchivesofEvangelicalorganizationsthatworkedcloselywithAIMona

numberofprojects.ThespecialcollectionsandarchivesofWheatonCollegeattachedto

theBGCalsocontainthemission’sofficialperiodical,HearingandDoing(1896-1916)and

InlandAfrica(1917-).ThecollectionatWheatonisextensive,butitismissingrecordsof

manyofthefieldcouncilsofthemissioninEastandCentralAfrica.

ThemostfertilematerialsarepresentlyhousedinaclosedarchiveattheAIM-

EuropeofficeinNottingham,England.Thisarchiveislistedas‘currentlyrestrictedto

membersoftheAfricaInlandMissionInternationalpendingarchivalreorganization’,but

theEuropeanDirectoroftheAIMgrantedspecialpermissionforresearch.Thesematerials

containtheminutesfromallthevariousfieldcouncils,includingtheminutesforthe

InterfieldCouncilandtheCentralFieldCouncil.Importantconfidentialminutesfromeach

ofthefieldsarealsoscatteredthroughoutthecollection.TheBritishHomeCouncil

minutesarealsowellpreserved,andtherearepersonalpapersfromseveralimportant

figuresinthemission,includingthepapersofHuldaStumpf(murderedin1930duringthe

FemaleCircumcisionCrisis)andPhilipHenman(aBritishshippingmagnateandthefirst

chairmanoftheInternationalCouncil).OthersignificantmaterialsatNottinghamare

papersonthemission’sresponsetotheEastAfricaRevival,aswellasalengthyconfidential

reportfromthelate1960sproducedbyaconsultingfirmthatcontainsimportantresearch

onAIMmissionaryattitudestowardtheAfricanisationofthemission.Thereisoverlap

betweenthecollectionsatWheatonandNottingham,butthelatterfillsinsignificantgaps

thatwereessentialtothisstudy.Thearchivealsocontainsasignificantcollectionoftracts,

books,leafletsandpromotionalmaterialspublishedbythemission,thoughmuchofitisin

50

disarray.ThecollectionsitsinadustybasementusedforstorageintheAIMofficesand

needstobeproperlyorganizedandpreserved.

Oneofthemostsurprisingdiscoveriesforresearchonthisthesiswasfoundinthe

possessionofformerAIMmissionary-professorRichardJ.Gehman,whoresidesinOrlando,

Florida,atthemission’sretirementcomplex.Alargecollectionofmaterialswas

bequeathedtoGehmanbyanAIMmissionarynamedFrankFrew,whospiriteddozensof

boxesofrecordsfromKenyainthe1970safterthemission‘handedover’itspropertiesto

theAfricanchurch.AccordingtoDrGehman,Frewwasconcernedthathecouldfindno

properplaceinKenyatolocatethesedocuments.Thereisoverlapwithothercollections,

butthereareimportantmaterialsthatarenotavailableinWheatonorNottingham,

includingmemorandaandwhitepapersontheeducationalcrises,sourcematerialson

breakawaychurchesinthe1940sandrecordsofminutesmissinginotherfiles.DrGehman,

whoservedwithAIMforthirty-sevenyears,allowedmeunfetteredaccesstotheboxesof

materialshousedinhisstudyandofferedhelpfulexplanationsontheenigmaticstructure

andorganizationofthemission.IwasalsogreatlyassistedattheAIMRetirementCenter

byJonathanHildebrandt(1942-2016),AIMmissionaryandauthoroftheHistoryofthe

ChurchinAfrica:ASurvey.IhadtheprivilegeofgettingtoknowJonathanbeforehepassed

awayinearly2016.Jonathan’swifeDorothy(1942-)isthedaughterofKenDowning

(whofiguresprominentlyinthisthesis)andthegranddaughterofLeeHarperDowning

(1866-1942),whoservedwithAIMfrom1899to1938.ShewasalsoastudentattheRift

ValleyAcademyinKijabeduringtheMauMauUprising(ca.1952-1956).Intheearly1970s,

DorothyservedasthepersonalsecretaryforWellingtonMulwa,thefirstbishopofthe

AfricanInlandChurch,whoseinfluentialleadershipwillbeconsideredinthisstudy(N.B.

51

chapter6).JonathanandDorothyweregraciouswiththeirtimeandallowedmetorecord

extensiveoralinterviewsforthisthesis.Theyalsobequeathedtomecopiesofpersonal

papersoftheDowningfamily,askingonlythatIusediscretionwithregardtopersonal

familymatterscontainedinthem.Theirinsightswereveryhelpfulinunderstandingsome

ofthetensionsthatexistedbetweenAIMmissionariesandBishopMulwainthe1970s.

TheKenyaNationalArchives(KNA)inNairobiprovidedhelpfulmaterialsonthe

educationalcrisesinthe1940s,includinginformationaboutapropertydisputebetween

themissionandthechurchalongwithalawsuitthatwaskeptunderwrapsbythemission.

TheNationalArchiveswasoneofthebettersourcesforfindingnotesandletterswrittenby

membersoftheAfricaInlandChurchinthe1940s,andthereissomehelpfulmaterialthere

onmissionaryreactionstotheMauMauUprising.MaterialsontheAfricaInlandMission

andtheAfricaInlandChurcharedispersedinotherfilesanddifficulttofindwithoutthe

assistanceofaknowledgeablearchivist.

Themostusefulcollectionofsecondarysourcematerialsonthehistoryof

EvangelicalismandEvangelicalmissionsarefoundattheformerHenryMartynCentre,

nowtheCambridgeCentreforChristianityWorldwide(CCCW),theOxfordCentrefor

MissionStudiesinOxford(OCMS)andtheBuswellLibrarySpecialCollectionsintheBilly

GrahamCenteratWheatonCollege.

Excursusonthe‘ComplicatedOrganization’oftheMission

TheonlineguideforCollection81heldattheBillyGrahamArchivesusesthe

expression‘averycomplicatedorganization’tointroducesomeofthematerialsfoundin

thecollection.Thisbecameimmediatelyapparentduringthefirstfewmonthsofarchival

52

work.TheavailablehistoriesofthemissionarewrittenbyformerAIMmissionariesand

areprimarilyfocusedontheiractualworkinthefield,oftenwithaflairfortheromantic.

Theyarenotinstitutionalstudiesofthemission,andthereisalmostnodiscussionintheir

accountsaboutthecomplexstructureoftheAIM.ThestudiesbyMoradandGration

providesomeinformationaboutmissionstructure,andMorad’sthesisinparticularis

helpfulforunderstandingthestructurebefore1940.Still,bothstudieslackimportant

detailsthatmightbehelpfultofutureresearchers.Themission’sorganizationrequires

someexplanationbecauseitimpingesonthedevelopmentofmissionpolicyand

complicatesthemountingfrustrationbetweentheAIMandtheAIC.

BecauseAIMwasanondenominationalfaithmissionitdidnotinherita

denominationalframework.Thestructureofthemissionevolvedsignificantlyovertime

andadministrativedevelopmentswereoftenadhoc.Itishelpfulheretooutlinefour

organizationalphasesinthehistoryofthemissionthatwillallowgreaterunderstanding

forreadingthethesis.Thefirstphasemaybecharacterizedas‘field-managedandcouncil

supported’.AIMwasestablishedin1895asa‘field-managed’mission,andthehome

councilsofthemissiondidnotpossessanyrealauthorityovertheworkonthefield.

Missionpolicyandmanagementwasundertheoversightofthemissionariesorcouncils

comprisingmissionaries.AsthemissionbecameestablishedunderHurlburt,fieldcouncils

wereaddedinnewsphereslikeTanganyika,WestNile-Uganda,BelgianCongo,andFrench

EquatorialAfricawitheachofthesefieldcouncilsbeingresponsibleformanagingitsown

affairs.Thehomecouncilscomprisedboardmemberswhowereservedbyasmall

administrativestaff.Thecouncilsconfinedtheirworktorecruitingnewmissionaries(as

wellasapprovingthemforservice),keepingsupportersinformedabouttheworkofthe

53

missionathome(primarilythroughpublications),andprovidingadministrativeassistance

formissionaries(suchasobtainingvisas,managingfinances,anddistributingfunds).As

themissionexpandedglobally,itaddedhomecouncilsinAustralia(1916),SouthAfrica

(1919)andCanada(1936),thoughtheAmericanandBritishHomeCouncilsremainedthe

largestandmostinfluentialofthecouncils.

Thesecondphasemaybedescribedas‘home-councilgovernedwithadecentralized

management’onthefield.DuringCampbell’sadministrationbetween1926and1941,the

homeofficebeganexercisinggreaterauthorityoveradministrativedecisions,thoughthe

day-to-daymanagementofthemissiononthefieldstilllargelyrestedinthehandsof

variousfieldcouncilsandtheirdirectors.AfterHurlburt’sresignation,itwasfeltthatmore

authorityshouldbeconcentratedinthehomecouncil.Intheory,thehomecouncil

governedthemission.However,withCampbellmorethan9,000milesawayinaNewYork

office,beforetheadventofmodernairtravel,missionarieswereoftenlefttogoverntheir

ownaffairs.Fieldpolicyduringthistimewasoftenunevenandadhoc.Missionaries

sometimeslackedcleardirectiononthebestwaytorespondtodevelopmentsonthefield

withanydegreeofuniformity.

Thethirdphasebeginsinthe1940sandmaybedescribedasareturntoa‘field-

governedmission’withtheemergenceofacentralmanagementstructureonthefield.

AfterCampbell’sadministrationendedin1941,AIMestablishedanInterfieldCouncil(for

interfieldconsultation)followedbyaCentralFieldCounciltobringallthevariousfields

undertheoversightofacouncilthatwouldhelpcoordinatetheworkinallAIMfields.The

CentralFieldCouncilbecamethegoverningbodyofthemissionandconsistedof

representativemembersfromthevariouscouncilsineachfield.ThedirectoroftheCentral

54

FieldCouncilwaselectedbythemissionariesandservedastheon-fieldsupervisorofall

fieldsinEastandCentralAfrica.Thehomecouncilsmerelyratifiedtheelectionofthis

directorproforma.Thismoveconsolidatedthepowerofthemissionaries,effectively

makingthemissioncommunitythepowerbasethroughdemocraticallyelectedleaders.

However,theCentralFieldCouncilstillallowedasignificantdegreeofautonomyinthe

variousfields.

Thefourthphasebeganin1955,whenthemissionre-organizedanddevelopedthe

InternationalCouncil(IC)andcreatedthepositionsofchairman,generalsecretaryand

generaldirector.Thechairmanprovidedoversightofboardgovernance,thegeneral

secretarywastheseniorofficialofthemission’soperations,whilethegeneraldirectorwas

thefield-basedsupervisoroverthevariouscouncils.Thepurposeofthischangewasto

bringallthehomecouncilsandthefieldcouncilstogetherunderoneunified,international

missionandshiftthebalanceofpowertoahomeoffice.Thischangeto‘becomean

InternationalMission’,createdsignificanttensionbetweeninfluentialhomecouncil

representativesandopinionatedmissionleadersonthefieldwhohadbeenelectedbythe

missioncommunity.TheproblemsbecamesoacutethatwhenthefirstInternational

GeneralSecretaryresignedinfrustrationin1963,thepositionwasleftvacantuntil1973.

Theevolvingorganizationofthemissionwillserveasanimportantcontextfor

understandingsomeofthetensionsthatexistedbetween1939and1975andwillbe

referencedthroughoutthethesis.

TheChapterOutline

Thesecondchapterofthisthesiswillcovertheperiod1939to1947,beginningwith

themission’seffortstoestablishtheAfricaInlandChurchduringaperiodwhenAIMwas

55

respondingtoaneducationalcrisisthatresultedintheformationoftwoindependent

Africandenominations.Chapterthreeofthethesiswillbeginin1948andextendto1954.

Itwillexplorethemission’sreactiontosignificantreligious,politicalandsocialchanges

takingplaceinKenyainthepost-warperiodanddiscusshowthemissionrespondedto

thesechanges.Thesechangesincludetheriseofreligiousecumenism,theEastAfrica

Revival,the‘spiritofnationalism’,theMauMauUprising,andpost-warsocialchangein

Africa.Thefourthchapterwillcovertheperiod1955to1963andconsiderthemission’s

responsetotheriseofnationalismintheColonyofKenyaandthecallforamission-church

merger.Thischapterwillconsidertherelationshipbetweentheriseofnationalismandthe

pressuretohandovertheauthorityofthemissiontothechurch.Itwillexplorethecauses

ofthemission’sdecisiontorejectaproposedmergerpreferringtoadoptapartnership

agreement.Chapterfivewillcovertheperiodfrom1964to1971,whichwasmarkedby

increasedgovernmentpressureforcomplete‘Africanisation’inallspheresofsociety.The

‘partnershipagreement’becameincreasinglyunsatisfactorytothechurchresultingina

revolutionbyAfricanleadersdeterminedtoachievecontrolofboththemissionandthe

church.Chaptersixcoverstheperiod1972to1975,aftermissionofficialsreluctantly

handedoverthemissiontothechurchinKenya.Thischapterwillconsiderwhathappened

tothemissionandthechurchfollowingthedevolution.Thefinalchapterwillprovidea

synthesisofthestudyandaconcludingargument.Itwillalsoexplorethesignificanceof

theresearchtohistoricalenquiry.

56

2

TheAfricaInlandMission,theBirthoftheAfricaInlandChurchandthe‘EducationalWars’inKenya,1939-1947

Theminutesof9January1941oftheAfricaInlandMission’sBritishHomeCouncil

(BHC)reportedthat‘sincethelastCouncilmeetingalandminehadbeendroppedatthe

cornerofJohnStreetdoingconsiderabledamagetothebuildingsintheneighbourhood.’It

wasnotedthat‘theA.I.M.officewindowshadbeenshattered’whilethankfullytherehad

beenno‘lossoflife,althoughthecaretakerandhisfamilyweresleepingonthepremisesat

thetime’.1TheLondonheadquartersat3JohnStreetwere‘condemnedasunsafefor

occupationasaresultofenemyaction’.Thesecretaryrecordedwithevidentcalmnessthat

‘theOpen-AirMissionhadverykindlyofferedhospitalityon[sic]theirpremisesatNo19

JohnStreetandtheworkofthemissionhadbeenconductedfromthataddresssince

1MinutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil,9January1941,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

57

January21st’.2InBritishwartimefashion,membersofthehomecouncilinLondon

remainedcalm,andtheworkofthemissioncarriedon.

Thischapterwillshowthatduringthedecadeofthe1940s,withmuchoftheworld

atwar,theworkoftheAfricaInlandMissioninBritishEastAfricacontinueditsadvance.

Themissionwas,tousethetitleofa1942articlepublishedinitsofficialorgan,‘Harvesting

inWartime’.3Thesuccessofthemissiononthefield,evenduringtheSecondWorldWar,

obscuredsignificantproblemsthatweresurfacingbetweenAIMmissionariesandAfrican

convertsovertheissueofeducation.Therewerehintsinmissionpublicationsofacrisison

thefield,thoughmuchofthedifficultywashiddenfromsupporters.Inathrowawayline

describinghisboy-hoodexperiencesinKenyaColony,theacclaimedKenyanwriterNgũgĩ

waThiong’oreferredto‘theeducationalwarsofthetime’todescribethesignificant

problemstakingplaceinEastAfricaduringthelate1930sandthe1940s.4These

‘educationalwars’weredownplayedinmissionpublicationsonthehomefront,though

theycreatedaseriousandlong-lastingschisminthemission.Theconflictwasdescribedin

confidentialcorrespondenceasa‘seriouscrisisintheAfricanchurch’withexasperated

missionariesonthefieldventingtothehomeofficethat‘toobrightapictureofthework

wasbeingpresentedtothefriendsathome’.5Theparamountproblemduringthe1940s

wasthemission’sambivalentattitudetowardtheincreasingdemandofAfricansforbetter

education.

2MinutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil,13February1941,AIMInternationalArchives,(Nottingham).

3‘HarvestinginWartime’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXIII,No.125[Jan.-Mar.,1942],5.

4NgũgĩwaThiong’o,DreamsinaTimeofWar:AChildhoodMemoir(NewYork:RandomHouse,2010),114.

5MinutesofaSpecialMeetingoftheBritishHomeCouncil,22March1949,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

58

Thischapterwillbeginintheyear1939whenBritishHomeCouncilissuedaformal

memorandumtothefieldcallingfortheestablishmentofanindependentAfricanchurch.

Thechapterwillconcludein1947,whenthesecondoftwoseparatistdenominationswas

formedinKenya,thefirstbeingestablishedin1945.Anoverviewofthemostsignificant

developmentsoftheperiodwillbegivenfollowedbyanexplanationforAIM’svacillating

positiononeducation.

Intheearly1940s,themissionroutinelyreportedexponentialgrowthinthe

numberofAfricanconvertsandnewlyestablishedchurches.Whilerecordkeepingin

Africanchurcheswasirregularduringthisperiod,missionariesfrequentlyissuedreports

tothehomeofficesthatwerecollatedandpublishedinthemission’sofficialorgan.A1942

articleinInlandAfricareportedthat2,500evangelistsandteachersfrom‘Africanchurches

inthebusharespreadingthe“GoodNews”oftheGospeltothousandsoftheirfellows’.6

InlandAfricareferredtodatafrom1942indicatingthatthemissionhadnowestablished

‘57stations,2,500outstations,onwhich275missionariesand2,500Africanevangelists

labour’.7A1943reportintheverynextissueestimatedthat‘theremustbe3,000church

centresintheMission’furthernotingthat‘theaveragetotalattendanceisupwardsof

300,000’.8Thesenumbersrepresenttheestimatesofthemissionbasedonactual

reportingfromallAIMfields.ThemissionwasexperiencingrapidgrowthinAfrica.

Accordingtoonemissionexecutive,thewarmayhaveaidedtheworkofthemission.‘Itis

ouropinionthatthewarhasbutfurtheredthecauseofmissions,’exclaimedRalphT.Davis,

6‘HarvestinginWartime’,InlandAfrica(British),6.

7‘AnnualReport’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXIV,No.129[January-April1943],19.

8‘AnnualReport’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXV.No.130[May-August1943].20.

59

theNorthAmericangeneralsecretaryoftheAIM.Henotedthatwhilesomemissionaries

wereunabletoreachthefieldduringthewar,AIMworkerswerenowperforcerelyingon

assistancefromthe‘greatincreaseinthenumberoffull-timenativeevangelists’,which

madeitpossibleforAIMtoenter‘newterritoryandmarkoutnewstations’.9Reliable

statisticsonthegrowthoftheAICinKenyashowasignificantincreaseinthenumberof

churchesbeingplanted,aswellasasteadyriseinthepercentageofchurchesbeingplanted

byAfricanworkers.InKenyathemissionplanted58churchesinthe1930s,108churches

inthe1940sand243churchesinthe1950s.Atthesametime,thepercentageofchurches

thatwereplantedbyanAfricanchurch-planterassistingamissionary,orworking

completelyalone,rosefrom87-percentinthe1930s,to93-percentinthe1940s,

surpassing95-percentduringthedecadeofthe1950s.Theworkofthemissionadvanced

asmoreAfricanshelpedtopropagatetheEvangelicalfaithandthechurchgreweven

duringthewar.10Asa1943editorialputit:‘Warornowar,famine,pestilence,

catastrophicevents,oranyillstowhichtheworldhasfallenheir,missionsmustgoon.’11

Missionworkprovedmoredifficultduringthewar,butthedeterminationof

Westernmissionariestocarryonindifficulttimes,andthetranquilconditionsinBritish

EastAfrica,furtheredtheworkofthemission.Afewmissionarieswerereclaimedfromthe

fieldforactiveserviceduringthewar,thoughtheoverallnumberofmissionariesinAfrica

9Ibid.

10StephenMorad,‘LocalChurchSurveyoftheAIC’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),PapersofStephenD.Morad—Collection689,p.15.

11‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXVII,No.4[July-August1943],1.

60

wasonlymoderatelyreduced.12InlandAfricareportedthat‘thedrafthasmadeitsclaims

amongthepersonneloftheAfricaInlandMission’listingthenamesoflessthanhalfa

dozenpersonnel.13TraveltoandfromEastAfricabecameirregularanddangerous,but

missionariesbookedpassageandsetsailontreacherousseas.Thecouncilexpressedonly

milddispleasurethataMissQuelchhadoverspenthertravelallotmentof£100in1942,but

concededthat‘thegreaterpartoftheadditionalexpenditurewasduetolongdelaysat

variousportsowingtowarconditions’.14TheZamzam,ashipcarrying137missionariesto

theAfricancontinent,twenty-fourservingwithAIM,wassunkbyaGermansurfaceraider

intheSouthAtlanticenroutetoMombasaon17April1941.However,allpassengerswere

rescued,andtheincidentwasusedtoraiseawarenessabouttheimportantworkof‘saving

souls’foreternityevenduringwartime.15Wartimerationsmeantthatsupplieslikepetrol

andpaperwereinshortersupply,butmissionariesmadedo.AIMmissionaryHarmon

NixonwrotefromMachakos,Kenya,in1943explainingthathewasrunninglowonhis

monthlybudgetforpetrolbuthadcontinuedhistravelbybicycleandaddinghishopethat

12Distribution&StatusofAllA.I.M.Personnel,1927-1981’,May1982,AIMInternationalOffice(Bristol).Thereportindicatesthatthenumberofmissionariesonthefieldgrewfrom180in1936to230in1941anddippingto193in1946butclimbingto294by1951.However,thesamereportindicatesthattheoverallnumberofmissionariesaffiliatedwiththemissionactuallyincreasedfrom309in1941to332in1946.Thedecreaseonthefieldwaslargelyduetotravelrestrictionsduringthewar.

13‘MissionMatters’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXVII,No.1[January-February1944],1.

14MinutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil,11June1942,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

15AfterLifemagazinepublishedtwoarticlesontheincident(amagazinereporterwasasurvivingpassenger),theAfricaInlandMissionco-sponsoredaneventinBrooklynforAIMmissionariestosharetheirpersonalexperiences.Theeventwasattendedbymorethan2,000.SeeEphemeraoftheZamzamIncident,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection624,http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/624.htm#3(accessed5August2015).SeealsoEleanorAnderson,MiracleatSea:TheSinkingoftheZamzamandOurFamily’sRescue(Springfield,MO:QuietWatersPublications,2000).

61

perhaps‘thewarwillendthisyearandsomeofourdifficultiescease’.16Wartime

difficultieswerefacedwithastiffupperlip,andmissionariescarriedonwiththeirduties.

Missionariesweregreatlyaidedintheirevangelisticeffortsbythepeaceful

conditionsonthefieldoncetheyarrivedinEastAfrica.Althoughtroopswererecruited

fromthepopulationincolonialKenya,unlikeintheFirstWorldWar,therewereno

hostilitiesinBritishEastAfricaduringWorldWarII.17Awartimefieldreportsenttothe

Americanofficewastypicalofthemood:‘Manysoulswerebeingsaved’and‘Absolutely

nothingofgreatimportanceishappeningouthere’relativetothewar.Supporterswere

assuredthat‘thereisnoneedtofearforoursafety’.18Undeterredbywartimeconditions

onthehomefrontandaidedbytranquilconditionsonthefield,theworkofthemission

progressed.

DiscussionsabouttheformationofanAfricanchurchbeganasearlyas1939in

responsetofieldreportsabouttheincreasingnumberofconvertsthatwerecomingtothe

Evangelicalfaith.AlengthymemorandumfromtheBritishHomeCouncilnotedthatthey

wereaddressing‘theproblemwithwhichourmissionariesareconfrontedconcerningthe

consolidationoftheChurchinAfrica’.19Thecouncilwasrespondingtoafloodof

correspondencefromthefieldsuggestingtheneedforcreatingaconsolidatedAfrican

church.Thememostatedthatthe‘matteroftheorganizationoftheChurchhasbeen

16H.S.NixontoMissJohnson,20October1943,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

17‘BritishEastAfrica’inIanDearandM.R.D.Foot,eds.,OxfordCompaniontoWorldWarII(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).

18ConfidentialMinutesoftheExecutiveCommitteeoftheAfricanInlandMission,18February1941,BillyGrahamCenterArchives(Wheaton),Collection81.

19‘TheChurchinCentralAfrica’,MemorandumfromtheBritishHomeCounciltotheFieldCouncils,2October1939,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),coverletter.

62

broughtbefore[thecouncil]inaconsiderableamountofcorrespondencefromallpartsof

theField’.20Inresponsetothesefieldreports,theBritishHomeCouncilissuedguidance

forthefieldcouncilsinstructingthemtoestablishthe‘AfricanChristianChurch’stating

thatthat‘thesettlementofthismatterisoverdue’and‘isoneofvitalimportanceforall,as

itconcernstensofthousandsofconverts’.21Themission’sstatedreasonforestablishinga

denominationinAfricawastoprovideachurchforthegrowingnumberofconverts,but

otherfactorsmayhaveinfluencedthisdecision.Inthe1930stherewasincreased

dissatisfactionamongAfricansovermissionauthority,especiallyamongtheKikuyu.Two

independentAfricanchurchesemergedamongtheKikuyuin1937,theAfricaOrthodox

Church(AOC)andtheAfricaIndependentPentecostalChurch(AIPC).22TheAIPCusedthe

word‘Pentecostal’initsnamenotbecausethememberswereheirsoftheHoliness-

PentecostalTraditionbutratherbecauseitwantedtostressitsbeliefthattheSpiritofGod,

notforeignmissionaries,ordaineditspastors.23Inaddition,missionariesworkingin

Tanganyikawerefeelingpressuretocreateachurchinthe1930sthatwouldgiveAfricans

moreleadershipresponsibility.AIMmissionariesrespondedbycreatinga‘shadow’

denominationin1938,theEcclesiaEvangelofChrist(EEC),whichwastheforerunnerof

theAfricaInlandChurchofTanzania.24Theriseofindependentchurchesamongthe

20Ibid.

21Ibid.,1.

22F.B.Welbourn,EastAfricanRebels:AStudyofSomeIndependentChurches(London:SCMPress,1961),144-161.

23AllanH.Anderson,AfricanReformation:AfricanInitiatedChurchesintheTwentiethCentury(Trenton,NJ:AfricaWorldPress,2001),148-150.

24D.N.M.Ng’hosha‘TheBishop:JeremiahKissula’inJohnIliffe,ModernTanzanians:AVolumeofBiographies(EastAfricanPublishingHouse,1973),209-226;BengtSundklerandChristopherSteed,AHistoryoftheChurchinAfrica(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000),887.

63

Kikuyu,andtherestlessnessofchurchleadersinTanganyikainthe1930s,mayhave

influencedalsoinfluencedthemission’sdecisiontobeginworkoncreatingaformally

establishedAfricanchurch.UpontheurgingoftheBritishHomeCouncil,theKenyaField

Councilunanimouslyagreedtobeginworkon‘theconsolidation,co-ordinationand

organizationoftheChurchoftheAfricaInlandMission’in1940.25ByJanuary1943adraft

ofthenewconstitutionwaspresentedtotheAfricanrepresentativeswhowouldformthe

initialgoverningcouncilofthechurch.Itisnotclearwhyitrequiredfullythreeyearsto

completeworkforachurchconstitution.Itispossiblethattheabsenceofa

denominationalprototype,thedesiretocollaboratewithAfricanleaders,andthedifficulty

ofcoordinatingthevariousfieldswereallcontributingfactors.26Africanconverts

recommendedthatthenameofthedenominationbechangedtotheAfricanInlandChurch

(AIC)ratherthantheproposedAfricanChristianChurch.Thiswasduetoconcernsthatthe

initials‘ACC’wouldconfusethenewchurchwiththeAfricanChurchCouncil(ACC),an

institutioncreatedbytheAnglicanBishopWilliamPeel(1854-1916)in1900forthe

purposeofpromotingAfricanleadershipintheChurchMissionarySociety(CMS).27Plans

wereslowlyunderwaybythemissionforaformallyorganizedAfricanchurch.

25KenyaFieldCouncilMinutesoftheAnnualConferenceBusinessMeeting,10January1940,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

26CharlesWilliamTeasdale,‘AnEvaluationoftheEcclesiologyoftheAfricaInlandChurch’(M.A.thesis,WheatonCollege,1956).TeasdalewasanAIMmissionarywhowasinvolvedintheformationoftheAICintheearly1940s.Herecalledthatthedevelopmentoftheconstitutionwashighlycollaborativeandinvolvednumerousdrafts.

27ConfidentialMinutesoftheCentralChurchCounciloftheAfricaInlandChurch,18January1943,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).OntheformationoftheAfricanChurchCouncil,seeRobertW.Strayer,TheMakingofMissionCommunitiesinEastAfrica(London:Heinemann,1978),67-71andColinReed,Pastors,PartnersandPaternalists:AfricanChurchLeadersandWesternMissionariesintheAnglicanChurchinKenya,1850-1900(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1997),150-151.

64

Themissionsetabouttoestablishachurchstructurethatwasintentionallysimple

withtheologicalunderpinningsthatweredecidedlyEvangelical.Themission’sstatedaim

wastocreatean‘Africanchurch’with‘acommonmembershipandcommondiscipline,

uniforminprinciple,centredaroundonecommonLordandinnosensedivorcedfrom,or

independentoftheevangelicalChurchasawhole’.28ThemissionenvisionedanAfrican

churchthatwouldbeanextensionoftheglobalEvangelicalcommunity.Auniquebut

simplestructurewasproposed.Localchurcheswereorganizedalongcongregationallines

withpastors,eldersanddeaconsbeingresponsiblefortheaffairsoftheirrespectivelocal

churches.29Individualor‘local’churcheswereinturnrelatedtoeachotherthoughthe

creationofDistrict,RegionalandCentralChurchCouncils,somewhatrepresentinga

Presbyterianorganizationalscheme.30Theminglingofdenominationaltraditionswasin

partareflectionofthebackgroundoftheAIMmissionaries,mostofwhomwereeither

BaptistsorPresbyterians.31ThechurchconfessionresembledconservativeProtestant

orthodoxywithitsbeliefintheTrinity,thedeath,burialandresurrectionofthevirgin-born

Christ,thereturnofChrist,andthebodilyresurrectionofthedead.HistoricEvangelical

traitswerealsoapparent,withaclearemphasisonthe‘supernaturalandplenary

inspirationoftheScriptures’,theworkofChristonthecrossas‘sufficienttocleansefrom

allsin’,andtheresponsibilityforthechurchtobeactivelyengagedin‘theevangelizationof

28‘TheChurchinCentralAfrica’,MemorandumfromtheBritishHomeCounciltotheFieldCouncils,2October1939,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),2.

29‘ProposedChurchOrganizationofTheAfricanChristianChurch(A.I.M.Kenya)’,n.d.,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

30Ibid.

31Teasdale,‘AnEvaluationoftheEcclesiologyoftheAfricaInlandChurch’48,passim;JohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricanInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyaBetween1895and1971’(Ph.D.diss.,NewYorkUniversity,1974),237-238.

65

theworld’.32InEvangelicalfashion,membersofthechurchwererequiredtogiveevidence

of‘regeneration’bymakingaprofessionoffaith,andthosewhohadbeenconvertedwere

toreceivebaptism‘asasignofitsreality’.33Thecouncilenvisioned‘acontinent-wide

churchfellowship,whichisdefinitelyAfrican’.34OneAIMmissionarysummedupthe

principlesthatweretogoverntheformationoftheAIC:‘TheorganizationoftheChurchin

Africaoughttobecharacterizedby:Simplicity,authorityandunity.’35Themissionaimed

forasimplechurchstructurewithanauthoritativeconfessionoforthodoxChristianitythat

woulduniteAfricanChristiansforacommonEvangelicalwitness.InDecember1943the

KenyaFieldCouncilformallyratifiedthechurchconstitution,andtheAfricaInlandChurch

wasborn.36

Therewerethreemajorchallengesfacedbythemissionasitsetouttoestablishits

owndenominationonAfricansoil,andallthreewouldcontinuetovexthemissionfor

anothertwenty-fiveyears.Thefirsttwochallengeswillbeconsideredbriefly,whilethe

third,becauseitbearsmoredirectlyonthedecadeofthe1940s,willbediscussedat

greaterlength.First,theAfricaInlandMissionwasnotadenominationnorwasitaffiliated

32‘ProposedChurchOrganizationofTheAfricanChristianChurch(A.I.M.Kenya)’,n.d.,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).


34Ibid.,4.

35Ibid.,3.

36KenyaFieldCouncilMinutes,December1943,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida);Oxford’sHistoryofEastAfricaincorrectlygives1955asthedatefortheestablishmentoftheAfricaInlandChurch.Itisnotclearwhythismistakewasmade.However,thedatessurroundingtheformationoftheAIChavebeenobscuredbythehistoricalaccounts.Missionnarrativesarelargelysilentontheformationofthechurchuntilthelate1960s,andthegenesisofthechurchhasbeenburiedininaccessibleandperipateticarchives.1955wasthedatethattheAfricaInlandMissionadoptedanewconstitutionandreorganizedasaninternationalmission,thoughthishadlittle(ifanything)todowiththefoundingoftheAfricanchurch.SeeF.B.Welbourn,‘TheImpactofChristianityonEastAfrica’inD.A.LowandAllisonSmith,eds.HistoryofEastAfrica,VolumeIII(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1976),400.

66

inanysensetoadenominationalframework.Thisrealitywouldcreatechallengesoverthe

issueofrelationship(ofthemissionwiththeAfricanchurch)andauthority(wouldthe

missionnowcomeundertheauthorityofthechurch?).AIMdifferedinthiswayfromtwo

ofthelargestEvangelicalmissionarysocietiesworkinginKenya,theChurchMissionary

Society(CMS),affiliatedwiththeChurchofEngland,andthemembersoftheChurchof

ScotlandMission(CSM)directedbytheChurchofScotland.Themissiongloriedinits

statusasanondenominationalfaithmissionandferventlybelievedthiswasadvantageous

infurtheringtheEvangelicalcauseinAfrica.Oneadvantagecitedbythemissionwasthatit

allowedAIMtorecruitEvangelicalworkersfrommanytypesofchurches.Aspokesperson

forthehomeofficerespondedtoquestionsaboutAIMmissionariesbyproclaiming:‘Our

workerscometousfromvariousdenominations.’37ThiswassomethingAIMwasproudof:

‘OntheletterheadoftheAfricaInlandMissionisthestatementthattheMissioniswithout

denominationalaffiliation.’38Missionariesalsobelievedthenondenominationalstatusof

themissionpromotedaunifiedwitnessonthefield,devoidofdenominational

idiosyncrasies.Spokespersonsforthemissionarguedthatthedisseminationof

denominationalvarietymightbeconfusingtoAfricanadherents.Asoneeditorialputitin

themission’sofficialorgan:‘Becauseheathenpeoplesknowmanygods,bewildermentcan

bebroughttotheirmindsifwepresentthem[sic]denominationalism,withitsvarious

emphasesandconfusionofnames.’39Insteadoftryingtowinadherentsovertoa

particulardenomination,AIMmissionariesbelievedthat‘theremustbethepresentationof

37‘A.I.M.InformationBureau’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXX,no.3[May-June1946],8.

38Ibid.

39RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXI,No.5[September-October,1947],1.

67

ChristastheonlySaviourfromsinandHisfinishedworkonthecrossastheonlybasisfor

theirredemption’.40AIMviewednondenominationalcredentialsasagodsendbecause

theyallowedEvangelicalstodrawfromabroadrangeofdenominationstounitein

commonwitnessandproclaimthesimplemessageofthegospel.

Whilethemission’sstatusasanondenominationalmissionwasoftentrumpetedin

the1940sand1950s,thisrealitycreatedanorganizationalconundrumformissionofficials.

Nowthatthemissionhadgivenbirthtoaformallyconstitutedchurch,ineffectanew

denominationnowexistedonAfricansoil.Thequestionoftherelationshipbetweenthe

missionaryandtheAfricanchurchsooncametothefore.Writingtofriendsin1945,AIM

missionaryE.L.Davisspokeforthemissioncommunitywhenhewrote:‘Astothe

EcclesiasticalRelationshipoftheMissionarytotheAfricanChurch,wefeltitwasnotthe

timeforustogointothisyet.’41Eveninthe1940s,themissionrecognizedthatthe

problemcouldnotbeignoredwhileittemporizedonthequestion.Davisadded,‘Itis

cominginourKenyaField,andwewillhavetoconsideritmoreseriouslylater.’42In1946,

themission’sofficialorganaskedthequestion,‘Whatisthemissionary’srelationshipwith

thepresent-dayAfricanchurch?’43Thearticleansweredthequestionwithanoteof

uncertainty.Themissionarywastheretoprovide‘leadership’inareaswhereAfricans

wereillequipped.Eachwastoactasa‘counsellor’onecclesiasticalmattersandprovidean

40Ibid.

41E.L.DavistoFriends,27September1945,Nairobi,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).Thecontentsoftheletteraddressconfidentialmissionmatters.Thetitle‘friends’mostlikelyrefersto‘friends’ontheAmericanandBritishHomeCouncils.

42Ibid.

43‘IWillBuildMyChurch’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXX,No.2,[March-April1946],10.

68

overall‘example’totheAfricanchurch.44Leader,counsellorandexamplewereinsome

respectsinformalwaysofrelatingtothechurch.Therelationshipbetweenthemissionand

thechurchremainednebulous.

Intheabsenceofaclearlydefinedscheme,missionariescontinuedwielding

tremendousauthorityovertheAfricanchurchinthe1940sand1950s.Whenthehome

councilsurgedthemissiontobeginworkingontheformationofachurchin1939,theyalso

warnedaboutthe‘dangerofunduehaste’inthematterofgivingAfricanstoomuch

authority.45Therewasconcernthat‘theprematuregivingofpowerandcontroltonative

Christians’hadinthepast‘ledtoasteadyloweringoftheChristianstandard’.46This

assertionwasmadewithoutexplanationbutisalikelyreferencetothetendencyofsome

churchleaderstoholdmoreaccommodatingviewsoncertainculturalpracticeslikefemale

circumcision,polygamy,dancing,tobaccouseandbeerdrinking.A1944guidefor

catechismclassescontainsinstructionsontheevilsofcircumcision(ratherawkwardly

giveninlightofthemanyreferencesinScriptureontheissue)andanswerstoquestions

like,‘WhyshouldaChristiannotdance?’and‘WhyshouldaChristiannotdrinkbeer?’and

‘WhyshouldaChristiannotusetobacco?’47

Inordertoprovidesafeguards,themissionoutlinedaschemeforchurch

governmentthatincludedaCentralChurchCouncilcomprisedofboththe‘missionaryand

44Ibid.


46Ibid.

47‘SupplementaryQuestionsforCatechismClasses’,23March1944,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

69

representativenatives’.48‘Themissionaryincharge’wastoserveonthelocalchurch

councilalongwithpastors,eldersanddeacons.49Aftertheformationofthechurchin1943,

missionariesstillretainedsignificantauthorityandinfluenceonchurchcouncils.AIM

missionariessupervisedthemissionstation(wherethelargestchurcheswerelocated),

controlledtheeducationalsystem,settledpersonaldisputesbetweenAfricans,andthey

continuedtoretainsignificantauthorityinecclesiasticalproceedings.IsaacSimbirigrew

uponanAIMmissionstationandtellshowhisownfatherconfrontedthe‘missionaryin

charge’onhisstationinNyakachin1946becausehewouldnotallowhimtotransferto

anotherschool.50In1946anExecutiveCommitteeofthemissionissuedamemo

encouragingmissionariesnottoretireonthemissionfieldoriftheydid,nottopurchase

propertynearthemissionstationbecauseitunderminedthe‘authority’ofthenext

missionaryincharge.51Themissionwouldmaintainthislevelofauthoritywellintothe

1950s,andthe‘missionaryincharge’wouldretainvetopoweroverallecclesiastical

matters.52Themissionarypresidedoverthemission-stationlikeabishopoverhisdiocese,

overseeingthechurch,themedicalclinic,theprintingpress,theshamba53andtheschools

whilealsoprovidingrulingsforoutlyingvillage‘parishes’andbushchurches.

48Ibid.,6.

49Ibid.

50IsaacSimbiri,‘AChildofaMissionStation:ALifeofIsaacSimbiri’(UnpublishedManuscript),RJGPapers(Florida).

51‘RetirementofWorkersontheField’,ExecutiveCommitteeMinutes,AfricaInlandMission,27February1946,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

52KennethRichardson,‘TheAfricanChurch,’InternationalConference,AfricaInlandMission1895-1955,Kijabe,KenyaColony,12-19June1955,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),13.

53ShambaistheSwahiliwordforgarden,fieldoraplotoflandusedforfarming.

70

In1948themissionbegantalkingmoreseriouslyaboutthequestion,‘Should

missionariesjointheAfricanInlandChurchasfull-fledgedmembers?’whilealsoretaining

membershipintheirownhomechurches.Thisposedyetanotherproblem:‘Ifmissionaries

weremembersoftheA.I.C.couldtheAfricansdisciplinethem?’54Thequestionofchurch

disciplinewastheoretical,buttheissueofchurchauthoritywasreal.AIMmissionaries

convenientlyarguedthattheywerealreadymembersofachurchandthattheycamefrom

varieddenominationalbackgrounds.Inessence,theywereappealingtotherealitythatthe

AIMwasnotachurchoradenomination;itwasanon-denominationalmission.Thislineof

reasoningwouldpersistintothe1950s,whenothermissionorganizationsweremerging

withtheAfricanchurchestheyhadestablished:‘Wehavenodenominationalaffiliationat

HomewithwhichtheAfricanChurchcouldbeintegrated’.55AIMwantedtoretainitsstatus

asanondenominationalmission,butitalsowantedtomaintainadegreeofcontroloverthe

Africandenominationitestablished.Therelationshipremainedundefinedinthe1940s.

ThesecondchallengefacingAIMwasthelackofacentralgoverningbodytounify

thehomecouncils,thevariousfieldcouncilsandtheAfricanchurchesspreadacrossEast

andCentralAfrica.Directionforthemissionwasde-centralizedandmanagedbythe

missionariesthemselves,whowerewidelydispersedthroughoutAfrican’svastinterior

withouttheaidofmoderntransportandcommunication.Theworkofthemissionwas

dividedintoseparate‘fields’(alsocalled‘spheres’),eachfieldbeingledbymissionaries

whoformedwhatwascalleda‘fieldcouncil’.Themission’sfounderandgeneraldirector,

PeterCameronScott,andhissuccessorCharlesHurlburtbelievedthatmissionaries

54AfricanInlandMissionKenyaField,MinutesoftheAnnualConferenceBusinessMeeting,1948,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

55KenyaFieldCouncilMinutes,24-29March1958,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

71

themselvesshouldberesponsibleforthemanagementofthemissionbecausetheyhad

first-handknowledgeoftheactualworkandcouldmorereadilyrespondtodevelopments

onthefieldinsitu.56AsthemissiongrewandexpandedunderHurlburtandCampbell,

missionariesweremanagedbytheircolleagueswhoservedasmembersoffieldcouncils

ledbyafielddirector.Eventhisarrangementprovedunwieldy,asmanymissionaries

proveddifficulttomanage.In1941AIMmissionaryStuartColelefthismissionstationin

Adiwithoutpermissiontoworkinanoutlyingdistrict.Heignoredthefieldcouncil’s

authoritystatingthathewasacting‘attheurgeoftheSpiritofGod’.AletterwassenttoMr

Colestatingthat‘thesameHolySpiritwas,throughtheagencyoftheFieldCouncil,bidding

youtoremain’.57Missionarieswereanindependentlot,andevenfieldcouncilshad

difficultyoverseeingtheirwork.

Inthe1940s,theworkoffieldcouncilswasspreadoutoversix‘fields’thatincluded

KenyaColony,TanganyikaTerritory,BelgianCongo,WestNile(Uganda),EldoretArea

(Kenya),andFrenchEquatorialAfrica.Throughoutthedecadeofthe1940s,‘Missionary

LocationLists’wereroutinelypublishedinthemission’sofficialorganlistingthenamesof

themissionariesundertheir‘sphere’ofservicealongwiththenameofthestationwhere

theywereposted.58Bothhusbandsandwiveswerelistedtogether,wivesbeingconsidered

fullmembersofthemissionandmissionariesintheirownright.59TheEldoretArea,

56Morad,‘FoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMission’,121-197.

57MinutesoftheCouncilMeetingoftheBritishHomeCouncil,September11,1941.AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

58‘MonthlyPrayer-CycleforOurMissionariesandTheirStations’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXIII,No.126[April-May1942),24-25.

72

thoughlocatedinKenya(approximately300kilometresnorthwestofNairobi),waslisted

separatelybecauseithadbeendesignateda‘Britishsphere’from1933to1946.Itwas

combinedwiththeKenyaFieldCouncilin1946tofostergreaterunitybetweenAmerican

andBritisheffortsinthefield.60In1943themissioncreatedanInter-FieldCommitteethat

metperiodicallytoexchangeinformationandappointad-hoccommitteestoworkon

specialprojects,thoughitspowerswereonly‘consultative’.61Withouttheaidofacentral

controllingbodyonthefieldinthe1940s,themissionfounditdifficulttomanage

independent-mindedmissionariesfromvariedecclesiasticalpersuasionsnowtoilinginfar-

flungfields.

WhenthehomeofficestressedtheneedfortheestablishmentofanAfricanchurch

in1939,whatitoutlinedwasasimpleEvangelicaltemplatethatgaveeachfielda

significantdegreeoffreedominsecondarymatters.Thecouncilrecommended‘aplan

wherebytheessentialscanbepreservedandlibertygiveninthematterofmethod’.62The

missionariesinthevariedfieldswereunitedaround‘essential’Evangelicalconcerns,but

theyheldvariousopinionsonsecondaryandtertiarymatterslikechurchpolity,

paedobaptismandmillennialism.Whiletheywereunitedaroundtheirmissionto

evangelizeAfrica,therewereoccasionalsquabblesoversecondarymattersdueto

denominationalpredilections.In1939amissionarynamedPowleywhowasservingin

59ForadiscussionoftheuniqueroleofwomeninindependentEvangelicalmissionsocieties,seeDanaL.Robert,AmericanWomeninMission:ASocialHistoryofTheirThoughtandPractice(Macon,GA:MercerUniversityPress,1996),189-254.

60BritishHomeCouncilMinutes,13June1946,AIM-International(Nottingham).

61MinutesoftheExecutiveCommittee,AfricanInlandMission,23November1943,BGCArchives,AIMInternational,Collection81(Wheaton).


73

Kapsowar,Kenya,‘tookexceptiontocertainpractices,particularlythatofthe“layingonof

hands”’,andaskedtobetransferredtoanotherfield.63KapsowarwaswithintheBritish

Sphere,andAnglicaninfluenceslikethelayingonofhandswouldhavebeenmorewidely

practised(thoughevidentlynotwithunanimousapproval).Therewerealsodifferences

amongmissionariesandAfricanconvertsinthevariousfieldsovertheprecisenamethat

wastobeusedfortheAfricanChurch.Thiswasrelatedinparttothelinguisticvarietythat

existedbetweenAnglophoneandFrancophonefields.Englishwasthelinguafrancainthe

Britishcoloniesandprotectorates,whileFrenchwasthelanguageofchoicefor

missionariesworkingintheBelgianCongoandFrenchEquatorialAfrica.Theminutesofan

InterfieldCommitteeheldinthesummerof1944summarizedthesechallenges:‘Itwas

realizedthatthereweredifferencesofopinioninthevariousfieldsconcerningChurch

Organization,astothenameoftheAfricanChurch,andtherewerelanguagedifficulties(as

theEnglishlanguageisunlikelytobeusedintheCongo.)’64Theseweresignificant

challengesforamissiontoovercomewithouttheaidofacentralcontrollingbodyonthe

field.

WhilethepopularhistoriesofAIMglossoverthisreality,mission-foundedchurches

marchedtoabeatoftheirowndrumineachfield,andthemissionneversucceededin

creatingaunitedAfricanfellowshipordenomination.Forexample,theAIMmissionaries

workingintheWestNileDistrictofUgandawerelargelyfromtheChurchofEngland,and

themission-foundedchurchesbecamepartoftheAnglicancommunion,knowninthe

63MinutesoftheCouncilMeetingoftheBritishHomeCouncil,12January1939,AIMInternational(Nottingham).

64AfricaInlandMissionKenyaField,MeetingoftheInter-FieldCommittee,6-8July1944,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

74

1940sasthe‘NativeAnglicanChurch’.65TheinfluenceofAlbertE.Vollor,anAIM

missionaryandAnglicanclergymanwhowaseducatedatCambridge,wasparamount

duringthisperiod.HeservedintheWestNilewithgreatdistinctionbetween1923and

1966.OneofthedistinctivefeaturesofVollor’sministrywashisinsistencethatAfricansbe

trainedfromtheveryearlieststagesforleadershipinthechurch.66Africanchurchleaders

inTanganyikawerefiercelyindependentandformedtheEcclesiaEvangelofChristin1938

(renamedtheAfricanInlandChurchofTanganyikain1958),andeffortstounifythe

denominationsinKenyaandTanzaniawouldproveunsuccessful.67AIM-foundedchurches

intheFrench-speakingcountrieswereoperatingundertheumbrellanamethe

CommunautéEvangéliqueauCentredel’Afrique(EvangelicalCommunityofCentralAfrica)

inthe1940s.68Withoutacentralgoverningbody,AIMwasunabletoconsolidatean

African-widedenomination,andtheAfricanInlandChurchinKenyaemergedasthe

mission’sAfricanEvangelicalexemplar.69Therewasnocentralgoverningbodyonthefield

65ConfidentialMinutes,5September1957,UgandaFieldMatters,BritishHomeCouncilMinutes,5September1957,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

66Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,97-102;Richardson,GardenofMiracles,183-197.Vollor’sworkintheWestNilefrom1923to1966wouldmakeforaninterestingparallelstudy.Hewaspraisedbythemissionforhiscommitmenttotrainpastorsfromtheverybeginningofhiswork,thoughthispatternwasnotfollowedonotherfields.Hiseducationalbackgroundmayhavebeenacontributingfactor.

67SketchesofthehistoryofthischurchwerediscoveredinterwoveninanarrativeonthefirstbishopoftheAICTanzania.SeeD.N.M.Ng’hosha‘TheBishop:JeremiahKissula’inJohnIliffe,ModernTanzanians,209-226.

68AfricaInlandMission,CentralRegion,D.R.Congo,http://cr.aimsites.org/countries/d-r-congo(accessedNovember28,2014);DickAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers(Nottingham,UK:CrosswayBooks,1994),132andfootnote.

69MinutesoftheAfricaInlandMissionInter-FieldDirectorate,1-3June1954,AIM-International(Nottingham).Referencestothesechurcheswerenotfoundinsourcesfromthe1940s,thougha1954entrynotedtheirexistencebeforethatyear.ReferencestotheAIM-foundedchurchesoutsideofKenyaareglossedoverinthepopularhistoriesofthemissionandtherearenoextantpublishednarrativesofthesechurches.

75

toguidethedevelopmentofacontinent-wideAfricanchurchandecclesiastical

relationshipswouldevolveinahaphazardmanner.

Thethirdandmostsignificantchallengefacingthemissionwasovertheissueof

education.Duringthe1940s,theAfricandemandformoreeducationcoupledwiththe

stricturesenactedbythecolonialgovernmentcreatedaheavyburdenforthemission.The

missionwasfacinganall-outwaronthefieldintheareaofeducation,andthisbecamethe

mission’smorepressingconcern.WesterneducationhadbeenbroughttothecoastofEast

Africainthe1890sandbeganspreadingintoAfrica’svastinteriorinthe1910saspioneer

missionarieshackedtheirwaythroughmalaria-infestedregionsandintroducedthegospel

tohostileinhabitants.70In1911thecolonialgovernmentestablishedtheDepartmentof

Education,andafter1915itbeganofferinggrants-in-aidstoassistmissionsocietiesintheir

educationalwork.71Bytheyear1917,thereweremorethan500mission-established

schoolsinKenyaalonewithapproximately130,000studentsontherolls.72Between1924

and1934,severalordinanceswerepassedbythegovernmentforeducationalstandardsin

Kenya,andthisaddedpressureonthevariousmissionstoincreasetheoverallqualityof

education.Theseordinancescreatedrulesforgrants-in-aidsandstipulatedthat

governmentofficialsshouldroutinelyvisitmissionschoolsforinspections.73

70CarolFisher,‘Education’,inStanleyDiamondandFredG.Burke,eds.TheTransformationofEastAfrica(NewYork:BasicBooks,Inc.,Publishers,1966),494-510.

71SorobeaNyachieoBogonko,AHistoryofModernEducationinKenya,1895-1991(Nairobi:EvanBrothersLtd.,1992),23-26.

72Bogonko,AHistoryofModernEducationinKenya,22.

73EdwardH.Berman,AfricanReactionstoMissionaryEducation(NewYork:Teacher’sCollegePress,1975),1-53;Bogonko,AHistoryofModernEducationinKenya,17.

76

Duringthelate1930sandearly1940s,theAfricandemandformoreeducation

continuedtoacceleratecreatingintensepressureforAIM.74Thedemandwasdueinlarge

measuretothebeliefthateducationwouldallowAfricanstoacquirethewealthand

privilegesofthewhiteman.Inhisclassicnovelsetinpost-warKenya,NgũgĩWaThiong’o

tellsthestoryofaboynamedNjoroge,whowantedtobelikeawealthyAfricannamed

JacobobecausehehadasmuchmoneyasaEuropeannamedMrHowlands.Njorogesaysto

hisbrother,‘IthinkJacoboisasrichasMrHowlandsbecausehegoteducation.’75Education

asadvancementwasincreasinglyattheforefrontofthemindsofAfricans.Evenduringthe

late1930sandintothe1940s,demandforeducationhadacceleratedtosuchadegreethat

convertswerethreateningtoleaveAIMinordertojoinanothermissioniftheirpetitions

formoreschoolswereignored.Themissionwasunderintensepressure.‘Wearebeing

drivenasneverbeforebothbypressurefromGovernmentandnativestoimproveour

educationalworkinKenya’,wroteAIMmissionaryH.S.Nixonin1938.76A1940

memorandumfromtheKenyaFieldstateditplainly:‘Thefactmustbefacedthatour

AfricanChurchmembershipinthisfieldisdemandingatleastanelementaryeducationfor

itschildren’.77InFebruary1942anAfrican‘clerk’writingonbehalfofthe‘peopleofKano’,

nearKisumu,issuedaletteroutliningtribaldemandsfora‘EuropeanMissionary’anda

‘DayPrimarySchool’.Theclerk,speakingforthelocalcommunity,issuedaclear

ultimatum:‘IfyoufailtobringthistoahappyconclusiontheywillnolongerbeA.I.M.

74Fisher,‘Education’,494.

75NgũgĩWaThiong’o,WeepNot,Child(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1964),4.

76H.S.NixontoRev.RalphDavis,19October1938,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),KSM/1/10/42.

77‘EducationalPolicyintheAfricaInlandMission’,KenyaField,January1940,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

77

people.Wewantananswerthisweeklestwegotoanothermission.’78Thoughnot

specified,thepeopleofKanomayhavehadinmindtomakeanappealtotheChurchof

ScotlandMission(CSM)ortheChurchMissionarySociety(CMS),bothofwhichhadmore

respectableeducationalprogrammes.79AfterthecompletionoftherailwaylinetoKisumu

in1901,severalmissionsocietieshadestablishedworksinWesternKenya.TheFriends

AfricaIndustrialMission(Quaker)ledthewayin1902,followedbytheChurchMissionary

Society,theSeventh-DayAdventistsandtheSalvationArmy.80Therewasplentyof

competitionfortheheartsandmindsofAfricanconverts.Thegrowingdemandfor

educationledNixontocomplainin1942:‘Thenativesseemtohavegonemadon

education.’81TheAfricandemandformoreeducation,coupledwithincreasedgovernment

measurestoincreaseeducationalstandards,exasperatedthemission.AstheKenyaField

Directorputit:‘Wearebetweenthehammerandtheanvil,forboththeGovernmentand

thenativesaretryingustothebreakingpoint.’82

AIMmissionariesresistedtheAfricandemandformoreeducationandgrew

increasinglyfrustrated.Themissionbelievedthateducationalworkwasapotential

distractionfromitsprimarymission.Thepleaformoreeducationwassostrongthatitwas

disruptingSundayworshipservicesandcreatingunrestinmission-establishedchurchesin

78JosephC.H.DutotoMrH.S.Nixon,1February1942,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

79AIM’ssubstandardperformanceineducationcomparedtotheCMSandtheCSMisbrieflydiscussedinE.N.Wanyoike,TheLifeandWorkoftheRev.WanyoikeKamawe,1888-1970(Nairobi:EastAfricanPublishingHouse,1974),124,passim.

80MarieBakRasmusen,AHistoryoftheQuakerMovementinAfrica(London:I.B.Tauris&Co.,1995),44-45. TheFriendsIndustrialAfricawasco-foundedbyWillisHotchkiss,amemberoftheoriginalpartyofAIMmissionarieswhocametoKenyawithPeterCameronScottin1895.

81H.S.NixontoRalphDavis,16March1942,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

82Ibid.

78

Kenya.In1940theKenyaFieldDirectorreportedthattherewerereportsof

‘demonstrations’overeducationthatwere‘frequentlyarising’inAIMchurchesamong

varioustribalgroups.Herewasanadmissionthatthisdemandwasnotisolatedinone

regionofKenya.ThedirectorreportedthatAfricanChristianswereactuallywalkingoutof

worshipservicesinprotestoverthemission’sunwillingnesstoprovidemoreeducationfor

theirchildren.83InthesameyeartherewerereportsinMachakosthat‘natives’had

orderedthemissiontoleavetheareabecauseithadrefusedtosendmoreteachersfor

them.Theycomplainedthatthemissionwasnolongerconcernedforthewelfareofits

converts.84OntheothersideoftheGreatRiftValley,thepeopleofKano,whohad

threatenedtoleavethemission,werenowwalkingoutofworshipservicesinmassprotest

overAIM’seducationalpolicies.85Theseturmoilwasdistressingformissionariesworking

invariouspartsofKenya.AsNixonputit:‘Fromoneendofthefieldtotheothertheyare

insistingthattheMissionprovidetrainededucationaliststogivetheirfulltimeto

educationalwork.’86TheKenyaFieldDirectorexpressedhisexasperationinaprivate

letter:‘SometimesIregretthatweeverwentsofarastoteachthenativesthesyllable

83H.S.NixontoRalphDavis,13February1940,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81;alsoJamesKaranja,TheMissionaryMovementinColonialKenya:TheFoundationofAfricaInlandChurch(Göttingen:Cuvillier,2009),fn822:‘ThiswasnothappeningjustinKikuyucountry.InthesameperiodtheChurchmembersinMachakos,Kambaland,askedthemissiontoleavetheareaimmediatelybecauseofanallegedlackofconcernfortheirwelfareintermsofeducation.’

84J.G.Rae,‘AHistoricalSurveyoftheEducationalWorkoftheAfricaInlandMission’(M.A.Ed.thesis,UniversityofNewBrunswick,1969),RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

85Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissiontoitsNationalChurch’,175.

86HarmonNixontoRalphDavis,16March1942,Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissiontoitsNationalChurch’,175.

79

“a”.’87Duringtheearlylate1930sandearly1940s,aspressuremounted,themission

showednointentionofplacatingtheprotestors,evenwhenAfricansaskedthemissionto

leaveanarea,orgotupandwalkedoutofchurchorthreatenedtoleaveAIMaltogether.

ThemissionappearedmorewillingtolosechurchmembersthanmollifyAfricandemands

formoreteachersandschoolsfortheirchildren.InanotherprivateletterwrittentoAIM

missionaryH.W.InnisinKericho(locatednearKano),Nixonrevealedhistruefeelings:‘If

thismanisatypicalrepresentativeoftheKanoChurch,IdonotfeelthattheAfricaInland

MissionwouldhavemuchtoloseifalltheKanopeopleleftus.’88Themissionappeared

unmovedbytheincreasingpressuretoprovidemoreeducationforAfricans.

Theclamourformoreschoolsandbettereducationeventuallyforcedthehandof

themissiontomakechangesinitseducationalpolicyin1945.Inaletterdated31

December1942,Nixonhadadmittedtohomecouncilsthatthemissionwouldnotbeable

toholdoutforlong.Asheputit:‘Wecannotturnadeafeartoourpeople’[italics

original].89Thehomecouncilconceded,andin1945themissionoutlinedanewpolicyto

‘maintainschools,makingGovernmentstandardstheminimumrequirements’.90The

missionwouldalsoestablishtrainingcentresfordevelopingAfricanteachersand

‘evangelicalsupervisorstodealwiththegovernment’inordertosafeguardthemission’s

Evangelicalidentity.91Inaddition,themissionbegantoreviseitslong-heldpolicyagainst

87H.S.NixontoRalphDavis,13February1940,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection 81.

88H.S.NixontoH.W.Innis,2February1942,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),KSM/1/10/42.

89H.S.NixontoRalphDavis,31December1942,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),KSM/1/10/42.

90‘EducationPolicyoftheAfricaInlandMission’,ActionoftheExecutiveCommitteeinitsmeetingofSeptember1945,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),MSS/3/568.

91Ibid.

80

receivinggrants-in-aidfromthecolonialgovernment.Whilethepolicyofthemission

appearstohavebeentherejectionofgovernmentgrantsinthe1920sand1930s,the

primarysourcesconveyacomplicatedhistory.Inrealitythemissionchangedcourses

morethanonceonitspolicyofacceptinggovernmentmoniesbefore1945,butitwas

generallyopposedtothepractice.92After1945themissionbeganacceptingsomegrants-

in-aidfundsfromthecolonialgovernmentasapolicy,butitwasstillreticenttoaccept

fundsforbuildingschoolsonmissionproperty,fearingpotentialpropertydisputes.93

Whilethemission’snewpolicyoneducationwasanefforttorespondtothedemandfor

moreeducation,theimplementationofthesenewpolicieswouldrequireseveralyears,and

asweshallsee,thefrustrationsofAfricanscontinuedtomountintothelate1940s,creating

significantstrainonmission-churchrelationships.

Themission’sapathytowardAfricandemandsforbettereducation,followedbyits

delayedresponse,resultedinsignificantschismsduringthe1940s.DiscussionsonAIM’s

relationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurchweredeferred.Whilethestoriesare

ignoredinthehistoriesofthemission,twoAfricanindependentchurcheswereestablished

inthewakeofAIM’sresistancetorespondtothedemandsofitsconverts.Both

denominationsarementionedbrieflyinAdrianHastings’AHistoryofAfricanChristianity,

1950-1975,thoughlittleattentionhasbeengiventothesegroupsinthescholarly

literature.94AllanH.Anderson’sworkAfricanReformation:AfricanInitiatedChristianityin

92J.G.Rae,‘AHistoricalSurveyoftheEducationalWorkoftheAfricaInlandMission’(M.A.Ed.thesis,UniversityofNewBrunswick,1969),RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

93Ibid.


81

the20thCenturytouchesbrieflyonthesechurchesbutdoesnotsituatetheirfoundinginthe

educationalconflictsofthe1940s.95DavidSandgrenhashelpfullyshedsomelightonboth

oftheseschisms,butthereisnoattempttosynthesizeorevenrelatethetwo

denominations.OnedenominationisdepictedasaKikuyuproblem,whilethesecondis

presentedasarevoltagainstAIMauthorityamongtheKamba.96Theseassessmentsare

partiallytrue,buttheoverarchingissuewasAIM’sretardededucationalpolicy.Both

denominationsdrewtheirmemberslargelyfromtheAfricaInlandMissionandby1973

wouldboastacombinedmembershipofnearly100,000believers(thesameyearthatAIC

wasreportingamembershipof300,000).97Thereisalmostnotraceoftheirexistencein

missionpublicationsduringthe1940s.Theirstoriesemergefrombelow,buriedin

correspondenceandmeetingminutesandhiddenawayinmemoriesofthepast,someof

whichhavebeenrecoveredbyoralhistory.Bothoftheseindependentoffshootsofthe

AIM-AICaresignificantenoughtowarrantfurtherhistoricalenquiry.

Thefirstindependentgrouptoemergeinthe1940swastheAfricanBrotherhood

ChurchandSchools(ABCS),formallyestablishedin1945.Asindicatedinthe

denomination’sname,theprimarycauseoftheschismwasthemission’sdismissive

responsetowardtheAfricandemandformoreschools.ThechurchwasfoundedbySimeon

Mulandi(1914-1975),anAfricanSalvationArmyevangelistdescribedbythosewhoknew

95AllanH.Anderson,AfricanReformation:AfricanInitiatedChurchesinthe20thCentury(Trenton,NJ:AfricaWorldPress,Inc.,2001),150-51.

96DavidSandgren,‘KambaChristianityfromAfricaInlandMissiontoAfricanBrotherhoodChurch’inThomasSpearandIsariaN.Kimambo,eds.,EastAfricanExpressionsofChristianity(Oxford:JamesCurrey,1999),169-195;DavidP.Sandgren,ChristianityandtheKikuyu:ReligiousDivisionsandSocialConflict(NewYork:PeterLang,2000),131-143.

97Barrett,ed.,WorldChristianEncyclopedia(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),435.

82

himasanenergeticleaderanda‘spellbinding’preacher.98Mulandiwasgreatlyinfluenced

byGeorgeRhoad,anAmericanAIMmissionarywhocametoKenyain1903andstartedhis

ownbreakawaymissionin1936namedtheGospelFurtheringFellowship(GFF).99Rhoad

possessedastrong,independentspiritandareputationforbeingcriticalofAIMleadership.

Heresignedfromthemissionin1926becausehefeltthatAIMauthoritieswereignoring

hiscounselonmissionpolicy.100HewasatirelessadvocateforAfricaneducation,an

outspokencriticofthecolonial‘huttax’andanimportantcontributortotheKikamba

translationoftheBible.Thoughhecouldbecensoriousofgovernmentpolicy,hewasalso

successfulinconvincingcolonialauthoritiestobuildroadsinruralregionsofUkambani.101

HebecameaveritablelegendamongtheKamba.

MulandiwenttoworkforRhoadsometimearound1940butby1942had

developedasignificantfollowingofhisowninUkambani.LargelyunbeknownsttoRhoad,

whowasfeverishlyworkingtoexpandhisnewmissioninotherpartsofthecolony,

MulandihadbeenlayingplansforhisownchurchinUkambani.Rhoad,whohadrecruited

manyofhisownworkersfromAIMchurches,confrontedMulandi:‘Igaveyoumysheepto

tend,butinsteadoftakingcareofthem,youstolethem.’102By1945Mulandihad

98DavidSandgren,‘KambaChristianity:FromAfricaInlandMissiontoAfricanBrotherhoodChurch’,inThomasSpearandIsariaN.Kimambo,eds.,EastAfricanExpressionsofChristianity(Oxford:JamesCurreyLtd,1999),191-92.

99‘GeorgeRhoad’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81,AfricaInlandMissionpersonnelfiles,56-14.

100Morad,‘FoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMission’,161-166,andfootnotes.

101Gehman,FromDeathtoLife,75-77,186,306.

102WilliamB.Anderson,‘FeelingAfterGod:TheAfricanBrotherhoodChurch’(unpublishedmanuscript,n.d.)RichardGehmanPapers(Florida),6.Unfortunatelythereisnodateonthepaper.InmyconversationwithRichardGehman(whoadvisedthestudent),hebelievedthatpapertohavebeenwrittensometimeinthe1970s;Sandgren,‘KambaChristianity’,174.

83

successfullygalvanizedenoughsupportamongtheKambatolaunchhisownchurch.

Underhisleadershipasbishop,theABCSadoptedathoroughlyEvangelicaldoctrinal

statementthatfollowedtheconfessionalstandardsofAIMchurches.Theconstitution

makesitclearthatthechurchtooktheBibleseriously:‘TheA.B.C.willalwaysbelieveinthe

HolyBookDivineofGod.’103Oneoftheprimaryobjectivesofthechurchis‘preachingthe

Gospel’ascommandedbyJesusinMatthew28:18-20.Inaddition,allmembersmust

confesstheirfaithinJesusChristforsalvation.104Inthe1970s,astudentwhowasstudying

atanAIMschoolinKenyacompletedaresearchpaperonthehistoryanddoctrineofthe

ABCS.Heconcludedthattherewerenosignificantdifferencesindoctrinebetweenthetwo

organizations.Inhiswords:‘TheABCisastrongevangelicalChristianChurch.’105

IncontrasttoAIMchurches,theABCSdirectlyfundededucationaleffortsthrough

itsSundaycollectionsandmadeitclearinitsconstitutionthatoneoftheprimary

objectivesoftheABCS,alongsidepreachingthegospel,was‘toopenSchoolsforthe

educationofchildren’.106TheABCSalsotookamoreirenicstancetowardAfricancultural

practices,promotingwhatittermeda‘brotherhoodofChristians’toencourageunityin

workingtogetherforthepreachingofthegospel.107Mulandi’svisionwastocreatea

denominationofacceptance,whereallAfricanswhoconfessedtheirfaithinChristwere

admittedandwhereeducationwouldbeastatedpriorityofthechurch.TheABCSwarmly

103‘ConstitutionandRulesoftheAfricanBrotherhoodChurch’,RJGPapers(Orlando),1.

104Ibid.

105Anderson,‘FeelingAfterGod’,14.

106Ibid.

107Ibid.

84

welcomedchurchmemberswhohadbeenexcommunicatedfromAIMchurchesfor

participatinginAfricandances,localcircumcisionrites,andpolygamy(thoughpolygamists

couldnotholdleadershippositionsinthechurch).108Thechurchalsotookseriouslythe

needtoeducateandordainclergymen.In1950theABCSfoundedthe‘DivinitySchool’

(thiswasthename)inMitaboni(approximately15kilometresnorthofMachakos)totrain

ministersforitschurches,aschoolthatnowoperatesastheEasternKenyaIntegrated

College(EKIC)inassociationwithCareyTheologicalCollege,aBaptistinstitutioninBritish

Colombia(Canada).109TheAIMtriedtoblockthechurch’seffortstoopennewschoolsin

itsspheres,butthisattemptmetwithlittlesuccess.110ABCSmembershiprollsswelledin

thelate1940sandthedecadeofthe1950s,reportingamembershipofmorethan64,000

in342congregationsbytheearly1970s.111TheschismwascausedbyAIM’sregressive

educationalpolicy.

ThesecondindependentdenominationtoemergewastheAfricanChristianChurch

andSchools(ACCS).112On25November1947,twoyearsafterthemissionreversedits

policyoneducation,AfricanchurchleadersfromGithumuissuedalettertotheKenyaField

Directorexpressingtheirintentiontopartwayswiththemission.Asinthecaseat

Ukambani,thechurchleadershadnoquarrelwiththemissionovertheologicalissues.The

108Sandgren,KambaChristianity,183.

109AfricaBrotherhoodChurch‘EasternKenyaIntegratedCollege,’http://www.africabrotherhoodchurch.org/eastern-kenya-integrated-college-ekic.html(accessed12February2017).

110Sandgren,KambaChristianity,184.

111DavidB.Barrett,etal,eds.,KenyaChurchesHandbook:TheDevelopmentofKenyanChristianity,1483-1973(Kisumu,Kenya:EvangelHousePublishing,1973),184.

112This‘revolt’isrecountedinSandgren,ChristianityandtheKikuyu,131-143.

85

letterstatedtheDistrictChurchCouncil,theChurchCouncil,theDistrictSchoolCommittee

and‘allmembersoftheChurch,Githumu’were‘thankfultotheAfricanInlandMission,for

thelongperiodofmorethanfortyyearsunderyourleadershipinChurchandeducational

matters,althoughyourleadershiphasbeenafailureinmanycases’.113Theissueatstake

wasextremedispleasureoverthemission’sprogressinthefieldofeducation.‘Onthe

educationalsidetheschoolsunderthismissionseems[sic]toustobethepoorestinthe

Colony.’114Churchleadershadgivencarefulconsideration‘foralongtime’aboutwhat

shouldbedone,andtheymincednowords:‘Now,thechurchmembersofGithumuDistrict

askyouveryanxiouslytoleaveGithumuDistrictforgoodandworksomewhereelseasit

pleasesyouaswearefedupwithyou.’115WhentheSeniorEducationOfficerofCentral

Provinceofthecolonyreceivedacopyoftheletterfromthemission,hedispatchedamemo

totheDirectorofEducationexplaininginhisopinionmuchoftheproblemwasduetothe

factthatmissionofficials‘deprecatedtheirmissionariesspendingtoomuchtimeon

educationalactivities’eventhoughhehadbeenassuredlastyear‘thattherehadbeena

changeinpolicy’.116Whilethemissionhadchangeditseducationalpolicyin1945,it

appearedtobemakinglittleprogressinplacatingAfricanchurchmembersorimpressing

colonialofficials.

113DistrictChurchCouncil,theChurchCouncil,theDistrictSchoolCommittee,andAllMembersoftheChurch,GithumutoTheFieldDirector,AfricanInlandMission,25November1947,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

114Ibid.

115Ibid.

116MemofromtheSeniorEducationOfficersCentralProvincetotheDirectorofEducation,Nairobi,2December1947,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

86

InDecember1947ElijahMbatia,thechairmanoftheGithumuChurchCouncil,

dispatchedalettertotheDistrictCommissioneratFortHallstatingthat‘wewillnever

workundertheleadershipoftheAfricanInlandMission’andconcludedhisprotestwitha

declarationofindependence:‘Weshallbeknownas:AfricanChristianChurchandSchools,

Githumu.’117TheletterwasreceivedbythecommissionerinJanuaryandstamped13

January1948.InMarchofthesameyear,alengthyhandwrittenletterwassentbyMbatia

outliningnumerouscomplaints,allrelatedtotherunningofschools.AccordingtoMbatia,

themissionhad‘deliberatelyignoredourneeds’byrefusingtoacceptgovernmentaidfor

education.HealsosaidthatthemissionhadclosedschoolsthatwerebeingrunbyAfricans,

dischargedsometeachersfromtheirduties,brokenitspromisetosendqualifiedteachers

andfailedtopayAfricanteachersapropersalary.118Thedeclarationofindependenceby

theACCSanditsrequestforthemissionto‘leaveandworksomewhereelse’didnotsettle

thematter.AIMremainedatGithumuandrefusedtogivethedisaffectedchurchaccessto

missionproperty.TheACCSimmediatelyappealedtotheProvincialCommissionerfora

hearingtosecurerightstowhatitarguedwasthepropertyoftheAfricanchurch.The

ProvincialCommissionerwentaboutmakingarrangementsforameetingandprivately

expressedhisexasperationwiththemission:

MyownviewisthatthemissionhasandarecontinuingtohandlethefollowerswithasingularlackofdiscretionandIhaveconsiderablesympathywiththosewhocriticizethepastperformanceoftheMissioninEducationalmattersandindeedfortheirdesiretosecedefromtheAfricaInlandMissiontutelage.119

117ElijahMbatiatotheDistrictCommissioneratFortHall,3March1948,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

118Ibid.

119E.H.WindleytoD.N.Nene,14July1948,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

87

Afterfailedattemptstofindasatisfactoryagreement,thenewdenominationfileda

lawsuitclaimingthattheschoolatGithumu,whileonmissionproperty,wasconstructedby

fundsthathadbeenraisedbytheAfricanchurch.120Thelawsuitwaskeptunderwrapsby

missionofficialsandwasnotsettleduntil1952.D.M.Miller’sprivatelettertoAlbertVollor

abouttheGithumulawsuitsummarizedthemission’sintenttokeepthematterprivate:

‘NeedlesstosaywehavenotbroadcastthisinformationbutsenttoCouncilmembersand

aninnercircleoftrustedfriends.’121Themissionlostthelawsuit,wasforcedtopay20,000

shillingsforcompensationandhand-overallitsoutschoolstothenewchurch.TheACC

reported14,000adherentsin1962,withattendanceinallitschurchessteadilyincreasing

toapproximately25,000in1971.122

Themission’sresistancetotheAfricandemandformoreeducationandits

regressiveeducationalpoliciesresultedinschism.Twodenominationsemerged,the

AfricanChristianChurchandSchools(1947)inGithumuaswellastheAfricanBrotherhood

ChurchandSchools(1945)inUkambani.Thesedivisions,whilelargelyhiddenfromAIM

supporters,wereacrimoniousaffairs.

WhydidAIMremainsointransigentinitspositionregardingAfricaneducation,

especiallygiventhetremendouspressureitwasunderbyAfricanstomakethisahigher

priority?Whywasthemission,tousethewordsofonemissionleader,so‘half-hearted’in

itseffortstoprovidemoreeducationforAfricansevenafterchangingitseducationalpolicy

120‘InHisMajesty’sSupremeCourtofKenyaatNairobi,CivilCaseno.1050of1950,AfricanChristianChurchandSchoolsversusTheAfricaInlandMission’,31October1950.KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),KA/1/11/76.

121D.M.MillertoAlbertE.Vollor,22May1951,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

122Sandgren,ChristianityandtheKikuyu,143.

88

in1945?123Inretrospect,themissionappearstone-deaf,unabletodiscernthesignsofthe

timesandunwillingtocareforthoseitcametoserve.Asonemissionaryhadputitas

earlyas1936:‘ournativesthinkthatwedonotlovethemandareneglectingthem.’124The

missionariesknewthatAfricanshadbeendispleasedforsometime,andyettheyfailedto

respondinawaythatsatisfiedtheirconverts.Why?

Thereareseveralreasonsforthemission’sfailuretoimplementafull-orbed

educationalprogrammetothesatisfactionofAfricanChristians.First,AIMconsistently

vieweditsworkineducationasinferiortoitscalltoengageinevangelisticwork.The

AfricandemandforWesternmissionariestoprovidemoreeducationwasconsidereda

distractionfromtheircalltotraveltodistantvillagesandproclaimthegospel.AsMrand

MrsWepplerputitinalettertotheirsupporters:‘Wewishwecouldfeelfreeto

discontinueourschools…Ourgreatdesireisthatwemightbemorefreeforitinerating

work.’125AIMmissionariesdidnotcometoEastAfricatoeducatebuttoevangelize.As

WillisHotchkissputitinhis1937memoirs:‘No,wedonotcometoAfricabecausemenare

heathenandneedcivilization;wecomebecausemenaresinnersandneedaSaviour.’126

AIMmissionaryEdithDevittdescribedtheattitudeofthemissioncommunityinthelate

1930sand1940s:‘Wecametopreach,nottoteachschools.’127Missionariesinthelate

123KenyaFieldDirectortoMrHarveyN.Wadham,15July1939,RichardGehamPapers(Florida).

124ElwoodDavistoHarveyWadham,23October1936,citedinGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissiontoitsNationalChurch’,165.

125Wepplersto‘ChristianFriends’,October1938,Mbooni,Kenya,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

126WillisR.Hotchkiss,ThenandNowinKenyaColony:FortyAdventurousYearsinEastAfrica(LondonandEdinburgh:FlemingH.Revell,1937),14.

127EdithDevitt,OntheEdgeoftheRiftValley(Langley,BC:UniversityPrinters,1992),20.

89

1930sand1940swereinmanywaysreluctanteducationalistswhodidnotfeelcalledto

thefieldofeducation.Educationwasconsideredthesphereofthegovernment.Asthe

GeneralSecretaryoftheAIMputitin1939:‘Wewilldothebestwecan,andifwecannot

sendtheworkersthey[thecolonialgovernment]demand,thenwewilljusthavetolet

themtakeovertheschoolwork.Afterall,fundamentally,theeducationofthepeopleisthe

workoftheGovernmentnotMissions.’128Missionariesrepeatedlymadeitclearevento

AfricansthattheirprimarycallingwastowinsoulstoChrist,notprovideeducationfor

them.Alengthyhand-writtenletterfroma‘resident’nearOgodaMissionStationnear

Kisumuistelling:‘Ihaveheardyoumanytimestellingmeandyieldingthatyouknow

nothingabouteducationandthatyoucametowinthesoulsforGod,andnottoprepare

peopleforWorldlypleasurelikeeducatingthem.’129AfricansknewthatAIMmissionaries

viewedtheirworkineducationassecondarytotheircalltoevangelize,andtheywerenot

happyaboutit.

WhileAIMwasinvolvedinmedicalandeducationalwork,theseactivitieswere

viewedasthehandmaidenstoitsevangelisticlabours.Thisstancewasareflectionof

FundamentalistattitudesthatshapedconservativeEvangelicalsduringthefirsthalfofthe

twentiethcentury.Duringthe1920sand1930s,Fundamentalistshadrespondedtothe

SocialGospelbyplacinganevengreateremphasisonthepriorityofevangelism.Social

concernswere‘subordinated’toevangelisticendeavoursasFundamentalistsincreasingly

128RalphT.DavistoHarmonNixon,23June1939,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

129NoahAmolotoRevSkodaatOgadaStation,17October1945,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),DC/KSM/1/10/42

90

distancedthemselvesfromtheologicalliberalism.130AIM,alongwithotherFaithMissions

liketheCentralAmericanMissionandtheSudanInteriorMission,wereshapedbythese

Fundamentalistconcernsandtheirmissionarieswererecruitedlargelyfrom

FundamentalistBiblecollegesthat‘majored’intrainingmissionariesforforeignservice.131

Missionariescametothefieldwithasinglefocusandtheypouredalltheirenergiesinto

evangelisticwork.132Theconcentrationon‘savingsouls’madeitdifficultforthemissionto

enlargeitsvisioninthe1940s.Eventhemission’ssubstandardeducationalworkwas

carriedoutforthepurposeofgainingentréeintonewareasofthecolonythatwouldserve

asastagingpointforsendingoutmoreevangelists.TheDistrictCommissionerofKitui

issuedaprivatememorandumtotheProvincialCommissionerinCentralProvincein1942

callingtheeducationaleffortsoftheAIM‘pathetic’andexplainedwhyhedeniedtheir

requesttoopenaschoolinMumoni(nearMachakos):‘Theydonotwishtoopenschools,

butmerelytoestablishnativeevangelistsfromtheMachakosdistrict.’133Evencolonial

officialsknewthatevangelismwasthemostimportantpriorityofthemission!Inhis

memoir,NgũgĩwaThiong’orecallsthatsomemissionaryschoolsparadoxicallygaineda

reputationfor‘deliberatelydeprivingAfricansofknowledge’andthattheywere‘seenas

denyingusthekindofeducationthatwouldpropelusquicklyintomoderntimes’.134AIM

130GeorgeMarsden,FundamentalismandAmericanCulture(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),90.

131JoelA.Carpenter,‘PropagatingtheFaithOnceDelivered:TheFundamentalistMissionaryEnterprise,1920-1945’inJoelA.CarpenterandWilbertR.Shenk,eds.EarthenVessels:AmericanEvangelicalsandForeignMissions,1880-1980(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,1990),92-132.

132DanaL.Robert,‘PremillennialMissionTheoryandtheOriginsofIndependentEvangelicalMissions’inCarpenterandShenk,EarthenVessels,32.

133DistrictCommissionertotheProvincialCommissioner,CentralProvince,Nyeri,12June1942,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairob),VQ/1/36.

134Thiong’o,DreamsinaTimeofWar,114.

91

missionarieswereconcernedaboutthereligiousprogressofAfricans;socialprogress

througheducationwasnottheirprimaryaim.

AsecondreasonAIMdidnotimplementaprogressiveeducationprogrammeisthat

themissionlackedsufficientresourcestokeepupwithdemand.ExistingAIM-operated

schoolswereoftenpoorlymaintainedandinadequatelystaffedinthe1930sand1940sdue

toinsufficientfunding.Areportissuedin1939onanAIM-operatedschoolistypical:‘Site

andbuildingsveryuntidy.Teachers’houseunoccupied.Twootherbuildingsinadirtyand

dilapidatedcondition.Nolatrine.Registersnotmarkedup.Nocertifiedteacher.Both

teachersquiteincompetent.’135Adecadelater,thingshadchangedlittle.A1949reportis

typical:‘Withtheexceptionofanewblockofclassrooms,thebuildingsareoldand

dilapidatedandthegroundswereuntidy.’136Aninspectionreportonaprimaryschoolat

Kijabereads:‘StandardIIIisaccommodatedinanarrowbuildingquiteunsuitablefor

effectiveteachingandoneStandardIVwasusingthechurchwhichisnotequippedwith

desks.’137Themissionalsostruggledtokeepupwiththegrowingdemandformoretrained

personnel.‘IncreasingneedofteachersthroughouttheMission’reada1943memo.138

Memosandlettersoftencontainedapologieslike‘sorrywecouldnotkeepapermanent

staffforElementaryTeacherSchool’and‘nomissionaryavailableatpresenttohelpinthe

135MemoissuedbyOfficeofInspectorofSchools,ColonyofKenya,25March1939,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),DC/KSM/1/10/42

136NotesofavisitpaidbytheAg.(Acting)C.I.S.(ChiefInspectorofSchools),15September1949,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),MSS/3/568.

137InspectionReportoftheA.I.M.PrimarySchoolatKijabe,21June1949,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),MSS/3/568.

138‘EducationMemo’,AfricaInlandMission,4December1943,RichardGehmanPapers,(Florida).

92

TeacherTrainingSchool’and‘informtheMachakosSchoolCommitteethatwearestill

unabletogivethemaPrimarySchool.’139Theproblemofinadequateresourceshadfirst

begunsurfacinginthelate1930s.Asonemissionaryputit,‘Itseemstomewearefaced

withoneoftwothings—todiscontinueeducationalworkentirely,ortolooktoGodto

supplyuswiththemenandmoneytomeetthegreatandpressingneed.’140Bytheearly

1940s,thedemandsformoreeducationhadoutpacedtheresourcesofthemission.

Aprimarycauseofthisshortageinfundswasthemission’sinconsistentpolicyon

governmentgrants.In1922AIMissuedarulingnottoacceptgovernmentgrants-in-aid

becausetheyviolatedthe‘faith-basis’ofthemission.Oneofthefoundingprinciplesofthe

AIMwasthatthemissionandmissionarieswouldnotsolicitfundsfortheirworkbutwould

insteadrelysolelyonGodtomeettheirneeds.141Missionariescouldinformsupporters

abouttheirneedsbutcouldnotdirectlyaskforfinancialassistance.Theclassicpolicy

statementread:‘Astothework,fullinformation;astofunds,non-solicitation.’142While

thismaysmackoffundraisingbycircumlocutiontooutsiders,AIMloyalistslivedbythe

faithprincipleasamatterofpersonalconviction.143TheChurchofScotlandMissionand

theChurchMissionarySocietyacceptedgovernmentgrants-in-aidforeducation,whichand

139‘EducationMemo’,AfricaInlandMission,12December1944,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida);‘EducationMemo’,AfricaInlandMission,16April1945,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida);‘EducationMemo’,AfricaInlandMission,13August1946,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

140H.S.NixontoRev.RalphDavis,19October1938,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

141StephenMorad,‘FoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricanInlandMissionandTheirInteractionwiththeAfricaContextinKenyafrom1895to1939:TheStudyofaFaithMission’(Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofEdinburgh,1997),81-121.

142RichardGehman,FromDeathtoLife:TheBirthoftheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya,1895-1945(AnnArbor,MI:C-MBooks,2013),23.

143Morad,‘FoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMission’,81-121.

93

bothmissionshadoutpacedAIMinthefieldofeducation.144ThewillingnessoftheCMS

andtheCSMtoacceptfundsforbuildingschools(thesebuildingsalsofunctionedas

churches)helpsexplainwhyAnglicansandPresbyteriansenjoyedgreatersuccessamong

theKikuyuthandidtheAIM.145Between1922and1945,themissionvacillatedon

whetherornotitshouldacceptthesegrantsasamatterofgeneralpolicy.Forexample,the

1922decisionnottoacceptgrantswasreversedin1924infavourofacceptingthem.This

policywasreversedagainin1926totheoriginalruling.In1937theBritishHomeCouncil

decideditwasinfavourofacceptinggrantswhiletheAmericanHomeCouncilremained

opposedtothepractice.146TherewasnoclearconsensusforallAIMfields.In1939the

AmericanHomeCouncilissuedamemototheKenyaFieldDirectoremphasizingthatthe

missionhadgivenconsiderablethoughttotheissueandhadconcludedonceagainthat‘we

donotagreetoacceptinganyGrants-in-Aid’.147Apaperon‘EducationalPolicy’wasissued

bythemissionin1940makingtheambiguousrecommendationthat‘grants-in-aidbe

acceptedonlyincaseswheretheiracceptancewillnotinvolvetheMissionincontractswith

thegovernment.’148AIM’sinconsistencyontheissueofacceptingcolonialgrants-in-aid

madeitdifficultforthemissiontokeeppacewiththeAfricandemandformoreteachers

andbetterschools.Themissionsimplylackedtheresourcesitneeded.

144Rae,‘AHistoricalSurveyoftheEducationalWorkoftheAfricaInlandMission’,28.

145JohnLonsdale,‘KikuyuChristianities’,JournalofReligioninAfrica,vol.29,fasc.2(May1999),207,225,fn.7.


147HenryD.CambelltoH.S.Nixon,11August1939,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

148‘EducationalPolicyintheAfricaInlandMission’,KenyaField,January1940,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

94

Afterthemissionadoptedamoreprogressiveeducationalpolicyin1945,the

practiceofacceptinggrantsbecamemorewidespread,thoughthepracticewaslimitedto

fundingforAfricanteachers’salaries.149Grants-in-aidwerenottobeacceptedforbuilding

newschoolsonmissionstationpropertybecausethemissionwasconcernedthatthis

couldresultinapropertydispute.150Ifbuildingsonmission-ownedpropertywerebuilt

usinggovernmentfunds,thenAfricanscouldtheoreticallyclaimthattheschoolsbelonged

tothepublic,notthemission.(IntheGithumulawsuit,theAfricanchurchwouldarguethat

itsmembershadhelpedfundthebuildings.)Thisunwillingnesstoacceptfundsfor

buildingsplacedthemissioninanevenmoreprecariouspositionascolonialofficialswere

lessapttograntthemissionentréeintonewterritorygivenAIM’sunwillingnesstouse

grantsforbuildingnewschools.Thecolonialgovernmentbecameincreasinglydissatisfied

withthemissionandbeganlimitingthescopeofitswork,preferringtoworkwithmission

societiesthatwerepro-educationintheirpolicies.In1944themissionwasrefusedaplot

intheKituiDistrictinUkambaniandtheDistrictCommissionerissuedaconfidentialmemo

totheProvincialCommissionergivinghisreasoning:‘Mypersonalopinionisthatanew

missionwithabroadandmorevigourous[sic]viewpoint(botheducationalandreligious)

isneededinKituiDistrictandifthisapplicationbyA.I.M.isapproved,thefieldwouldbe

effectuallyclosedtoanotherProtestantMission[parenthesisoriginal].’151Inaneffortto

shoreupitsweakeducationalprogramme,themissionbeganrecruitingWestern


150‘EducationCapitalExpenditure—Grants-InAid’,19January1946,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

151ConfidentialMemofromDistrictCommissioneroftheColonyofKenyatotheHon.ProvincialCommissioner,9June1944,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

95

‘educationalists’tocometothefieldinthelate1940stotrainAfricanteachers.152However,

thiswouldtaketimeandrecruitingnewmissionariesforthepurposeofeducationproved

difficultgiventhemission’sevangelisticethos.WhenthemissionaskedtheAfricanchurch

tobepatientandexplainedthatitcouldnotsimplyaskmissionarieswhowerealreadyon

thefieldtoleavetheirevangelisticlaboursinordertoworkineducation,Africansdidnot

believeit.OnechurchleaderpointedtothelargemissionstationatKijabewhereAIM

missionarieswereworkingforthemissionpress,cuttingtimberforconstructionand

farmingandsellingtheproceeds.Meanwhilethe‘principal’spentmostofhistime

overseeingtheprestigiousRiftValleyAcademyforexpatriatechildren.Asheputit:‘He

[thePrincipal]usuallysaystheMissionariesareverybusyatKijabe.Whileweknowthat

therearetenormoreMissionarieswhoarebusilyoccupyingontheirownbusinesses

whichbusinessesdonotconcerntheAfricans.’153Themission’sreluctancetoaccept

colonialfundsweakeneditsabilitytoprovideeducationalfacilitiesandqualifiedteachers,

andAfricansinterpretedtheirexplanationsasdisingenuousexcuses.

Athirdimpedimenttoavigorouseducationprogrammewasthatthegrowing

demandforsocialadvancementthrougheducationcreatedanever-enlargingriftbetween

thegoalsofthemissionandthoseofAfricanchurchmembers.Thegovernmentandthe

missionworkedtogethertoprovideeducationforAfricans,buttheydidnotalwaysshare

thesameaims.Thecolonialgovernmentpromotededucationwiththegoaloffacilitating

thesocialprogressofAfricans(evenifthiswasforthepurposeofincorporatingAfricans

152‘MissionMatters’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXIX,No.2,[March-April,1945],11;‘TheAfricanatSchool’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXI,No.5[September-October1947],7-10.

153ElijahMbatiatoTheFieldDirector,A.I.M.,Githumu,2December1947,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

96

intothecolonialapparatus),whilethemission’sgoalsweredirectedtowardreligiousand

moralprogress.Thecolonialgovernmentandthemissionworkedtogethertoprovide

educationforAfricans,buttheirpartnershipisbestdescribedasa‘happyaccident’.154The

missionsawtheclassroomasplacetoteachbasicliteracyfortheexpresspurposeof

evangelismandBibleinstruction.A1937reportbytheBritishHomeCouncilmadeitclear:

‘Thatasschoolworkprovidedoneofthemostfruitfulfieldsforsoul-winning,everyeffort

shouldbeputforthtoconservethisavenueofapproachwithspecialreferenceto

elementaryeducation.’155AsoneAIMmissionaryputit:‘Wearebelieversineducation,in

sofarasitwillenableChristianstoreadthewordofGod,andthatfurthereducationisthe

responsibilityoftheGovernment.’156Themissionviewededucationasawaytoevangelize,

tobuildupthechurchandtotrainnativeevangelists.157

Duringthe1940s,anoticeableshiftbecameevidentastheAfricanincentivefor

acquiringmoreeducation,namelysocialprogress,becamemorecloselyalignedwiththe

aimsofthecolonialgovernment.Asmentionedearlier,Africansincreasinglyviewed

educationasthepathtosocialandeconomicadvancement.OneAfricanconvertofthe

missionrecalledhowhewasforbiddenentranceintoamissionschoolin1946becausehe

failedtheBibletest.‘MyfatherconfrontedtheCapenswhowereinchargeofthestationat

thetimeandforwhomheworkedandtoldthemtheyshouldnotthinkthatbecausehewas


155Ibid.,92.

156W.ReidMaxwelltoAfricanInlandMissionHomeCouncil,17November1941,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).


97

theircookhissonwouldalsobetheirson’scook.’158Africanswantedabetterfuturefor

themselvesandtheirchildren,andeducationwasincreasinglyviewedasameansfor

attainingit.EventhoughAIMhadoutlinedanewpolicytomaintainschoolsinkeeping

withgovernmentpolicyin1945,theconcernofthemissionwastomollifygovernment

pressureandsubdueAfricandissatisfactionsothatitcouldcontinueprovidingreligious

instructioninallitsvariousfields.Themissionwasconcernedthatifitfailedtoprovide

schools,itsconverts‘intheirgreedforknowledgewillflocktootherschools’.159TheInter-

fieldCommitteemadeitclearin1945thatthemissionwas‘cognizantofthegrowingand

insistant[sic]demandbytheAfricansinallthefieldsoftheA.I.M.foracertainamountof

education’and‘feelsthattheschoolspresentagreatopportunityforteachingtheWordof

God,andrecognizesthedangeroflosingmanyofouradherentstolessevangelical

denominations’.160Themissionfeltithadnoalternativebuttorespondinsomewaytothe

increasingdemandformoreeducation,butitchafedatthegrowingburdenthisplacedon

missionariesandexpressedconcernabouttheAfricanmotiveforeconomicgain.

MissionariesoftencomplainedpubliclyinAIM’sofficialorgan.Amissionarycouplefrom

Kenyaopinedin1947:‘Thedifficultiesfacingthemissionarytodayarethoseduetothe

waveofmaterialismthathassettledeverywhere,likeapall.’161Anothermissionary

158IsaacSimbiri,‘UnpublishedAutobiographyofIsaacSimbiri’,2012,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida),17.

159‘TheAfricanatSchool’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXI,No.5[September-October1947],7.

160‘EducationalPolicyoftheAfricanInlandMission:ActionoftheCentralChurchCouncilatitsmeetingofAugust1946’,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),MSS/3/568.

161KennethN.andHazelPhillips,‘FromtheRegionsBeyond’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXI,No.4[September-October1947],15.

98

protestedina1948article:‘Educationandprogressistheirgod!’162Onemissionary

capturedthesentimentofmanymissionariesworkinginthelate1940s:‘Theyenofthe

nativeismoreeducationandbetterlivingconditions.’163AIMresistedtheAfricanhunger

formoreeducation,andthisproducedanalloutwarbetweenthemissionanditsconverts

thatresultedinschism.

Insummary,between1939and1943,AIMestablishedtheAfricaInlandChurch.Its

relationshipwiththechurchitfoundedsufferedfromanarrow-mindedvisionthatwasout

ofstepwithchangingconditionsonthefield.Thedemandforeducationwashigh.A1947

articleinthemission’sofficialorganputitthisway:‘Africaisawakeningbyleapsand

bounds.Sheiswantingeducationmorethaneverbefore,andwillgetit,bywhatevermeans’

[italicsoriginal].164Africanswerefrustratedoverthemission’sinadequateresponsetoits

demandsforeducationandsomecametoquestionthemission’smotives.AnAfrican

schoolofficialidentifiedsimplyas‘JohnM.’confrontedAIM’seducationalrepresentative,E.

L. Davis,withstrongwords:‘Thewhitepeoplearesubtle.’165Dissatisfactionanddistrust

createdschism.Thissingle-issuementalityofthemissionduringthe1940sbecamea

significantimpedimenttothemission’seducationalprogramme.Thelackofresourcesdue

tothemission’sadherencetoits‘faithprinciples’madeitdifficultforAIMtokeeppacewith

162VirginiaBlakeslee,‘TheLord’sBattlesintheRidges’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXII,No.4[July-August,1948],4-5.

163RalphT.Davis,‘IntheBritishFields’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXII,No.5[September-October,1948],3.

164F.J.Mumford,‘TheAfricanSchool’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXIX,No.144,[Jan.-Feb.1947],13.

165‘MeetingwithSchoolCommitteeofAIMMbooniandLocationCommittee,ChiefD.KaindiinAttendance’,30November1948,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).Thisten-pagedocumentprovidesseveralword-for-wordexchangesbetweenthemission’seducationaldirectorandAfricanmembersoftheAIMeducationalcommittee.Theprintissmallanddifficulttoread,butoffersarareglimpseintoameetingbetweenAfricansandanAIMofficial.

99

demand.The‘greateducationalawakening’inAfricacreatedthenecessaryconditionsfor

theperfectstormasmanyAfricansbecameincreasinglyfrustratedwiththemissionin

1940s.166Themissionwasawarethatitneededtoaddressthematterofitsrelationship

withthechurchitfoundedin1943.However,itwasnotthepressingmatter.Therewasno

talkofdevolutioninthe1940s.Africanswerepressingforeducation.

166‘EducationalPolicyoftheAfricanInlandMission:ActionoftheCentralChurchCouncilatitsmeetingofAugust1946’,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),MSS/3/568.

100

3

TheAfricaInlandMissioninaRapidlyChangingWorld:Modernism,Revival,MauMauandtheAdvanceofWesternCivilization,1948-1954

In1948theAIMpresident,HowardW.Ferrin(1898-1993),wroteaneditorialfor

InlandAfricatoinformreadersthatmissionarieswereencountering‘radicalchanges’in

theirworkontheAfricancontinent.1Hewantedsupporterstodiscardtheantiquatedidea

that‘thechiefworkofthemissionaryistoputonasunhelmet,plungeintothebush,and

findingahalfdozennakedsavages,gatherthemtogetherunderatreeandtellthemthat

Jesusdiedforthem’.2Africawaschanging,andwithitthenatureofmissionarywork.In

1952theDeputationSecretaryofthemissionwrote:‘Noonecandoubtthatthemissionary

situationhaschangedandischangingrapidly.’3Evenschoolchildrenweretalkingabout

1HowardW.Ferrin,‘HowShallWeServetheSugar?’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIII,No.5[September-October,1948],5.

2Ibid.

3D.M.Miller,‘PrioritiesinaChangingSituation’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVI,No.3[May-June1952],10.

101

thechangesinthecolony.AsoneAfricanboyputitinanessaypublishedinthemission’s

officialorgan:‘ThelifeinAfricaisbeingchangedverymuchandveryrapidly.’4

The‘radicalchanges’encounteredbyAIMmissionariesinKenyaduringthepost-

warperiodwereablendingofreligious,social,andpoliticaldevelopments.Someofthe

changesinKenyawereduetoinfluencesfromNorthAmericaandEurope,otherswere

relatedtodevelopmentsinadjacentAfricanlands,andafewwerederivedfromwithinthe

colonyitself.ScholarsoftendescribetheperiodaftertheSecondWorldWarasatimeof

significantreligious,politicalandsocialchangeinNorthAmerica,Europeandthenon-

Westernworld.BrianStanleyusestheexpression‘radicallychangingcontext’inreference

totheologicalandreligioustransformationinglobalChristianityduringthepost-warera.5

MichaelCrowder’sintroductiontoTheCambridgeHistoryofAfrica,Volume8,c.1940-1975

describestheperiodafter1940asatimeof‘radicalchange’intheworlddirectlyaffecting

Africansocietyandpolitics.6JohnIliffeuseswordslike‘unprecedented’and‘swiftly’to

describemodernization,urbanizationandsocialtransformationontheAfricancontinent.7

Duringthelate1940sandintothe1950s,AIMeditorials,articles,correspondenceandfield

minutestellthestoryofamissiontryingtocometotermswiththenewrealitiesthatwere

affectingitsworkinKenya.AIMmissionariesandmissionofficialsfrequentlydescribed

themomentouschangestheyencountered,tossingaroundwordsandexpressionslike

4‘TheOldProphecy:ACompositionbyaMukambaSchoolboyofKenya’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVI,No.2[March-April,1952],8.

5BrianStanley,TheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofBillyGrahamandJohnStott(DownersGrove,IL:IVPAcademic,2013),12.

6MichaelCrowder,‘Introduction’toTheCambridgeHistoryofAfrica,Volume8,fromc.1940-c.1975(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1984),2.

7JohnIliffe,Africans:TheHistoryofaContinent(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007),251.

102

‘rapidlychangingsociety’and‘theonsetofWesterncivilization’and‘modernAfrica’.These

wordsandexpressionswerebandiedabout(withimprecision)inprivatecorrespondence

andofficialpublicationsascolloquial,catchalldescriptionsofthenewrealitiesof

missionaryserviceinAfrica.Onemissionarywrotehissupportersin1947aboutthe‘the

challengeofthesituationinAfrica’explainingthatthe‘onrushofcivilizationisindangerof

sweepingmodernAfricaoffitsfeet’.8RalphT.Davis,thegeneralsecretaryofthemission,

summarizedhisownimpressionsaftera1948visittoEastAfrica:‘Wenotedmarked

changesinthelandanditspeople.Culturehasmovedforwardatarapidrate.’9The

followingyearhetoldmissionsupporters,‘Thedayofcrudepioneering,inthemain,is

past.’10

Whenmissionariesusedexpressionslike‘modernAfrica’,theywerereferringtoa

panoplyofdevelopmentsincludingtheriseoftheecumenicalmovementinAfrica,apotent

African-ledrevivalmovementthatoriginatedinRwanda,anda‘spiritofnationalism’

pervadingthecolonythatgavefomenttoanarmedrebellion.Missionariesandmission

officialswerealsoreferencingtheaccelerateddemandforeducationinKenya,the

migrationofAfricanstolargecitieslikeNairobiandMombasa,advancesintransportation

thatrevolutionizedthecolony,aswellaschangingsocialconventionsinAfricansociety.

Thischapterwillexploreseveralofthemostsignificantdevelopmentsfacingthemission

duringthepost-warperiodandwillconsiderthemission’sresponse(andreactions)to

them.Itwillconsiderhowitviewedthegrowinginfluenceoftheecumenicalmovement,

8KennethRichardsontoFriends,December1947,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

9RalphT.Davis,‘IntheBritishFields’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXII,No.5[September-October,1948],3.

10RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIII,No.6[November-December,1949],1.

103

thespreadoftheEastAfricaRevival,theMauMauUprisingandthe‘spiritofnationalism’,

andvisiblesocialtransformationsinthecolony.Thepost-warperiodwasmarkedby

increasedcomplexityforthemission,whichcarriedimplicationsforitsrelationshiptothe

churchitfounded.

Thefirstchallengeconfrontingthemissionduringthepost-warperiodwashowit

wouldrespondtothegrowinginfluenceoftheecumenicalmovementontheAfrican

continent.ThemissionfearedthattheinfluenceofecumenisminAfricacouldweakenthe

Evangelicalchurchithadplanted.TheWorldCouncilofChurches(WCC)wasformedin

1948,immediatelybecomingthearchenemyofglobalFundamentalismaswellasthebête

noireoftheAIM.11AIMmissionariesandmissionofficialswerefrequentlytroubledand

preoccupiedbythispost-wardevelopment.TheWCCtracesitshistorybacktothe1910

WorldMissionaryConferenceheldinEdinburgh,whererepresentativesfromAIMand

otherfaithmissionshadbeenactiveparticipants.12Althoughtheconferencedelegates

wereexclusivelyProtestant,andprimarilyEvangelical,thegatheringinspiredamore

inclusiveecumenicalmovementthatculminatedintheformationoftheWCCin1948.13

Between1910and1948,theecumenicalmovementbecamemorediverse,attractinga

growingbodyofliberalProtestants,RomanCatholicsandOrthodoxChristianswithgreater

representationfromthe‘youngerchurches’inthenon-Westernworld.Asanoutgrowthof

theEdinburgh1910conference,theInternationalMissionaryCouncil(IMC)was

11Moreau,A.Scott,ed.EvangelicalDictionaryofWorldMissions,s.v.‘WorldCouncilofChurchesAssemblies’,(GrandRapids:Baker,2000).

12BrianStanley,TheWorldMissionaryConference,Edinburgh1910(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,2009),7-12,320.

13Stanley,TheWorldMissionaryConference,320;‘Ecumenism’inEvangelicalDictionaryofTheology;‘EcumenicalConferences’inDictionaryoftheEcumenicalMovement;‘WorldCouncilofChurches’inEvangelicalDictionaryofWorldMissions.

104

establishedin1921.14TheIMCwasorganizedundertheleadershipofJohnR.Mott(1865-

1955),apassionatepromoterofworldmissionsandaneffectiveorganizerwhohad

presidedovertheEdinburgh1910conference.15Amongthevariedaimsofthecouncilwas

thefurtheranceofaunitedChristianwitnessonthemissionfieldandthepromotionof

racialequalityintheglobalchurch.Thecouncilimmediatelysettoworkstrengtheningthe

‘youngerchurches’inAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmericawhileadvocatingastronger

‘partnership’betweentheforeignmissionaryandtheemergingnationalchurches.16

ConservativeEvangelicalsdidnotembracetherobustsocialagendaoftheIMCandwere

especiallyconcernedthatevangelisticendeavoursweregraduallyrecedingintothe

shadows.Bythe1928JerusalemConference,Evangelicals(manyofwhombecameknown

asFundamentalists)hadbecomecriticsoftheecumenicalmovement.17Meanwhile,the

IMCwasadvancingitssocialagendaintheemergingchurchesinvariouspartsofthe

AfricancontinentthroughitsrelationshipwithterritorialbodiesliketheCongoProtestant

Council(1924),theChristianCouncilofTanganyika(1934)andtheChristianCouncilof

Kenya(1943).18AIMwasanactiveandinfluentialmemberofallthreeoftheseentities,

anditsmissionariesservedontheircouncils.Themission’smembershipintheseChristian

organizationsallowedAIMtoflexitsEvangelicalmusclesthroughoutEastandCentral

14PaulE.Pierson,‘InternationalMissionaryCouncil’inEvangelicalDictionaryofWorldMissions.ScottA.Moreau,ed.(GrandRapids,MI:Baker,2000).

15C.HowardHopkins,JohnR.Mott,1865-1955:ABiography(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1979).

16PhilipA.Potter,‘Mission’,inDictionaryoftheEcumenicalMovement,NicholasLossky,etal,ed.(Geneva:WCCPublications,1991).

17Stanley,TheWorldMissionaryConference,320-324.

18C.P.Groves,ThePlantingofChristianityinAfrica:VolumeIII,1878-1914(London:LutterworthPress,1955),288-295;ThePlantingofChristianityinAfrica,VolumeIV,1914-1954(London:LutterworthPress,1958),225-234;NormanThomas,MissionsandUnity:LessonsfromHistory,1792-2010(Eugene,OR:WipfandStockPublishers,2010),200-205.

105

Africa.WritingonbehalfoftheKenyaFieldCouncilin1949,theDeputationSecretary

noted:‘ThisCouncilisquitesatisfiedthatmembershipoftheC.C.K.[ChristianCouncilof

Kenya]cannotbutbehelpful,asweareabletoinfluencethisbodybyhavingsuchavery

strongrepresentation,andwesincerelytrustthatwemaybeenabledtomakeour

evangelicalcontributiontotheCauseingeneralbycontinuingourmembership.’19The

DeputationSecretarywastryingtocalmtheconcernsofthoseFundamentalistswho

believedthatthemissionshouldconsiderwithdrawalfromthesecouncilsduetotheir

relationshipwiththeecumenicalmovement.WhentheIMCandtheWCCbeganworking

togetheronjointventuresin1948(thetwobodiesmergedin1961),criticismbegan

mountingthatthemissionwascompromisingwiththeliberalagendaoftheWCC.20The

relationshipbetweentheWCCandtheIMC,andthelatter’sgrowinginfluencewithbodies

liketheChristianCouncilofKenya(CCK),putthemissioninapotentiallycompromising

position.Asa1950articleread,‘TheAfricaInlandMissionhasnotbeenwithoutitsshare

ofexpressedconcernbecauseofitsmembershipintheChristianCouncilofKenya,the

ChristianCouncilofTanganyika,andtheCongoProtestantCouncil.’21Missionauthorities

feltcompelledtorespondtothesegrowingconcernsinordertoassurefaithfulsupporters

ofAIM’sunwaveringcommitmenttoEvangelicalprinciples.

Themission’sGeneralSecretarybetween1941and1956wasRalphT.Davis,a

veteranmissionaryfromChicago(sentoutbyMoodyBibleChurch)whohadbeenserving

withAIMsince1926.Hewasaneffectivemissionary,acapableexecutiveandawell-

19D.M.MillertoRalphDavis,16November1949,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

20‘InternationalMissionaryCouncil’inDictionaryoftheEcumenicalMovement.

21‘MissionMatters’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIV,No.3[May-June1950],15.

106

respectedleaderintheEvangelicalcommunity.Davishadbeeninstrumentalinthe

formationoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicalsin1943.22Hewasconcernedabout

thegrowinginfluenceoftheliberalagendaoftheglobalecumenicalmovement,buthewas

equallyconcernedwiththeinfluenceofFundamentalistextremistswhoopposedthe

movement.Davisattemptedtoguidethemissiontowardaviamedia,awayfromthe

progressiveagendaoftheWCContheleftaswellasthevitriolicrhetoricofextreme

Fundamentalistsontheright.Davisandthemissionwerebeginningtoreceivecriticism

fortheirmediatingposition.Asheputitin1951,‘Ithasbeenfeltbymanythatthefaith

missionshavebecomeinvolvedinsituationsintheinternationalareawhichlinkedmanyof

themwiththeWorldCouncilofChurches.’23Themission’sseniorexecutivewasina

difficultposition,desiringtoexertastrongEvangelicalinfluenceinEastAfricathrough

churchcouncilsworkingwiththeIMCwhiletryingtoassuresupportersathomethatthe

missionwasnotcompromisingitsEvangelicalconvictions.

MuchofthecriticismwascomingfromtheFundamentalistleaderCarlMcIntire

(1906-2002),whohadin1948foundedtheInternationalCouncilofChristianChurches

(ICCC)astheFundamentalistalternativetotheWCC.24McIntirewasamilitant

FundamentalistandanablepublicistwhorecruitedEvangelicalstojoinforceswithhis

causeagainstmodernisminthe1940sand1950s.25Hisinfluencewasextendedinto

missioncirclesthroughtheassistanceofFrancisSchaeffer(1912-1984),whofrom1948to

22Davis’roleintheformationoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicalsisrecountedinJoelA.Carpenter,ReviveUsAgain:TheReawakeningofAmericanFundamentalism(NewYork:Oxford,1997),144-148,151-152.

23RalphT.Davis,‘TheI.F.M.A.PositiononRelationships’,InlandAfrica(American),Vol.XXXV,No.1[January-February,1951],12.

24Stanley,TheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism,55;Carpenter,ReviveUsAgain,204-206.

25D.K.Larsen,‘McIntire,Carl(1906-2002)’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.

107

1955devotedhimselftoMcIntire’sfightagainstmodernism.26(Schaefferwouldpartways

withMcIntireinthelate1950sandbecomeaninfluentialshaperofthe‘new’Evangelical

movementinthe1960saswellasacriticoftheFundamentalisttraditionheonce

defended.)27TheOctober1949ExecutiveCommitteeoftheAIMmeeting,heldthatyearin

theUnitedStates,devotedsignificanttimetohowitshouldrespondtoMcIntire’sattackon

themission:‘AconsiderableportionofthetimeofthisCommitteemeetingwasgiventothe

matterofthecriticismsthathavebeenaddressedagainsttheAfricanInlandMission

becausethemissionhasjoinedtheChristianCouncilofKenya.’28MembersoftheExecutive

Committeecomplainedaboutanarticle‘thathasappearedinthe“Beacon”whereinCarl

McIntirestatedthathefeltthattheAfricanInlandMissionhasmadeagreatmistakein

joiningtheCouncil’.29OfficialswerenonplussedoverMcIntire’spubliccriticism.Erik

Barnett,theactingfielddirector,expressedthemission’sfrustration:‘Personally,Ifindit

difficulttounderstandwhyourPresbyterianfriendshaveallowedthismattertogointothe

publicpressbeforefirstallowingtimetoenquireintothematter.’30McIntire’scriticism

forcedthemissiontorespondinordertoassuremembersofitsconservativebasethatthey

couldcontinuesupportingthemissionwithconfidenceinitsEvangelicalcredentials.

AIMwasuneasywithMcIntire’smilitantseparatismandtriedtofindamediating

positionbetweentheICCContheextremerightandtheWCContheleft.Davishadnotonly

26Stanley,TheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism,135.

27C.Duriez,‘Schaeffer,FrancisAugust(1912-1984)’,inBiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.

28AfricanInlandMission,ExecutiveCommitteeMeeting,3October1949,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81,microfilm.

29Ibid.

30ErikBarnetttoRalphT.Davis,KenyaColony,6October1949,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

108

helpedestablishtheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals(NAE)in1943buthadbeen

instrumentalintheformationoftheEvangelicalForeignMissionsAssociation(EFMA)in

1945,anagencythatservedastheforeignarmoftheNAE.31AIMworkedcloselywiththe

EFMA,evensharingofficespaceinBrooklynwiththeorganizationforashorttimein

1950.32ThemissionworkedtogetherwiththeEFMAonplanstocreateanEvangelical

OfficeinNairobi(notopeneduntil1962),whichbecametheforerunneroftheAssociation

ofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar(AEAM).33Themissionpositioneditselfwith

thoseEvangelicalswhowouldeventuallypartwayswithseparatistFundamentalistsinthe

1950stoformabroaderEvangelicalcoalitioninspiredinlargepartbytheeffortsofthe

evangelistBillyGraham,whoin1956renouncedthelabel‘Fundamentalist’.34AIM

labouredtomaintainitsEvangelicalprinciplesbutdidnotwanttoalienatemissionariesor

supporterswhoweremembersofEvangelicalchurchesthatretainedtiestodenominations

containingliberalchurches.ErikBarnettnotedin1949that‘wehavealargenumberof

missionarymembersanddonorswhoareconnectedwithaChurchorganizationinwhich

31TheNationalAssociationofEvangelicalsandtherelatedEvangelicalForeignMissionsAssociationwereestablishedinanefforttoprovidebroad-basedEvangelicalunity.SeeStanley,TheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism,28-60,72-76.FortherelationshipofbothorganizationstoAIM,seeCarpenter,ReviveUsAgain,144-148;EdwinL.Frizen,75YearsofIFMA,1917-1992(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,1992),75-76;‘NationalAssociationofEvangelicals(NAE)Records,1941-2000’,WheatonCollegeArchives&SpecialCollections,http://archon.wheaton.edu/?p=creators/creator&id=137(accessed19November2015).

32EdwinL.Frizen,75YearsofIFMA,1917-1992:TheNondenominationalMissionsMovement(Pasadena,CA:TheWilliamCareyLibrary,1992),197.

33RecordsoftheEvangelicalFellowshipofMissionAgencies(EFMA),BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection165,http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/165.htm(accessed19November2015).ThenamewaschangedfromtheEvangelicalForeignMissionAgenciestotheEvangelicalFellowshipofMissionAgenciesin1992.

34‘IsEvangelicalTheologyChanging’,ChristianLife(March1956),16.ThemagazinereportedonaninterviewGrahamgaveathis1955ScotlandCrusadeinwhichhedenouncedtheFundamentalistlabel.IntheFundamentalistpaperTheSwordoftheLord,evangelist(andeditor)JohnR.Ricespentmuchof1957harshlycriticizingGrahamforhisstatement.

109

thereisliberalism’.35NotallEvangelicalshadseparatedfromdenominationswhereliberal

theologywascountenancedintheearlytwentiethcentury,andthemissionwastryingto

alignitselfwithprogressiveEvangelicalconcerns.

WhilethemissiondidnotembraceMcIntire’spugilisticbrandofFundamentalism,it

didgooutofitswaytodistanceitselffrommodernismandtheWCC.Anarticlewas

publishedintheMay-June1950editionofInlandAfricaassuringmissionsupportersthat

AIMwasbeingmanagedbyseasonedleaderswhocouldbetrustedtosafeguardthe

mission’sintegrity:‘TheaffairsoftheMissiononthefieldarehandledbyveteransinthe

work,menwhoareasdesirousofclear-cuttestimonyasareourfriendshereathome.

They[ourfriends]havebeenassuredthatourallianceshavenotlinkeduswithmodernism,

andhavefurtheredratherthanhinderedourmissionarywork.’36Thesamearticlealso

assuredsupportersthat‘noneofthecouncilsmentionedisamemberoftheWorldCouncil

ofChurches’.37IntheverynextissueofInlandAfrica,AIMmadewhatmusthavebeenan

embarrassingadmission:‘TheAfricaInlandMissionisamemberoftheCongoProtestant

Council.However,itwasnotknownuntilaboutJanuary,1950,thattheCongoProtestant

CouncilwasamemberoftheInternationalMissionaryCouncil.’38Thismeantthatthe

missionwasindirectlylinkedtotheWCCbyitsmembershipintheCPC,abodythatwasin

turnaffiliatedwiththeWCC.ThesamearticlepromisedsupportersthattheCongoField

CouncilhadvotedinJanuary1950tosevertieswith‘anyorganizationthathasconnection

35ErikS.BarnetttoRalphT.Davis,KenyaColony,October6,1949,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

36‘Inter-MissionCouncils’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIV,No.3[May-June,1950],15.

37Ibid.

38‘OfficialStatementoftheAfricanInland’sMissionPositioninRegardtoInter-MissionCouncils’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIV,No.4[July-August,1950],11.

110

withorissubsidiarytotheWorldCouncilofChurches’.39Overthenextthreeyears,the

missiontriedtopersuadetheCPCtopartwayswiththeIMC,butintheendtheAIM

reluctantlywithdrewitsmembershipintheCPCandchosetoservein‘onlythe

relationshipofConsultanttothatbody’.40Thiswasacleverwayforthemissiontoretain

somerelationshipwiththeCPCwhileatthesametimeassuringsupportersthatitwasnot

officiallyconnectedwiththeWCC.Themissionwasnotjustmanoeuvringtosavefacewith

supporters,foritalsowantedtoprotecttheAfricanchurchfromthevagariesoftheological

liberalism.InKenya,themissionretaineditstieswiththeCCKbuturgedthebodyto

strengthenitsdoctrinalstatementtoprotectitsEvangelicalprinciples.41Themissionthen

appliedpressuretotheCCKtoremainseparatefromtheIMCandtheWCC.Supportersof

themissionwereinformedin1951thatthemissionwasstandingfirmagainstanymoveon

thepartoftheCCKtobecomeaffiliatedwiththeWCC:‘TheAfricaInlandMissionwill

opposeanymovetowardsaffiliationwiththeInternationalMissionaryCouncilandthe

WorldCouncilofChurches.’42Itwaspleasedtoreportin1953thattheCCKhad

strengtheneditsdoctrinalstatementandthatthemissionwouldcontinuetobeaffiliated

withtheKenyancouncil.43ThemissiontookastrongstandagainsttheWCCand

ecumenicalmovementbutrejectedFundamentalistseparatismandpressuredthe

39Ibid.

40Inter-FieldDirectorate,AfricaInlandMission,MinutesofthemeetingsheldatKijabe,KenyaColony,18-24March1953,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

41Ibid.

42‘AStandTakenontheField’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXV,No.1[January-February,1951],12.

43Inter-FieldDirectorate,AfricaInlandMission,MinutesofthemeetingsheldatKijabe,KenyaColony,18-24March1953,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

111

emergingAfricanchurchtofollowitslead.Themissionrespondedtothegrowing

influenceoftheecumenicalmovementinAfricabyactingtoprotecttheEvangelical

reputationofthemissionandtheEvangelicalpurityofthechurchitfounded.

Second,whilemissionofficialswerecombatingbothliberalsandFundamentalists,

theywerealsotryingtocometotermswiththespreadofanindigenousrevivalmovement

thatwaschallengingmission-establishedauthority.TheEastAfrica(n)Revivalhadits

originsintheBelgianterritoryofRuanda-Urundiintheearly1930s,quicklyspreadingto

theBritishProtectorateofUganda,andthentothecoloniesofKenyaandTanganyikainthe

late1930s.TherevivalgainedconsiderablestrengthinKenyaduringthedecadeofthe

1940sandbecameaglobalmovementinthe1950sthroughtheitineratingeffortsof

revivalleaders.Themovementwasreferredtovariouslyas‘TheRuandaRevival

Movement’,‘Ruandaism’,‘TheUgandaRevival’andthe‘Balokole’(or‘Abalokole’),thelatter

fromaLugandawordmeaning‘savedones’.44TherevivalwasspearheadedbyJohnE.

(“Joe”)Church(1899-1989),amedicalmissionarywiththeCMSworkinginRwanda,and

SimeonNsibambi(1897-1978),anativeUgandanevangelistwhohadbeeneducatedin

Anglicanmissionschools.45Thetwometin1929andformedanintimatefriendship,

attractingwidespreadattentionastheytravelledthroughoutEastAfricainthe1930sand

1940sgracingplatformsasequals—AfricanevangelistandBritishmissionary—labouring

inunisonforchurchrenewal.46Theyconfrontedspiritualcomplacencyinthechurch,

44KevinWardandEmmaWild-Wood,TheEastAfricanRevival:HistoriesandLegacies(Surrey,UK;AshgatePublishers,2012),18-20.

45GeraldH.Anderson,BiographicalDictionaryofChristianMissions,s.v.,‘Church,JohnE.(“Joe”)’and‘Nsibambi,Simeon’;also‘SimeonNsibambi(1897-1987),RevivalAnchor’inMarkA.NollandCarolynNystrom,CloudsofWitnesses:ChristianVoicesfromAfricaandAsia(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,2011),99-110.

112

promotedracialreconciliation,advocatedtheequalityofmenandwomenandcalledfor

thepublicconfessionofsin.TheireffortsgavebirthtowhatAdrianHastingshascalled‘the

mostfamedofChristianassociationalmovements’toemergefromEastAfrica,andit

eventuallyspreadtopartsofEurope,NorthAmericaandAustraliainthe1940sand

1950s.47ThefamedKenyanwriterNgũgĩwaThiong’orecalledthe1940swhen‘the

revivalistmovementreachedKenyaandsweptthroughtheridgeslikeafireof

vengeance’.48

TherearenopublishedstudiestodateexaminingtherelationshipbetweenAIMand

theEastAfricaRevival,thoughpassingreferencesarefoundinthesecondaryliterature.

ThemasterfulhistoryoftheRevivalbyKevinWardandEmmaWild-Woodobservesthat

‘withtheexceptionofmemberswhobelongedtotheAfricanInlandMission,theBalokole

hadtheirhomeintheAnglicanChurch’.49ThisstatementimpliesthattheBalokole

movementhadsomepresenceamongAIMadherents.Thepopularsurveyoftherevivalby

RichardMcMasterandDonaldJacobsmentionsthatsomeAIMmissionarieshada

favourableviewofthemovementbutalsonotesthatAIMleaders‘remaineduneasyabout

46ThereisnowawideningbodyofliteratureontheEastAfricanRevival.Thestandardscholarlyworkontherevival(whichprovidesanextensivebibliography)isKevinWardandEmmaWild-Wood,TheEastAfricanRevival:HistoriesandLegacies(Surrey,UK;AshgatePublishers,2012).Asurveyoftherevival’sglobalinfluenceisprovidedinRichardK.MacMasterwithDonaldR.Jacobs,AGentleWindofGod:TheInfluenceoftheEastAfricaRevival(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,2006).AnAfricanperspectiveisprovidedinJamesKatarikawe,TheEastAfricanRevival(LydiaMurungi,2014).Analternativeinterpretationdepictingtherevivalascounter-culturalmovementthreateningethnicculturalnormsisprovidedinDerekR.Peterson,EthnicPatriotismandtheEastAfricanRevival:AHistoryofDissent,c.1935-1972(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012).

47AdrianHastings,TheChurchinAfrica:1450-1950(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1994),596-99;ElizabethIsichei,AHistoryofChristianityinAfrica(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1995),241-42;fortheinfluenceoftherevivalbeyondEastAfrica,seeMcMasterandJacobs,AGentleWindofGod,119-233.

48NgũgĩwaThiong’o,AGrainofWheat(NewYork:PenguinBooks,2012),82.

49WardandWild-Wood,TheEastAfricanRevival,61.

113

therevival’becauseofthe‘confusion’itcreatedintheirchurches.50Theprimarysources

onthemissionappeartosupporttheclaimsfoundinbothworks.

AIMchurchmembersparticipatedintherevivalandsomemissionariesspoke

appreciativelyofthemovement,thoughthemissionlargelyopposedit.Atleastsome

adherentsofAIMchurcheswereattractedtothemovementasit‘sweptthroughtheridges

likeafire’inthecolonyofKenya.Missionauthoritiesbegantalkingabouttherevivalinthe

early1940sintheAIM-controlledregionofMbooniinUkambani.‘TherevivalatMbooni

hastakenaqueerturn,’wroteH.S.DixonfromMachakosin1940.51Dixonmayhavebeen

referringtothewaythattherevivalchallengedtheorderlyworshipgatheringsofmission-

controlledchurches,encouragingpeopletoconfessprivatesinsopenlyinamannerthat

challengedthespiritualcomplacencyofchurchleaders.Astherevivalgraduallyspreadin

Kenyaduringthe1940s,AIMtriedtostemthetideoftherevivalists’influence.TheKenya

FieldCouncilminutesof1948read:‘Someconcernhasbeenfeltconcerningthespreadof

certainteachingsinconnectionwiththe“Ruandarevivalmovement”.’52AIMfield

representativescomplainedaboutthe‘erroneousdoctrine’oftherevival,whichthey

specifiedasthe‘confessionofsins,mostlyinconnectionwithsex,andanattempttobreak

downallrestrainingbarsbetweencolour,race,andsex’.53In1950thefieldcouncil

continuedaddressingreportsthatsomemembersofthechurchhadbeenparticipatingin

50McMasterandJacobs,AGentleWindofGod,74-75,124-126.

51H.S.DixontoRalphT.Davis,Machokos,Kenya,EastAfrica,6September1940,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

52AfricaInlandMission,KenyaFieldCouncilMinutes,6-10December1948,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

53Ibid.,5.

114

the‘practices’oftherevivalmovementandthreatenedparticipantswithexcommunication.

Missionauthoritiesdecreedthatanyonewhoparticipatedinthe‘practices’of‘Balokole’

wouldbereprovedandthat‘ifhecontinuesinsuchpractices,heshallthenbesubjecttothe

disciplineoftheAfricaInlandChurch’.54A1952whitepapertitled‘Examinationofthe

AbolekeleMovementinCongo’providedmissionarieswithdoctrinaldirectionforopposing

themovementinKenyaand‘throughouttheA.I.M.’.55Themissionaccusedtherevivalof

being‘exclusiveandseparatist’throughitsrepeateduseoftheexpression‘TheSavedOnes’

(Abalokole),therebysuggestingthatthosenotpartofthemovementwereunconverted.56

AIMcomplainedthatthemovementallowedmenandwomentoworkcloselytogether,

oftenattendingprayerservicesthatcontinuedafterdark,therebyplacing‘undueemphasis

onintimatefellowship’that‘clashedwithmissionrules’.Thispractice,theynoted,

encouragedwhatthemissioncalled‘dangerousfellowship’betweenthesexes.57The

missionwasgreatlytroubledbythe‘openconfessionofsin’especiallythe‘sinsofadultery,

oflustfulthoughtanddesire’andsometimes‘sinswhichwerecommittedbefore

conversion’.58Africanchurchleaderswhoresistedthemovementwereinstrong

agreementwithmissionariesintheiroppositiontothepracticeofrevealingsinsthat

54MinutesofFieldCouncilMeetings,23-29November1950,AIMInternational,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

55‘ExaminationoftheAbolekeleMovementinCongo’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81;‘ReportoftheCommitteeAppointedbytheFieldCouncilUnderMinute36ofJanuary1952’,AfricaInlandMission,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

56‘ReportoftheCommitteeAppointedbytheFieldCouncilUnderMinute36ofJanuary1952’,1.

57Ibid.,2.

58Ibid.

115

shouldremainoutofpublicvieworbeconfessedprivately.59Themissioncomplained

aboutthedisorderthattherevivalcreatedinpublicservicesasworshippersmade‘wild

accusations,oftenpatentlyfalse,againstvariouspeople,usuallymissionariesorAfrican

Churchleaders’.60Themissionwasparticularlybotheredbytheinabilityofchurchleaders

tocontroltherevivalists,asstatedintheconclusionofthepaper:‘Noattempthasbeen

madeinthismovementtoworkthroughthechurchorunderitscontrolorleadership.’61

AIMwantedtoretaincontrolovermission-establishedchurchesandcurbwhatthey

deemedtobedangerouspracticesanddoctrinalexcesses.

SomeAIMmissionaries,however,heldsympatheticviewsofthemovement.Laura

Isabelle“Belle”Barr(1914-2003),anAmericanwhohadbeenconvertedata“Gypsy”Smith

(1860-1947)evangelisticmeetingin1930,servedwiththeAIMbetween1944and1980.62

Sherecalledthat‘acoupleofourmissionarieswereintheAbalokole’.63Barrmentioned

MargaretLloyd,whoseexperienceswiththemovementwerepublishedinInlandAfrica.

MissLloydspoke,forexample,aboutattendingarevivalmeetingin1950intheWestNile

regionofUgandawhere‘theloveandjoyandfriendshipwereobviousoneveryhand’.As

sheputit,‘InHimthereisnoblackandwhite,butallone.’64Shealsocommentedonthe

orderlinessofthegathering:‘EverythingwentsosmoothlythatitwasobviousWhowasin

59DerekR.Peterson,EthnicPatriotismandtheEastAfricaRevival:AHistoryofDissent,c.1935-1972(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),211-214.

60Ibid.

61Ibid.,3.

62PapersofLauraIsabelle“Belle”Bar,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection481,http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/481.htm,s.v.,‘Biography’(accessed14November2015).

63LauraIsabelle“Bell”Barr,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection481,T3Transcript.

64MissMargaretLloyd,‘EchoesofRevival’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXII,No.159[Oct.-Dec.1950],57.

116

charge.’65AnothermissionarywhopraisedthemovementwasVirginiaBlakeslee,an

AmericanmedicaldoctorwhohadservedwithAIMsince1911.66Shewasheldinhigh

regardforhermorethanfourdecadesofservicewithAIM,andher1956memoirBeyond

theKikuyuCurtainwaswidelypromotedbythemission.67Shewasintimatefriendswith

thefamedAIMmartyr,HuldaStumpf(1867-1930),havingdinedwithherthenightbefore

hermurderinKijabeattheheightoftheFemaleCircumcisionControversy.68In1950she

wroteanarticleinwhichshespokeglowinglyoftherevival:‘ThewindoftheSpiritis

bringingnewlifeandspiritualrevivaltoKikuyulandto-day.FromotherpartsofKenya,

Tanganyika,Uganda,andRuandaflashesthegoodnews.’69Blakesleepraisedtheemphasis

thatwasplacedonbeing‘bornagain’andsharedpersonalstoriesofreconciliationbetween

AfricanandEuropeanwhere‘bitterfeelings’werenowgone.Withtensionsbeginningto

mountinEastAfricabetweenAfricansandEuropeansontheeveoftheMauMauUprising,

BlakesleesawthissurprisingworkofGodasperfectlytimed:‘MayGodbepraisedthatin

the“nickoftime”HehasgraciouslysentHisSpirittobreathuponthepeopleofKikuyuland,

yeauponEastAfricaandbeyond.’70SomeAIMmissionariesweresupportersoftheEast

AfricanRevival,viewingitasaGod-sendforEuropeansandAfricansalike.

65Ibid.

66DanaLeeRobert,AmericanWomeninMission:ASocialHistoryofTheirThoughtandPractice(Macon,GA:MercerUniversityPress,1996),213-214.

67H.VirginiaBlakeslee,BeyondtheKikuyuCurtain(Chicago:MoodyPress,1956);DickAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers:TheStoryofAfricaInlandMission(Nottingham:CrosswayBooks,1994),85-89.

68Blakeslee,BeyondtheKikuyuCurtain,192-93.

69H.VirginiaBlakeslee,‘RevivalNews’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXII,No.158[July-Sept.1950],44.

70Ibid.

117

AlthoughtherewassomedegreeofsupportbyAIMmissionariesfortheEastAfrica

Revivalwithinthemissioncommunity,AIMofficialslargelyopposedthemovement.Ina

1954memoontherevival,theAnglicanArchdeaconofCentralKenyaobservedthat‘The

Churches,exceptpossiblytheAfricanInlandMission,standbytheRevivalinapproval.’71

AnoccasionalprayerlettersentouttoAIMsupportersin1952istypicaloftheattitude.

Thelettertalksaboutthe‘spuriousformsofrevival’insomepartsofthefieldandasks

readersto‘praythatallwhoareatpresentgrippedbythisunhelpful,andevenharmful

movement’wouldbesafeguardedfromerror.72Thelettercontinuedwithapleaforthe

AIMcommunitytoprayfor‘realrevival’[underliningoriginal].73Inhis1953promotional

bookAfricanHarvest,theBritishtravellingsecretaryT.E.Lloyd(norelationtoMargaret

Lloyd)celebratedtheworkofthemissionandroundlycriticizedtherevivalassomething

‘thrownagainsttheChurchofGodbytheadversary’.Hecondemnedwhathecalled

‘spuriousforms’ofspiritualityand‘perversionsoftheChristianfaith’andaskedforhis

readerstoprayforthoseinthemovementthattheymight‘comethroughsafely’.74In1954

themissionadmittedthat‘revivalisgoingoninKenya’butthat‘notallthatisdoneinthe

nameofRevivalisgenuineandoftheSpiritofGod’.75Themissiondecreedthat‘nogroup

professingtobeundertheaegisoftheAfricaInlandMissionorChurchbeallowedto

71CircularletterfromPeterG.Bostock,ArchdeaconofCentralKenya,31July1954,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

72‘OccasionalPrayerLetter’,AfricaInlandMission,30August1952,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

73Ibid.

74T.E.Lloyd,AfricanHarvest(London:LutterworthPress,1953),62-63.

75AfricaInlandMission,KenyaField,MinutesoftheAnnualConferenceBusinessMeeting,1954,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

118

maintainaformalorganizationortoconductsecret[unauthorized]meetings’.76In1955

RuthTruesdell,whowasrecognizedfor‘thefineservice’shehadgiventhemission,was

neverthelessnotallowedtoreturntothefielduntilshecould‘declareanundividedloyalty

totheAfricaInlandMission’andceasehersupportoftherevival.Themissionmadeit

clearthat‘theAfricanInlandChurchandMissionseeeyetoeyeinrecognizingtheerrorsin

theRuandaMovementasitisinKenyatoday’.77AIMwassostronglyopposedtothe

movementthatagreementwithitspolicybecamealitmustestforcontinuedmissionary

service.ThemissionlargelyopposedtherevivalinEastAfricaandreinedinmissionaries

whosupportedthemovement.AIMwasconcernedaboutdoctrinalexcessesandthreatsto

missionandchurchauthority.

Thethirdchallengefacingthemissionduringthisperiodwasthegrowing

nationalisticspiritaswellasthearmedrebellionthatbecameknownastheMauMau

Uprising.Ahistoricalinterpretationoftherevolution,variouslytermedthe‘Mau

MauUprising’,the‘MauMauRevolt’,the‘MauMauRebellion’orthe‘KenyaEmergency’,is

beyondthescopeofthisthesis.ThefirstpublishedaccountsoftheUprisinginthe1950s

bytheleadingKenyanscholarLouisLeakeydismissedtherevoltas‘apervertedreligious

cultmanipulatedbycynicalandevilleaders’.78Inthe1960srevisionisthistorians

explainedtheuprisingasalost-causeideologyofsorts,locatingtherootsoftherevoltin

thefailureof‘Europeanpolicy-makerstorecognizetheneedforsignificantsocialand

76Ibid.

77ConfidentialMinutesfromAnExtraordinaryMeetingHeldAtKijabe,12-13May1955,AfricanInlandMission,KenyaFieldCouncil,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

78BruceJ.Berman,‘Nationalism,Ethnicity,andModernity:TheParadoxofMauMau’inCanadianJournalofAfricanStudies,Vo.25,no.2[1991],183.

119

politicalreform’.79Sincethe1960s,MauMauhasbeenvariouslyportrayedasthewarfor

nationalindependence,afragmentedoutburstofpowerlessvillagerswithnounifying

explanation,apeasants’revoltsuppressedbytheimperialgovernmentandacivilwar

amongtheKikuyuwhichledtothedecolonisationofKenya.80CarolineM.Elkins’2005

work,ImperialReckoning:TheUntoldStoryofBritain’sGulaginKenya,sensationalizedthe

uprisingastheheroicresponseofapersecutedminority,accomplishedinpartbyfocusing

indetailontheheavy-handedtacticsoftheBritishmilitaryandthegruesomeexecutionsof

convictedMauMaufighters.81DavidAnderson’s2005studyHistoriesoftheHanged:The

DirtyWarinKenyaandtheEndoftheEmpirehelpfullycastsawidergazeandattemptsto

bringtogethermanyofthevariedinterpretationsoftheuprising.82JohnLonsdalehas

arguedthatseveralstrandsof‘incompatibleEuropeanmyths’havemarkedBritish

memoriesofMauMau.Conservativeshaveviewedtheuprisingas‘terror-laden

primitivism’amongviolentAfricans,Liberalshavecoucheditintermsofareactiontothe

‘effectsofrapidsocialchange’amongtheKikuyu,Christianshaveportrayedthemovement

asa‘collectivesin’thatneededtobeconfessed,whiletheBritishmilitaryhaveviewedthe

79Ibid.,183.

80Rosberg,CarlG.Jr.andJohnNottingham,TheMythof‘MauMau’:NationalisminKenya(Nairobi:GeneralPrintersLimited,1966);GreetKershaw,MauMaufromBelow(Oxford:JamesCurrey,1997);WunyabariO.Maloba,MauMauandKenya:AnAnalysisofaPeasantRevolt(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress,1998);DanielBranch,DefeatingMauMau,CreatingKenya:Counterinsurgency,CivilWarandDecolonization(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009).

81CarolineM.Elkins,ImperialReckoning:TheUntoldStoryofBritain’sGulaginKenya(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,2005).Forcriticismofherwork,seePascalJamesImperato,‘Review:DifferingPerspectivesonMauMau’,AfricaStudiesReview,Vol.48,No.3[Dec.,2005],147-154.

82DavidAnderson,HistoriesoftheHanged:TheDirtyWarinKenyaandtheEndofEmpire(NewYork:W.W. Norton&Company,2005).

120

emergencyasa‘politicalwar’.83WhilescholarlyeffortstointerpretMauMauhave

producedavirtualcottageindustry,withthepassageoftimethewarispopularlyregarded

asthe‘nationalwarofliberation’.84

TheMauMauUprisingduringthe1950s,thoughlargelyconfinedamongtheKikuyu

inKenya’scentralhighlands,createdpoliticalchangeswithinthecolony.Asearlyas1950,

thecolonialgovernmentwasawareoftheexistenceofasecretsocietythatwas

intimidatingpeopleintotakinganti-governmentoathsandpotentiallyfomentingmassive

rebellionintheKikuyucountryside.85Beforetheuprisingbegan,aJuly1952‘topsecret

letter’onpoliticalactivityreported‘massdemonstrationsofthousandsofKikuyuwomen’,

the‘rapidspreadofsubversionthroughoutallKikuyu’,‘increasedtempoofKikuyupolitical

activity’and‘increasedincidentsofseriousKikuyucrime.’86Thereportindicatedthat

‘Anti-Europeanpropagandaisbeingfound’invariousplacesand‘Missionarieswholived

amongtheKikuyuintheircountryformanyyearsarenowsoapprehensivefortheirsafety

thattheyhaveaskedforpoliceprotection.’87CivilunrestfinallybrokeoutwhentheSenior

ChiefofKiambuCounty(northofNairobi)WaruhiuwaKungu,adevoutChristianleader

whoopposedtheradicalismofthesecretsociety,wasshotdeadbyMauMauactivistson7

83JohnLonsdale,‘MauMausoftheMind:MakingMauMauandRemakingKenya’,TheJournalofAfricaHistory,vol.31,no.3(1991),393-421.

84ThestandardhistoryofKenyasinceindependenceisnowthe958-pagevolumebyCharlesHornsby,Kenya:AHistorySinceIndependence(London:I.B.Tauris&Company,2013).Thisabovecitationisfoundonpage116,butthelegacyofMauMauisalsodiscussedonpages44-48.

85GeorgeBennetandAlisonSmith,‘Kenya:From“WhiteMan’sCountry”toKenyatta’sState,1945-1963’inD.A.LowandAlisonSmith,HistoryofEastAfrica,VolumeThree(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1976).109-55.

86‘KikuyuPoliticalActivity’,topsecretletterNo.c/349/1addressedbytheCommissionerofPolice,14July1952.KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

87Ibid.,4.

121

October1952.SirEvelynBaring(1903-1973),thenewlyappointedgovernorofthecolony,

declaredastateofemergencyon20October1952.88ThefrontcoveroftheOctober-

December1952issueofInlandAfricaputsupportersofthemissiononnotice:‘Thereis

considerableunrestamongtheKikuyupeoplecausedbytheMauMausecretsociety.’89

JomoKenyatta(1891-1978),alongwithseniorleadersoftheKenyaAfricanUnion(KAU),

wasarrestedandmorethan180politicalactivistswereroundedupanddetained.

(KenyattadeniedbeinginvolvedwithMauMau,aclaimthatisnowwell-supportedbythe

scholarlyconsensus.)Policeactionescalatedintoguerrillawarfareinthehighlandsonthe

slopesofMountKenyaandintheforestsoftheAberdaresasupto30,000MauMau

fightersjoinedthestruggle,manyofthemrecruitsfromsome75,000demobilizedsoldiers

whohadservedwithBritainduringtheSecondWorldWar.90

TheKenyanEmergencylastedfromlate1952to1959,duringwhichtime55,000

Britishsoldiersweredeployed.ThegovernmentgainedtheupperhandinApril1954

when‘OperationAnvil’wasimplemented.Overatwo-weekperiod,beginningon24April

1954,Britishtroopsdragoonedsome25,000Kikuyumenintodetentioncampsfor

screening,anumberthatrepresentednearlythewholeoftheKikuyumalepopulation.91

TheRoyalAirForcealsoprovidedairsupportfrommid-1953andinto1955,rainingheavy

fireontoMauMaupositionsintheforestedareasofthecentralhighlands,effectively

breakingthebackoftheresistance.Bymid-1955conditionshadbecomelargelytranquil,

88Hornsby,Kenya:AHistorySinceIndependence,44.

89FrontCover,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXIV,No.167[Oct.-Dec.1952].

90Anderson,HistoryoftheHanged,36.

91BennettandSmith,‘Kenya:From“WhiteMan’sCountry”toKenyatta’sState’,133.

122

thoughtheemergencyremainedineffectuntillate1959.Approximately150,000to

320,000Africanswereheldinfiftydetentioncampsduringtheemergencyand1,090

prisonerswereexecutedbythecolonialgovernment.Anestimated14,000Africans

(thoughAndersonplacesthenumberatcloserto20,000)alongwith29Asiansand95

Europeansdiedinthecolonialgovernment’spyrrhicvictory.92

AIMdemonizedtheMauMauUprisingwhilecondemningtheheavy-handedtactics

ofthegovernmentandprovidingreliefforAfricansaffectedbythewar.TheUprising

createdunsettlingconditionsonthefieldformissionaries,EuropeansandtheAfrican

church.InApril1953,theAIMFieldDirectorinKenyareportedthat‘anassessmentofthe

politicalsituationinKenyaisexceedinglydifficultowingtothechangesfromdaytoday’.93

ThemissionbelievedthatwhileMauMauwastryingtopromoteAfricanrightsithadasits

ultimateaimtheoverthrowofthecolonialauthorities.Inthewordsofthedirector,‘a

movementcalledtheMauMau,havingasitsobjectivetheoustingoftheBritish

GovernmentinKenyaanditspromotingofinterestsofnon-Africans,isresponsibleforthe

situation’.94Themovementwasadirectthreattothepeaceandsecurityofthecolonyand

theworkofmissionaries.‘MissionshavebecomeatargetoftheMauMau,’thefield

directorreported.95A1953articleinAIM’sofficialorgansummarizedthemission’s

attitudetowardthe‘MauMausociety’inKenya:‘Thisorganization,anti-Godandinflamed

byracialhatred,hassweptthroughtheKikuyutribelikewildfireandisspreadingtoother

92Hornsby,Kenya:AHistorySinceIndependence,47.

93ErikS.Barnett,‘ThePoliticalSituationinKenya’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVII,No.2[March-April1953],9.

94Ibid.

95Ibid.

123

highlandtribes,playinguponthesuperstitionsofthepeople,persecutingall,especially

Christians,whodaretostandagainstit.’96MauMauwasconsideredtobeanenemyofthe

Christianfaith:‘IthastakenmasspersecutionbytheMauMautoshowChristiansand

heathenalikethatSatanistheirrealenemyandtheenemyofGod.’97Sostrongwerethese

feelingsthattwentyyearsaftertheuprising,themission’sofficialhistorydescribedthe

‘MauMaurising’as‘anti-God,anti-Bible,anti-Missionaswellasanti-European’.98While

themissionstronglydenouncedMauMau,itwasalsodispleasedwiththegovernment’s

executionofthewaranditstreatmentofprisonersindetentioncamps.AIMjoinedother

missionagenciesinlodgingaformalremonstranceagainthecolonialgovernment.They

reaffirmed‘theirsincereandwhole-heartedsupportofthegovernment’sobjectiveto

terminatetheEmergencyattheearliestpossiblemoment’whilecomplainingthat

‘indiscriminateactionwasbeingtakenagainsttheinnocentandtheguiltyalike’.99The

missionwas‘disturbedatsomeoftheincidentsthathaveoccurredinthefollow-upofthe

“anvil”andsimilaroperations’andcomplainedthat‘thesefactorshavehadademoralizing

effectonAfricanopinion,andareinnowayconducivetowardelicitingactiveAfrican

support’.100DuringaFebruary1955meetingbetweenthegovernor,SirFrederick

Crawford,andmissionrepresentatives,SirFrederickadmittedthat‘abuseshadbeen

96‘TheMenaceoftheMauMau’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVII,No.1[January-February1953],12.

97ErikS.Barnett,‘Re-evaluationthroughPersecution’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVIII,No.3[May-June,1954],5.

98KennethRichardson,GardenofMiracles:TheStoryoftheAfricaInlandMission(London:AfricanInlandMission,1976),91.

99‘MemorandumFromTheChurchLeadersToH.E.TheGovernorofKenya’,18January1955,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

100Ibid.

124

committed’andpromisedtoremedythesituationbutaskedthatmissionrefrainfrom

publicizingitsconcernsbecause‘itwouldtendtogiveaone-sidedpicture’.101Themission

alsosentchaplainstoworkinthedetentioncamps.AIMmissionaryKenPhillips

ministeredtoMauMauprisonersduringtheEmergency,andin1958theStirlingTract

Enterprisepublishedhismemoirwhereinherelatedthe‘unitedfellowship’,the‘enriching

experience’andthe‘brotherlylove’hefrequentlyencounteredduringhiswork.102The

missionparticipatedinfund-raisingeffortswiththeCCKfortherehabilitationofthe

KikuyuandworkedwiththeAfricanchurchtohelpprovidecareforanestimated40,000

childrenorphanedbythewar.103ThemissionstronglyopposedMauMau,criticizedthe

governmentresponseandprovidedreliefforAfricansimpactedbytheuprising.

Themission’sdenunciationoftheMauMauUprisingnaturallyraisesthequestionof

itsviewonthenationalisticspiritthathasbeenassociatedwiththerevolt.Atentative

considerationmaybeofferedfromtheavailablesources.Thedesignation‘MauMau’(of

unknownorigin)wasbeingusedinKenyaasearlyas1948,nearlyfouryearsbeforethe

emergency,thoughitwaslargelyconfinedKikuyuunrest.104ItisalsoevidentthatAIM

missionariesweresimultaneouslyawareofagrowing‘spiritofnationalism’throughout

EastandCentralAfricainthelate1940s.In1948RalphDaviswroteofthe‘growing

resentmenttowardnon-Africans’andthe‘spiritofnationalism’thatwouldeventually

101‘ConfidentialReportoftheInterviewofchurchleaderswithSirFrederickCrawford,theActingGovernor,atGovernmentHouse’,Nairobi,2February1955,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),VQ/1/36.

102K.N.Phillips,FromMauMautoChrist(Stirling:StirlingTractEnterprise,1958),63,passim.

103‘Memorandum’,21December1954,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida);D.M.MillertoK.L.Downing,‘RehabilitationProposals’,21December1954,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida);D.M.MillertoTomandRuthCollins,‘MauMau’,31January1955,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

104‘HistoryoftheOriginsofMauMau’,KenyaNationalArchives(Nairobi),KNA-KA1/1/76.

125

‘affectmissionaryendeavour’.105In1949InlandAfricareportedthatgovernmentsoldiers

weredispatchedtoGithumu(aneventualMauMaustrongholdinKikuyuland)becauseof

‘anti-white,anti-mission,anti-Governmentfeeling’.106Inlate1952theKenyaFieldCouncil

approvedthefollowingmessagetobedispatchedtotheAIMofficeinNewYork:‘The

AfricanChurchinsomepartsofthefieldisgoingthroughfierypersecution,largelybecause

ofthegrowingnationalism.’107The‘fierypersecution’isalikelyreferencetotheMauMau

UprisingamongtheKikuyuintheareaaroundGithumu.A1953articlepublishedinInland

Africausestheexpressions‘MauMauterrorism’,‘nationalismsweepingthenation’and

‘racehatred’inthesamesentence.108Itisevidentthatthemissionattributednationalist

aimstotheMauMauUprisingandalsoopposedthemovement.However,itwouldbe

goingbeyondtheavailablesourcestosuggestthatAIMmissionariesthereforeopposed

nationalism.Themissionopposedtherevoltonvariousgrounds,includingitsviolent

‘persecution’ofAfricanChristians,theunsettledconditionsitcreatedformissionarywork

anditscontemptforEuropeans.NationalistaspirationswerepresentwithintheMauMau

Movement,butthe‘spiritofnationalism’wasnotconfinedtothemovement.Bythelate

1950s,nationalismhadbecomeapopularmovementthroughoutEastAfrica.109

MissionariesbelievedthatthegovernmentwouldsoundlydefeatMauMauinKenya,while

105RalphT.Davis,‘MissionMatters’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXII,No.6[November-December1948],13.

106‘MissionMatters’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIII,No.1[January-February,1949],15.

107AfricaInlandMissionKenyaField,‘ConfidentialMinutesandNotesfromtheFieldCouncilMeetingsofSeptember1-5,1952’,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

108CarrollC.Ness,‘UkambaBibleSchool’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVII,No.3[May-June,1953],11.

109J.M.Lonsdale,‘SomeOriginsofNationalisminEastAfrica’,TheJournalofAfricanHistory,vol.9,no.1(1968),119-146.

126

thespiritofnationalismwouldendure.A1957letterfromtheAIMKenyanFieldDirector

capturesthemission’ssentiment:‘AlthoughtheMauMauterroristshavebeendefeated

militarily,andtheirviolentmethodshavefailedtoachievetheirends,itisrecognizedthat

theirobjectanddesireforultimatenationalindependenceismorealivethanever.’110The

WhilethemissionwasconcernedabouttheMauMauUprising,itsgreaterconcernwas

hownationalismwouldaffectitscontinuedworkinKenyaafterMauMauwasdefeated.D.

M. Millerpresentedawhitepaperin1950,twoyearsbeforetheoutbreakoftheMauMau

Uprising,ontheworkofthemission.Heobservedthat‘theconditionsinAfricaare

peculiarandchallenging.Thisiscausedbythegrowingsenseofnationalism.’111Inhis

concludingremarkshewrote,‘Wehavelessthan10yearstofinishourtask!’TheMauMau

Uprisingwasachallengeforthemission,butthegreaterchallengewasthechanging

politicalrealitiesthatconfrontedtheminEastAfrica.Themissionworriedthat

independencecouldpossiblybringanendtotheworkofthemissioninKenya.

Thefourthchallengefacingthemissionwasthechangingsocialenvironsinthe

colonyinthepost-warperiod.Duringthelate1940sandintothe1950s,missionariesand

missionofficialsoftendescribed,withasenseofforeboding,theaccelerateddemandfor

education,thegrowthofAfrica’surbancentres,theacquisitionofconsumergoodsand

changesinsocialconventionsliketheincreaseofsmokinganddrinking.A1948articlein

theBritisheditionofInlandAfricaobservedthat‘thepaceofcivilizationisalready

110ErikS.Barnett,‘Kenya:AnA.I.M.MissionarySurvey’,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

111D.M.Miller,‘EvangelicalStrategy(initsrelationtotheChurch)’,IntroductoryPapergivenbyMrD.M.MillerattheF.I.M.S.ConferenceinLondon,June1950.AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),9.

127

enormouslyaccelerated’.112Usingaturn-of-phrasefromEuropeanfolklore,one

missionarynotedthatinAfrica‘civilizationhascomeinwithseven-leagueboots’.113In

early1954anarticleinInlandAfricadescribedthechangesthatbeganwiththearrivalof

theEuropeanandthe‘openingupofAfrica’.Thearticleobservedthat‘Progressive

development,slowatfirst,hasbecomephenomenalinrecentyears’andexplainedthat‘the

contactsbetweenWhiteandBlackonaconsiderablescalearehavingfar-reaching

consequences’.114Thedemobilisedsoldier’sencounterwithEuropeancivilizationduring

thewarwasseenasacontributingfactor:‘Africansinthearmedforcesinparticularhavea

newandbroadenedviewpoint.’115TheAfricansoldierreturnedhomewith‘newdesires,

newneeds,andnewambitions’importedfrom‘ahithertounknownandlittle-heard-of

outsideworld’.116Airtravelrapidlyincreasedtheflowofpeople,ideasandproductsfrom

theWesternworldtotheAfricacontinent.In1948theBritishOverseasAirService(BOAC)

beganofferingregularflightsbetweenLondonandNairobiwhileEastAfricanAirways

beganconnectingcitieswithinKenya,Tanganyika,EthiopiaandZanzibarinthelate1940s

andearly1950s.117Ironically,AIMmissionariesdidnotwelcomethearrivalofWestern

civilizationwithuncriticalacceptance.

112‘BirthPangsofAfrica’,InlandAfrica(Britain),Vol.XXX,No.150[April-June1948],21.

113LucildaA.Newton,‘FromaMissionary’sMail’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVI,No.1[January-February1952],4.

114‘EducationandMissionaryResponsibility’,InlandAfrica(Britain)Vol.XXXV,no.171,[MidOct.1953–MidJan.1954],74.

115RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXVIII,No.2[March-April1944],1.

116Ibid.

117RobinHigham,Speedbird:TheCompleteHistoryofB.O.A.C(London:I.B.Tauris,2013),97-116;StephenMills,Dreams,SchemesandFlyingMachines:100YearsofFlight,EastAfrica,1909-2009(Nairobi:MillsPublishing,2009),134;‘BritishAirways:ExploreOurPast,1940-1949’,http://www.britishairways.com/en-

128

Asobservedinthepreviouschapter,AIMadjusteditseducationalpolicyin1945

largelyduetoincreasedpressureandthreatsfromitsconverts.Thegrowingdemandfor

educationacceleratedinthepost-warperiodtotheconsternationofmissionaries.AIM

becameincreasinglyconcernedthatAfricandemandforschoolswasmotivatedbythe

desireformaterialgain.AIMmissionarySheldonFolkwrotein1949,‘TheAfricanisfast

changinghiswaysandideas’addingthat‘thepeoplearemakinggreatdemandson

missionsandGovernmentforschools’.118In1951heproclaimedagain,‘Thepeopleare

cryingoutformoreandmoreschools.’119A1953articleannouncedthat‘childrenare

flockingtoschoolsinrecordnumbers’.120Missionariescomplained:‘Theywantwhatthe

whitemanhas—andeducationmaybearoadleadingtothatgoal.’121Themissionary

broughteducationtoEastAfrica,butnowtheirconvertswereindangerofbeingledastray

bythe‘whiteman’spowerandmagic’.122Asthedemandforeducationaccelerated,the

missionaccusedAfricanpastors,teachersandmission-schoolpupilsofulteriormotives:

‘Teachers,Pastorsandstudentsareleavingmissionworkforbetterpayingjobs…andare

turningtheirbacksontheLordbecauseofthedesiretoownbicycles,phonographs,

us/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/explore-our-past/1940-1949(accessedNovember23,2015).ForahelpfulstudyonhowairtravelexportedaspectsofWesternsocietytoAfrica(anddevelopingworld),seeJenniferVanVleck,EmpireoftheAir:AviationandtheAmericanAscendancy(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2013).

118SheldonO.Folk,‘TheOutschoolsofKitui’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIII,No.6[Novemenber-December1949],3.

119SheldonO.Folk,‘ReachingtheLostinKitui’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXV,No.2[March-April,1951],10.

120‘EvangelismThroughSchools’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXIV,No.164[Jan.-Mar.1952],7.

121EdwardArensen,‘TheWell-DressedAfrican’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVII,No.4[July-August1953],12.

122NgũgĩwaThiong’o,TheRiverBetween(Johannesburg:Heinemann,1965),29.

129

watches,flashyEuropeanclothes,andotherarticlesthatareavailabletothemnow.’123

ConfrontingtheAfricandemandformoreeducationwasincreasinglyviewedasa

competitionfortheheartandsoulsofAfricans,andthemissionwasperplexed.

Anothersocialchangethatwasworryingforthemissioninthepost-warperiodwas

thegrowthofurbancentres.Missionariescomplainedabouttheallureofthecity,the

onslaughtofconsumerismandthemoraldecayoflargepopulationcentres.In1950Philip

Henman,theesteemedchairmanofthemission’sBritishHomeCouncil,boardedaplaneat

LondonAirportforatouroftheAIMfieldinEastAfrica.Thechairman’stravelogue

describedeachpartoftheflightwithwide-eyedwonder,‘England,spreadoutbeneathus

likeafascinatingmosaic’,‘thebluewatersoftheMediterranean’,abrieflayoverinCairo,

theflightover‘Anglo-EgyptianSudan’then‘BeyondKhartoum’,followedbyhisarrivalin

EastAfricalessthantwodayslater.124Hewasalsoastoundedbywhathesawwhenhe

landed:‘FromallthatwesawofNairobi’sshopsandstores,thereshouldbenoneedfor

missionariesinfuturetotaketothefieldmorethanpersonalthings.’125Duringthe1940s,

Kenyawastransitioningfromanagrariansocietywithsubsistencefarmingandcashcrops

intoapartlyindustrialsocietywithamanagedeconomy.126Peoplecametothecitiesto

findwork,openbusinessesandpurchasemoderngoods.ThepopulationofNairobigrew

from118,976inhabitantsin1948tomorethan266,795by1962whilethepopulationsof

123CleoW.Mann,‘PresentTrendsinF.E.A’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVIII,No.1[January-February,1954],12.

124PhilipS.Henman,‘OvertoAfrica:ReviewoftheAfricanTourUndertakenbytheChairmanandDeputationSecretary,August-October,1950’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXIII,No.160[Jan.-Mar.1951],5-27.

125Ibid.,18.

126MichaelMcWilliam,‘TheManagedEconomy:AgriculturalChange,Development,andFinanceinKenya’inLowandSmith,HistoryofEastAfrica,VolumeIII,251-289.

130

Mombasa(Kenya’ssecondlargestcity),Nakuru,KisumuandEldoretalsomorethan

doubledduringthesameperiod.127‘Smalltownsarenowlargerones;largetownsarenow

youngcities,’observedtheAIMGeneralSecretaryafteravisittothefieldin1948.128

‘NairobiBecomesACity’announcedInlandAfricain1951.129Thesamearticlereads:‘To-

dayNairobiisthegreatshoppingcentreofEastAfrica.’130A1951articlebytheGeneral

Secretaryinvitedreaderstorememberhowthingswerechanging:‘Wearealsoreminded

ofthefastgrowingurbancentres.’131

Missionariesexpressedseriousmisgivingsabouttheproblemsassociatedwith

urbanization.TheycensuredAfricansformovingtolargecitiesinordertoacquire

Westerngoodsandtheycomplainedthatconsumerismwasbecominganimpedimentto

theirwork.Consumerismwasblamedonthepost-warspreadofWesterncivilizationto

Africa:‘Africansareawakeandwantwhattherestoftheworldhas.’132‘Athirstfor

possessionshasbeencreatedthatwillbedifficulttoquench.’133‘Theonce-nakedAfrican

donsanythingandeverythingthatwillhangonhistorso.’134A1949articletalksofthe

‘hundredsandthousandsofAfricanswhogatherintownsandcities,luredfromtheirtribal

127‘Appendix3,StatisticalTables’inLowandSmith,HistoryofEastAfrica:VolumeIII,573.

128RalphT.Davis,‘IntheBritishFields’,InlandAfrica,Vol.XXXII,No.5[September-October,1948],3.

129‘NairobiBecomesaCity’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXII,No.158[July-Sept.1950],44.

130Ibid.

131Ibid.

132Arensen,‘TheWell-DressedAfrican’,12.

133Ibid.

134Ibid.

131

hauntsbydesireformaterialgains,adventureoreducation.’135Thesamearticlealsonoted

that‘thecitiesaredensofiniquity’.136Missionariescomplainedthattheirownconverts

werebeingledastray:‘Weareconcernedforsomeofourchurchmembersandleaderswho

haveshopsandwhoseemtohavelittletimethesedaystoattendtheservices.’137

Urbanizationwasviewedasathreattotheworkofthemission.

AIMmissionariesalsoexpressedconcernaboutchangesinpost-warsocial

conventions.Social‘taboos’or‘sins’likedancing,smoking,anddrinkingwerebecoming

morecommonplaceinpost-warKenya.Itisdifficulttooverstatehowimportantissuesof

‘personalseparation’hadbecometomanyFundamentalistmissionariesduringthisperiod.

Betweenthe1920sandthe1950s,mostAmericanEvangelicalsassociatedprogressive

socialconventionswith‘deviance’and‘rebellion.’138Biblecollegesandmissionarytraining

schoolshadstringentrulesaboutpropersocialdecorumandparticipatinginbannedsocial

behaviourwasconsideredaserioussincallingforaremonstrancebyaschoolofficialwho

threatenedstudentswithexpulsion.139CarlF.H.Henry’s1947jeremiadexcoriated

Fundamentalistsformaking‘themainpointsofreference’forethicalpreachingthecallto

‘abstainfromintoxicatingbeverages,movies,dancing,card-playing,andsmoking’.140

Missionariesoftenbroughttheseconventionswiththemtothefield,inscribingintochurch

135‘TheChallengeofAfrica’sTowns’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXIII,No.3[May-June,1949],5.

136Ibid.

137MissJeanBaxter,‘DaysofOpportunity’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXIV,No.164[Jan.-Mar.1952],5.

138JohnC.Burnham,BadHabits:Drinking,Smoking,TakingDrugs,Gambling,SexualMisbehavior,andSwearinginAmericanHistory(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,1993),15-20.

139VirginiaLiesonBrereton,TrainingGod’sArmy:TheAmericanBibleSchool,1880-1940(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress,1990),122-126.

140CarlF.H.Henry,TheUneasyConscienceofAmericanFundamentalism(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1947),7.

132

lawthewickednessofparticipatinginsuchbehaviour.Thetolerationofthese‘sins’was

tantamounttoapostasyandchurchdisciplinewasstrictlyenforced.AChristianmightbe

bannedfromcommunionfornotonlytheft,immoralityoridolatrybutalsoforusing

tobacco,participatingindances,consumingalcoholorpracticing‘circumcisionaccordingto

heathencustom’.141The1946minutesoftheBritishHomeCouncilreportedthat

‘correspondencewasplacedbeforethecouncilconcerningthedifficultyofmaintaining

ChurchdisciplineonthepartofsomeAfricanChristiansandtotheprevalenceoftobacco

smoking’.142A1951articleinInlandAfricadescribedthedifficultyofworkingwithMasai

Christians:‘Toomanyfallbythewaysidebecausetheyarenotabletowithstandthe

hospitalityofthewhiteGovernmentofficialintheformofcigarettes,alcoholicdrinks,and

dancing.’143Missionariescomplainedthatparticipationinthesesocial‘sins’wasontherise

inAfricansociety.‘TheAfricannativecallsforadanceontheslightestpretext’lamented

onemissionary.144Anothermissionarycondemnedthe‘thebacksliddenmasses’thatwere

participatinginthese‘sins’,explainingthat‘thefallingawaytimehasdawned.’145AMr

MundyservinginNyakach(nearLakeVictoria)complainedaboutthe‘backslidden’

141‘A.I.C.ConstitutionRulesandRegulations’,1954,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),29.

142MinutesofAfricaInlandMissionCouncilMeeting,London,13June1946.AIM-InternationalArchives(Notthingham).

143RuthT.Shaffer,‘MaasaiChristiansofToday’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXV,No.5[September-October,1951],8.

144FrankE.Longman,‘TheWailingatNyakwaropio’sVillageontheHill’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)Vol.XXXII,No.4,[July-August,1948],7.

145H.VirginiaBlakeslee,‘TheLord’sBattlesintheRidges’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXII,No.4,[July-August,1948],3.

133

Christianhusbandwhotookasecondwife,observingthattheproblemwithpolygamyis

that‘thesecondwifemaysmokeordrinkandbeahindrancetotheChristian’schildren’.146

Post-warFundamentalistsreceivedtheideaof‘modernprogress’suspiciously,and

evolvingsocialconventionsseemedsureevidencethatAfricanswere‘fallingaway’from

thefaith.147Themissionofteninterpretedthesechangesthroughaneschatologicallens;

evenevolvingsocialconventionswereviewedasasignofagreatapostasy.Themission

frequentlycomplainedabouttheincessantdemandformoreeducation,thedesirefor

materialgain,andthedistractionsof‘modern’lifeinAfrica’sgrowingmegacities.Asthe

GeneralSecretarysummarizedit:‘Theyenofthenativepeoplesformoreeducation,better

livingconditions,moremoney,andmoreofthecommoditiesoflifeisevidencedonevery

hand.’148AIMmissionariesweregenuinelyperplexedoverchangesinAfricansociety,and

manybelievedthesewerethefinaldaysbeforetheSecondAdvent.

ThefifthchangethatconfrontedAIMduringthepost-warperiodwashowto

respondtochangingattitudesoverracerelations.Thelate1940sthroughthedecadeofthe

1950swasaperiodofsignificanttransformationinracerelationsinNorthAmericaand

Europe.149On15April1947,JackieRobinson‘brokethecolourbarrier’whenhemadehis

debutwiththeDodgersbeforenearly30,000Brooklynfans,becomingthefirstAfrican

146WilliamA.Mundy,‘NotesfromtheField’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXI,No.6[November-December1947],15.

147GeorgeM.Marsden,FundamentalismandAmericanCulture,(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),66-71;Carpenter,ReviveUsAgain,38-40.

148Davis,‘IntheBritishFields’,4.

149RalphE.Luker,HistoricalDictionaryoftheCivilRightsMovement(Lanham,MD:ScarecrowPress,1997),8-19.

134

Americantograceamajorleaguebaseballdiamond.150InDecember1949,agroupof

scholarsgatheredinParisundertheauspicesoftheUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific

andCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)toprovideanauthoritativestatementfortheglobal

communityontheproblemofracism.151Theproductofthegatheringofmorethana

hundredscholarsfromvariousacademicdisciplineswasa1950papertitled‘TheRace

Question’,whichisrecognizedastheturningpointfordialogueontheissueintheglobal

community.152Thestatementarguedthat‘allmenbelongtothesamespecies,Homo

sapiens’andboldlydeclared‘thesearethescientificfacts’.153In1951intheUnitedStates,

theNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeoplefiledaclass-actionlawsuit

againstthecityofKansas,andpresenteditsargumentsbeforetheSupremeCourtin1952-

1953.Thefamedlawsuit,giventhecasenameBrownv.theBoardofEducationofTopeka,

wassettledinfavouroftheplaintiff,anAfrican-Americanbi-vocationalpastorwhose

childrenwererefusedadmissiontoanall-whiteelementaryschool.TheSupremeCourt

issuedaunanimousrulingin1954againsttheconstitutionalityofsegregation,pavingthe

wayforthemoderncivilrightsmovementintheUnitedStates.

Themissionwascertainlyawareofhowviewswerechangingonthematterofrace

relationsatthebeginningofthe1950s.Inearly1951,AIMofficialsreportedthattheywere

beingapproachedby‘coloredevangelicals’whowantedtoserveasmissionariesinEast

Africa:‘Anewdecisionisbeingcalledfornowwhenmissionssuchasoursarebeing

150GregoryDehler,‘JackRoosevelt“Jackie”Robinson(1919-1972)’,HistoricalDictionaryofthe1940s.

151MichelleBrattain,‘Race,Racism,andAntiracism:UNESCOandthePoliticsofPresentingSciencetothePostwarPublic’,TheAmericanHistoricalReview,Vol.112,No.5[December,2007],1386.

152Ibid.,1395.

153‘TheRaceQuestion’,UNESCO,http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128291eo.pdf(accessedNovember25,2015).

135

approachedbycoloredevangelicalsforserviceabroad.’154Davis,themission’sgeneral

secretary,spokeofthedifficultythispresentedforthemissionwhileassuringhisreaders

thatthiswasnotaboutrace.‘Thesolutionhasnothingtodowiththeraceproblem,forin

Christthathasbeensettled,butmusttakeintoconsiderationmanyandvariedmattersat

homeandabroad.’155Asheputit,‘Acategorical“yes”or“no”maynotanswerthequestion

inanymissionarymatter.’156InFebruary1951,amonthbeforeDavis’editorial,theKenya

FieldCouncilhadalreadydecidedagainstreceiving‘negroes’asmissionaries.‘Itwas

movedandcarriedthatatthepresenttimeitwouldnotbewisetobringAmericannegro

missionariesintotheA.I.M.inKenya.’157Thedecisionwasblamedon‘prevailingpolitical

andsocialconditionsinthecolony’.158InAprilofthesameyear,theKenyaFieldCouncil

issuedareportexplainingitsreasonsforopposingtheacceptanceofblackmissionaries.

Theproblemsgivenincludedtherealityof‘definitediscriminationagainstintermingling

withEuropeansinhotelsandatsomesocialfunctions’,theprobabilitythatblacks‘will

wanttojointheAfricaInlandMissiononthesamebasisandwiththesamesupport’and

thepossibilitythatAmericannegroeswillintermarrywithAfricanscreatingfurther

difficultiesabout‘howtheirchildrenwouldbeschooled’.159Thesepossibilitieswere

154RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXV,No.2[March-April,1951],1.

155Ibid.

156Ibid.

157MinutesoftheFieldCouncilMeetings,9-14February1951,AfricaInlandMission,KenyaField,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

158Ibid.

159ReportfromErikS.Barnett,‘AcceptanceofNegroMissionariesFromU.S.A.toKenyanField’,AfricanInlandMission,KenyaField;preparedbyacommitteeappointedbytheFieldCouncilandacceptedatitsmeeting16-21April1951,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

136

consideredunthinkable.TheKenyanFieldCouncilvotedagainsttheracialdesegregation

ofthemission.

TheattitudeoftheCongoFieldCouncil,however,expressedthepossibilityof

acceptingblackapplicantsonatrialbasis.InJune1951theCongoFieldCouncilissuedits

opiniontothemission’sGeneralSecretary:‘Werealizethat,inthesedays,thereis

worldwidesentimentagainstthecolorbar,andwedonotwanttodoanythingthatwould

conflictwiththat.’160Herewasaclearadmissionthatattitudeswerechanging‘worldwide’

ontheissueofrace.AnAIMleadernamedGeorgeVanDusenreportedthatwhile‘the

missionariesofthisfieldwouldwelcomecoloredmissionaries’therewas‘however,a

probablysmall,minority,whomightfinditdifficulttoenterheartilyintothis

relationship.’161Theletteroutlinedafewoftheproblemsofacceptingblackapplicants,

includinggovernmentattitudestowardblackmissionaries,thedifficultyof

‘accommodationinhotelsandonpublictransportation’andpotentialproblemsofworking

togetherwith‘whitecolleagues’.162Itwassuggestedthatthelatterproblem‘mightbe

obviatedbyassigningseveralnegroestoonelocalityorbycreatingnegrostationsor

sectionsstaffedentirelybynegroes’.163Therecommendationwasnotagainstaccepting

blackapplications,butthattheyshould‘experimentwithasmallnumber’.164Whilethe

CongoFieldCouncilexpressedagreateropennesstoacceptingblackmissionaries,thiswas

hardlyanenthusiasticendorsementofracialequality.Themission’sattitudetowardblack

160GeorgeC.VanDusentoR.T.Davis,Rethy,Congo,1June1951,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81.

161Ibid.

162Ibid.

163Ibid.

164Ibid.

137

applicantsinthepost-warperiodisreminiscentoftheUnitedStatessenatorportrayedin

theclassic1950snovel,TheUglyAmerican.Whenthesenatorwasassignedtoworkasan

ambassadoroverseashecomplained:‘NowyouknowI’mnotprejudiced,butIjustdon’t

workwellwithblacks.’165Themissiongavelipservicetotheconceptofracialequality,but

inpractiseitfollowedapolicyofracialdiscrimination.

WhilethemissionwasgrapplingwithpostwarchangesinKenya,theproblem

regardingthe‘EcclesiasticalRelationshipoftheMissionarytotheAfricanChurch’thathad

surfacedin1945wasonlybrieflyconsidered.166TheminutesofaJanuary1948meeting

mentionthatamissionaryhad‘raisedthequestionconcerningthestatusoftheAfrica

InlandMissionmissionariesintheAfricaInlandChurch’andthat‘aninterestingand

prolongeddiscussion’followed.167Severalquestionswereposed:‘Shouldmissionariesjoin

theAfricaInlandChurchasfull-fledgedmembers?’‘Isadual-membershippossible(i.e.,

couldamissionarybeamemberofachurchathomeandalsotheA.I.C)?’‘Isitconsistent

formissionariestoholdpositionsofauthorityintheA.I.C.,notbeingmembers?’Thelatter

questionpresumesthatmissionarieswereinfactdoingso.Amemberofthecouncil

suggestedthatthematterbeputbeforetheCentralChurchCounciloftheAIC,butthiswas

summarilydismissedonthegroundsthat‘itwouldmerelyputanewideainthemindof

theAfricans’.168Itseemedbesttoletsleepingdogslie.AmissionarynamedW.J.Guilding

165WilliamJ.LedererandEugeneBurdick,TheUglyAmerican(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1958),14.

166E.L.DavistoFriends,27September1945,Nairobi.Thecontentsoftheletteraddressconfidentialmissionmatters.Thetitle‘friends’mostlikelyrefersto‘friends’ontheAmericanorBritishHomeCouncils.

167MinutesoftheAnnualConferenceBusinessMeeting,AfricaInlandMissionKenyaField,13-16January1948,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

168Ibid.

138

suggestedthat‘iftheA.I.C.andthemissionarieswerewalkingintheSpiritofGodthere

wouldbenodifficulty’,therebyimplyingthatthemissionshouldsimplyleavethewhole

mattertoGod.Thecouncilnotedthatitwouldbeagoodideato‘discussitwithvisiting

membersoftheHomeCouncils’,thoughthereisnotraceintheminutesthatthematterwas

consideredagainuntilafter1955.169UponreviewingtheminutesoftheJanuary1948

meeting,theBritishHomeCouncilwrotetotheKenyaFieldexpressing‘intenseinterest’in

the‘thewholematteroftheChurchinAfrica’.170Theexpression‘wholematter’wasa

referencetothecouncil’sinterestinthe‘welfareoftheAfricanchurch’aswellasthe

missionaries’relationshiptotheAfricanchurch.Thecouncilurgedthemissionariesto

‘participateintheclosestpossibleway’as‘fullmembers’while‘co-operatinginthegreatest

possibledegreeinitsgovernment’.171Thehomecouncilwasinfavourofaclose-working

relationshipwiththeAfricanchurchwhileexpressingits‘hopesthatnohardandfastrules

willbeformulated’atthepresenttime.172HerewasahintthattheBHCwantedtoseethe

relationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurchmovetowardintegration,butitfeltno

senseofurgencyinproposingafixedpolicy.

Thenatureofthemission’srelationshipwiththechurchitfoundedwasdeferred

duringthepost-warperiod.AIMwasawarethatitneededtoaddresstheissue,butthere

weremorepressingmatterstoattendto.Themissionwasanxiousaboutitsperceived

relationshipwiththeecumenicalmovement.Itspentconsiderabletimeandenergy

169Ibid.

170D.M.MillertoErikS.Barnett,‘CommentsreMinutesoftheAnnualBusinessMeetingoftheKenyaField,1948’,20April1948,RichardGehmanPapers(Florida).

171Ibid.

172Ibid.

139

opposingtheeffortsoftheWCCandtheIMC,perceivingtheliberalsocialagendaofthe

movementtobeathreattoEvangelicalwitness.Themissionwasalsodefendingitself

againstthevitriolofextremeFundamentalists.AIMwasoccupiedbyquestionsrelatedto

AfricanrevivalistsandthespreadoftheEastAfricaRevival.Themissionlargelyopposed

theEastAfricanRevival,effectivelyquenchingthespiritofAfricanrevivalistswho

threatenedmissioncontrolandcensuringmissionarieswhosupportedthemovement.The

missionwasmotivatedbyadesiretoprotectthechurchfromdoctrinalaberrationand

moralfailure(themixingofthesexes),butracialattitudesmayhavealsoplayedarole.The

missionalsodenouncedtheMauMauUprisingasanti-God,anti-governmentandanti-

European.Whileitbelievedtherebellionwouldbecrushed,itwasconcernedthatthe

‘spiritofnationalism’thatimbuedthemovementwouldcontinueandthreatenitsabilityto

remaininthecolony.Themissioncomplainedaboutsocialchangesbroughtby‘Western

civilization’.Missionariesfrequentlylamentedtheaccelerateddemandforeducation

believingthatthishungerforlearningwasmotivatedbyasenseofgreed.Missionaries

marvelledatthegrowthofmoderncitieslikeNairobiandMombasabutworriedaboutthe

vicesassociatedwithurbanization.TheyupheldtheirinheritedFundamentalistsocial

conventionsfromthe1920sand1930s,inscribedthemintochurchlaw,andworriedthat

smoking,drinkinganddancingconstitutedasignthatAfricanswerefallingawayfromthe

faithinthepost-warperiod.Themissionalsoretainedregressiveattitudesonracial

equality.

WhydidAIMdeferthequestionofhowitwouldrelatetotheAfricanchurchit

establishedin1943?Deeplyentrenchedattitudesandtheprevailingwindsofsocial

changeplayedarole.RacialsuperioritywascertainlyamainstayintheAIMduringthelate

140

1940sandearly1950s.However,themission’sattitudeswerenotoutofstepwiththe

racismthatpervadedlargepartsoftheworldinthepost-warperiod.Eventheotherwise

progressiveevangelistBillyGrahamdidnot‘teardowntheropes’ofhissegregated

crusadesuntil1953,anactionthatdrewtheireofmanyAmericans.173DuringtheEast

AfricaRevival,themissionexhibitedafairlyhighdegreeofcontrolovertheAfricanchurch

fuelledbywhatwasgenuineconcernaboutthespreadofwhatitconsideredtobefalse

teaching.Whileothermissionsocietieswelcomedtherevival,AIMworriedthatitwould

upendmissionandchurchauthority.Themissionalsohaditsattentiondivertedbythe

growinginfluenceoftheecumenicalmovement.AstheGeneralSecretaryofthemission

putitin1951afteralengthydebateoverecumenicalrelations:‘Moretimethanweliketo

admithashadtobegiventoconsiderationofandprayeroverthesematters,necessitating

thestoppageofmuchessentialministry.’174Theneedtodistanceitselffromliberal

ProtestantsandRomanCatholicsinordertoprotectthemission’sgoodnameamong

conservativeEvangelicalswasapressingmatter.

Itwas,however,themission’sinterpretationofthepolitical,religiousandsocial

changesduringthepost-warperiodthatparadoxicallydelayedanyseriousconsideration

ofmission-churchrelationships.AIMbelievedtheMauMauUprisingwouldbedefeated

butitalsointerpretedthemovementasanindicationthatnationalismwascomingto

Kenya.Themissionwasuncertainwhatthiswouldmeanforitswork.Therewasno

guaranteethatmissionarieswouldcontinuetobewelcome.Thequestionofhowthe

missionwouldberelatedtothechurchwouldbeinconsequentialifthemissionwas

173GrantWacker,America’sPastor:BillyGrahamandtheShapingofaNation(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2014),121-131.

174RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXV,No.1[January-February1951],1.

141

expelled.Themissionalsointerpretedthereligious,politicalandsocialchangesthrough

aneschatologicallensandbelievedthattheSecondAdventwasnearing.Thespreadofthe

ecumenicalmovement,thespiritofnationalism,thethreatsofpost-warcommunismand

modernchangesinsocietywereallstrungtogetherinaFundamentalistsoliloquyas

evidencethatthetimeofmissionsinKenyamightbecomingtoanend.Themissionwasat

warwiththemodernage,butitmusthavethecouragetofight.‘ThestriplingofDavidgoes

outtomeettheGoliathofdemonism,ofRomanism,ofnationalism,andevenof

Communism,’wroteAIMmissionaryPeterBrashlerin1954.175‘ThewarriorfortheLord

todayfacesNationalism,falseismsofallkindsmasqueradingunderthenameChristianity,

Communism,andthewholetempoofourmodernage.’176Thelanguagewasintendedasa

calltoaction,aforwardadvanceinthefaceofsomanychangesand‘falseisms’.Rather

thanretreatinthefaceofachangingworld,themissionpressedforwardwhileithadtime.

Apocalypticimagerywasused.‘Thetimeisshort’readsonearticle.177‘Thedaysareevil’

readsanother.178A1952editorialspokeofthecurrentstateoftheworldusingprophetic

language:‘Theincreasinglycommontalkofmanyisthatweareapproachingtheendof

things.’179Thesamearticlecalledformoremissionaries:‘Thismaybeourlastopportunity

175PeterBrashler,‘OrganizationoftheCongoChurch’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVIII,No.1[January-February,1954],8.ThearticlebeginsbydescribingthesituationintheCongo,andexpandstodiscusstrendsfacingAIMmissionariesthroughoutCentralandEastAfrica.

176RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXV,No.5[September-October,1951],1.

177‘TheTimeisShort’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXIII,No.162[July-September,1951],52.

178D.M.Miller,‘PrioritiesinaChangingSituation’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVI,No.3[May-June1952],10.

179RalphT.Davis,‘Editorial’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXXVI,No.5[September-October,1952],1.

142

forservicefortheLord.’180The‘Ecclesiasticalrelationshipofthemissionandthechurch’

remainedundefined.Eithernationalismwouldthreatentheworkofthemissionorthe

SecondAdventwouldendtheworkofthemission.AIMcontinuedtocooperatewiththe

churchitfoundedintheabsenceof‘hardorfastrules’.Theurgentmatterduringthepost-

warperiodwashasteningtheworkofthemissionwhileithadtheopportunity.

180Ibid.

143

4

TheAfricaInlandMission,theAfricaInlandChurchandtheWindsofChange,1955-1963

On3January1955,threeMauMaurebelswerehangedinthecityofNairobi.The

militaryoperationtoquelltheuprisinghadbeenexecutedwithcruelefficiency.Although

thecolonyremainedunderastateofemergency,conditionsin1955werereturningtoa

stateofnormality.1Laterthesameyear,on9June,themissionheldaspecialservicein

LondontocommemorateitsDiamondJubilee.TheservicewasheldatWestminsterAbbey,

asymbolofBritishimperialismandtheplacewherePeterCameronScotthadkneltbeside

thegraveofDavidLivingstone.2Followingtheceremony,AIMstafffromBritainandthe

UnitedStatesboardedaflightboundforKenya.On12Junemissionofficialsand

missionariesarrivedinKijabe,whereMauMaumilitantshadoncethreatened,fora

1DavidAnderson,HistoriesoftheHanged:TheDirtyWarinKenyaandtheEndofEmpire(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,2005),212-224.

2‘DiamondJubileeProgrammeinBritain’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXVI,No.176[November-December1954],4-5.

144

weeklongconferencecelebratingthemission’sDiamondJubilee.3Therewasasenseof

triumphintheconferencereports:‘IfPeterCameronScottcouldrevisittodaythesceneof

theworkheinauguratedbytheleadingofGod,onecanonlyfeelthat,afterrubbinghiseyes

withastonishment,hewouldexclaim,asweoftendo,“WhathathGodwrought!!”’4The

papersdescribedthe‘hundredsofthousandsofmembers’thatarenow‘stretchedhalf-way

acrossthecontinent’,theformationofanindigenousAfricanchurch,themission’son-going

medicalwork,theexpandeduseofradioandfilmanditsrenewedeffortsinthefieldof

education.5By1955themissionhadestablishedsixty-fivemissionstationsthroughout

Kenya,Tanganyika,theBelgianCongo,theWestNile-Uganda,Anglo-EgyptianSudanand

FrenchEquatorialAfrica.6Therewerenowmorethanfourhundredmissionariesserving

inthevariousAIMfieldsandannualincomehadincreasedfrom‘$5,958.54inthefirstyear

andaquarteroftheMission’slife’to‘justunderonemilliondollars’inthelastfiscalyear.7

InKenyaanaverageoffiftynewchurcheswasbeingestablishedeachyearduringthe

1950s,andsomereportsindicatedthatanestimated3,000churcheshadbeenestablished

3PhilipS.Henman,‘TheJubileeConference:Kijabe—ThePlaceoftheWind’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXVII,No.179[October1955],5.

4KennethRichardson,‘TheAfricanChurch’,ReportsoftheInternationalConferenceoftheAfricaInlandMission,DiamondJubilee,Kijabe,Kenya,12-19June1955,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),12.

5Ibid.,12.TheReportsoftheInternationalConferences,dated12-19June1955fromKijabe,containseveralarticlesdealingwithwhatthemissionsawasitssuccessleadinguptotheDiamondJubilee:K.Downing,‘EducationandSchools-Kenya’,20-22;A.M.Barnett,‘MedicalWork’,24-29;C.W.Teasedale,‘Literature’,31;R.E.Davis,‘RadioBroadcasting’,56-58;R.V.Reynolds,‘FilmProduction’,59-62.

6E.M.Barnett,‘ReviewandChallengesofMissionaryWorkinAfrica’,ReportsoftheInternationalConference,Kijabe,12-19June1955.

7RalphT.Davis,‘RecognitionofNorthAmericanHomeCouncil’,ReportsoftheInternationalConference,Kijabe,12-19June1955,72.

145

throughthesixterritories.8‘MauMauterrorism’wasonlybrieflymentionedinthe

conferencereportsin1955.9Themissionexultedinitsaccomplishments,givingduepraise

totheappealofitsmessage:‘TheChurchofGodinAfricaisoneofthemodernmiracles,a

livingmonumentofthepoweroftheGospel.’10

Theeuphoriaofthemission’s1955DiamondJubileecelebrationwasonlyabrief

respiteduringanotherwiseturbulentperiod.AlthoughtheMauMauUprisinghadbeen

suppressed,thelate1950sandearly1960sformedaperiodofacceleratedpoliticalchange

inthecolony.Asthischapterwilldemonstrate,the‘spiritofnationalism’gainedstrength

inKenyainthelate1950sandpressuredAIMtodefinemoreclearlytherelationshipofthe

missionandthemissionarytotheAfricanchurch.Thereemergedconsiderable

disagreementwithinAIMduringthisperiodoverhowthemission-churchrelationship

shouldbedefined.Somefavouredapolicyofdevolutionthatwouldresultinthecomplete

‘Africanisation’ofthemissionandthesurrenderofauthorityandpropertytotheAfrican

InlandChurch(AIC).Theinternalsquabbleresultedintheresignationoftwoofthe

mission’sseniorofficials,whohadbeenstrongproponentsofamission-churchmerger.

Thesedisagreementsarelargelyglossedoverinthestandardhistoriesofthemission.11

8‘LocalChurchSurveyoftheAfricanInlandChurch’[unpublishedreport,1995],PapersofStephenD.Morad,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection689.

9K.Downing,‘EducationandSchools-Kenya’,ReportsoftheInternationalConference,Kijabe,12-19June1955,20.

10KennethRichardson,‘TheAfricanChurch’,12.

11Whatmaybeatypo,butneverthelessmisleading,istheyeargivenbyKennethRichardsonforthemission-churchmergerinhishistoryoftheAfricaInlandMission:‘On16thOctober1961[sic]theAfricanInlandChurchcelebratedwhatwascalleda“historicday”atMachakosStation.OnthatdaytheMissionturnedovertotheNationalChurch,whichithadbroughtintoexistence,itspropertiesandsubmittedtoitsauthorityandleadership.’Thishistoricdaydidnotoccuruntilafterindependence,on16October1971.SeeKennethRichardson,GardenofMiracles:TheStoryoftheAfricaInlandMission(London:AfricaInlandMission,1976),256.

146

Thischapterwillexaminetheinternaldebatethatensuedwithinthemissioninthelate

1950sandearly1960sovertherelationshipbetweenthemissionanditsnationalchurchin

Kenya.Itwillrecounttheconflictthatfollowedthe1955DiamondJubileeandgive

considerationtowhythemissionrejectedaproposedmission-churchmergerontheeveof

independenceinKenya.

TheNationalisticUrge

TheriseofnationalismontheAfricancontinentandtheadvancetoward

independenceinKenyaraisedsignificantquestionsaboutthefutureoftheWestern

missionaryinAfricaandtherelationshipoftheAIMwiththeAfricanchurchitfounded.

DecolonisationontheAfricancontinentwasprogressingatarapidpaceduringthelate

1950sand1960s.12On3February1960,theBritishPrimeMinisterHaroldMacmillangave

hisnow-famous‘WindofChange’speechinCapeTown:‘Thewindofchangeisblowing

throughthiscontinentand,whetherwelikeitornot,thisgrowthofnationalconsciousness

isapoliticalfact.’13Kenyabecameoneofthethirty-threeAfricannationsthatwouldgain

politicalindependencefromWesternEuropeanpowersbetween1955and1964.14While

Macmillanwasgivinghis1960addressinCapeTown,KenyannationalistswereinLondon

attheFirstLancasterHouseConferencefeverishlyworkingonaconstitutionforthecolony

thatwouldineffectpavethewayforindependenceandcausealarmamongwhite

12DavidBirmingham,TheDecolonizationofAfrica(Athens,OH:OhioUniversityPress,1995),7.

13HaroldMacmillan,3February1960,citedinL.J.ButlerandSarahStockwell,eds.,TheWindofChange:HaroldMacmillanandBritishDecolonization(Basingstoke,UK:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),1.

14Ibid.,93-98.

147

settlers.15InAugust1961followingaprolongedperiodofrancorouspolitical

disagreementoverparliamentaryrepresentationandwhoshouldemergeasKenya’s

eventualleader,JomoKenyatta(1891-1978)wasreleasedfromthegovernmentprisonin

Lodwartostandforelection.16InJanuary1962theSecondLancasterHouseConference

washeldinLondontorevisetheconstitutionandformulateaplanforpoliticaldistricting.17

FollowingalandslidevictorybytheKenyaAfricanNationalUnion(KANU)inMay1963,

JomoKenyattawasofficiallyswornintoofficeon1Juneandimmediatelyassumed

leadershipresponsibilitiesforaninterimperiodofself-governance.Kenyawasformally

grantedindependenceon11December1963.18

AIMmissionarieswereconcernedabouthowthe‘nationalisticurge’wouldaffect

theirworkinKenya.EvenastheywerecelebratingatKijabe,theywereawarethatAfrica

hadundergonerevolutionarychangesthatraisedquestionsaboutthefutureofthemission

inthecolony.Atthe1955InternationalConferenceheldatKijabe,ErikBarnett,theKenya

fielddirector,outlinedsomeofthechallengesfacingAIMmissionariesinthelate1950sand

early1960s.Hispapergivesimportantinsightsintosomeoftheconcernsofmission

leadersevenwhiletheywerecelebratingAIM’sDiamondJubilee.Barnettobservedthat

15GeorgeBennett,Kenya,APoliticalHistory:TheColonialPeriod(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1963),147;GeorgeBennettandAlisonSmith,‘Kenya:From“WhiteMan’sCountry”toKenyatta’sState1945-1963’,inD.A.LowandAlisonSmith,eds.,HistoryofEastAfrica,Vol.III(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1976),109-55.

16Ibid.,150-51.

17S.H.Fazan,ColonialKenyaObserved:BritishRule,MauMauandtheWindofChange(London:I.B.Tauris,2015),245.

18WilliamR.Ocheing’,AHistoryofKenya(London:Macmillan,1985),137-143;BennettandSmith,‘Kenya:From“WhiteMan’sCountry”toKenyatta’sState1945-1963’,153;Fazan,ColonialKenyaObserved,246.

148

‘thepastsixtyyearshaveseentremendousrevolutionarychangesinAfrica’.19Henoted

thatoneofthemostsignificanttrendswasthat‘theever-increasingurgeofnationalismis

bringingaboutpoliticaldrivesthatwillundoubtedlyrevolutionizeallpresentgovernment

systems’andthat‘rulefromafar,orbyadominantminorityracewillbelessandless

tolerated’.20Hemadeitclearthatthis‘nationalisturge’would‘bringincreasingpressure’

andthatasaresult‘missionaryworkwasbecomingmoreandmorecomplicated’.21

BarnettquotedgenerouslyfromRolandOliver’s1952workTheMissionaryFactorinAfrica

tobolsterhisargumentthat‘politicalandsocialchange’woulddirectlyimpingeonthe

workofmissionaries.22TheKenyanFieldDirectorcautionedthemissioncommunitythat

‘politicalandnationalisttrendsmaydefinitelylimitourtime’butthatitwasimpossibleto

predict.23Itwasincumbentonthemissiontoanswerthequestion,‘Whatistobethe

relationoftheMissiontothematuringAfricanChurch?’24

Between1955and1958thequestionregarding‘therelationoftheMissiontothe

maturingAfricanChurch’wasperiodicallydiscussedwithnoapparentresolution.A1956

FieldConferenceReportfromTanganyikanoted:‘Itwasagreedthatthestrongnationalistic

feelingthatisspreadingthroughoutthepoliticalworldisalsobeingmanifestedinthe

19ErikS.Barnett,‘ReviewandChallengesofMissionWorkinAfrica,’ReportsoftheInternationalConference,Kijabe,12-19June1955,67.

20Ibid.,67.

21Ibid.,68.

22Ibid.,69-70.

23Ibid.,70.

24Ibid.71.

149

growingresentmentoftheAfricanchurchtoforeigndomination.’25Nationalismwas

creatingpressuretowarddevolutioninTanganyika.TheInternationalConferenceofthe

AIMheldinSeptember1956raisedtheproblemofthe‘missionaries’relationtotheAfrican

Church’notingthatthe‘matterconcernedusthemost’.26Theminuteimpliesanawareness

ofincreasedtensions,thoughtheonlyadvicegivenwasthattheCentralFieldCouncilin

Kenyashouldwork‘tostrengthenandpreservethepartnershipwiththeAfricanChurch’.27

TheBritishHomeCouncilminutesinOctobercontainedareportontheInternational

Conferencebythecouncilchairmaninwhichhe‘askedspecialprayerfortheAfrican

Christiansatthistime,andstressedtheimportanceofagrowingpartnershipbetweenthe

AfricanChurchandtheMission’.28AIMexecutiveswereclearlyawarethatnationalismwas

creatingastrainonmission-churchrelationshipsandthatsomekindof‘partnership’

arrangementwasneeded.

AIMmadeeffortstoputapositivespinonmission-churchrelationships.A1957

surveyoftheworkinKenyabytheFieldDirectorofferedaglowingreportonAIM’swork

inthecolonyandreferredtothe‘fellowshipbetweentheChurchandtheMission’,callingit

‘verywonderful’whileadmitting(withoutofferingspecifics)that‘therearemattersthat

25‘ReportofCentralFieldCouncilDelegatesontheMissionary’sRelationshiptotheAfricanChurchGovernmenttotheMissionGovernment’,June1956,TanganyikaFieldMinutes,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

26InternationalConference,AfricaInlandMission,Barrington,RhodeIsland,10-14September,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),10.

27Ibid.

28MinutesoftheCouncilMeetingoftheAfricaInlandMission,4October1956,MinutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

150

needconstantattention’.29Thesamereportnotedthatthereare‘certainlimitations’for

themissioninitsrelationshipwiththechurchandindicatedthat‘OtherMissionsinKenya

havealreadyintegratedMissionandChurch.’30The‘certainlimitations’arenotdiscussed

butarelikelyareferencetothedifficultyofformulatingapolicyfortheintegrationofa

nondenominationalmissionaryagencywitharecentlyestablishedAfricandenomination.31

The‘othermissions’arenotspecified,butAIMworkedmostcloselywiththeChurch

MissionarySociety(Anglican)andtheChurchofScotlandMissioninEastAfrica.TheCMS

hadestablishedtheChurchoftheProvinceofEastAfrica(Anglican)in1921andcreated

episcopatesinUgandaandKenyain1955and1956respectively.Africanbishopswere

givenoversightoftheseprovinces,andWesternmissionariesworkedundertheir

oversight.32TheCSMhadestablishedthePresbyterianChurchofEastAfricaasan

autonomouschurchin1956,whileretainingitstieswiththePresbyterianChurchof

Scotland.33Aconfidentialminutefroma1957BritishHomeCouncilmeetingregardingthe

mission’sworkintheWestNileDistrictsuggeststhatdevelopmentsinUgandawereclearly

influencingAIMofficials.Theminutesrevealthat‘theAuthorities[oftheAnglicanChurch

inUganda]haveinmindthepossibilityofthecountrybeingleftwithoutEuropeans’and

that‘thebishopsareanxious,thereforethattheN.A.C.[NativeAnglicanChurch]be

29ErikS.Barnett,‘Kenya,AnA.I.M.MissionarySurvey’,n.d.,1957,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

30Ibid.

31Thiswillbediscussedmorefullyonpages167to171.

32ZablonNthamburi,FromMissiontoChurch:AHandbookofChristianityinEastAfrica(Nairobi:UzimaPress,1995),25.

33Ibid.

151

organizedentirelyinthehandsofAfricansassoonaspossible’.34AIMwasawarethat

politicalchangeswereinfluencingmission-churchrelationshipsinEastAfricaandthat

othermissionswerealreadyfollowingapatternofdevolution.Itbecameincreasingly

difficulttokeepalidonthings.AJuly1957articlepublishedinInlandAfricamadesomeof

theseconcernspublic:

Thereisagrowingnationalisticurge.Thisrevealsitselfnotsimplyinthegoodsense,ofloveforone’scountryandculture,butinastrongreactionagainstthingsWestern,andthereforetomanymindswholookuponreligionsassomethingnational,againstthingsChristian.35

Inthelate1950s,the‘nationalisticurge’wascreating‘astrongreactionagainstthings

Western’andforcingthemissiontoconsiderhowtosurrendermoreauthoritytothe

Africanchurch.

‘AManCalledHenman’

PhillipHenman(1899-1986)servedbothasthechairmanoftheBritishHome

Councilbetween1949and1962andasthefirstchairmanoftheInternationalCouncil(IC),

whichwasestablishedbythemissionin1955.36TheICwascreatedin1955forthe

purposeofunitingthevarioushomecouncilsandprovidinggreateroversightofthe

variousfieldcouncils.37ThecouncilsinNorthAmerica,Europe,Australia,theBritish-Isles,

Canada(curiouslylistedseparatelyfromNorthAmerica)andSouthAfricaallreportedto

34‘UgandaFieldMatters’ConfidentialMinuteReferringtoMinute7a,5September1957,BritishHomeCouncilMinutes,5September1957,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

35DonaldH.Temple,‘TheDistantTriumphSong,’InlandAfrica(British)Vol.39,No.23[July1957],3.

36Aswillbeexplained,theICwastheexecutivebodyoftheentiremissionafter1955.PhilipHenman,aschairmanoftheIC,wasthehighest-rankingofficialinthemission.

37‘ConstitutionoftheAfricaInlandMission,1955’,ReportsoftheInternationalConference,Kijabe,12-19June1955,4.

152

theIC.AschairmanoftheIC,Henmanpresidedoverthegovernanceofthemissionwhile

hisAmericancolleagueRalphT.Davis,theGeneralSecretaryoftheIC,wasresponsiblefor

theimplementationofmissionpolicy.InAfricathefieldcouncilsforKenya,Tanganyika,

theBelgianCongo,WestNile-UgandaandSudan(Anglo-EgyptianSoudan)allreportedto

theCentralFieldCouncil,whichcomprisedseniormembersofeachofthevariousfield

councils.Intheory,thenewlyformedICpresidedoverbyHenmanandDavisbecamethe

legislativeandexecutivebodyoftheAIMin1955.38Althoughheisonlymentionedin

passinginthe1995officialhistoryofthemission,Henmanwieldedsignificantinfluencein

AIMduringthe1950s.Inhisdissertationonthemission,GrationreferstoHenmanas‘a

dissentingvoice,likeonecryinginthewilderness’.39Morad’sunpublishedhistoryofthe

AIMsimplyobserves,‘In1960,amancalledHenmanproposedaMission-Church

merger.’40HenmanwasasuccessfulLondon-basedshippingmagnatewho(perhaps

ironically)boreastrikingresemblancetoHaroldMacmillan,completewithsilverhairand

neatlygroomedmoustache.Heamassedsignificantwealththroughtheacquisitionof

barges,warehousesandroadhaulageservices,whichheparlayedintoapubliclyheld

tradingcompany.41ThesonofaBaptistminister,Henmanisdescribedas‘quietandself-

effacing’,possessingan‘incisivemindwithafirmgraspoftheessentials.’42Hewasa

38Achartshowingtheneworganizationalschemeofthemissionistitled‘AfricaInlandMissionInternationalOrganization’,ReportsoftheInternationalConference,Kijabe,12-19June1955.

39JohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyaBetween1895and1971’(Ph.D.diss.,NewYorkUniversity,1974),264-67.

40StephenD.Morad,‘TheSpreadingTree:AHistoryoftheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya,1895-1995’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),PapersofStephenD.Morad,Collection689,140.

41‘ObituaryofMrPhilipHenman’,TheTimes(London),14November1986,UKNewspapers,UniversityofStirling.

42HaroldH.Rowdon,LondonBibleCollege:TheFirst25Years(Worthing,UK:HenryE.Walter,1968),25.

153

committedEvangelicalwhowasinstrumentalinthefoundingofLondonBibleCollegein

1943andbecameitschairmanin1958.43Hewasageneroussupporterofvarious

EvangelicalcausesincludingAIMandtheLondonBibleCollege,andoftenprovidedquiet

financialassistanceformissionariesandstudentsinneed.44Hiswealthcontinuedtofund

overseascharitablecausesafterhisdeathin1986throughthePhilipH.HenmanTrust.45

Henmanstronglyfavouredamission-churchmerger,thoughhealsobelievedthat

theevangelisticlaboursofthemissionshouldcontinueinKenyaundertheauthorityofthe

Africanchurch.InOctober1955,afterhisreturnfromKijabe,hewrotewithasenseof

excitementabout‘theGod-givenachievementsofthepast60years,thepatternofour

widespreadworkto-day[sic]inAfrica,andthegoldenopportunitiestomarchforward

together,andinpartnershipwithAfricanChristians,intothefuture’.46Hesaw,tousehis

words,‘anopendoorofopportunityinAfrica,adoorforgospelwitness’.47Tobesure,

thesewerepublicsentiments,buttheyareconsistentwithHenman’sferventEvangelical

convictions.HefavouredthecontinuedworkofAIMmissionaries,buthealsobelievedthat

theriseofnationalisminAfricagavethemissionnochoicebuttomovetowardapolicyof

devolution.InJanuary1958HenmanwrotetheKenyanFieldDirectorandremindedhim

aboutapreviousconversation:

43Ibid.,22.

44IanRandall,EducatingEvangelicalism:TheOrigins,DevelopmentandImpactoftheLondonBibleCollege(Carlisle,UK:Pasternoster,200),72.

45DavidJ.Jeremy,‘Henman,PhilipSydney’,OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,Volume26(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2004).

46PhilipS.Henman,‘Kijabe—ThePlaceoftheWind’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.37,No.179[October1955],5.

47Ibid.,6-7.

154

InKenya,youarepassingthroughavitalstageintherelationshipbetweentheMissionandtheAfricanChurch.Ifyouremember,asfarbackasfouryearsago,IsaidthatIthoughtroomshouldbefoundforamuchcloserassociationbetweentheAfricanChurchandtheMissionatalllevelsandIenvisagedthetimewhentherewouldbejointmembershipintheFieldCouncilandtherewouldbeAfricanrepresentationintheInternationalConference.48

Asearlyas1955(andperhapsbefore),Henmanwaspressingfora‘muchcloser

relationship’betweenmissionandchurchaswellasthe‘jointmembership’ofmissionaries

andAfricansinAIMfieldcouncils.HealsofavouredAfricanrepresentationattheexecutive

levelofthemission.HewasrepeatinghisconcernsthatnationalisminAfricawould

eventuallyaffectmission-churchrelationshipsandthatthemissionneededtobegin

workingtoAfricanisethemission.Asheputitinthesameletter,‘Withthepossibilityof

muchofEastAfricafollowingtheadvanceofGhanaintoindependence,Ifeelwemust

anticipatethemarchofevents.’49InlessthanayearafterHenman’sprescientletter,

KwameNkrumah(1909-1972)hostedthefirstAll-AfricanPeople’sConferenceinnewly

independentGhana.50TheDecember1958gatheringwasattendedbyJuliusNyerere

(1922-1999)fromTanganyika,HastingsBanda(1898-1997)fromNyasaland(Malawi),

PatriceLumumba(1925-1961)fromtheBelgianCongoandTomMboya(1930-1969)from

KenyaalongwithotherAfricannationalists.51Mboyacapturedthemoodoftheconference

inhismessagetoEuropeanpowers:‘yourtimeispast,Africamustbefree.Scramfrom

48PhillipHenmantoErikBarnett,16January1958,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

49Ibid.

50GeorgeM.Houser,NoOneCanStoptheRain:GlimpsesofAfrica’sLiberationStruggle(NewYork:Pilgrim’sPress,1962),70.

51MartinMeredith,TheFateofAfrica:FromtheHopesofFreedomtotheHeartofDespair:AHistoryof50YearsofIndependence(NewYork:PublicAffairs,2005),29.

155

Africa.’52InthemindoftheesteemedAIMchairman,thespiritofnationalismsweepingthe

Africancontinentprecipitatedtheneedforanewarrangementformission-church

relationships.Henmanwaslivinguptohisreputationasanincisiveleaderwithanunusual

abilitytoanticipateemergingdevelopments.

Henmanwasnotaloneinrecognizingthataproblemexisted.Thoughmissionaries

reportedthatallwaswellintheirrelationshipwiththeAIC,theyrecognizedtheneedfor

greatercollaborationwiththeAfricanchurch.In1956AIMmissionariesbeganinvitingAIC

churchofficialstoattendcouncilmeetingsasnon-votingmemberswhileinformationwas

sharedbetweenthechurchandthemissionthroughwhatwastermed‘bridge

committees’.53In1957theCentralFieldCouncil(CFC)observedthat‘considerable

progresswasreportedwithregardtoconsultationbetweenfieldcouncilsandAfrican

churchleaders’.54AtthesamemeetingtheCFCpassedaformalresolutionfor‘such

consultationtobeincreased,bothinfrequencyandtypesofdecisionsconcerningwhich

consultationisheld’.55TheminutesoftheCFCmeetingin1958notedthatcouncil

membershaddevoted‘considerabletimetothematterofthemissionaryintheAfrican

Church’andfurtherstatedthatithadbecome‘acriticalissueinsomeofourfields’.56The

councilaskedallfieldcouncilstostudytheproblemandreporttheirfindingsfor

52TomMboya,citedinDavidGoldsworthy,TomMboya,theManKenyaWantedtoForget(Nairobi:Heinemann,1982),107.

53Morad,‘TheSpreadingTree’,140.

54CentralFieldCouncilMinutes,April1957,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

55Ibid.

56CentralFieldCouncilMinutes,April1958,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

156

deliberationsatthe1959InternationalConference.57WhiletheAfricanvoiceislargely

missingfrommissionsourcesduringthelate1950s,AIMmissionariesweremorethan

likelyrespondingtochangingattitudesinAfricatowardWesternauthoritystructures.A

1959memorandumsentoutbyA.E.Vollor,chairmanoftheCFC,toallAIMworkersis

revealing:

Thepracticeofsomeof‘tellingoff’,‘blowingyourtop’,andinvariouswaysshowingaspiritofdominationover,orofsuperioritytotheAfricans,especiallythosewithwhoweworkandtowhomweminister,couldeasilyresultincuttingoffcompletely,notonlytheministryoftheindividual,butofthewholemissionarybody.58

A‘spiritofdomination’mayhavebeenforgiveninthepastbutnotinthelate1950s.The

spiritofnationalismwaschangingthemission’srelationshipwiththechurch.

Henmanbelievedthemissionneededtomoveforwardwithaprogressiveagenda.

Hewasconcernedthatnationalismwouldeventuallycreateastruggleforpowerin

mission-churchrelationships.InApril1959hewroteacoverarticlethatwaspublishedin

theBritisheditionofthemission’sofficialorgan.Henotedthat‘Africaistodayinthemain

abattlegroundforpowerundertheslogan,“AfricafortheAfricans”’.59Theexpression

‘AfricafortheAfricans’wasenshrinedinthe1920‘DeclarationoftheRightsoftheNegro

PeoplesoftheWorld’andpopularizedbythePan-AfricanleaderMarcusGarvey(1887-

1940).60HerewasaclearreferencetothenationalistaspirationsofthePan-African

movement.Inthesamearticle,Henmanwroteofthedifficultythatnationalistaspirations

57Ibid.

58MemorandumfromA.E.VollortoCo-workersintheAfricaInlandMission,27June1959,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

59PhilipS.Henman,‘Power?’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XLI,No.32[April1959],1.

60MarcusGarveyandRobertBlaisdell,SelectedWritingsandSpeechesofMarcusGarvey(Mineola,NY:DoverPublications,2004),69-71;MarcusGarveyandAmyJacquesGarvey,ThePhilosophyandOpinionsofMarcusGarvey,orAfricafortheAfricans(Dover,MA:MajorityPress,1986),110.

157

werecreatingformissionaries:‘Suchcircumstancescanbemoretestingandtryingthan

werediseaseanddangerinthepioneeryearsofmissionaryenterprise.’61Henmanput

readersonnoticethattheJune1959meetingsoftheICandtheCFC‘willtakeplaceagainst

thisnationalbackground,forinAfricathestruggleforpowerisintense’.62Thenationalist

struggleforpowerandtherelationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurchwere

inextricablylinkedinHenman’smind.HefeltthatjustasAfricannationalistswantedtobe

liberatedfromEuropeanpower,Africanchurchleaderswouldeventuallywanttohave

controloverboththechurchandthemissioninKenya.Hedidnotfavourapartnership

agreementwithoutaddressingthefundamentalissueofcontrol.Asheputit:‘Such

questionsmaywellariseaswhoistobetheseniorpartner—theMissionortheAfrican

Church?’63Henmanwasonamissiontochangemission-churchrelationships.

Theyear1960wasoneofcelebrationandcrisesforthemission.Updated‘Africa

InlandMissionStatistics’wereavailableandwidelytouted.Therewere3,033placesof

worshipinthevariousfieldsofthemissionandanestimated389,234worshippersinallits

churches.In1960thetwolargestfieldsweretheBelgianCongoandKenya.64New

churcheswerebeingplanted,newconvertswerefillingthechurches,andboththemission

andthechurchwereprospering.InMay‘themajorityoftheMission’s198missionaries’

servinginKenyagatheredfortheirannualMissionConferenceheldatKijabe,‘thelargestof

61Henman,‘Power?’,1.

62Ibid.

63Ibid.

64‘AfricaInlandMissionStatistics,1960’,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

158

AfricaInlandMission’sstationsinKenya’.65Therewerefiftymissionariesstationedat

Kijabealongwith‘nearlyathousandstudentsinvariousschools,plusamedicalwork,radio

headquartersandalargemodernpress’.66Missionariesassembledfrom‘their27stations

scatteredovertheKenyafield’tohearinspirationalmessages,toconductmissionbusiness,

andtowatcha‘thrillingfilm’aboutthemission’sexpansioninTurkana(northernKenya).

AIM’slargestmissionstationwasthriving,andtheworkofthemissionwascontinuingto

expand.67TheJuly-AugustissueofInlandAfricatrumpetedthevisitofthefamedAmerican

evangelistBillyGraham(1918-),whocametoKijabetospeaktoAIMmissionariesand

dinewithmissionleadersbeforecontinuinghis‘AfricanCampaign’.68Themeetingclosed

with‘CliffBarrowsleadingthetriumphantcrusadehymn—“HowGreatThouArt”’.69The

missionhadpartneredwiththeBillyGrahamAssociationbyprintingsome500,000pieces

ofliteratureforhisEastAfricaCrusade.AIMmissionariesandAfricanChristianswere

baskinginthepresenceofa‘livinglegend’whohadcometohonourthem.70Therewas

muchtocelebratein1960.

ThecrisesintheBelgianCongoduringthesecondhalfof1960,however,hada

profoundinfluenceonHenmanandthehomecouncils.TheBelgianCongohadbecomethe

largestfieldoftheAIMduringthe1950s.Whenthecolonygainedindependenceon30

65‘ExtractsfromSermonsatMissionaryConference’,27May1960,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

66Ibid.

67Ibid.

68‘AGlimpseofBillyGraham’sVisit’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLIV,No.4[July-August1960],8-9.

69Ibid.,9.

70Ibid.

159

June1960,thenewlyestablishedRepublicoftheCongo(1960-1964)becamepolitically

fracturedandmiredinconflictthatlasteduntil1965.TheSeptember-Octoberissueof

InlandAfricareportedthatAIM‘workhascloseddownpartially’,thatmany‘workershave

evacuatedstations’and‘MissionarieshavemovedtootherA.I.M.stationsinUgandaand

Kenya’.71AIMworkintheRepublicoftheCongowasnowimperilled,andthisreality

becameabackdropforhomecouncilmeetingslatein1960.

InDecember1960HenmanflewtotheUnitedStatesformeetingswiththe

AmericanHomeCouncilandpressedforamergerbetweenthemissionandthechurchin

Kenya.Henmanbelievedthatthe‘CongoCrisis’wasaforeshadowingofthingstocomein

theBritishcolonyofKenya.Heexpressedconcernabout‘thetragedythattookplacein

Congo’andarguedthatthemissionneededtobepreparedforindependenceinKenya.72

Henman’sremarkswereacalltoaction:‘Itistimewefacethefactsandrealizethatself-

governmentiscomingtoallareasofAfrica.’73ForHenman,thechangessweepingthe

Africancontinentrequiredthemissiontodomorethansimplyworkwiththechurchina

collaborativepartnership.Hebelievedthatthemissionmustreorganizetocarryoutits

workundertheauthorityoftheindigenouschurch.Asheputit,‘WiththeAfricansbeingin

themajority,itisthereforeofnecessitythatwemustbesubjectandobedienttotheir

authority.’74ThepowerstruggleHenmanpresagedin1958wasuponthem.Hecalledfor

thesubmissionofthemissiontothechurchaswellastheAfricanisationofboththechurch

71‘CongoCrisis’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerican),Vol.XLIV,No.5[September-October1960],1.

72‘MemorandumofRemarksMadebyMrHenman’,AmericanHomeCouncilMeetingoftheAfricaInlandMission,14December1960,BGCArchives(Wheaton)AIMInternational,Collection81.

73Ibid.

74Ibid.

160

andthemission.ItwastimeforAfricanstoleadthewayinKenya.Inhiswords,‘Theday

ofthemissionarybeingtheseniorandtheAfricanthejuniormustchange.’75Heurgedthat

actionshouldbetaken‘withoutdelay’beginningwitharesolutionurging‘allmembersof

theMissionservinginAfricatobecomemembersoftheAfricaInlandChurchinthearea

[sic]whichtheyserve’.76Demonstratingaclearconnectionbetweenwhatwastakingplace

politicallyandwhathebelievedmusttakeplaceecclesiastically,Henmanobserved:‘The

Africansbyvirtueoftheirindependencewanttobegiventhenumberonepositionand

expectthemissionarytotakethesecondaryplace.Inotherwords,theMissionshould

becomethehandmaidofthechurch.’77Heoutlinedastrategyforthemergerbeginning

withajointmeetingbetweenAIMandAICattheInternationalConferencetotakeplace

earlyin1961intheColonyofKenya.Themissionmustact‘asearlyaspossible’tocreatea

‘mergingofthetwoconstitutions’,placingthemissionundertheauthorityofthechurch

whilealsoprotecting‘theinterestsofthemissionary’.78TheChurchMissionarySocietyin

Ugandawasheldupasanexample:‘ThishasbeendonebytheChurchofEnglandin

Uganda.AllpropertyhasbeenhandedovertotheAfricanChurch,andtheAfricanshave

beengiventheplaceofauthority.’79TheAmericanHomeCouncilexpressedsupportand

enthusiasmoverHenman’sproposals.80Theyalsopassedaseriesofresolutionsthat

75Ibid.

76Ibid.

77Ibid.

78Ibid.

79Ibid.

80AmericanHomeCouncilMeetingoftheAfricaInlandMission,14December1960;Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenya’,267.

161

calledforaConferenceto‘bearrangedinAfricaasearlyaspossiblein1961where

representativesoftheChurchinAfricashouldmeetrepresentativesoftheInternational

Conference’toworkoutaconstitutionalagreement.81

OutflankedontheField

KennethL.Downing(1908-1989)wasservinginKenyaasthegeneralfield

secretaryoftheMission.DowningwasborninKijabe,Kenya,in1908,thesonofAIM

missionaryLeeH.Downing(1866-1942),whohadcometoBritishEastAfricain1901.Lee

DowningservedinseveralimportantrolesincludingdeputygeneraldirectorunderCharles

HurlburtandfielddirectorofBritishEastAfricaandKenya.Kennethreturnedtothe

UnitedStatestofinishhisfinalyearofhighschoolandthenenteredMuskinghumCollege

(nowMuskingumUniversity)inOhio,aprivateliberalartsinstitutionestablishedbythe

PresbyterianChurch.UpongraduatingwithhisBAdegree,Downingreturnedtotheplace

ofhisbirthinordertoserveonthefieldinKenya.HewasfluentinKikuyuandSwahiliand

isdescribedbythosewhorememberhimas‘agood-lookingman’andone‘whogavethe

appearanceofonewhowasinauthority’.82InJanuary1961Downingdispatchedahastily

writtenletterfromthefieldinformingHenmanandDavisthat‘therearea[sic]

considerableamountofmisgivingsamongmanyofusovertheproposalsmadebyMr

Henman’.83‘Misgivings’wasacleverchoiceofwords.DowningandtheCFCwereinfact

opposedtothedirectionproposedbyHenmanandtheAmericanHomeCouncil.InApril

81‘MemorandumofRemarksMadebyMrHenman’,14December1960.

82MaryAndersonHoner,TheDowningLegacy:SixDecadesatRiftValleyAcademy(Bloomington,IN:iUniverse,2010),51-53,66-67.

83KennethDowningtoRalphT.DavisandPhilip.S.Henman,27January1961,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

162

1960theyhadpassedaresolutionfavouringa‘completelyindigenousChurchwithAfricans

carryingthefullresponsibilityforallphasesofitswork’whileopposinga‘policyof

integration’wherein‘themissionarybecomesamemberoftheAfricanchurch’.84Downing

furtherrebuffedHenman’srecommendationforajointmeetingbetweenAICandAIMearly

thefollowingyear:‘ItisanticipatedthattheCFCExecutivewilldecidethataconference

withAfricansshallnotbecalleduntilafterweontheFieldhavehadopportunitytodiscuss

thesemattersmorefullywithyoumenfromthehomeland.’85Tendayslater,inalengthy

letterthatreadslikeawhitepaperonmission-churchrelations,Downingobservedonce

again‘thatthereareaconsiderableamountofmisgivingsamongmanyofusoverthe

proposalsmadebyMrHenmantotheHomeCouncils’.86Inthesameletter,Downingsaid

thatcallingameetingwithAfricanchurchleaderstobegindiscussingamergerwas

‘potentiallydisasterous[sic]topresentprogress’.87Hesentacopyofthesamelettertothe

chairmanoftheCFCwithanoteinhisownhand:‘DearBill,Wasalarmedathearingofyour

givingpossibilitytotheHenmanproposals.’88BillwasWilliamA.Stier,thechairmanofthe

CentralFieldCouncilandthedirectoroftheTanganyikaFieldCouncil.Stierwasmost

likelythe‘CFCExecutive’DowninghadreferredtoinhislettertoHenman.Itappearsthat

DowningwastemporizinginhisinitiallettertoHenmanwhileusinghisconsiderable

influencetoguidethefieldchairmanandtheentiremissiondownadifferentpath.

84‘TheRelationshipoftheMissionandtheChurch’,MemorandumoftheCentralFieldCounciloftheAfricaInlandMission,April1960,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

85Ibid.

86KennethDowningtoRalphT.DavisandPhilipS.Henman,8February1961,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81.

87Ibid.

88Ibid.

163

HenmanhadalreadymadetravelplanstobeinAfricafortheproposedjointmeeting.

DowningpolitelyencouragedHenmanandothermembersoftheICtomoveforwardwith

theirplanstotraveltoNairobi.However,Downinghadnointentionofimplementingthe

decisionsoftheIC.Hebelievedthathewasinabetterpositiontodeterminemission

policyonthefield.AsDowningputittoHenmaninhisletter,‘Wecannotemphasizetoo

stronglytheimportance,inourview,ofyoumenwhoaresofarremovedfromthefast-

changingsceneinAfricatoday,takingtimetogetorientedtothepresentsituation.’89

HenmanwasnotamusedbyDowning’spatronizingairandcancelledhistravelplans.90

Downingthenwrotehisfielddirectorsreferringto‘Henman’sreaction’andaskingfor

‘prayerthattheHolySpiritwillover-rulethebreachinourrankswhichseemstobe

threatenedbytheselatestdevelopments’.91Heaskedthecouncilmemberstokeephis

lettertothemconfidential.

UnderthefirmguidanceofDowning,theKenyaFieldCouncil(KFC)rejected

Henman’sproposalsandproducedapartnershipagreementinAugust1961forthemission

andthechurchinKenyathatcouldbeusedasamodelforotherfields.Itwasapprovedon

15September1961atajointmeetingwiththeAfricaInlandChurch(AIC)Advisory

Committee.92ThepartnershipagreementmadeitclearthatAIMandAICco-existedastwo

autonomousorganizationsworkingtogetherinKenya:‘TheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya

andtheAfricaInlandMissionwhileworkingtogetherintheclosestChristianunitydo

89Ibid.

90KennethL.DowningtoFieldDirectorsoftheAfricaInlandMission,24February1961,BGCArchives,AIMInternational(Wheaton),Collection81.

91Ibid.

92‘SuggestedAgreementBetweentheAfricanInlandChurchandtheAfricaInlandMissioninKenya’,8August1961,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

164

recognizeeachotherasfullyautonomousorganizations.’93Separateresponsibilitiesfor

eachorganizationwereoutlined.TheAICwouldoverseelocalchurches,includingthe

workofappointingchurchleaders,conductingworshipservices,discipliningmembers,

managingchurchfinances,providingpastoralcareandmanagingoutreachministriesofthe

localchurch.AIMwouldrecruitmissionariesforthefield,directmoniesgiventothe

mission,assignmissionariestotheirposts,associatewith(butnotjoin)localAICchurches

andservethechurch‘whereverinvited’.94TheAIMandtheAICwouldsharethe

managementofacademicschools,technicaldepartments(medical,literature,press,radio,

building),Bibleschoolsandoutreach.Theissueofpropertywasmorecomplicated.The

partnershipdocumentindicatedthatthemission‘furtheragreesthatassoonasitislegally

andfinanciallypossibletodoso,itwillinitiatestepstobeginthetransferofsomeproperty

tothechurch’.95However,themissionwouldstillcontrolmissionplotsandbuildings,

unitsformissionaryresidences,schools,hospitals,‘otherinstitutions’andbuildingsorland

for‘otherMissionpurposes’.Thedetailsregardingpropertyownershipweremurky,butit

representedmovement.During1962themissionandthechurchworkedjointlytomake

revisionstotheagreementbeforeitwasofficiallysignedforimplementation.InMarch

1963,lessthanninemonthsbeforeindependenceinKenya,theformalpartnership

agreementwassignedbyrepresentativesfromtheAIMandtheAIC.96

93Ibid.

94Ibid.

95Ibid.

96RichardAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers:TheStoryofAfricaInlandMission(Nottingham,UK:CrosswayBooks,1994),192.

165

Henman,whoseadvicehadbeensnubbed,refusedtobechairmanoftheICinname

only.AsDowningandtheCentralFieldCouncilwereworkingonthepartnership

agreementin1962,Henmanabruptlyresignedfromhispositionsaschairmanofthe

BritishHomeCouncilandtheInternationalCouncil.97Hisresignationwasashockto

missionofficialsandwasinterpretedbytheAIMcommunityasaprotest.Hisproposals

wereconsidered‘radical’.98Theveneratedleaderofthemissionwaswrittenoffby

missionariesinthefieldasa‘revolutionary’.99RalphDavis,theesteemedgeneralsecretary

oftheIC,remainedinhispositionbutwasforcedtoretireayearafterHenman’s

resignationduetoillhealth.Heblamedhisillnessonthestressthathadbeencausedby

tryingtoserveasthegeneralsecretaryofthemissionwithoutanyapparentauthorityover

theworkofAIMonthefield.Hediedon19August1963,justamonthbeforethefinal

partnershipagreementwassigned.Thecampaignforamission-churchmergercametoan

abruptend.

WhytheMergerFailed

MissionariesworkinginKenyainthelate1950sandearly1960swerecognizantof

thechangingpoliticalenvironsandthepressuresthiscreatedtoyieldgreaterauthorityto

themission.A1963prayerletterfromAIMmissionariesKennethandDorothyRichardson

servinginKenyaistypical:‘MrMacmillanreferredtothe“WindsofChange”whichare

97Henman’sresignationcameinFebruary1962.However,heindicatedthathehadbeenthinkingaboutthematterforaboutayear.HisdisagreementwithDowningcameinFebruary1961.SeeAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,186-188.

98Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,267.

99Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,187:‘Lookingbacknow,wecanwonderwhyMrHenmanseemedarevolutionary.’

166

blowingoverAfricainthesedays.Insomepartstheyarebutgentlebreezes;inothersthey

aregreathurricanes.’100The‘gentlebreezes’hadbecome‘greathurricanes’andthemarch

towardindependenceinKenyapressuredthemissiontohandovergreaterauthorityand

responsibilitytothechurch.AstheRichardsonsputitafewsentenceslater,‘Foranumber

ofyearstheMissionhasbeenledtogivespecialattentiontothepreparationoftheChurch

forindependence.’101Themissionwasalsoawarethatothermissions,liketheChurchof

ScotlandMissionandtheChurchMissionarySociety,hadmovedtowardapolicyof

devolution.Still,DowningandthefieldcouncilsoundlyrejectedtheproposalsoftheICfor

amerger,insteademphasizingtheconstitutionalautonomyoftwoseparateorganizations.

Theconceptofamergerbetweenthemissionandthechurchwasdismissedout-of-handby

Downingandgivenlittleconsiderationbymissionariesservingonthefield.Thereare

severalreasonsthemissionresistedpressuretofollowapathtowardintegration.

First,thedemocraticethosofthemissionwasresistanttopressurefrommission

authoritiestoimplementaproposalforintegrationonthefield.Theinitialstructureofthe

missionestablishedin1895confinedtheroleofthefirsthomecouncilinPhiladelphiato

thatofprayer,recruitmentandfund-raisingwithout‘exercisinganycontroloverit’.102AIM

wasa‘field-based’missionsothatthelocusofauthorityexistedwiththemissionarieson

thefield.An1896issueofthemission’sofficialperiodicalputitthisway:‘themenand

womenonthefieldshouldknowmoreabouthowtomeetemergenciesandhowtoplanto

100KennethandDorothyRichardsontoFriends,Kisumu,Kenya,January1962,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

101Ibid.

102HearingandDoing[January1896]inAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,24.

167

overcomeobstaclesthanthoseathome.’103Field-basedmanagementwasacharacteristic

ofthenondenominational‘faithmissions’thatemergedduringthesecondhalfofthe

nineteenth-century.104TheChinaInlandMission,establishedin1865bytheBritish

missionaryHudsonTaylor(1832-1905),significantlyinfluencedmissionpolicyfor

independentfaithmissionsthatemergedinthelatenineteenthcentury.105Faithmissions

establishedhomecouncilstopromotethework‘athome’andprovideadministrative

support,whilemissionarieswereconsideredtheresidentexpertsonthefield.AstheAIM

constitutionread,‘TheMissionshallconsistofthepresentmembersoftheAfricaInland

Mission,i.e.,allacceptedmissionariesandmembersoftheHomeCouncils,andsuch

missionariesandCouncilmembersasmaysubsequentlybeacceptedbyanyHome

Council.’106Missionarieswerenotconsideredemployeesofthedenomination.Theywere

actualmembersofthemissionwhopossessedvotingrightsandsignificantcontrolover

fieldpolicy.107

WhenHenryD.Campbellwaselevatedtobethemission’sgeneralsecretaryin1926,

hewasconcernedbyhowmuchpowerhadbeenconcentratedonthefieldandwaslargely

wieldedbythemission’sgeneraldirector,CharlesE.Hurlburt.Inanefforttoshift

authoritytothehomecouncil,Campbellintentionallyleftvacantthepositionofgeneral

103Ibid.

104EdwinL.Frizen,Jr.,75YearsofIFMA,1917-1992:TheNondenominationalMissionsMovement(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,1992),16.

105DanielW.Bacon,FromFaithtoFaith:TheInfluenceofHudsonTaylorontheFaithMissionsMovement(D.Miss.,TrinityEvangelicalDivinitySchool,1983),87-108.


107KlausFiedler,TheStoryofFaithMissions:FromHudsonTaylortoPresentDayAfrica(Oxford:RegnumBooksInternational,1994),32-69.

168

directoronthefieldafterHurlburt’sresignation.Hechoseinsteadtogivemorepowerto

thehomecouncilanddecentralizefieldmanagement.Workonthefieldwasentrustedto

councilscomprisedofmissionaries.Inpracticehowever,thismovegavemissionaries

moreautonomyandconcentratedauthoritytodemocraticallyelectedfieldcouncils.Inthe

late1950sandearly1960s,AIMhadfieldcouncilsinKenya,Tanganyika,theBelgianCongo,

UgandaandSudan.108FieldConferenceswereheldinAfricaeachyear(thelocationusually

circulatingamongvariousfields)forthepurposeofproviding‘spiritualrefreshment’,

creatingopportunitiesfor‘fellowship’,andencouragingthediscussionof‘missionpolicy

andpractice.’109WhenmissionariesgatheredatFieldConferences,theyelectedcolleagues

toserveonthevariousfieldcouncilsandeachfieldcouncilinturnelectedafielddirector.

TheCentralFieldCouncilwasestablishedin1948forthepurposeof‘co-ordinating

authorityfortheworkoftheMissionthroughoutthefield’.110TheCFCwasalsoanelected

bodywith‘representativeselectedbienniallybytheFieldConference’andthegeneralfield

secretarybeingelectedbytheCFC.111KennethL.Downing,whohadservedastheKenya

fielddirectorfrom1953-1954,waselectedtoserveasgeneralfieldsecretaryin1955,a

positionhehelduntil1963.112TheformationoftheICin1955wasanefforttounifythe

108‘AfricaInlandMissionInternationalOrganization’,organizationalchart,1955,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).


110Ibid.,7.

111Ibid.

112‘OfficersoftheAIM’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81,http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/081.htm#1(accessed10November2016).

169

missionandbringtheentirefieldundertheauthorityofanexecutivecouncil.113However,

missionarieswerestillaccustomedtoguidingtheirownaffairsandbelievedthattheywere

betterpositionedtodeterminemissionpolicy.DickAnderson,whoservedwithAIMin

Kenyabetween1956and1975,notedthat‘InpracticetheCFC[CentralFieldCouncil]made

policydecisionswhichtheConference[InternationalConference]rubber-stampedand

eachfieldcouncilusesasguidelinesfortheirowndecisionmaking’.114Eventhough

HenmanandDaviswieldednewconstitutionalauthorityasexecutivesoftheIC,theyfound

themselvesupagainstaformidableopponentinthedemocraticallyelectedGeneralField

Secretary.

AIMmissionariescontrolledmissionpolicyinthelate1950sandearly1960s.

MissionariesonthefieldeffectivelyunderminedtheauthorityofHenmanandDavis,twoof

themission’sseniormembers,bothofwhomwerewidelyrecognizedintheEvangelical

communityforeffectiveleadership.Missionpolicywasdeterminedbyademocratic

process,notbymissionexecutivesinLondonandNewYorkwhowerefarremovedfrom

theactualworkonthefield.A1959articlepublishedinthemission’sofficialorgan

celebratesthe‘processofourdemocraticapproach’inmakingpolicydecisionsforthe

mission.’115DowninghadrebuffedHenman,tellinghimineffectthatmissionarieswerein

abetterpositiontomakedecisionsonthequestionofmission-churchrelationshipsgiven

therealitythatmembersofthehomecouncilswere‘sofarremovedfromthefast-changing

113‘Intheory,theAmericancouncilstillled;inpracticetheincreaseinmissionarynumbersandministryproblemsdemandeddecisionsclosertotheaction.’Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,216.

114Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,218.

115SidneyLangford,‘InternationalConference’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLIII,No.5[September-October1959],3.

170

sceneinAfricatoday’.116Downingalsocomplainedthatthemissionarieswerenot

‘consulted’andthattheresolutionforamerger‘appearedtobeafaitaccomplilongbefore

theCentralFieldCouncilhadanopportunitytostudy[it]’.117ItwasevidentbyDowning’s

responsethatheresentedtheunilateralactiontakenbythe‘homeland’withoutthe

consultationofcouncilsonthefield.DowningandtheCFCarguedthattheresolution

issuedbythechairmanshouldbesubmitted‘forsimultaneousstudybytheauthoritieson

thefield’.118The‘authoritiesonthefield’werethemissionariesandtheirdulyelected

councilmembers.DowninglecturedHenmanandDavis,tellingthemthattheyhadalready

madeprogress‘onthesubjectofChurch/Missionrelationship’andbelievedthatunityis‘is

alreadybeingachievedbybettermeans’.119AIMworkersinthefieldviewedthemselvesas

morethanmissionaries.Theyconsideredthemselvesauthoritiesonmissionpolicy.When

Davisresignedin1963fromhispositionasinternationalgeneralsecretary,heexpressed

frustrationthathehadnorealauthorityandcalledthemissionheloveda‘Headless

Body’.120Theofficeofinternationalgeneralsecretarywasleftvacantuntil1973.The

missionwasmanagedbydemocraticallyelectedmissionariesandchoseamission-church

partnershipoveramission-churchmerger.

Second,thenondenominationalcharacterofthemissioncomplicatedtheproposed

mission-churchmerger.AIMwasawarethattwoofthelargestandoldestmissionshad

alreadyintegrated.AtajointmeetingbetweentheKenyaFieldCouncil(KFC)andan

116KennethDowningtoRalphT.DavisandPhilipS.Henman,8February1961.

117Ibid.

118Ibid.

119Ibid.

120RalphT.DavistoR.Seume,2January1963inAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,218.

171

advisorycommitteeoftheCentralChurchCounciloftheAIC,121therelationshipbetween

thechurchandthemission‘wasreviewedinthelightoftheformationoftheAnglican

ChurchinEastAfricaandthePresbyterianChurchofEastAfricalargelyreplacingthe

ChurchMissionarySocietyandChurchofScotlandMission’.122(Thelistedrepresentatives

oftheCentralChurchCounciloftheAICwereAIMmissionaries,andifAfricanswere

present,theirnameswerenotlisted.)CouncilmembersarguedthatAIMshouldbean

exceptiontothegeneralpatternofdevolutionbecauseofitsnondenominationalcharacter.

Inotherwords,nomotherchurchexistedaswiththeCMS(Anglican)ortheCSM

(Presbyterian).Asthecouncilputit,‘Itwasagreedthat,asaninterdenominationalFaith

Mission,nosuchprocedurewaspossiblealongthelinesofintegrationbetweenourselves

andtheAfricanChurch.’123Thecouncilnoted,‘Wehavenodenominationalaffiliationat

HomewithwhichtheAfricanChurchcouldbeintegrated.’124TheCMSandtheCSMwere

affiliatedwithdenominations,whileAIMwasanindependentmissionagencywithno

denominationalapparatus.AIMofficialsthereforeobjectedtointegrationonthegrounds

thattherewasnodenominationintowhichthechurchcouldbeintegrated.AIMcouncil

membersdidnotconsiderthecallsforintegrationaviableoption,onthebasisthat‘the

A.I.C.isalreadyadenomination’.125ThereisnoevidencethattheAIMconsideredthe

exampleoftheLondonMissionarySociety(LMS),alsoanondenominationalmission

121ThisecclesiasticalbodymirroredtheCentralFieldCouncilofthemission.

122AfricaInlandMissionKenyaFieldCouncilJointMeetingwiththeAdvisoryCounciloftheAfricaInlandChurch,24-29March1958,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

123Ibid.

124Ibid.

125Ibid.

172

workinginAsiaandAfrica.TheLMShadadoptedwhattheytermedthe‘Fundamental

Principle’,apolicythatallowedtheindigenouschurchtoformitsownpoliciesregarding

churchgovernment,andstressedtheneedforthemissionary‘toworkunderthedirection

oftheChurch’.126Downingandthemissionariesonthefieldbelievedthatthe

nondenominationalstatusofthemissionmeantthattheywereanexceptiontothetrend

towardcompleteintegration.

InApril1960,afewmonthsbeforeHenmangavehisremarksbeforetheAHC

arguingforacompletemerger,Downingissuedamemorandumunderthetitle‘The

RelationshipoftheMissionandtheChurch.’127Thecommuniquéwasdistributedtoall

fieldsofAIMandtranslatedinto‘suchAfricanlanguagesasarenecessary’forthepurpose

ofwidelydisseminatingtheviewsoftheCFConthetopic.128Downinghadalreadybeen

lobbyingagainstthedevolutionofthemission.Thememorandumobservedthat

‘“Integration”isthewatchwordofthehour,andthereareareaswhereitisbothpossible

anddesirable’.129HerewasaclearacknowledgementonthepartofDowningthat

integrationrepresentedthetrendinmission-churchrelationsinthe1950s.Heportrayed

himselfasaproponentofchurch-missionmergersbutobservedthatthattheywere

‘properlypossibleonlywithdenominationalMissions’.130Hearguedinthememothat

126WilfredScopes,TheFundamentalPrincipleThenandNow:ABriefStudyoftheLondonMissionarySocietyintheLightofWorldMissionTo-day(LondonMissionarySociety,1960),6.

127KennethL.Downing,‘TheRelationshipoftheMissionandtheChurch’,April1960,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

128Ibid.

129Ibid.

130Ibid.

173

mergingtheAIMwiththeAICwouldactuallyimpedetheindigenizationofthechurch.He

pointedoutthatthemissionexistedtoplantAfricanchurchesandnottotransplant

WesternmissionariesfromvariousEvangelicaldenominations:‘Itneedstoberemembered

thatitisindigenouschurchesthataretobepermanentlyplanted;notforeignmissionaries

thataretobepermanentlytransplanted.’131InJanuary1961hearguedalongsimilarlines

againstthepolicyofrequiringAIMmissionariestobecomemembersofAICchurches.In

hiswords,‘Itcouldultimatelybeinterpretedasthewhitemissionarytryingtoprovidea

placeforhimselfinthatwhichshouldbe(intheordinaryAfrican’sview)anAfrican

organization.’132IfwearetobelievethatDowning’smotivesweresincere(andthereisno

reasontodoubtthem),hesimplycouldnotcomprehendhowa‘foreign’missionagency

withoutdenominationalaffiliationcould‘integrate’withanindigenousAfrican

denomination.

Theargumentagainstdevolutiononthegroundsthat‘AIMisnotadenomination’

wasbolsteredbyanappealtosomeofthepracticalproblemsassociatedwithmergingthe

twobodies.ThechallengeofimplementingHenman’sproposedmergerwouldlargelyfall

onthemissionariesinthefield.Ifthemissionandchurchmerged,howwouldthenew

organizationhandlethe‘professionalsideofmedicalwork’or‘thetechnicalsideofthe

Presses’,ormanage‘schoolsformissionaries’children’oroverseethe‘disciplineof

missionaries’?133WastheAfricanchurchpreparedtomanagealloftheseresponsibilities?

Howwouldtheintegratedagencydistinguishbetween‘Missionpropertyasdistinctfrom

131Downing,‘TheRelationshipoftheMissionandtheChurch’,April1960.

132KennethL.DowningtoRalphT.DavisandPhilipHenman,8February1961.


174

Churchproperty’andhowwouldmissionfinancesbemanaged?134TheAIMfieldcouncil

feltsocompelledbythesoundnessofitsownreasoningthatitbegantoquestionthe

motivesofAfricanchurchleaderswhowerepressingforamerger.Inahand-writtenletter

scribbledonmissionstationery,aveteranAIMmissionarywhoservedonthemission’s

CentralFieldCouncilissuedthiswarningtoDowning:

IwishIcouldbelievethatourchurchleadershadrighteousreasonsforwantingtotakeoverthemission.Ifear,however,theywanttopossessandcontrolwhattheyimagineisawealthymissiontreasury,plustheMissionproperty.135

DowningincludedMaynard’scommentsverbatiminoneofhisletterstothehomecouncils

aspartofhiscase-cumulativeargumentationthatthemergingoftwoconstitutionswas

problematic.136Thepropositionofmerginganondenominationalmissioncomprisedof

‘foreigners’witharecentlyestablishedAfricandenominationwasinconceivableforthe

missionaries.DowningrefusedtoaccepttheobjectiveguidanceoftheInternational

Council,andhewasunabletoappreciatethesagecounselofitschairman.Whilethere

weredifficultiesassociatedwithintegration,itwasnotimpossibleforanondenominational

missiontodevolveitspowersandworkunderthedirectionofthechurchinAfrica.The

justificationsofDowningandthemembersofthefieldcouncilseemedclearandcompelling

tothem.Blindedbywhattheyperceivedtobethesoundnessoftheirownarguments,

Henmanwasdismissedforbeinguninformed,whiletheAfricachurchwaswritten-offfor

beingambitious.

134Ibid.

135WilliamJ.“Nangi”MaynardtoKennethandMrsDowning,26January1961,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

136KennethL.DowningtoRalphT.DavisandPhilipS.Henman,8February1961.

175

Third,thepaternaldispositionofthemissionmoderatedinstitutionalmovement

towardintegration.InamannerreminiscentoftheapostlePaul’scareforthechurches,

AIMmissionariesrelatedtothenationalchurch‘likeafatherdealswithhischildren’.137

DowningactuallycitedthisPaulinepassagetoexplainthenatureofthemission’s

relationshipwiththeAIC‘throughtheChurch’sinfancy,seekingtoleaditontospiritual

maturity’.138IntheorytheAIChadbecomean‘independent’churchin1943,governedby

itsownconstitutionandagrowingnumberofAfricanclergy.Inpractice,however,the

churchandmissiondidnotoperateseparately.Themissionownedchurchproperty(land,

buildings,vehiclesandequipment),operatedparachurchministries(schools,Bible

institutes,printingpressesandmedicalclinics)andmaintainedvetopoweroverdecisions

madebylocalchurchelders.139TheAIMmissionarywhoservedasthestation

superintendentactedasthefinalauthorityinthedistrictovermattersrelatedtoboththe

missionandthechurch.WhileheentrustedpastoralresponsibilitiestoAfricanchurch

leadersatthelocalchurchlevel,itwashisdutywhenpresenttoserveas‘theChairofLocal

ChurchCouncilsinhisarea’andto‘actinlocoparentistothegrowingchurchinparts

wherenolocalchurchcouncilhasyetbeenformed’.140Themissionexercisedsignificant

authorityoverthechurchatthenationallevelintheareasofdoctrine,disciplineand

directionwhilealsoworkingthroughthemissionary-in-residenceatthelocallevel,who

functionedlikeanapostolicadministrator.Africanshadbeengivengreaterauthorityinthe

137IThessalonians2:7.


139Ibid.

140‘ProposedFieldBy-LawsandRulesKenyaFieldDraft’[n/d],AIMInternationalArchives,(Nottingham).ThedocumentisfiledwithKenyaFieldCouncilminutesfrom1956-1957.

176

late1940s,butasKennethRichardsonmadeclearina1955report,‘theMissionaryin

ChargemayvetoanydecisionoftheLocalChurchCouncil.’141AICexisteddejureasa

separateentity,butitstillfunctioneddefactoundertheauthorityofthemission.Amerger

wouldtransformthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenmissionandchurch,effectively

puttingthemissionundertheauthorityofthechurch.Downinghadarguedina1960

memothathefavoured‘acompletelyindigenousChurchwithAfricanscarryingthefull

responsibilityforallphasesofthework’butthat‘untilthisgoalisreached’the

missionariesneededtoprovide‘guidance’forthechurch.142Heobservedthat‘assoonas

thechurchbecomesautonomous,itmustassumecompleteresponsibilityforallChurch

affairs’.143DowningwasadmittingbyhischoiceofwordsthattheAfricanchurchwasnot

fullyindigenousorcompletelyautonomous.Hebelievedthat‘theMissionmustretain

ultimateauthority’overmanyareasofthechurch’swork‘thataretooheavyforitat

present’.144Inthelate1950sandearly1960s,themissioncontinuedtotreatthechurchas

anadolescentinneedofpaternaloversight.

AIM’spaternalismwasexpressedmostclearlyinitseffortstoprotecttheAfrican

churchfromtheologicalliberalism.AcentralconcernoftheAIMwasmaintainingits

EvangelicalidentityandassuringsupportersthatneitherthemissionnortheAfrican

churchithadestablishedwouldcompromisetheircoreconvictions.TheGeneralSecretary

ofthemissionwrotetoaconcernedsupporterin1955lettinghimknowthatAIM‘accepts

141Richardson,‘TheAfricanChurch’,ReportsoftheInternationalConferenceoftheAfricaInlandMission,Kijabe,12-19June1955,12.


143Ibid.

144Ibid.

177

nooneasamemberthereofunlesswearefirstassuredtheyhavebeenbornagain,that

theylovetheBookandtheChristofthebook,andthemainreasontheygotothemission

fieldisthattheydesiretoseesoulssaved’.145ThiswasEvangelicallanguage.Duringthe

firsthalfofthetwentieth-centuryconservativeEvangelicalswagedwaragainsttheological

liberalism.WhileEvangelicalsemergedvictorious,the1950sthroughthe1960scouldbe

likenedtoareligiouscoldwarinwhichmanyEvangelicalsfelttheneedtobevigilantabout

thedangersof‘unholyalliances’withecumenicalbodies.146TheWorldCouncilof

Churches(WCC)includedavowedliberalsintheirdiverseecclesiasticalmembership,and

duringthe1950stheorganizationwasbeginningtoexertgreaterinfluenceon‘younger

churches’locatedindevelopingcountries.147TheWCCdevelopedacloseworking

relationshipwiththeInternationalMissionaryCouncil(IMC),whichledtoamerger

betweenthetwoorganizationsin1961.148Between1955and1961,theWCCactively

recruited‘youngerchurches’inAIMfieldsundertheaegisoftheIMC.AIMwasworried

abouttheinfluenceoftheWCContheAfricanchurchithadfounded.Themissionwanted

Churchleaders[to]bewarnedofthedangertotheirveryfoundationssetintheWordofGod,whichtheteachingofthefollowersoftheWorldCouncilofChurchesmayinsidiouslyundermine,andfromwhichtheymaybebeguiledbymunificentoffersofpurelyworldlyadvancement.149

145RalphT.DavistoDavidNettleton,5January1955,BGCArchives(Wheaton)AIMInternational,Collection81.

146JohnA.Newton,‘ProtestantNonconformistsandEcumenism’inAlanP.F.SellandAnthonyR.Cross,eds.,ProtestantNonconformityintheTwentiethCentury(MiltonKeynes:Paternoster,2003),366.

147ErnestW.Lefever,AmsterdamtoNairobi:TheWorldCouncilofChurchesandtheThirdWorld(WashingtonD.C.:EthicsandPublicPolicyCenter,1979),17-18.

148TomStransky,‘InternationalMissionaryCouncil’,DictionaryoftheEcumenicalMovement.

149Ibid.

178

IMCleaderswerenotonlypreachingthegospelofecclesiasticalunity,theywerepromoting

theAfricanisationofWesternmissions!AIMfearedthattheAICwouldbedrawnintoan

‘unholyalliance’withtheWCC,andbelievedthattheyneededtoprovidedfatherly

protection.WritingtotheCFCin1963afteravisitwiththeCongoProtestantCouncil(to

whichAIMwasaffiliated),fielddirectorPeterBrashlerobservedthat‘Theevangelicalsof

theCongohavebeenawareofthesubtility[sic]andguilewithwhichtheecumenicalshave

endeavouredtoreachtheironegreatgoaloforganicunionthroughoutAfrica,and

throughouttheworld’.150Inwhatisaninterestingslipofthepen,Brashlerreferstothe

AICasthe‘A.I.M.church’andwarnedhiscolleaguesinthemissionnottobenaïve.151The

missionwasparticularlyconcernedbecausetheIMCwaspromisingthechurch‘thevery

thingstheMissionhasbeenaccusedofnegligenceingranting,includingindigenizationof

thechurch,educationalinstitutions,andboursesforstudyabroad’.152TheAICmayhave

beenanAfricanchurch,butitwasconsideredinsomesensethe‘AIMChurch’.The

‘dangers’oftheWCCheightenedAIM’ssenseofpaternalresponsibility.

AIMwasgenuinelyconcernedthattheAfricanchurchneededbothprotectionand

preparation.InJune1961theCFCvotedtomoveforwardwithplansfor‘theorganization

ofan‘AfricanEvangelicalFellowship’.153Downingwassecondedbythemissiontobegin

workingonplansforanAfrica-wideEvangelicalfellowshipforthechurch,andhestepped

150PeterJ.BrashlertoColleaguesoftheAIMCentralFieldCouncil,7March1963,BGCArchives(Wheaton)AIMInternational,Collection81.

151Ibid.

152Ibid.

153‘AfricaInlandMission—CentralFieldCouncil’,MinutesoftheSeventhAnnualMeeting,Mwanza,Tanganyika,2-6June1961,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

179

downfromhispostasthegeneralfieldsecretary.154Downingworkedcloselywiththe

EvangelicalleaderClydeTaylor(1904-1988),akeyorganizeroftheWorldEvangelical

Fellowship(WEF)foundedin1951andthegeneraldirectoroftheNationalAssociationof

Evangelicals(NAE).155TheAfricaEvangelicalOfficewasopenedinNairobiinthefallof

1962withDowningservingasthegeneralsecretary.156TheAEOwasintendedtoserveas

anEvangelicalcountermeasuretotheaggressiveeffortsoftheWCCtounitethe‘younger’

Africanchurches.Itwasintendedtobea‘fellowshipofchurchesratherthanofMissionary

Societies’andastheminutesnoted,itwas‘hopedthatinduecoursetheOfficewillbe

underAfricanleadership’.157UntilanAfricanwasreadyforthisassignment,Downing

wouldoverseetheefforttobringAfricanChristianstogetherunderaunitedEvangelical

witness.

InJuly1961theKenyaFieldCouncil(KFC)votedtoopenScottTheologicalCollege

(STC)thefollowingyear.158STCopenedin1962asthemission’sfirstfour-yearcollege

offeringcoursesleadingtoa‘DiplomaofTheologyonthelevelofthatofferedbythe

LondonUniversity’.159ThemissionapplaudedtheworkofitsBibleschoolsintraining

154‘ConfidentialandPrivateCirculationOnly,AfricaInlandMission’,Bulletintogiveofficialinformationtomembersofthemissioninallfields,Eldoret,Kenya,December1962,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

155‘PapersofClydeWillisTaylor’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection597,http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/597.htm(accessed9December2016).

156ChristinaMariaBreman,TheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfrica:ItsHistory,Organization,Members,Projects,ExternalRelations,andMessage(Zoetermeer:Boekencentrum,1996),12-14.

157‘ConfidentialandPrivateCirculationOnly,AfricaInlandMission’,Bulletintogiveofficialinformationtomembersofthemissioninallfields,Eldoret,Kenya,December1962.

158KenyaFieldCouncilMinutes,19-21July1961,AIM-Archives(Nottingham).

159ErikS.Barnett,‘ScottTheologicalCollege’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLVI,No.1[January-February1962],7.

180

evangelists,pastorsandteachers,butobservedthat‘theyfallshortofmeetingtheneedfor

thefuture’.160Africansweredoingadequateworkinchurchesandprimaryschools,butthe

missionfeltthatatheologicalcollegewasnecessary‘forhigherleadershiptrainingforthe

EvangelicalChurchesofEastAfrica’.161TheAEOwascreatedtoprovideaunitedwitness

thatwouldprotecttheAfricanchurch,whileSCTwasestablishedtoprepareAfricansto

provideleadershipfortheEvangelicalchurchofEastAfrica.Themissionresistedefforts

foramergerbecausetheybelievedtheAfricanchurchwassimplynotready.AIM’sfatherly

instinctswerevisiblypresent,impedingprogresstowardamission-churchmerger.162

Insummary,between1955and1962,theheadywindsofnationalisminEastAfrica

forcedAIMtoreconsideritsrelationshipwiththenationalchurchitbirthed.Whileother

missionsmergedwiththeindigenouschurch,AIMresistedthistrend.Thedemocraticethos

ofthemissionmadeitpossibleformissionariesonthefieldtoresistpressurefromthe

eminentchairmanoftheICandmembersoftheAmericanandBritishHomeCouncilto

implementplansforamerger.Themissionariesweretheonesdowninthetrenches

workingwiththechurch.Theyknewtheneedsfirst-handandbelievedtheywereina

betterpositiontoguidemissionpolicy.Theinterdenominationalcharacterofthemission

wasanobviousimpediment,becloudingthealreadycomplexproblemofmission-church

relationships.HowcouldacoalitionofEvangelicalmissionariesfromvarious

denominationsmergewithanewlyformedand‘independent’Africandenomination?How

160Ibid.,6.

161Ibid.

162AIMaddressedtheimpulsetowardecumenicitywiththecreationoftheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascarin1966,essentiallyinstitutionalizing‘AfricanEvangelicalism.’TheinfluenceoftheWCCwasoneimpetusforthismove.Thissubjectwillbediscussedinthefollowingchapter.

181

wouldmatterslikefinanceandpropertybemanaged?AIM’spatriarchaldispositionalso

inhibitedthemovetowardthemergerrecommendedbythe‘homeland’.Missionarieswere

stillguidingthechurchateveryadministrativelevel,actinginlocoparentiswhile

simultaneouslyguardingthechurchfromlooming‘dangers’liketheecumenicalmovement

andtheWCC.Itmaybearguedthatallthreefactorsconvergedtocreatealineof

resistancetoHenman’sproposedmission-churchmerger.Themissionsimplydidnot

believethatthechurchwasreadytomanageitsownaffairseffectivelyandretainits

Evangelicalwitnesswithouttheguidance,counsel,andauthorityofthemission.The

proposedmission-churchmergerwasflatlyrejected,andmissionariesdevoted

considerableenergytocreatinginstitutionsforprotectionandpreparation.The

interdenominationalcharacterofthemissionwasasecondaryfactor.Theabsenceofa

denominationalframeworkcomplicatedthechallengeofhandingoverthecomplex

machineryofanondenominationalmissiontoayoungAfricanchurch.Thedemocratic

ethosofthemissionallowedrespectedfieldoperativestoleverageinfluencetoresist

executivedirectivesfromaveneratedinternationalchairman.Themission’sresistancetoa

mission-churchmergerappearstobemotivatedlargelybyattitudesofpaternalism.Asthe

coverarticleofInlandAfricareadin1962,‘Aseldersshouldbetoleranttoadolescentsand

lovethem,sowewouldlookuponourbelovedAfricans.’163Themissionlovedthechurch,

butitdidnotbelievethechurchwasmatureenoughtooverseetheworkofthechurchand

themissioninKenya.

163RalphT.Davis,‘AfricainAdolescence’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)Vol.XLVI,No.4[July-Aug1962],1.

182

5

TheAfricaInlandChurch‘TakeOver’oftheAfricaInlandMission,1964-1971

Ina1964issueofAIM’sofficialnewsmagazine,EdwinG.Schuitsummarized

conditionsonthefieldayearafterthe1963partnershipagreementhadbeensigned:‘To

putitmildly,wearefacedwithseriousproblems.’1Thearticlereferstoamyriadof

challengesfacingthemissionduringdecolonisation.Sudanwasbeingclosedto

missionaries:‘InthemonthofMarch,Sudan’sdoorswererudelyslammedshuttoour

Missionandourtotalstafftoldtoleavewithouthopeofreturn.’2Tensionwasmountingin

Tanganyika:‘thelingeringimpassebetweentheMissionandtheChurchonourTanganyika

Fieldhaskeptsomanyofourworkersinastateofsuspense.’3AIMworkerswerebeing

evacuatedfromtheCongoforasecondtime(thefirstcamein1960):‘OurCongofieldisour

1EdwinG.Schuit,‘AnAncientAnswertoOurPresentCrisis’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.43,No.6.[November-December1964],1.

2Ibid.

3Ibid.

183

latestcrisis.’4Developmentsinthewakeofnationalismwereleavingthemissionuncertain

aboutitsfate.The‘politicalbushfires’were‘burningoverAfrica’andthemissionwas

‘caughtinthesmokeofconfusionandbewilderment’.5Thechangestakingplaceinother

fieldswereraisingquestionsaboutwhatmighthappeninKenya.Themissionhad

perseveredinKenyaduringtheMauMauUprising,butAfricanisationwasnowchallenging

thecolonialmodelsofmissionarywork.6AIMmissionarieshadsacrificedlifeandlimbto

bringtheEvangelicalfaithtotheAfricancontinent,andtheirworkinmedicineand

educationhadbroughtsocialprogresstowhattheyhadoncecalled‘theDarkContinent’.

NowthatEvangelicalismwasflourishingonAfricansoil,manyWesternmissionarieswere

confused.Theywerefeelingunappreciated,evenunwantedbytheChurchtheyhad

broughttolife.AsoneAIMmissionaryputit,‘Whatbothersmeisthedowngradingofthe

missionarybythechurchandtheworld.’7The‘seriousproblems’facingthemission

worsenedduringdecolonisationasAIMmissionariesenduredthe‘downgrading’oftheir

missioninKenya.

Thischapterwillcovertheperiod1964,thefirstfullyearofKenyanindependence

fromtheUnitedKingdom,to1971,theyearwhentheAIMhandedoveritspropertyand

powertotheAIC.Thechapterwillprovideanoverviewoftheeventsthatleduptothe

eventualdevolutionofthemissionandwillconsiderwhytheAIMlaggedbehindother

missionsandresistedAfricandemandsforacompletemerger.Severalprimarysources

4Ibid.,15.

5Ibid.,15.

6Ibid.,16.

7PeterStam,‘HeadlinesandSecurity’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLVII,No.5(September-October1964),13.

184

havebeenhelpfulforthecontentsofthischapter.Thefirstofthesesourcesishousedin

theBillyGrahamCenter(BGC)andcontainsoralinterviewsofmissionofficialswhowere

activelyinvolvedinthetension-filledperiodofthe1960s.Theseinterviews,conductedin

the1990s,uncoversomeofthehiddenconcernsofoneofthecentralfiguresofthemission

duringthe1960s.Thesecondsourceisanimportantconfidentialstudythatwas

conductedinthe1960s.In1968AIMcommissionedanAmerican-basedconsultingfirmto

examinetheattitudesofmissionariesworkinginthefield(andsomerecentlyretired)in

ordertoassesstheirattitudetowardtheAfricanchurchinthe1960s.Thestudyboth

providesananalysisofthemission’sethosandcontainsactualcommentsfromAIM

workersinresponsetoquestionsaboutapossiblemerger.ThethirdsourceisGration’s

unpublished1974studyonthemission.8JohnAlexanderGration(1926-2012)wasanAIM

missionaryandservedastheassociatehomedirectorforAIMbetween1967and1975.He

wasanobserver-participantinsomeoftheproceedingsofthelate1960sandearly1970s

andhisstudyreferstosomesourcesthateitherhavebeenlostorareotherwise

unavailableforexamination.Asinthepreviouschapter,developmentsofthemissionand

thechurchinKenyawillremainthecentralfocusofthisstudy.However,giventhe

interconnectednatureofthevariousfieldsinEastAfrica,developmentsinotherfieldsare

alsoconsideredwhentheyimpingedonchurch-missionrelationshipsinKenya.

ResistingtheWindsofChange

ThewindsofchangethatwereblowingacrosstheAfricancontinentinthelate

1950sleadinguptotheindependenceofmanyAfricannationswereblowingevenharder

8JohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyabetween1895and1971’(PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,1973).

185

inthe1960safterindependencehadbeenwon.9EdwardG.SchuitborrowedMacmillan’s

oft-usedphraseinanarticlehewroteforInlandAfricainlate1964:‘Thewindsofchange

haveblownthemselvesintoatornadothatmencannotcontain.’10Thepoliticaland

ecclesiasticalenvironmentinindependentAfricawasmoreturbulentthanithadbeenin

theperiodleadinguptoindependence.Thepartnershipagreementthatwassignedby

missionandchurchofficialson26March1963wouldnotweatherthenewecclesiastical

andpoliticalenvironsofpost-colonialKenya.IndependenceinKenyacreatedpressureto

‘Africanise’governmentstructuresaswellaschurches,schoolsandmissionagencies.11

ThewindsofnationalismwerenowfollowedbytheevenstrongerwindsofAfricanisation.

Perhapsthemostinfluentialfigureinthemissionduringthe1960swasErikS.

Barnett(1910-2006),thefielddirectorinKenya.HewasthesonofAlbertBarnett,an

AustralianmissionarywhohadcometoEastAfricatoservewithAIMinabout1907.12The

BarnettfamilywashighlyinfluentialinthemissioncommunityandwellknowninKenya.

ThetownofKabarnet,locatedinthescenicGreatRiftValley,wasnamedafterAlbert

Barnett.13ErikandhisbrotherPaul,alsoanAIMmissionary,werechildhoodfriendswith

Vice-PresidentDanielArapMoi(1924-)andremainedclosetothefamily,oftenspending

9L.J.ButlerandSarahStockwell,eds.,TheWindofChange:HaroldMacmillanandBritishDecolonization(Basingstoke,UK:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),1.Theoriginalphraseis‘windofchange’(singular)thoughitwasoftenusedinmissionpublicationsas‘windsofchange’.

10Rev.EdwinG.Schuit,‘AnAncientAnswertoOurPresentCrisis’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.43,No.6,[November-December1964],15.

11CharlesHornsby,Kenya:AHistorySinceIndependence(London:I.B.Tauris,2012),57-58,121-127;Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,282-342.

12Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,188.Anothersourcegivesthedate1908fortheirarrival:JohnKamau,‘TheFirstLadyKenyaNeverHad’,DailyNation,17November2013,http://mobile.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/The-First-Lady-Kenya-never-had/1950774-2076766-format-xhtml-nnuxpl/index.html(accessed1January2017).

13KabarnetisaKalenjinwordthatmeans‘theplaceofBarnett’.

186

holidaystogether.ErikwasthepresidingministeratMoi’sweddingceremonyin1950,and

PaulbuilttheMoifamilyhomein1957.14Barnettheldnumerouspositionswiththe

missioninthe1940sand1950s,butinthe1960shebecameevenmoreinfluentialasthe

Kenyanfielddirector.WhenAIMofficialsgatheredwithAfricanpoliticiansataprivatetea

partyontheeveofKenyanindependencein1963,Barnettwasstillchattingawayaboutthe

needformoreWesternmissionaries.Heusedthefestiveoccasiontoremindgovernment

officialsthat‘theChurchinKenyaiswellestablished,butitwasquiteuntruetosaythat

therewasnownofurtherneedformissionaries’.15Hewentontosay:‘Ifthemissionary

forcecouldbedoubledimmediately,therewouldbeplentyofworkforeveryoneof

them.’16Hewantedtomakeitclearthatthechangestakingplaceinthenationandthe

churchdidnotnecessarilymeanthattherewouldbechangestakingplaceinthemission.

Between1965and1970,BarnettandAIMofficialsinKenyamadeseveralattempts

toappeaserestivechurchofficialswhowantedtoAfricanisethemission.Minutesofajoint

meetingofAIMfieldrepresentativesinDecember1964indicatethatthemissionwas

beginningtofeeldirectpressurefromchurchofficialsinKenyaforAIMtobe‘joinedinto

oneorganizationwiththeAIC’.17Thelate-yearreportcameontheheelsofanagreement

betweentheAIMandtheAICinTanganyikaafterseveralyearsoftensionbetween

missionariesandAfricanchurchleaders.In1961AIMhadagreedtohandoverthe

14AndrewMorton,Moi:TheMakingofAnAfricanStatesman(London:MichaelO’MaraBooks,1998),9,34,41,43-44,47,62.

15KennethRichardson,‘KenyaAttainsIndependence’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.43,No.2,[March-April1964].

16Ibid.

17‘MemorandumonneedforpossiblechangesinA.I.M.PoliciesandOperations,inordertomeetrapidlychangingconditionsinAfrica’,submittedbyErikS.BarnetttotheKenyaFieldCouncil,27May1964,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81,70/6.

187

administrationoffourmissiondepartmentsbutstipulatedseveralexclusionsinthe

agreementthatwereplacedintheappendixunder‘reservations’.AIMwantedtoreserve

therighttocontrolmissionfinances,overseetheworkofmissionariesandretaincontrol

overseveralpropertiesincludingaschool,ahospitalandamissionaryguesthouse.18The

churchinTanganyika‘didnotacceptthereservations’.19Amoreperplexingproblemwas

thechurch’sinsistencethatallAIMmissionariesmustfilloutan‘ApplicationForm’that

wasineffectanapplicationforpermissiontocontinueworkinginTanganyikawiththeAIC.

Theapplicationform‘wasbroughttotheSynodoftheAICinthebeginningof1963,andin

spiteofthemissionariespresent’ortheprotestsoftheCentralFieldCouncil,itwas

approvedbytheAIC.Themissionprotestedagainsttheapplicationformbecauseit

believed‘thatthebasicproblemisthedesireoftheAICtohaveauthorityoverthe

missionaries’.20Missionarieswhorefusedtosigntheformwereembarrassedwhenin

retaliationtheywerecensuredbytheSynodandnotallowedtoattendthepublicworship

servicesofthechurch.21TheAIMCentralFieldCouncil(CFC)wascalledontohelpresolve

whathadbeencalleda‘dead-lock’.Themission’sCFCbrokeredanagreementbetweenthe

churchandthemissionthatestablisheda‘JointCommittee’comprisingexecutivemembers

oftheAfricanchurchandtheAIM.TheJointCommitteewouldberesponsibleforassigning

missionariestotheirposts,anditwouldhavetheauthoritytoacceptorrejectmissionaries

returningfromfurlough.Allmissiondepartmentsweretobehandedovertothechurch‘as

18MeetingoftheExecutiveCommittee,Mwanza,Tanganyika,17-21December1963,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),1.

19Ibid.

20Ibid.,2.

21Ibid.

188

soonaspossible’.22Theapplicationformwaswithdrawnthoughmissionarieshadto‘agree

toworkloyallyunderthedulyappointedChurchoffices’.23(Amodifiedformwasapproved

thefollowingyear.)24Inaddition,‘anymissionary’whofeltthattheycouldnot‘agreeto

workwhole-heartedlyundertheseconditions’waspromised‘transfertoanotherAfrica

InlandMissionField’.25Anagreementhavingbeenreached,Africanchurchleadersand

missionofficialsstoodand‘expressedtheirfellowshipbyshakinghandsandsingingthe

Doxologytogether’.26TheAfricanchurchhadgainednearlyallofitsdemands.Themission

becamea‘serviceorganization’oftheAICinTanganyika,andAIMmissionariesbegan

workingundertheauthorityofthechurch.27

In1965AfricanchurchleadersinKenyabeganpressingthemissionforrevisions

tothe1963partnershipagreement.TwoAfricanleaders,oneaKikuyuandtheothera

Kamba,appliedpressureonthemissioninKenyaforacloserworkingrelationshipwiththe

church.AndrewWambariGichuhabecamethefirstpresidentoftheAICin1961,theyear

thatAIMandAICbeganworkonthe1963agreement.Hewasbornin1902inKiambu

District(Kikuyuland)andeducatedattheAllianceHighSchool,oneofKenya’smost

prestigiousboardingschools.Heworkedasaneducatorfornearlytwentyyearsbefore

beingappointedbythegovernmenttobetheChiefofEldoretin1945.Gichuhaservedin

22Ibid.,4.

23Ibid.,3.

24AfricaInlandMission,MeetingoftheCentralFieldCouncilExecutiveCommittee,Nairobi,Kenya,20October1964,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

25Ibid.

26MeetingoftheExecutiveCommittee,Mwanza,Tanganyika,17-21December1963,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),1.

27AfricaInlandMission,SpecialAdHocMedicalCommitteeoftheCentralFieldCouncil,Nairobi,Kenya,20October1964,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),Appendix.

189

thecolonialadministrationwithdistinctionduringtheMauMauUprisingandwasa

respectedchurchelderandlaypreacherintheAIC.Hewasdescribedbythosewhoknew

himasahumblebuteffectiveleader.28Gichuhalovedthemission,andwantedtheAIMand

theAICtoworkcloselytogether.Ashehadputitin1963,‘ThereisaKikuyuproverb

whichsays,“Nooneeverappreciatesthecow’smilkuntilthecowisgone.”Howeverweof

theAfricaInlandChurchappreciatethehelpoftheAfricaInlandMission.Wewantthe

missiontostay.’29Hewasastrongadvocateofmission-churchunity.Tousehiswords,

‘WeasanAfricanchurchandamissionmustwalktogetherinlove.’30Theotherprominent

African,SamuelMasilaKioko,wasaninfluentialchurchleaderinUkambaniandoneoftwo

KambawhohadservedontheCentralChurchCounciloftheAICinthe1950s.In1954he

becamethefoundingpastorofthe‘AICZiwani’(inNairobi),achurchthatbecameoneof

thelargestandmostinfluentialintheAICunderhissteadyleadership.Hewas

rememberedasa‘lovingpastor,adynamicspeakerandaneffectiveleader’whowas

committedtothe‘evangelicalfaith’.31KiokoservedasthefirstgeneralsecretaryoftheAIC

duringthe1960s.Itisnotablethat‘MrAndrewGichuha’and‘SamuelKioko’ofKenyahad

beeninvitedbytheCentralFieldCouncilofAIMtohelpbrokertheagreementbetweenthe

28AbiographicalsketchofGichuhaappearedinthemission’sofficialorganin1964announcinghisvisittoNorthAmerica.‘MrAndrewWambariGichuha,PresidentoftheAfricaInlandChurch,Kenya’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLVIII,No.2[March-April1964],14.AdditionalinformationcanbefoundinRichardGehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.,Kenya’,(UnpublishedManuscript,2016),RichardGehmanPapers(Florida),546-47.

29‘AndrewGichuha’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLVII,No.13[May-June1963],11.

30Ibid.

31‘TheSpreadingVineyard,’27-28.

190

missionandthechurchinTanganyika.32ThemissionandthechurchheldGichuhaand

Kiokoinhighregard,andtheirinvolvementintheTanganyika‘dead-lock’meantthatthey

wereexperiencednegotiators.TheseAfricanleaderswerenowinthevanguardofchurch-

missiondisputesinKenya.

In1965therelationshipbetweentheAIMandtheAICbecamestrainedastheAIC,

ledbyGichuhaandKioko,pressedthemissiontoreviseitspreviousagreement.The1963

partnershipagreementhadrejectedtheHenmanmergerproposalinfavourofemphasizing

theautonomyofboththeAIMandtheAIC.Churchleadersfeltthatthemissionandthe

churchwerebecomingdisjointed.AIMhadagreedinMarch1965tomake‘changestothe

1963statementonAIM/AICrelations’andtopresentthosechangestothechurchcouncils

oftheAICfordiscussion.33InhiscapacityaspresidentoftheAIC,Gichuhareportedtothe

missionin1965that‘insomeRegionalCouncils’oftheAIC‘hehasheardmorewordsof

complaintandmurmuringthanpreviously’.34Heexpressedsadnessoverthe‘slownessof

theChurchreceivingmoreresponsibilityfromtheMission’andsaidsomeregionsofthe

church‘arepressingforanimmediateandcompletetake-overofPrimarySchoolsbythe

Church’.35InthesamereportGichuhaexpressedconcernsovergrowingdivisionand

pleadedforthe‘continuedunitybetweentheChurchandtheMission’.36InNovember

32SpecialMeetingoftheCentralFieldCouncil,Rethy,Congo,15-16November1963,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

33AfricaInlandMission,Kenya,MinutesoftheFieldConferenceBusinessMeetings,29December1965–1January1966,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),2.

34ReportoftheA.I.C.President,JointMeetingoftheRepresentativesoftheAIMKenyaFieldCouncilandtheKenyaAICCentralChurchCouncil,Nairobi,20July1965,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

35Ibid.

36Ibid.

191

1965heasked‘forincreasedcooperationwiththechurchinplansandworkbothbythe

Missionofficiallyandbyindividualmissionaries’.37Hehadbeentravelling‘alloverKenya’

andhewasseeingthe‘buildingupofopposition’intheAICagainstbothhimselfandthe

mission.Therewasanationalgroundswellofdissatisfaction:‘WhentheA.I.C.criestothe

Missionforhelp,thentheMissionshouldaskwhythisissoandseewhatcanbedoneto

help.’38Kioko,inhisroleasgeneralsecretaryoftheAIC,reportedinthesamemeeting‘that

thereseemstobealackofgoodhealthatpresent’betweenthemissionandthechurch.39

HeexpressedpersonaldispleasureovertheattitudeofAIMworkers:‘Missionariescannot

droptheirchurchworkandstandaside,sayingtheChurchisindependentandableto

directitsownaffairs.’40Hevoicedregretoverthe‘troubleandcriticismcausedbythe

1965Diaries’,aprobablereferencetodetailednotes(apparentlylost)fromcouncil

meetingsinwhichAfricanswereapparentlymorecandidabouttheirfrustrationwith

missionaries.41TheAICwantedgreaterresponsibilityfromthemissionandmore

cooperationfromAIMworkers.The1963partnershipagreementwasbeginningtofeel

likeaseparationagreement.42

37‘ReportoftheA.I.C.President’,JointMeetingoftheRepresentativesoftheAICCentralChurchCouncilwiththeAIMFieldCommittee,Nairobi,30November1965,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

38Ibid.

39Ibid.

40‘ReportoftheA.I.C.GeneralSecretary’,JointMeeting,30November1965,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

41Ibid.

42Afterthe1963partnershipagreementwasputintoeffect,itappearsthatAIMmissionariesbecamelessinvolvedinlocalaffairsandanincreasingnumberofmissionariesdidnotworshipatAICchurches.TomHouston,whoservedasthepastorofNairobiBaptistChurchinthe1960s,recalledthatagrowingnumberofAIMmissionariesattendedthechurchheserved(TomHouston,interviewsbyauthor,22-24July2014,

192

In1966thestrainedrelationshipbetweenthemissionandthechurchworsened.

Theminutesofameetingheldon1January1966indicatethatthemissionhadpresented

revisions‘fordiscussionsinthechurchcouncils’butthat‘noreportfromthesediscussions

hasyetbeenreceived’.43FrustrationsmountedwhenAIMunilaterallydecidedtowithdraw

fromtheChristianCouncilofKenya(CCK)withouttheknowledgeorsupportofAICchurch

leaders.TheAIMandtheAIChadalong-standingrelationshipwiththeCCK,an

organizationthathadbeenestablishedbyProtestantmissionsworkinginEastAfricainthe

earlytwentiethcentury.TheCCKemergedaftertheKikuyuConferencesof1913and1918,

whichhadbeenheldforthepurposeofcreating‘comityagreements’betweenmissionsin

ordertoavoidoverlapping‘spheres’ofresponsibility.44Leadingmissionagenciesthat

includedtheChurchMissionarySociety(CSM),theChurchofScotlandMission(CSM)and

AIM,alongwithaspateofsmallersocieties,createdthealliance.45AIMmadethedecision

toseparatefromtheCCKin1966inordertoprotectitsEvangelicalidentityandappease

missionsupporterswhowerewaryofsupportingorganizationsthatwererelatedinany

waytoglobalecumenism.AIMwasalsoworkingtocreateanEvangelicalalternativetothe

WCC,theAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar(AEAM).KennethDowning,

whohadopposedHenman’sproposalforamergerin1961,hadbeenlayingthe

groundworkfortheAfricaEvangelicalConferencetobeheld29Januaryto6February

Oxford).Thepartnershipagreement,whileintendingtobringmissionandchurchtogethermoreclosely,mayhavehadtheunforeseeneffectofpromotingevenlesscooperation.

43AfricaInlandMission,Kenya,MinutesoftheFieldConferenceBusinessMeetings,29December1965–1January1966,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),2.

44M.G.Capon,TowardsUnityinKenya:TheStoryofCo-operationbetweenMissionsandChurchesinKenya1913-1947(Nairobi:ChristianCouncilofKenya,1962),10-25;BengtSudklerandChristopherSteed,AHistoryoftheChurchinAfrica(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000),561.

45Capon,TowardsUnityinKenya,10-11.

193

1966.InJanuary,justafewweeksbeforetheAfricaEvangelicalConferencewasheld,the

missionvotedto‘withdrawmembershipintheC.C.K.andseverallconnectionswithit’.46

Themission’sdecisiontobreaktieswiththeCCKwasneverdiscussedwithAICchurch

officials,thoughthemissionwasineffectspeakingforthechurchsinceitwasexpecting‘to

withdrawinunisonwiththeA.I.C.’.47AIM’sdecisionwasafaitaccomplimadeworseby

thefactthatAICchurchofficialswereinformedofthemission’sdecisionthroughathird-

partyrepresentativeoftheCCK.WhenCCKleadersdisplayedalettertoAIC

representativesthatrevealedthemission’sdecisiontowithdrawfromthecouncil,African

churchleaderswereembarrassed.NotonlywereAICcouncilmembersunawarethattheir

parentbodyhaddecidedtoleavetheecumenicalbodybutalsotheircolleaguesontheCCK

apparentlyknewmoreaboutAIMdecisionsthanAICchurchleaders!48Themissionback-

pedalledbydelayingtheimplementationofitsearlierdecisiontoleaveCCKandsomewhat

awkwardlyaffirmedthechurchformakingthe‘right’decisionto‘continueitsmembership

intheC.C.K.’.49Therelationshiphoweverremainedtense,andthemissionprivately

maintaineditsdeterminationtokeepthemissionandthechurchseparate.Aconfidential

memooftheKenyaFieldCouncilheld28Novemberto2December1966notedthe

following:‘wemusttrytocontinuewithaseparateMissionorganization,forthelossofit

46AfricaInlandMission,Kenya,MinutesoftheFieldConferenceBusinessMeetings,29December1965–1January1966,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

47Ibid.

48Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricanInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,299.

49JointMeetingoftheRepresentativesoftheA.I.C.CentralChurchCouncilwiththeA.I.M.FieldCommittee,Nairobi,29-30March1966,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

194

wouldbetothedetrimentofbothMissionandChurch.’50AIM’sdecisiontowithdrawfrom

theCCKwasanefforttoprotectitsEvangelicalidentity,butitshandlingoftheentire

episodeexacerbatedthetensionsthatexistedbetweenthemissionandthechurch.

Overthenexttwoyears,AICofficialsbecameincreasinglyfrustratedwithitsparent

bodyandabreakinthedecades-longrelationshiploomedonthehorizonamidstcontinued

confusion.KiokowarnedmissionofficialsatajointmeetinginJuly1967that‘human

relationshipscanbebroken’.51Hewassendingamessagetothemissionthatanyfurther

delayinrevisingthepartnershipagreementmightleadtoapermanentbreach.Bytheend

of1967,copiesofarevisedagreementwerefinallyinthehandsoftheDistrictCouncilsof

theAIC.Undertherevisions,moreauthoritywouldbetransferredtotheAICinthefieldof

educationandtheplotsfornewchurcheswouldbecomethepropertyoftheAIC.The

agreementmaintainedthatthechurchandthemissionwereautonomousentities,thougha

provisionwasaddedstatingthattheAIC‘welcomesthemissionariesoftheAfricaInland

Missionasmemberswithitinallphasesofthework’.52Therevisionstothepartnership

agreementweresignedbybothpartiesinMarch1968buttensionssurfacedimmediately.

Thelanguageoftherevisedagreementwasambiguous,andtheimplicationswerelargely

imperceptibleinthemissioncommunity.Gration,whobecametheassociatehomedirector

oftheAIMin1968,observedthatmanyAIMmissionarieswerecompletelyunawarethat

50ConfidentialMinutesoftheKenyaFieldCouncil,November28-December2,1966,quotedinGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,304.

51MinutesofaJointMeeting,18July1967,quotedinGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,306.

52MinutesoftheBusinessMeetingsoftheFieldConference,28December1967to3January1968,quotedinGration,‘TheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,307.

195

therehadevenbeenarevisedagreement.53TherewerecontinuedreportsthatAIC

churcheswereleavingthemission,andAICofficialsincreasinglyexpressedtheir

displeasurewiththeAIMleadership.InJulytheAICpresidentreportedthattherewere

defections‘insomeareas’notingthat‘sevenpastorshavewithdrawnandjoinedwithother

separatistsfromtheGospelFurtheringFellowship’andhadformedanewdenomination

named‘TheGoodNewsChurchofEastAfrica’.54GichuhawasactuallyreferringtotheGood

NewsChurchofAfrica(GNCA),whichhadbeenformedin1958afteralargeschismfrom

theGospelFurtheringFellowship(GFF)mission.55InNovember1968Kiokospokeofthe

needtoget‘thismatterofthe“stroke”[slash]inA.I.C./A.I.M.straightenedout’.56‘AIC/AIM’

wasstillstampedonchurchstationeryandproudlydisplayedonchurchsignage.Kioko

complainedthatitwas‘especiallydifficulttoexplainthismattertoGovernmentofficials

andlargeInsuranceandbusinesscompanies[who]cannotseethattherehasbeena

change’.57Kiokoarguedthatthechurchandthemissionmust‘becomeoneinname,like

themannerinwhichTanganyikaandZanzibarhavenowbecomeTanzania’.58Therevised

partnershipagreementof1968provedunworkableandtheGeneralSecretaryoftheAIC

53Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,314.

54JointMeetingoftheA.I.CCentralChurchCouncilandtheA.I.M.FieldCommittee,Nairobi,16July1968,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

55ThereisscantinformationontheGospelFurtheringFellowship(GFF)thatwasfoundedinthe1930sandthe1958schismthatfoundedtheGoodNewsChurchofAfrica.BothorganizationsarementionedinDavidB.Barrett,ed.,KenyaChurchesHandbook:TheDevelopmentofKenyanChristianity,1498-1973(Kisumu,Kenya:EvangelPublishingHouse,1973),27,186.Barrett’sstudyliststhemembershipoftheGoodNewsChurchofAfricaat30,000in1968.

56‘ReportoftheAICGeneralSecretary,Rev.S.M.Kioko’,JointCommitteeoftheRepresentativesoftheAICCentralChurchCouncilandtheAIMFieldCommittee,Nairobi,Kenya,26November1968,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham).

57Ibid.

58Ibid.

196

wasineffectcallingforaunionofthetwoorganizations.AICchurchesweredefecting,AIC

seniorleadersweredispleasedandthemission-churchrelationshipwasstillunclear.As

Kiokoputit,‘Thereisstillconfusion.’59

TheAICpresseditsparentbodyforamission-churchmergerwhileAIMremained

decidedlyambivalentontheissue.Thechurchwantedbothorganizationstoworktogether

inKenyaunderasinglename,withthesameleader,guidedbyoneconstitution,with

missionariesworkingundertheauthorityofAfricanleadershipinacentraloffice.Ata

JointSessionoftheAIMandAICcouncilsinFebruary1969,theAICproposedanew

agreementthatwasineffectaunionofthetwoorganizationsworkingtogetherinKenya.

Theproposalswerepresentedinunambiguouslanguage:

1. ThereshouldbeonlyonenameintheplaceofAIM/AIC.

2. Thereshouldbeonlyoneleader.

3. Thereshouldbeonlyoneconstitution.

4. ThereshouldbeonlyoneTrusteesbody.

5. Thereshouldbeonlyonetreasury.

6. Thereshouldbeonlyonecentraloffice.

7. Thereshouldbeonlyonesetofrulesforthework.60

ThesedemandswerealongthelinesoftheproposalsmadebyHenmanin1960.AIM

leadersexpressedawillingnesstonegotiatewiththechurch,butinaprivatemeetingthe

missionmaintaineditsviewthat‘itwastheconsensus’ofthefieldcouncil‘thattheremust

59Ibid.

60ErikS.BarnetttoFellow-missionariesoftheKenyaField,30May1969,Nairobi,Kenya,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81,73/4;MinutesofJointSessionoftheA.I.C.andtheA.I.M.,10-11February1969,citedinGration,‘TheRelationshipBetweentheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,315;StephenD.Morad,‘TheSpreadingTree:AHistoryoftheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya,1895-1995’(unpublishedbook,n.d.),BGCArchives(Wheaton),PapersofStephenD.Morad,Collection689.

197

betwoorganizations’.61AJulyminutenotedthat‘therehavebeentwomeetingson

Church-MissionsRelationsandathirdisscheduled’statingthat‘progressisbeingmade,

butmuchprayerisneeded’toresolvethedispute.62Themissionwasfeelingintense

pressurefromthechurchtointegratetheAIMwiththeAICfully.AsBarnettputitina

lettertothehomedirectorsandsecretaries,‘Asthingsnowstanditseemstomethatwe

aregoingtobeforcedintooneoftwopositions,eitherfull-integration,withallthedangers

involvedthere,oranagreedseparationofMissionandChurchwithallthepitfallsinvolved

inthat.’63Barnett’sstatementimpliesthatheconsideredit‘dangerous’tohandoverthe

authorityofthemissiontothechurch.Churchleaderswerepressingforfusion,andthe

missionwasbeingforcedtomakeadecision.

In1970Africanchurchleadersissuedanultimatum.AIMmustagreetoits

proposalsorthechurchwouldineffect‘takeover’themission.ThechurchwascallingAIM

tocometotermswiththenewconditionsinAfricaandfollowthepatternofothermission

societies.TheconfidentialnotesofaJanuary15meetingrevealthedisappointmentand

angerofanAfricanchurchleaderidentifiedasKitui:

...wehavehadseveralmeetings,andeverytimewetalkaboutthegettingtogetherofA.I.M.andA.I.C.IamsurprisedthattheA.I.C.hastoputpressureonitsparentA.I.M.togetsomething.ItamazestheGovernmentpeopleinKenya…WhenUhurucame,manydenominationstriedtobringforwardtheAfricansintheChurch,eventheRomanCatholics.ButitappearsthatA.I.M.isnotgoingforward,butbackward.64

61SummaryofDiscussiononChurch/MissionRelationships,AfricaInlandMission,KenyaField,SpecialMeetingoftheFieldCouncil,Nairobi,7-8May,1969,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

62JointCommitteeoftheRepresentativesoftheA.I.C.CentralChurchCouncilandtheA.I.M.FieldCouncil,Nairobi,22July1969,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

63ErikBarnetttoHomeDirectorsandSecretaries,4November1969,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

64ConfidentialNotesonJointSessionoftheAICandtheAIMExecutiveCommittees,Nairobi,15January1970,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

198

KituiwasactuallyWellingtonMulwa,whosenamewaslistedintheminutesasW.M.Kitui.

Churchleaderswereexasperatedwiththemission.OthersocietiesliketheCMSandthe

CSMhadalreadymergedwiththeir‘youngerchurches’.EventheRomanCatholics,seldom

praisedforanythingbytheAIC,wereviewedasmoreprogressivethanthemission!Ina

documentdated28January1970,AICleadersmadeitclearthatmissionpropertyand

missionpersonnelshouldimmediatelybeginworkingundertheauthorityoftheAIC.The

memostatedinnouncertaintermsthatsincethechurchandthemission‘areworkingas

onebodyandforthecommonpurpose,bothofthemshouldnowmergetogethertoform

onebodytobeknownasthe“AfricaInlandChurch”Kenya.’65TheAICwasineffect

demandingdevolution.

On2June1970,theAICpresident,Gichuha,sentalettertoBarnettinwhichhe

statedthatunlessthemissionagreedtoanimmediate‘changeofdirections’,theAICwould

proceed‘withplanstofindwaysandmeansofeffectingthearrangementsascontainedin

theA.I.C.documentof28thJanuary1970’.66Thechurchwasthreateningahostiletakeover

ofthemission.TheAICvowedtouseextrememeasures(thoughunspecified)toseize

powerandpropertyfromthemission.TheAIMandtheAIChadhadfinallyreachedan

impasse.OnthedayBarnettreceivedGichuha’sletterthreateningtotakeunilateralaction,

SidneyLangfordandPeterStam,directorsoftheAmericanandCanadianHomeCouncils

respectively,arrivedona‘fact-findingmission’toprovidecounselduringthis‘timeof

65NewOrganizationoftheAfricaInlandChurchinRelationtotheAfricaInlandMission-Kenya,PreparedbytheAICSub-committeeforPresentationtotheJointAIM/AICSub-Committee,28January1970,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

66LetterofAndrewGichuhatoErikBarnett,2June1970,quotedinGration,‘TheRelationshipBetweentheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,335.

199

uncertainty’.67BothLangfordandStamwereveteranmissionofficialswithconsiderable

on-fieldexperience.Barnett,unabletofindasolution,invitedAfricanchurchleadersto

meetwithLangford,Stam,andthefieldcouncil.Inanunprecedentedmove,thesenior

officialsofthehomecouncilsnegotiateddirectlywithAfricanchurchleaders,effectively

circumventingtheauthorityofBarnettandthefieldcouncil.On26June1970,Langford

andStampresentedaproposaltotheAICthatwouldineffectmakeAIMinKenyaa

‘departmentofthechurch’withthename‘AfricaInlandChurch’representingboththe

churchandmissioninallofitsministries.68Missionpropertywouldbehandedovertothe

church,allstationswouldbecomeknownas‘AfricaInlandstations’andmissionarieswere

tobecomemembersoftheAIC.Theworkofforeignmissionarieswouldfallunderthe

directionoftheAICpresidentinKenya.Acompromiseallowedfortheelectionofa

committeecomprisingAIMworkerstorepresentWesternmissionaryinterests.The

missionalsoretainedtheauthoritytooperatetheRiftValleyAcademyandtoholdsome

propertiesthatwerenotdirectlyrelatedtotheworkoftheAfricanchurchinKenya.69

Churchofficialsacceptedthenewarrangementwith‘thanksgivingtoGodthatatlasta

solutionhadbeenfoundandthatfromnowonwecouldworktogetherasbrothersand

sisters’.70Langfordcalledtheagreement‘amomentousoccasion’.71Barnettreferredtothe

67SidneyLangford,‘ReportonTriptoAfrica’,May31-June301970,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81;MinutesofaSpecialMeetingoftheKenyaFieldCouncil,26June1970,inGration,‘TheRelationshipBetweentheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,334.

68ResolutionsAgreedtobytheA.I.M.KenyaFieldCouncilforPresentationtotheAfricaInlandChurch,26June1970,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

69Ibid.

70Langford,‘ReportonTriptoAfrica’,May31-June301970.

71Ibid.

200

breakthroughas‘atremendousmomentforusall’.72(Barnettwasperhapspleasedthat

missionariescouldremaininKenyaundertheagreement,buthiscommentsafterthe

officialhand-overrevealthathewaslessthanpleasedwiththearrangements.)On29June

1970,theAIMandtheAICreachedanagreement.AIMinKenyafinallyagreedtomerge

withthechurchitfounded.MeetingswereheldinJulytoworkonthelegalimplementation

oftheagreementandbeginlayingplansforanationwidecelebrationtobeheldon16

October1971.73

WhytheMissionResistedaMerger

DuringdecolonisationKenyabecameanincreasinglyconfusingplaceforAIM

missionaries.Inthelate1950sandearly1960snationalismpressuredthemissionto

createapartnershipagreementwiththeAfricanchurch.Afterindependence,

Africanisationbecamethenewwatchword,forcingmissionariestoreappraisetheirrolein

post-colonialAfrica.Questionswereloomingduringtheturbulentdecadeofthe1960s

aboutwhetherornotWesternmissionarieswerestillneededinplaceslikeKenya.A

popular1964workonWesternmissionsbeganwithacontemporaryassessmentofthe

modernmood:‘“MissionaryGoHome!”isanattitudefrequentlystatedorimplied.’74This

expression,‘MissionaryGoHome!’,washeardwithincreasingfrequencyinWestern

72ErikBarnetttoFellowMissionaries,30June1970,quotedinGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,338.

73Gration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,338-41.

74JamesA.Scherer,MissionaryGoHome!AReappraisaloftheChristianWorldMission(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1964),5.

201

missionarycirclesduringthe1960sand1970s.75AIMmissionariesweredevotedtotheir

callingandweretryingtofindtheirplaceinthenewpoliticalandreligiouslandscapeof

Africa.Theyopenlyquestionedwhatthesechangesmeantforthemwhileexpressingtheir

strongcommitmenttocontinuetheworkofmissions.Inearly1965PeterBrashler

publishedanarticleinthemission’sofficialorganbearingaprovocativetitle:‘IstheEraof

MissionsOver?’76Brashler,aveteranAIMmissionary,observedthat‘themissionaryhas

triedhardtokeepabreastofthemadpaceofAfricanization,buthasbeenfallingbehind’.77

Africanattitudeswerechangingabouttheroleofthemissionary:‘Theelaboratemission

stationwherethemissionaryinchargeisstillthebig“Bwana”78mustbeAfricanized.’79

Thesechangeshoweverdidnotmeanthattheeraofmissionswascomingtoanend.It

simplymeantthatthemissionmustadjustinsomewaytothenewrealities.AsBrashler

noted,‘ThemissionaryEraisbynomeansover,butareshufflingofthepoliciesand

personnelisnecessaryiftheMissionistosurvive.’80Themissionwasdeterminedtostay

evenifitmeantmakingnecessaryadjustments.Nevertheless,BarnettandtheAIMfield

councilresistedamission-churchmergeruntilofficialsfromthehomeofficeforcedthemto

doso.WhywastheresuchstrongresistanceintheAIMagainstdevolution?

75DanaL.Robert,ChristianMission:HowChristianityBecameaWorldReligion(Malden:Wiley-Blackwell,2011),92.

76PeterBrashler,‘IstheEraofMissionsOver?’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XLIX,No.1(January-February1965),10-13.

77Ibid.,12.

78BwanaistheSwahiliwordfor‘sir’.Duringthecolonialperiod,thewordwasassociatedwiththeAfricanrespectforthewhiteman,akintotheword‘master’oreven‘boss’.

79Brashler,‘IstheEraofMissionsOver?’,12.

80Ibid.

202

First,AIMbelievedthatamergerwouldresultinlossofmissionidentityandimpede

itsevangelisticefforts.Somemembersofthemissioncommunityarguedthatthereexisted

adivisionoflabourbetweenthechurchandthemissionthatshouldbemaintained.The

mission,theyasserted,existedtobreaknewgroundandplanttheseedsofthegospelin

freshsoil.Thechurch,theymaintained,existedtoworkalongsidethemissioninorderto

provideoversightandcarefortheever-enlargingharvest.Aunionofchurchandmission

would,intheirminds,createconfusionovertherolesandspheresoftherespective

Evangelicalpartners.A1964reportontheworkofthemissionconcededthat‘mostofthe

denominationalmissionsandchurches’havefullyintegratedandthat‘ithasbeena

satisfactorysolutionformostdenominationsin“foreignmission”countries’.81Thereport

alsorevealsthatthemissionwasopposedtofullintegrationonthegroundsthatitwould

‘causetheMissiontoloseitsidentity’and‘itwouldnecessitateitsgivingupitsreasonfor

existenceatall’.82TheminutesofaJune1967meetingoftheCentralFieldCouncilincluded

anexplanatoryparenthesisinthefollowingentry:‘Thatwere-affirmourpositionthat

fusion(thelossofidentityoftheMission)isnottheanswertothecloserworking

relationshipofChurchandMissiononourfieldswhichwedesire’[parenthesisoriginal].83

Themissionexpressedadesiretoworkmorecloselywiththechurch,butitstillwantedto

preservethemission’sidentity.Inearly1970,ontheeveoftheagreementbrokered

betweenthehomecouncilandtheAIC,Barnettwasstillarguingagainstthefusionofthe

81‘MemorandumonneedforpossiblechangesinA.I.M.PoliciesandOperations,inordertomeetrapidlychangingconditionsinAfrica’,AfricaInlandMission,KenyaField,1964,LondonOfficeFile,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),8.

82Ibid.

83MinutesoftheAfricaInlandMissionCentralFieldCouncil,7-10June1967,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

203

missionandchurchonthebasisthattheywereseparateorganizationswith

complementaryroles.HeremindedbothmissionandchurchexecutivesthattheAIChad

beenfounded‘tocareforlocalcongregations’while‘theAIMhasfunctionedforthe

purposeofhelpingestablishlocalchurchesandpreachingtheGospelbyanymeans

possible’.84Missionarieswereconcernedaboutthelossofmissionidentity.Barnettand

thefieldcouncilwantedtokeepbothorganizationsseparateandmaintainwhatthey

consideredtobeacleardivisionoflabour.

MissionariesbelievedthatprotectingtheuniqueidentityofAIMwasimportantfor

thecontinuedworkofWesternmissionariesaswellasthespreadoftheEvangelicalfaith.

Missionarieswantedtocarryouttheirworkunencumberedbyecclesiasticalaffairsin

Africa.Missionauthoritiesrecommendedthatmissionariesshouldprovidecounseland

encouragementforAICleadersbutstronglyurgedthemtoresistentanglingthemselvesin

localchurchmatters.A1968articletitled‘Mission-ChurchRelations:Integrateor

Cooperate?’,authoredbyanAmericanPresbyterianmissiologistatColumbiaTheological

Seminary(Georgia)namedC.DarbyFulton(1892-1977),wasapprovinglycitedbymission

leaders.85Thearticle,publishedinEvangelicalMissionsQuarterlyanddistributedbyAIM

fieldrepresentatives,arguedthatothermissionagencies(unspecifiedinthearticle)were

experiencingdifficultieswiththe‘integration’approach.Oneofthemainproblems,Fulton

argued,wasthatintegrationunnecessarilyinvolvedmissionariesinecclesiasticalpolitics.

Heobservedthat

84ConfidentialNotesontheMeetingofSpecialAICandAIMAgreementCommittee,28January1970,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

85‘C.DarbyFulton:AChristianStatesman’,5September2013,http://www.thisday.pcahistory.org/2013/09/september-5-c-darby-fulton(accessed3January2017).

204

…thereiswidespreaddissatisfactionandunrestamongmanyoverthepolicyinquestion[integrationofmissionandchurch].Tomostmissionariesthecalltoserveabroadcomesprimarilyintermsoftheneedoftheunevangelizedmillions.Tofinduponarrivalonthefieldthattheyhavelosttheinitiativeinpursuingtheirmissionarypurposeandmustacceptanassignmentwithinthestructureofsomeexistingchurchgroupcomestothemasabitteranddisappointingexperience.86

AIMembracedthephilosophythatthechurchandmissionmustremainseparatesothat

themissioncouldremainfocusedonreachingthe‘unevangelizedmillions’.Missionaries

didnotcometothefieldtobeembroiledinparishpoliticsbutrathertobepioneersinthe

progressofthegospel.AtaspecialmeetingheldinMay1969,Barnettproposedthe

optionsforconsiderationregardingmission-churchrelationships:‘1)Toretainthestatus

quoandmeetitsattendantproblems2)TooperateparallelwiththeChurchinfull

cooperation,and3)completeintegrationwiththechurchandthedisappearanceofthe

Missionasafunctioningbody.’87Inhismind,amergerbetweenthemissionandthechurch

wouldresultinthe‘disappearance’oftheAIMandthedownplayingoftheimportantroleof

themissionary.Barnettandfieldrepresentativesthusrejectedcallsforamergerinorder

toretainmissionidentityandremainfocusedontheworkofevangelismuninhibitedby

ecclesiasticalconcerns.

Second,theindependentethosandruggedindividualismofthemissioncommunity

wasanimpedimenttoAICpressureforaunifiedmission-churchorganization.AIMwas

notadenominationalmission.Itwasaninterdenominationalmissionagencycomprisedof

fiercelyindependentmissionaries.Themissiontraceditsancestrytoafamilyof

86C.DarbyFulton,‘Mission-ChurchRelations:IntegrateorCooperate?’,EvangelicalMissionsQuarterly,Vol.4,No.2,[Winter1968].ThearticlewasattachedasanaddendumtotheMinutesoftheInternationalConferenceoftheAfricaInlandMission,June14-18,1968,AIM-InternationalArchives,(Nottingham).

87SummaryofDiscussiononChurch/MissionRelationships,AfricaInlandMission–KenyaField,SpecialMeetingoftheFieldCouncil,Nairobi,7-8May,1969,AIM-InternationalArchives(Nottingham)

205

Evangelicalmissionagenciesfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturycommonlyreferredto

bymissiologistas‘faithmissions’.88Thelargestandmostinfluentialofthesefaithmissions

weretheChinaInlandMission(1865),theChristianMissionaryAlliance(1887),the

EvangelicalAlliance(1887),theSudanInteriorMission(1893)andtheAfricaInland

Mission(1895).89Oneofthecommonfeaturesofthesemissionorganizationswastheir

beliefthatdenominationalagencieswerenoteffectivelymoving‘inland’toreach

‘unevangelized’people.Thesemissionorganizationsweredeterminedtocarryouttheir

workindependentofdenominationalaffiliationbyrecruitingmissionarieswithan

adventuresomespiritwhoreceivedtrainingatindependentBiblecollegesandsecured

fundsoutsideofdenominationalstructures.‘Faithmissions’wereabletooperatewith

greaterflexibilityandwithouttheconstraintsofdenominationaloversight.Theyprized

theirindependence.

AIMwasacard-carryingmemberofthismovementandcelebratedtheheroic

effortsofmissionarieswhostruckoutontheirownlookingtoGodaloneforprovisionand

protection.Theheroiceffortsofmissionarieswereoftenportrayedinbooksand

pamphletsproducedbythemission.Evenmissionariesthatproveddifficulttomanage

becamemissionheroes.Typicalofthepromotionalworksproducedforthemasseswas

thecelebrated1965bookTomCollinsofKenya:SonofValourpublishedbyAIMinLondon

anddisseminatedwidelyinBritainandNorthAmerica.Tom’sapplicationtoservewith

AIMintheearly1930shadbeenrejectedbecausehisundergraduatedegreefrom

88StephenDanielMorad,‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMissionandTheirInteractionwiththeAfricaContextinKenya,1895-1939:TheStudyofaFaithMission’(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofEdinburgh,1997);KlausFiedler,TheStoryofFaithMissions:FromHudsonTaylortoPresentDayAfrica(Oxford,UK:RegnumBooksInternational,1994),70-111.

89RalphR.Covell,‘FathMissions’,EvangelicalDictionaryofWorldMissions.

206

Cambridgewasconsideredinsufficientpreparation.Hewastoldthathewouldneedto

reapplyafterreceivingBibletrainingataschoolthatalsoofferedpracticalpreparationfor

survivingintheAfricanwilderness.Atthebehestofthemission,Collinsreluctantly

enrolledintheMissionaryTrainingColonyinEngland,aschoolfoundedbyBarclayGodfrey

Buxton(1895-1986),grandsonofthefamedEvangelicalabolitionist,ThomasFowell

Buxton(1786-1845).90Inhiseagernesstobeginwork,CollinsleftforMombasabefore

finishingtheprogrammeandbeganhisworkasamissionarybeforereceivingmission

approval.AIMwasimpressedbyhiseagernessandself-relianceandacceptedhimintothe

missionafterhearrivedonthefield.ThemissioncelebratedCollinsforhis‘toughself-

sufficiency’andhiswillingnesstostrikeoutonhisowntoworkamongthePokottribesin

the‘unreached’areasofthecolony.91Zealformissionworkandanindependentspirit

weremoreimportantthanadegreefromCambridgeorawillingnesstofollowmission

protocol.

Theindependentethosofthemissionanditsmissionaryforcebecameapparenton

thequestionofchurch-missionrelationshipsinastudyconductedbytheChristianService

Fellowship(CSF)attherequestofAIMin1968.Inanefforttoassessmissionaryattitudes

onthequestionofmission-churchrelationships,AIMfundedanon-fieldstudytoassist

missiondecision-makersforlong-rangeplanning.Thestudywascompletedin1970and

copiesweremadeavailabletomissionauthoritiesbutnotreleasedtothelargermission

community.ItincludedasurveyofmissionaryattitudesintheAIMcommunityonthe

questionofintegration.Fifty-sixpercentofallmissionarypersonnelparticipatedinthe

90Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,151-52.

91Ibid.,152.

207

study,ahighenoughpercentagetoprovideaccuratestatisticalanalysiswithaverysmall

marginoferror.TheresultsofthestudyshowAIMmissionarieswereextremely

independent.OnlyeightpercentofAIMmissionariessurveyedfavouredtheintegrationof

themissionwiththechurchonthegroundsthatthemissioncouldcarryoutitsworkmore

effectivelyindependentofthechurch.92Theconsultantsusedtheexpression

‘individualisticspirit’todescribetheAIMmissionculture,aturnofphrasetheyliftedfrom

theiron-fieldinterviews.93Theindividualisticspiritpervadedthemission,evenmakingit

difficultformissionariesonthefieldtoreceivedirectivesfrommissionsuperiors.Using

theprecisewordsofonemissionary,thereportread:‘Manystationmanagersdonot

managebecausemissionariesrefusetobemanaged.’94Whenconsultantsaskedthe

missionarieswhotheyreportedto,oneofthemostfrequentlyrecordedresponseswas‘to

noone.’95AnotherAIMmissionarycrudelyconfessed:‘We’reuneducatedand

unconditionedtoworkingunderauthority.’96Theconsultantsthemselvesappeartohave

beenmystifiedbysomeoftheattitudestheyuncoveredduringtheirresearchandfoundit

impossibletorefrainfrommakingpersonalcommentstothiseffectinvariouspartsofthe

report.Giventheindependentethosofthemissioncommunity,theconsultantsconcluded

thatamerger‘shouldnotbediscardedasapossibleoption’butthattheycouldnot

recommendproceedingatthistime.Intheirwords,‘theclimateisnotreadyforvolunteer

92‘AfricaInlandMissionEvaluationStudyReport’(Minneapolis,MN:ChristianServiceFellowship,1970),AIMInternationalArchives,(Nottingham),52.

93Ibid.,152.

94Ibid.

95Ibid.,213.

96Ibid.,117.

208

amalgamationwithothers.’97Missionariesweresimplynotreadytoworkinharmonywith

theirAfricanbrethren.Themission,theconsultantsconcluded,wasoperatingasa

‘fellowshipofindividuals’.98Ruggedindividualismpervadedthemissioncommunityandit

wasanimpedimenttomission-churchunity.

Athirdfactorthatmilitatedagainstamission-churchwastheconsiderableinfluence

ofthefieldsecretary,ErikBarnett.BarnettwasahouseholdnameintheAIMcommunity.

Hewasaveteranmissionary,thesonofafamouspioneermissionary,anditwaswidely

knownthathewasaclosefriendwiththeVice-PresidentofKenya.ItappearsthatBarnett

wasoperatingtheworkinKenyawithlittleinputfromtheAIMhomecouncils.D.M.

Alloway,amemberoftheAIMcouncilinCanada,wroteaconfidentiallettertoBarnettin

March1970expressinghispersonalconcerns:‘IwrotetoyouonJuly16,1969,expressing

mypersonalgraveconcernoverproceduresthatwerebeingfollowed,particularlyyour

ownunderstandingastothemeaningofKenyafieldautonomy.’99Theletterfurtherstated

that‘TheviewoftheCanadianCouncilisthatthechurch/missionnegotiationsand

commitmentshavealreadybeencarriedtoofarwithoutreferencetotheInternational

Council.’100ThiswastheveryissuethathadfrustratedHenmantenyearsearlier.The

lettertoBarnettimpliesthathewasactingunilaterally:‘Surelyyouwanttosharethisgreat

responsibilityofinvolvingthedestinyofA.I.M.inAfricaandthecareersofsomany

missionarieswiththeseniorauthorityofthemission?’101Barnettheldthereinsofpower

97Ibid.,236.

98Ibid.,493.

99D.M.AllowaytoErikS.Barnett,23February1970,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

100Ibid.

209

onthefieldinKenya,andhewasabletousehisconsiderableinfluencetoresistthe

pressureofAfricanchurchleaderswhowerecallingforamerger.

Barnettbelievedthatamission-churchmergerwouldresultinthe‘disappearance’

ofthemission,althoughhelateradmittedthathealsoheldsuspicionsaboutAICchurch

leaders.ApersonalletterfromRichardAnderson,whoservedasthegeneralfield

secretaryin1963-1964,showsthattherewasdistrustamongsomemembersofthe

missioncommunityregardingAfricanmotivesfordesiringcontrolofthemission

community.ThisdistrustsurfacedduringthedisputeswiththeTanganyikanchurch

leadersintheearly1960s.Somemissionarieswereraisingquestionsaboutthe‘spiritual

condition’ofAfricanchurchleadersthoughnoteveryoneagreed.Theletterread:‘Icould

notquiteagreewithyouthatthewholematter’ofAfricansaskingmissionariestowork

undertheirauthority‘restsonthespiritualconditionoftheLeaders.’102Thecelebrated

AIMmissionary“Nangi”Maynard(NangiisSwahiliforTeacher)hadwrittenapersonal

notein1961statingthatAICchurchleaderssimplywanted‘topossessandcontrolwhat

theyimagineisawealthymissiontreasure’.103Maynard’scommentshadbeencopiedinto

KennethDowning’scorrespondencewiththehomecouncilsin1961anddispatchedtothe

homeofficeasproofpositivethatthemissionmustruleoutanyconsiderationofHenman’s

proposalsfordevolution.DowningclearlyhadsuspicionsaboutAfricanmotivesfora

101Ibid.

102KennethRichardsontoR.H.Baker,8January1964,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

103WilliamJ.“Nangi”MaynardtoKennethandMrsDowning,26January1961,AIMInternationalArchives,(Nottingham).

210

mission-churchmergerinKenya.104BarnettalsoheldstrongsuspicionsaboutAfrican

motivesinthe1960sand1970s,suspicionsherevealedinoralinterviewsafterhis

retirement.Headmittedtobebeingbotheredbythe‘manoeuvring’and‘subterfuge’that

wastakingplacebehindthescenes.HepinnedmuchoftheblameonWellingtonMulwa,a

popularAfricanpastorinthemissionstrongholdofUkambani.105Mulwawassoinfluential

thathewaselectedtoserveasAICpresidentin1970.(Histitlewaslaterchangedto

bishop).106Barnettconfidedintheinterviewer:‘Idon’tthinkyouaregoingtofindit[the

storyofmanoeuvring]verymuchintheaccounts…becauseit’smoreorlessthebad

stage.’107Barnettwasreferringtothetensionsleadinguptothemission-churchmergerin

thelate1960s,andtheperiodafteritsimplementationinthe1970s,asthe‘badstage’in

thehistoryoftheAIM.HeaccusedMulwaof‘manoeuvringallthetimetogeteverything

themissionhadinthenameoftheAIC’.108Thisincluded,Barnettrecounted,controlof

missionfunds,missionaryhousing,andthepropertyofthemissions’centraloffice.Further,

hecomplained,‘AIMwouldbeundertheAIC…thatthey[AIC]woulddothe

assignment…thatthechurchwoulddotheassignment…andallofthis….andthiswasagaina

manoeuvreoftheBishop.’109Barnettwascomplainingaboutthemergeritselfaswellas

theimplementationofthemergeragreement,accordingtowhichthemissionwouldserve

104KennethL.DowningtoRalphT.DavisandPhilipS.Henman,8February1961,AIMInternationalArchives,(Nottingham).

105Cf.pp.226-238.

106MoredetailedinformationisprovidedonMulwainchapter6.

107ErikS.Barnett,interviewbyPaulErickson,taperecording,23-24January1995,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection510,T-3.

108Ibid.

109Ibid.

211

undertheauthorityofthechurchandcedecontrolofassigningmissionariestotheirwork.

WhenMulwaofficiallybecametheAICpresidentin1970,heforcedBarnetttoresignas

Kenyanfieldsecretary.BarnettinturnaccusedMulwaoftryingtolinehisownpockets

withmissionmoney.Inwhatmayhavebeenanunguardedmoment,Barnettspokeabout

theprematuredeathofMulwain1979,110callingitananswertoprayer:

Itwassucharelief[whenhearingMulwahaddied]…Idon’tknowofacaseexceptAnaniasandSapphiraoftheBible,whereGodsteppedin…ashedidoutthere.Nowthatkindofthingshouldnotgointoanybookorintowriting….butit’sintherecord…it’strue.111

BarnettwentontotalkabouthowheurgedAIMtoreturntotheoldpartnershipmodelof

the1960safterMulwa’sdeathin1979!TheFieldSecretarywasopposedtothemission-

churchmergerthroughoutthe1960s,onlyconcedingunderpressurefromthehome

councilinthe1970s.Hisconsiderableinfluenceinthemissioncommunityandhisdistrust

ofthemotivesofsomeAfricanchurchleadersdelayedthemovetounifytheAIMandthe

AICinKenya.

Afourthdeterrentforamission-churchmergerinpost-colonialKenyawasthe

lingeringattitudeofpaternalismamongmanyAIMmissionaries.Westernmissionaries

believedtheywereinabetterpositiontoassessawholerangeofissues,includingthe

wisestcourseofactiononthequestionofmission-churchrelationships.Whileitisoverly

simplistictodescribeWesternmissionariesduringthisperiodascolonialsympathizers,

WesterncolonialexpansiondidcreateacontemporaryPaxRomanacompletewiththe

110Inhisinterview,Barnettconflatestheyears1969to1979,referringtotheentireperiodasthe‘badstage’inmission-churchrelationships.

111Barnettinterview,T-3.Thestoryofmission-wideexpressionsofjoyoverthedeathofMulwaisrecountedinJonesMaweuKaleli,‘TheoreticalFoundationsofAfricanandWesternWorldviewsandTheirRelationshiptoChristianTheologizing:AnAkambaCaseStudy’(Ph.D.diss.,FullerTheologicalSeminary,1985),367-69.

212

equivalentofRomanroads(ships,trains,planes)thatwereusedfortransportinggoodsas

wellasthegospel.Christianmissionariescametomissionize,butthegospelwasoften

carriedoutundertheprotectionoftheUnionJackwiththepower(andmoney)ofOldGlory.

EchoesofDavidLivingstone’scallfortheadvancementofChristianity,commerceand

civilizationwerevisiblypresentinthemission.112Missionariesoftenviewedthemselvesas

citizensof‘advancedcultures’whowerecalledtoevangelizeaswellascivilize.113Inthe

1965bookcelebratingthelifeoffamedAIMmissionaryTomCollins,theauthorobserves

withconventionalease:‘TomCollins,incommonwitheveryothermemberofthemore

advancedraces,indirectlyowedallhisattainmentstotheChristianizinginfluencesthat

havepervadedcivilizedcountriesthroughoutthecenturies.’114In1965amajorAIM

publicationwasstillreferringtoAmericansandEuropeansasmembersof‘advanced

races’!

Inthe1960s,Evangelicalleaderswereawarethatpaternalismhadcreatedtensions

betweenmissionagenciesandtheyoungerchurchestheyhadplantedinnon-Western

societies.InApril1966Evangelicalmissionleadersfrommorethan100agencies

convenedinWheaton,Illinois,foraCongressontheChurch’sWorldwideMission.A

gatheringof938delegatesfromseventy-onenationsmettodiscussthechallengesfacing

themodernmissionarymovement.ThefruitofthemeetingwastheWheatonDeclaration.

112StephenNeill,AHistoryofChristianMissions(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1986),414.

113StephenNeill,ColonialismandChristianMission(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1966),35-69;RolandOliverandGervaseMatthew,eds.HistoryofEastAfrica:VolumeI(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1963),354-57.

114K.N.Phillips,TomCollinsofKenya:SonofValour(London:AfricaInlandMission,1965),32.

213

‘Confessionisneeded’115thedeclarationread.‘Wehavesinnedgrievously’,116itcontinued.

AmongthesinsmentionedwasthefailureoftheWesternchurch

TotrustfullytheHolySpirit’sleadershipinnewlyplantedcongregations,therebyperpetuatingpaternalismandprovokingunnecessarytensionsbetweennationalchurchesandmissionsocieties.117

RepresentativesoftheAIMhomecouncils,includingJohnAlexanderGration,werepresent

andamongthoseseekingforgivenessfortheirgrievoussins.TheEvangelicalmission

communityrecognizedthatpaternalismwasstillaprobleminthelate1960sandithad

strainedrelationshipsbetweenmissionsocietiesandemergingnationalchurches.

ThemissionoftenexpressedthispaternalisticattitudebycallingtheAfricanchurch

immature.Manymissionariesfeltthatthechurchwassimplynotcapableofproviding

oversightoftheworkofthemissioninKenya.Parent-childlanguagewasoftenusedto

describetherelationshipofthemissionwiththechurch.Whilemissionariesrecognized

thatthechurchwasnolongeraninfant,likegoodparentstheyrefusedtogiveintoallthe

demandsoftheirchildren.A1969AnnualReportoftheBritishHomeDirectorreads,‘“The

babe”hasgrownintoadolescenceandadulthood;andtherefore,wemustmakesurethat

wearenotstillaimingatthegoalsof“infantcare”.’118Thereportlinkstheparent-child

relationshipwiththeissueofamission-churchmerger:‘Nowthechurchleadershipin

someareasispressingforafusionoftheMissionandtheChurchrelationshipwiththe

115‘TheWheatonDeclaration,1966’,RecordsoftheCongressontheChurch’sWorldwideMission,BGCArchives,(Wheaton),Collection21.

116Ibid.

117Ibid.

118AnnualReportoftheBritishHomeDirector,1969,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).T.E.LloydwasthedirectoroftheBritishHomeOfficein1969,thoughhisnameisnowhereattached.Theextensivereportwasmostlikelyacollaborativeendeavour.ItissignedbyKennethS.Thornberry,theAdministrativeSecretaryoftheBritishHomeCouncil.

214

thoughtofeliminatingtheautonomyoftheMission.’119Thesamereportgoesontospeak

ofasignificant‘obstacle’blockingamerger:‘Truetotheparentalconcept,therearethose

whoquestion“junior’s”maturity.’120Somemissionariessimplydidnotfeelthat‘their

children’werereadyfortheresponsibilityofamission-churchmerger.TheCFS

researcherssummarizedtheattitudeofmanymissionariesintheir1970report:‘This

“feeling”[ofsuperiority]wasveryevidentandbestexpressedasheard,‘Whodothey[the

Africans]thinktheyare?”’121Apersistentairofpaternalismcomplicatedmission-church

relationsinthe1960sandbecameanother‘obstacle’foranAIM-AICmerger.

TheAfrican‘TakeOver’

On16October1971,theAfricanInlandMissionheldapublicceremonyinwhichit

handedoveritspropertyandpowerstotheAfricaInlandChurch.Themissionhad

reluctantlyyieldedtoAICpressureinaneleventh-hourdealbrokeredbyseniorofficialsof

thehomecouncilswhowerevisitingthefieldonafact-findingmission.‘Thousands’of

worshippersgatheredinMachakos,Kenya,fortheoutdoorcelebration,thecrowdpartially

shadedbythespreadingbranchesoftheluxuriantfigtreegracingthegroundsofthe

missionstationatMachakos.Vice-PresidentMoi,alife-longmemberoftheAIC,arrivedby

motorcade‘flankedbyaidesandministers’towitnessthehistoricday.AIMofficialsfrom

thefieldandhomecouncilsstoodside-by-sideontheplatformwithAICofficials.Legal

representativeswerepresentfortheceremonialsigningofofficialdocuments.Mission

119Ibid.

120Ibid.

121‘AfricaInlandMissionEvaluationStudyReport’(Minneapolis,MN:ChristianServiceFellowship,1970),AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham),138.

215

representativesappearedpleased,butmissionpublicationswerelessenthusiastic.The

leadarticleintheOctober-December1971issueofInlandAfricacalledforpatiencein‘this

ageof“takeover”bytheAfricanChurch’.122TheAfricanchurchhadfinallytakenoverand

missionarieswouldbetested.

AIMhadresistedthemergingofthemissionandthechurchevenafterother

societieshadalreadydevolvedauthoritytotheiryoungerchurchesduringtheperiod

leadinguptoindependence.Between1964and1970,AIMremainedfirminitsopposition

toamerger.Themission’smulishrefusaltohandoveritspowerandpropertyinthelate

1960swasinfluencedbyacompilationoffactors.MissionarieswhohadlivedinKenyafor

decades,somefortheirentirelives,wantedtoprotecttheidentityofthemission.They

believedthatamergerbetweentheAIMandtheAICwouldmirethemissioninlocalchurch

mattersandimpedetheeffectivenessofWesternmissionaries.Thefiercelyindependent

spiritthatpervadedthemissioncommunityalsoprovedinimicaltodevolution.AIM

missionarieswereanindependentlotandtheycarriedouttheirworkunderthebannerof

anindependentfaithmission.Anothercontributingfactorwasthepersonalinfluenceof

ErikBarnett,whobelievedamergerwouldresultinthe‘disappearance’ofthemission.He

harbouredmalignantmisgivingsaboutthemotivesofAICchurchleaders,believingsometo

bemotivatedbyadesireforpowerandpersonalgain.Finally,themission’spaternalistic

dispositionwasanobstacleforanAIM-AICmerger.Missionofficialsdidnotbelieve‘junior’

wasmatureenoughtodrivethecar,andtheyrefusedtotakeabackseat.Itisthe

combinationofthesefactorsthatstronglyimpededAfricanpressureforamission-church

mergerwhenothermissionshadalreadyhandedoverauthoritytotheiryoungerchurches.

122E.H.Arensen,‘Impatience’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)Vol.XV,No.4[November-December1971],3.

216

Barnett’sinfluenceseemsparamount,butitwasbolsteredbythefactthathehadthe

supportofnearlytheentiremissioncommunity.AIMmissionariespreferredworking

independentlyoftheAfricanchurch,andtheydidnotbelievetheAfricanchurchwasready

tomanagethem.Barnettwantedtopreservetheuniqueidentityofthemissionthathad

beensuchanimportantpartofhisfamilyfordecades.Hebelievedthatthedevolutionof

themissionwoulddamagetheworkofmissionsinKenya,andhewasalsosuspiciousofthe

motivesofinfluentialAfricanleaders.Barnettprovedtobethelinchpinthathadtobe

removedbythehomecouncilsandeventuallythenewpresidentoftheAIC.Western

missionarieswereforcedtobowtothedemandsoftheAfricanchurch.Asthemission’s

officialmagazineputitinthefinalissueofthedecade:‘It’sablackman’scountryandthe

windsofchangestillblow.’123Thechurch,thenation,andnowthemissionwereinAfrican

hands.

123‘TheTimesTheyAreA-changin’InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LV,No.6[November-December1969].

217

6

TheDominanceoftheAfricaInlandChurchandtheRiseof‘Africa’sEvangelicals’,1972-1975

In1972theeditorofInlandAfricarangintheNewYearwithasensationalfeature

article:‘TheDayOurMissionDied.’1ThetitlewasamorbidreferencetothedaytheAfrica

InlandMission(AIM)formallytransferreditsauthorityandpropertytotheAfricaInland

Church(AIC)inKenyaon16October1971.Themission’seditor,alsoaparticipant-

observeratthehistoricceremonyattendedbytensofthousands,2beganthefull-length

featureinsolemnreflection.Helikenedtheoutdoorserviceatthemissionstationin

Machakostoafuneral,festoonedwithflowersandsolemnizedbythepresenceofVice-

PresidentMoi,himselfaproudmemberoftheAIC.ThiswasadifficultdayforsomeAIM

missionaries.Asthenarrativeprogresses,thereisadiscerniblechangeinthearticle’stone,

1E.H.Arensen,‘TheDayOurMissionDied,’InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)Vol.XVI,No.1[January-March1972],3-7.

2KennethDowningtoMrMundy,21October1971,DowningPapers(Florida).Arensen’s1972articlecitedabovereportedthattherewere100,000inattendance,thoughthisnumberwasdisputedbyDowning,whowaspresent:‘Weestimatedfrom10,000to12oreven15,00people(thoughoneofthedailypaperssaid100,000!)’

218

likethatofapopularevangelistraisinghisvoicetoencouragehisaudiencetoholdout

hopeeveninchallengingtimes.Heremindedthemissionfaithfulwithfunerealflairthat

forthoseintheChristiancommunity,deathisnevertheend.Thoughthemissionhad‘died’

andbeen‘buried’,therewasgreatanticipationthat‘throughtheChurchtheMissioncould

springforthinrenewedgrowthandservice’.3‘Thehistoricday’(asitwasdubbed)marked

thedeathofaneraandbecamefixedinchurchandmissionloreasthebeginningof

somethingnew.4

While‘thehistoricday’wasasignificantevent,the‘renewed’lifethatfollowedthe

‘death’ofthemissioninKenyawasofevengreaterimport.Theearly1970sweremarked

byasuddenshiftinecclesiasticalpowerasAfricanleadersrosevictorioustoreignoverthe

churchandthemissioninKenya.AfricanEvangelicalswereelevatedtopositionsof

influenceintheearly1970sandbecamedominantforcesinKenyaandthecontinent.This

chapterwillprovideabriefexplanationofwhatactuallyhappenedon‘thehistoricday’and

offeranexaminationofkeydevelopmentsthathavebeenignoredinthehistoriesofthe

mission,includingtheinfluenceoftheAIC’sfirstAfricanbishop.Itwillalsoconsiderhow

AIMmissionariesrespondedtothehistoricdayandtheeventsthatfollowed.

A‘Department’oftheAfricanChurch

Thesignedagreementof16October1971gavetheAICnearabsoluteauthorityover

themissioninKenya.AIMwentoutofitswaytoemphasizethatthemissionhadnot

dissolvedthoughitfrequentlystruggledforlanguagetodefineitsnewstatus.Themission

3Arensen,‘TheDayOurMissionDied,’7.

4DickAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers:TheStoryofAfricaInlandMission(Nottingham:CrosswayBooks,1994),193-194.

219

wasdowngradedtoadepartmentwithintheAIC.Theagreementreadasfollows:‘The

AfricaInlandMissionKenyatakesthepositionofadepartmentoftheAfricaInlandChurch

inallChurch-relatedmatters.’5UndertheagreementthemissionstillexistedinKenya,but

itworkedundertheaegisoftheAfricanchurchwithautonomyallowedinmattersnot

relatedtothechurch.Thelanguageallowedsomeroomforthemissiontomanoeuvre.The

phrase‘departmentoftheAIC’,thoughpresentintheoriginalagreement,wasseldomused

inthemissioncommunity.In1972theAmericanHomeCouncil(AHC)usedwordslike

‘closelyrelated’but‘autonomous’initsofficialminutes:‘TheAfricaInlandMissionis

closelyrelatedtotheAfricaInlandChurchonthenationallevelbutasaninternational

organizationitisautonomousandformulatesitsownpolicyonrelationship.’6Theminute

appearstobeanattempttoassuresupportersthattheycouldtrustthemissiontoremain

thoroughlyEvangelicalinitsaffiliationsandthatithadtheauthoritytodosoasan

‘autonomous’bodyeventhoughitworkedundertheauthorityoftheAfricanchurch.While

theAICretaineditsEvangelicalconvictions,evenopposingtheWorldCouncilofChurches,

itwaslessrigidinitspolicyonaffiliation.7In1973theCanadianHomeCouncilcalledthe

mission-churchagreement‘apartialmerger’.8Themostfrequentlyusedlanguageto

5‘MsingiWaMaptatanobainayaAfricaInlandChurchnaAfricaInlandMission–Kenya’[‘BasisofAgreementbetweentheAfricanInlandChurchandtheAfricaInlandMission–Kenya’],AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

6MinutesoftheAmericanHomeCouncil,22November1972,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

7Thiswillbediscussedlaterinthechapter.TheAICheldfirmEvangelicalconvictions,butitwasnotashawkishastheAIMonecumenicalissues.ThisisimpliedinJohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyabetween1895and1971’(PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,1973),298-300.

8‘ReportoftheHomeDirector’,AfricaInlandMission(Canada),24April1973,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

220

describethesignedagreementof1971was‘hand-over’orsimply‘thehistoricday’.9This

turnofphraseappearstohavebeenusedbymissionariesbecauseitavoidedtheword

‘merger’,aconceptthatwasstillconfusingformanyAIMworkers.10

The‘historicday’inKenyawasimportantbecauseitwasemblematicofthenew

realitythatthemissionwasnowworkingundertheauthorityoftheAfricanchurchinallits

fields.WhenAIMhadbegunlayingthegroundworkforestablishinganAfricanchurchin

1939,ithadprovidedgeneralguidanceforeachfieldcouncilbuthadallowedeachfieldto

determineitsownstructure.11Duringdecolonisation,eachfieldalsonegotiatedwiththe

Africanchurchithadhelpedestablish.AcaseinpointisTanzania,wheretheCentralField

CouncilprovidedguidancebuttheworkingagreementwasbetweentheAIMfieldcouncil

inTanzaniaandtheAICofTanzania.12A1972documentexplainsthisarrangement:‘Each

countryisgraduallydevelopingitsownwayofworking’and‘eachAfricanCountryhasits

ownseparateA.I.C.’notingthat‘theexceptionisUganda’(whichfusedwithAnglican

Church).13Thesamedocumentmadeitclearthatthemissionwasnowworkingunderthe

authorityoftheAfricanchurchinallitsfields:‘Althoughthedevelopmentisdifferentin

eachCountry,generallytheChurchCouncilscontroltheworkofthechurchandmuchof

9JonathanHildebrandt,interviewbyauthor(Florida),3April2014.

10Ibid.

11AfricaInlandMissionKenyaField,MeetingoftheInter-FieldCommittee,6-8July1944,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

12MeetingoftheExecutiveCommittee,Mwanza,Tanganyika,17-21December1963,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

13InternationalStructureoftheA.I.M.asitrelatestotheAfricanChurch,March1972,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

221

theworkofthemissionaries.’14Kenyawasthemission’soldestfield,andtheveritable‘first

amongequals’inallitsfields.‘Thehistoricday’madeheadlinesbecauseitwasthelast

dominotofall.The1971agreementbetweenthemissionandthechurchmadeitclearthat

theheartlandofthemissionwasnowunderthecontroloftheCentralChurchCouncilofthe

AIC.15‘AllChurch-relatedproperties,moveableandimmovable,formerlyheldbythe

AfricaInlandMission’wereturnedovertothechurch.16All‘AfricanInlandMission

personnel’werenowrecognizedasmembersofthe‘AfricanInlandChurch’andtherefore

undertheirauthority.17Inanarticletitled‘WhatReallyHappenedonOct.161971’,E.H.

Arensen,aseditorofthemissionmagazine,toldsupportersthatthemissionarywasstill

welcomeonthefieldinKenyawhilealsomakingitclearthatconditionshadchanged.As

heputit,‘TheA.I.C.hasopeneditsarmsto[themissionaries]andsaid,“Whileyouarehere

onthefieldyoubelongtous.Youaremembersofourchurch.Youareunderourauthority,

evenasournationalpastors.Wewillassignyoutoyourplaceofservice.”’18AIMcontinued

toexistandmissionarieswerewelcometoserveinKenya,butthe1971agreementwasthe

symbolicdenouementofthemission’ssubmissiontotheAfricanchurch.TheAfrican

churchnowruledthemissioninKenya.

AIMmissionariesacceptedthehistoric‘hand-over’withasenseofresignation,

thoughafewworkersexpressedresentment.SomeAIMworkerswhohadbeenopposedto

14Ibid.

15‘BasisofAgreementbetweentheAfricanInlandChurchandtheAfricaInlandMission–Kenya’,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

16Ibid.

17Ibid.

18E.H.Arensen,‘WhatReallyHappenedonOct.171971’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)Vol.XVI,No.1[January-March1972],8.

222

Henman’s1960proposedmergeracceptedthechangesandservedundertheauthorityof

thechurchandalongsidetheirAfricancolleagues.KennethDowningmayhavebeenthe

mostinfluentialrepresentativeoftheoldguardwhocametoembracethehistoric‘hand-

over.’DuringhistimeasthedirectoroftheGeneralFieldCouncilinKenya(1955-1963),

Downinghadblockedashort-livedpushbyPhilipHenman,thenchairoftheBritishHome

Council,foranAIM-AICmergerin1960.Aftersuccessfullynegotiatingthepartnership

agreementintheearly1960s,Downingwasseconded19bytheAIMtoopentheAfrica

EvangelicalOffice(AEO)inNairobi.20HecontinuedtoattendAIMfieldcouncilmeetings

whenhewasable,oftenreportingonAEOprogress,buthespentmuchofhistimebetween

1962and1970traversingtheAfricancontinentinanefforttouniteAfricansaroundan

Evangelicalfellowship.A1964minuteistypical:‘TheRev.K.Downing,returningfromhis

WestAfricatrip,waswelcomedtothemeetingandthecourtesiesextendedtohim.’21

Throughhisefforts,andwiththestrongsupportoftheAIM,theAssociationofEvangelicals

inAfricaandMadagascar(AEAM)wasestablishedandheadquarteredinKenyain1966

withDowningappointedasgeneralsecretary.22Heviewedhisroleasa‘temporaryloan

fromtheAfricaInlandMission’andwas‘lookingfor,andtrustingtofind,anAfricantotake

overthispositionassoonaspossible’.23Downingresignedfromhispositionasgeneral

19Missionarieswereoften‘seconded’toworkinotherEvangelicalagenciesforaperiodoftime.TheBritishterm,whichmeanstotransferanofficerorofficialtemporarilytoanotherpost,isfrequentlyusedinmissionminutes.

20ChristinaMariaBreman,TheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfrica:ItsHistory,Organization,Members,Projects,ExternalRelations,andMessage(Zoetermeer:Boekencentrum,1996),12-14.

21AfricaInlandMissionCentralFieldCouncil,MinutesoftheTenthAnnualMeeting,Rethy,CongoRepublic,19-23June1964,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

22Bremen,AssociationofEvangelicalsinAfrica,17.

23KennethL.DowningtoBernardC.Reed,27October1969,Nairobi,DowningPapers(Florida).

223

secretaryin1970,yieldinghisresponsibilitiestotheNigerian-bornSamuelOdunaike

(1934-1991),awell-knownNigerianministerandactivist.24Hethenacceptedan

assignmenttoNakurutocollectmissiondocumentsfromvariouspostsinKenyaand‘go

overalltheAIMarchives’and‘determinewhatshouldbedisposedof,andwhatkept’.25He

waspresentatthehistorichand-overatMachakoson16October1971andwrotehisson

twodaysaftertheeventsayingthatthe‘meetingwasreallyquiteterrific’.26Inaletteron2

November1971,Downingnotedthat‘aceremonyliketheAIM/AIConeinOctobermarksa

greatachievementinthehistoryoftheMission’.27Afteryearsoftensionandstrain

betweenthemissionandthechurchduringthe1960s,henowspokeofhis‘muchcloser

relationshipwiththechurches’,callingit‘refreshing.’28In1973hewrote,‘Iamreally

enjoyingworkingwithAICsince“uhuru”celebrationinOct.’71.Ifeelmoreofa

partnershipthanIeverusedtofeel.’29SomeAIMmissionariesbelievedthatthehand-over

ofthemissionwasaremarkableaccomplishmentforthemissionandthechurchandfound

theirnewworkingconditionssatisfactory.

Noteveryoneinthemissionadjustedtothenewrealities.Downingrecallsaprivate

conversationhehadwithoneAIMcolleagueafterthehand-over:

Oneofoursecond-generationmissionaries(ofmyagegroup)saidtomesomethingtotheeffectof:“TothinkthatthemissionIwasborninandservedalltheseyearshascometothis!”Isaidtohim,“Whythat’sexactlywhatyourDadandmyDad

24Bremen,AssociationofEvangelicalsinAfrica,36-40.

25KennethL.DowningtoOwenHendrix,17January1971,Nairobi,DowningPapers(Florida).

26KennethL.DowningtoVictorDowning,Nairobi,18October1971,DowningPapers(Florida).

27KennethL.DowningtoWilfredA.Bellamy,Nairobi,2November1971,DowningPapers(Florida).

28Ibid.

29KennethL.DowningtoVictorDowning,11November1973,Nakuru,Kenya,DowningPapers(Florida).

224

cameoutheretodo.TopreachtheGospelandestablishchurches.They’rejustnowcomingofage.”30

DowningmayhavebeenreferringtoErikBarnett(1910-2006),theousteddirectorofthe

KenyaFieldCouncil,whoheldconsistentlyfirminhisoppositiontotheconceptof

‘fusion’.31Hehadconcededtoasettlementnegotiatedbythehomecouncilsandaccepted

themergerin1970onlyafterbeingheldhostagetoAfricanthreatsofahostiletakeover.

Afterhisretirementfromthemission,hecalledthe1970sthe‘badstage’inthemission’s

historyandreferredtothe1960sasaperiodof‘partnership’thatworkedverywelluntil

thehand-over.32Barnettwas‘pushedout’ofhispositionbythenewlyelectedbishop

immediatelyafterthemergerwassignedin1970.33Membersofthemissioncommunity,

eventhosewhosupportedthehand-over‘feltbad’that‘nomentionwasmadeofErik

Barnettatall’onthehistoricday.34Hewasreassignedtoworkinaremoteoutpostof

centralKenyaamongtheMarakwettribeuntilhisretirementin1975.35Heexpressedwhat

canonlybecalledadeep-seatedresentmenttowardthenewbishopandreferredtohis

deathin1979asananswertoprayer.36However,Barnett’sownviewsappeartohave

30DowningtoBellamy,2November1971.

31Cf.pp.206-209.

32ErikBarnett,InterviewsofErikStanleyBarnett,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection510,T3.HiscolleagueRichardGehmandescribedBarnett’srecollectionofthe1960sas‘romantic’.RichardGehman,interviewbyauthor,31March2014(Florida).

33RaymondWolfetoSidneyLangford,2August1972,JournalofRaymondWolfe(e-mailtoauthor);seediscussiononpage235.

34KennethL.DowningtoClaudosandGladysStauffacher,1November1971,DowningPapers(Florida).

35ErikBarnett,InterviewsofErikStanleyBarnett,T3.

36Ibid.

225

beenoutofstepwiththoseofmostmembersoftheAIMcommunityinthe1970s.37

Downing’schangeofheartismorethanlikelyabetterrepresentationoftheattitudeofAIM

missionariesinKenyaintheearly1970s.AsDowningputitayearaftertheagreementwas

signed,‘Althoughafewmissionariesareopposed,Ithinkmostofusfeelvery

encouraged.’38MostmembersoftheAIMcommunityadaptedtothenewarrangements.39

TheDominanceoftheAfricanChurch

Thehistorichand-overwasboththeculminationofthechurch’sstruggleforcontrol

andthecommencementofaneweramarkedbyAfricandomination.Threemajor

developmentsconvergedintheearly1970s,usheringinaperiodmarkedbyAfrican

supremacyinboththechurchandthemission.First,‘Africanisation’becamepartofthe

prevailingculturalmoodinKenya,affectingnearlyeveryaspectofsociety,includingthe

mission’srelationshipwiththechurch.Kenyahadachievednationalindependencein1963,

butaspresident,JomoKenyattahadsubsequentlyimplementedagradualprocessof

Africanisation.Ontheeveofindependence,seniorgovernmentpostswerehandedoverto

Africansinpreparationforautonomy,butotherspheresofsociety,includingthemilitary,

thepoliceforce,theeducationalsystem,andthecourtswereonlygraduallyAfricanised.40

KenyattahadcalledforAfricansandEuropeansto‘pulltogether’,makingtheSwahiliword

37JonathanHildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida);RichardGehman,interviewbyauthor,31March2014(Florida).HildebrandtandGehmanbothservedonthefieldwithKennethDowningandErikBarnett.Theywereparticipant-observersinthemissioncommunityduringthe1970sand80s.

38DowningtoBellamy,2November1971.

39Downing’sshiftduringtheearly1970sappearstoberepresentativeofthemajority(thoughnotall)AIMmissionaries.J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014;Gehman,interviewbyauthor,31March2014.

40CharlesHornsby,Kenya:AHistorySinceIndependence(London:I.B.Tauris,2012),57-58,121-127.

226

Harambee41thenationalmottoofKenya.42Intheearly1970s,governmentpressure

mountedtocompletetheAfricanisationprocessinallspheresofsociety.43Whilethe

governmentdidnotlegallyexcludeforeignmissionaries,thesocialpressuretoAfricanise

wasbeingfeltinthemissioncommunity.In1973SidneyLangfordpublishedanarticlein

themission’sofficialorganentitled,‘AfricaInlandMissioninChange’.Langforddescribed

the1960sinAfricaas‘adecadeofchange—political,education,socialandeconomic’.He

thenadded,‘Missionshavehadtoadjusttheirsailstothewindsofchange.Aswemove

intotheseventies,giganticchangesarestilltakingplaceandothersareonthehorizonthat

willleadtocompleteAfricanisationingovernment,business,andeveryotheractivity.’44As

hemadeitabundantlyclear,‘Thesechanges[inpoliticsandsociety]havelikewiseaffected

thechurchanditsleadership,themissionaryandhiswork,andtheMission,itspoliciesand

responsibilities.’45AfricanisationinsocietywascreatingpressuretoAfricanisethemission.

Missionarieswereincreasinglyviewedasrelicsofaby-goneeraassociatedwith

colonialoppression.Downingtalkedaboutthechangingattitudestowardmissionariesina

letterrecountinghisvisittoaboys’highschoolinKenyain1971.Duringaquestionand

answerperiod,aKenyanstudentsaidtoDowning,‘WereadinbookswrittenbyAfrican

historiansthatforeign,colonialgovernmentssentmissionariestoAfricato“softenupthe

41HarambeeistheSwahiliwordfor‘pulltogether’.

42RobertM.Maxon,‘IndependentEastAfrica,1960sto1990s’inEastAfrica:AnIntroductoryHistory(Morgantown,WV:WestVirginiaUniversityPress,1994),247-281.

43Hornsby,Kenya,232-234.

44SidneyLangford,‘AfricaInlandMissioninChange’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),[July-September1973],9.

45Ibid.

227

population”sotheycouldcomeinandoccupyandexploitthecountries.Isthistrue?’46

Africanstudentswerebeingtaughtthatforeignmissionarieswerecomplicitwiththe

exploitativepoliciesofcolonialnations.Theimageofthemissionaryasanoutdated

representativeofthecolonialerawaspopularizedinthe1970sthroughtheworkofthe

AfricanplaywrightJoedeGraft,whowascommissionedbytheAll-AfricaConferenceof

Churches(ACCC)toproduceaplayforitsinternationalmeetingtobeheldinNairobiin

1975duringtheWorldCouncilofChurches(WCC)gathering.47Muntu48tellsthestoryof

the‘WaterPeople’whoarrivebyshipinanAfricanvillageduringatribalfeud.Threemen

disembarkfromtheship:thefirstholdingaBible(themissionary),thesecondinauniform

brandishingarifle(thecolonialofficer)andthethirdcarryingagriculturaltoolsanda

musket(thesettler).Muntudepictedthemissionary,theBritishofficerandthesettleras

membersofthesamecolonialfraternitysenttoexploittheAfrican.49Literaryworkslike

Muntuwereeffective‘propaganda’,successfullydepictingthemissionaryasanothercogin

thewheelofavastimperialmachine.50TheeditorofInlandAfricacapturedthespiritthat

pervadedtheearly1970s:‘ThechurchandtheEuropeansettlerareone.Thesettler

robbedtheAfricanofhisland.Themissionaryrobbedhimofhissoul.’51Evenifthis

unflatteringviewofthemissionarywaspropaganda,theperceptionwaspartofAfrican

46KenDowningtoMrandMrsEarlAntworth,27September1971,DowningPapers(Florida).

47ArthurKemoliandHelenMwanzi,NotesonJoedeGrafts‘Muntu’(Nairobi:HeinemannEducationalBooks,1981),1.

48MuntuistheSwahiliwordfor‘soul’or‘essenceofmankind’.

49JoedeGraft,Muntu:APlay(Nairobi:EastAfricanEducationalPublishers,1977).

50BrianStanley,TheBibleandtheFlag(Leicester,England:Apollos,1990),11-31.

51E.H.Arensen,‘WhereHaveAlltheSheepGone?’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LVI,No.4[July-August1970],5.

228

realityinthe1970sandaddedpressureonthemissiontoworktowardAfricanisation.In

1973PeterStam,thedirectoroftheAIMCanadianHomeCouncil,explainedwhytheold

fieldcouncils,dominatedastheywerebywhitemissionaries,hadnowbeenreplaced:‘Itis

nolongerworkableintoday’sAfrica,wherenationalismand“Africanization”demand,

understandably,“Africanleadershipineveryrealmoflifeandineveryorganization”.’52

AfricanisationwasalltherageinKenyaandecclesiasticalorganizationscouldnolongerbe

‘dominated’by‘whitemissionaries’.AsAIMmissionaryPeterBrashlerputit,

‘“Africanization”isthepopularcry!’53

AseconddynamicforcethatgaverisetothedominationoftheAfricanchurch

duringtheearly1970swastheassertiveleadershipofWellingtonMulwa(1918-1979),the

firstbishopoftheAIC.54Thecolourfulandcontroversialleaderofthechurchmaybe

rightlylistedasanexampleofAfricanisation,butMulwawasalsoanindomitableforcein

hisownrightfortheemergenceofadominantAfricanchurch.Regrettably,thefirstbishop

oftheAICisbarelymentionedinthepublishedliteratureonthemission.Mulwawas

brieflyintroducedtothemissioncommunityina1971editionofInlandAfrica,55anda

politeparagraphwasdevotedtohimintheepilogueofRichardson’shistoryofthemission

publishedbyAIMin1976.56Curiously,hisnameisfoundonlyinpassinginwhatis

52PeterStam,‘TheA.I.M.inOrganizationalChange’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),[October-December1973],7.

53PeterBrashler,‘Congo’sShiftingScene’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LVI,No.4[July-August1970],8.

54MauriceWheatley,‘BishopWellingtonMulwa:TheAfricaInlandChurchKenyamournsitsloss’,InlandAfrica(British),[February-March1980],10-11.

55DaveHornberger,‘Kenya’sNewA.I.C.President’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LV,No.2[March-April1971],7-8.

56Richardson,GardenofMiracles,257.

229

consideredthestandardhistoryofthemissionpublishedin1994andwrittenbythe

retiredInternationalGeneralSecretaryofAIM.57

WellingtonMulwawasaneducatorandanAICpastorfromUkambani,theoldest

areaoftheAIMandastrongholdofthemission.Hewasacompetentadministrator,an

effectivefund-raiserandagiftedpublicspeaker.WilliamBarnett,anAIMmissionaryand

thebrotherofErikBarnett,talkedabouttheimpressionMulwamadeonhiminthe1960s

and1970s:‘Boy,hecouldgetupandtalkandpreach.Andhewasapreacher.Andhecould

havehisaudienceinstitches,withtellingstoriesaboutAfricaandthedifferencebetween

thewhitesandtheblacksandallthatsortofthingthatwere[sic]goingon.’58In1926

MulwabeganattendinganAIMschoolatthemissionstationinMukaa,wherehewas

convertedtoChristianityabout1929.59Theonlyknownrecordofhisconversionisfound

inabriefbiographicalsketchofMulwathatwasprovidedinapromotionalpiecepublished

forthechurchin1972:

OneGoodFridaymorning,MulwarecitedthewordsofthegospelconcerningJesusonthecross.ThepowerofJesuscameuponhimuntilheconfessedthathewasasinnerwhohadneedofbeingsaved.FromthatdayMrMulwareceivedtheLordJesustobetheSaviourofhislife.60

57Anderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,40,326.AndersonwasamedicalmissionarywithAIMandbeganhiscareerin1956inKenya.In1975hewasappointedAssociateSecretaryforOutreach,andin1978waselectedInternationalGeneralSecretaryofAIM,aposthehelduntilhisretirementin1990.HewouldhavebeenwellacquaintedwithBishopMulwa’sleadershipinthe1970s.

58WilliamBarnett,PapersofWilliamJohnBarnett,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection248,T9.

59‘KenyanChurchLeadertoSpeak’,LakelandLedger,6October1973.Thearticlestates:‘OnaGoodFridaymorningin1929,theeight-yearoldMulwamadeaprofessionoffaithinChristatamissionstationnearhisbirthplaceofMukaa.’

60EdArensen,‘Rev.WellingtonMulwa’in1stAnniversaryoftheAfricaInlandChurch,15thOctober,1972(Kijabe,Kenya:AfricaInlandChurch,1972),49.

230

Mulwa’ssalvationexperienceisdescribedinEvangelicallanguage,withanemphasisonthe

crossandman’sneedforconversion,andhemadeevangelisticworkacentralpartofthe

churchhewouldlead.

TheyoungconvertoftheAIMreceivedhissecondaryeducationattheAllianceHigh

School.61Alliancewasfoundedin1926bytheAllianceofProtestantChurcheswithstrong

supportfromitsleadingmembers,theChurchofScotlandMission(CSM),theAfricaInland

MissionandtheChurchMissionarySociety(CMS).Theschoolacceptedthetopstudents

frompost-secondaryschoolsinKenyaandofferededucationforpotentialmembersofthe

Africanelitewhowouldleadthenationduringdecolonisation.62Aftercompletinghis

studiesatAlliance,MulwaservedforoneyearasteacherinhishometownofMukaain

1940beforeacceptingseveralgovernmentposts,firstwiththeSoilConservationServicein

1941andthenasadirectorinthegovernmenthealthdepartment.63In1946theAICelders

atMukaainvitedMulwatoserveasateacherintheAICschool,buttheinvitationwas

revokedbytheAIMmissionaryinchargeofthestationnamedGuilding.Thereasonfor

Guilding’srejectionofMulwaisnotdisclosed,thoughGehmanimpliesthatitmayhave

beenapersonalconflictbetweenamissionaryfromthe‘oldera’andanup-and-coming

Africanleaderwhoclashedwithmissionauthority.64WhenGuildinghadacourtorder

issuedforbiddingMulwafromtrespassingonmissionproperty,theAfricanleaders

61Ibid.

62Hornsby,Kenya:AHistorySinceIndependence,34;DavidB.Barrett,etal.,KenyaChurchesHandbook:TheDevelopmentofKenyanChristianity,1498-1973(Kisumu,Kenya:EvangelHousePublishing,1973),24;J.StephenSmith,AHistoryoftheAllianceHighSchool(Nairobi:HeinemannEducationalBooks,1973).

63Arensen,‘Rev.WellingtonMulwa’,49.

64RichardGehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.Kenya’(unpublishedmanuscript),RichardGehmanPapers(Florida),572.

231

resignedandleftthemission.65FollowinghisrejectionatMukaain1946,Mulwawentto

workfortheDepartmentofEducationandin1956wasinvitedbytheAIMtoserveasthe

DeputyPrincipaloftheKangundoTeachers’College.66In1960hemovedtoLondonand

studiedfortwoyearsattheAllNationsBibleCollegebeforereturningtoKenyafor

ordinationandpastoralministryinMatungula,approximately50kilometersnorthof

Machakos.67MulwatookasimilarpathasthatofJomoKenyatta,whowaseducatedata

ChurchofScotlandmissionschoolbeforemovingtoLondontostudyabroad.African

leaderswhoacquiredWesterneducationandspenttimeoverseaswereconsidered

privilegedbytheirpeersandweretreatedwithreverence.68MulwaservedasanAIC

pastorinMachakosandwassoonelevatedtoserveaschairmanoftheMachakosRegional

ChurchCouncil.69JonathanHildebrandt,anAIMmissionarywhoknewMulwainthe1960s

and1970s,remembersthathewas‘abletopushupgivinginthewholeregion’sothat

‘whenitcametimefortheelectionofthebishopin1970,hewaselectedonthebasisofhis

visionandhisabilitytoraisefundsandhisabilitytolead’.70Mulwa’slife-longaffiliation

withthemission,hiseducationalbackground,histimespentabroad,hisexperiencein

educationandgovernmentandhisableleadershipinoneofthelargestregionsoftheAIC

65Ibid.

66Arensen,‘Rev.WellingtonMulwa’,49.

67‘LifeHistoryoftheLateBishopW.E.Mulwa’,preparedforhisfuneral,n.d.,1979,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

68J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida);Gehman,interviewbyauthor,31March2014(Florida).

69Gehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.Kenya’,572;J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida).

70J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014,(Florida).

232

madehimtheobviouschoicetobecomeleaderofthechurchwhenPresidentGhichuha

retiredin1970.71

MulwaelevatedtheprofileoftheAfricanchurchinthenationthroughhisenergetic

leadership.DorothyHildebrandt(marriedtoJonathanHildebrandt)wasthedaughterof

KennethDowningandanAIMmissionarywhoservedasMulwa’spersonalassistantinthe

early1970s.Sheremembershimas‘astrongnaturalleader’whowanted‘tomovethe

churchahead’.72Mulwamaintainedavisiblepresenceonthenationalstageasthe

representativeofoneofKenya’slargestdenominations.Hepresidedovertheservice

celebratingthehand-overofthemissiontothechurchon16October1971andaccepted

thesignedlegaldocumentsinthepresenceofVice-PresidentMoiandthousandsof

onlookers.73HeservedasthechairoftheNationalChristianCouncilofKenya(thename

waschangedfromtheChristianCouncilofKenyain1966toreflectnationalism)from1972

to1973.74MulwadidnotadvocatetheseparatiststancetakenmanyAIMleaders,andeven

afewmembersoftheAICviewedhiscontinuedassociationwiththeNCCKwith

suspicion.75InamovethatwascontroversialamongsomeAIMmissionaries,heaccepted

thetitleofbishopin1973andintroducedministerialrobesforclergymen.76Theadoption

71J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida).

72DorothyHildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida).

73Gehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.inKenya’,575.

74ThenamewaschangedfromtheNationalChristianCouncilofKenyatotheNationalCouncilofChurchesofKenyain1984.SeeNationalCouncilofChurchesofKenya,‘OurJourney’,http://www.ncck.org/newsite2/index.php/about-ncck/our-jouney(accessed30June2017);foralistofpastofficials,see‘ListofCouncilOfficials’,http://www.ncck.org/newsite2/index.php/about-ncck/council-officials(accessed13January2017).



233

ofanewtitleandthedonningofclericalvestmentswereespeciallybothersomefor

missionarieswhowerebaptisticornonconformistintheirchurchpolity.77TheAICCentral

ChurchCouncil(calledtheBarazaKuu78)approvedthetitleof‘bishop’forMulwaaftera

lawwaspasseddisallowingtheuseof‘president’byanyoneexceptforthenation’sheadof

state.79Thecouncilrepliedtoitscriticsinthemissioncommunitythatthetitlewasmore

biblicalthanpresident!80MulwawantedAICministerstowearrobessothattheywouldbe

readilyidentifiableintheircommunitiesliketheirAnglican,Presbyterian,Methodist,

LutheranandRomanCatholiccolleagues.81HewantedtheAICtobehighlyvisibleinthe

community,andhewasleadingtheway.AsHildebrandtputit,‘Heneededthosethings

[title,robes]justlikethequeenofEnglandmusthaveasceptreoracrown;forachurch

leaderitwasarobe,forthebusinessleaderitwouldbeasharpArmanisuit.’82Through

Mulwa’sleadership,oneofKenya’slargestdenominationsbecamehighlyvisibleinKenya.

OneofMulwa’sfirstendeavourswasthecreationofanationalheadquartersforthe

AICchurch.Hispredecessorhadworkedoutofhisownhomelocatedonhisfarmin

77FrankFrew,BetweenTwoMountains:APilgrimagefromKambaTraditionalBeliefstoChristianCommunity(Scarborough,ON:AfricaInlandMission,2006),333-334;Gehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.inKenya’,579-580.

78BarazaKuuisSwahilifor‘gatheringoftheelders’ora‘councilofchiefs’.ThetermwasusedbytheAICfortheCentralChurchCouncil.

79Frew,BetweenTwoMountains,333;Richardson,GardenofMiracles,257;J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida).


81Ibid.

82Ibid.

234

Kiambu,andintheabsenceofacathedral,theAIChadnovisibleseatofpower.83The

bishopimmediatelybegandevelopingplansforapermanentheadquartersinthenation’s

capital.84ThechurchinitiallysetupofficesinahosteloftheAICZiwaniChurch(inNairobi),

oneofthenation’slargestcongregations,whosepastorwasSamuelKioko,theformer

generalsecretaryoftheAIC.85UnderMulwa’sdirection,theAICpurchasedpropertyand

builtanofficebuildinginNairobithatwasdedicatedbyVice-PresidentMoiin1972.86The

churchquicklyoutgrewtheseofficesandin1974securedfundingtobeginleasingathree-

storeyofficecomplexthathadformerlyhousedtheAIMheadquarters.87TheAICtookover

theseoffices,formallyopeningthemon15March1975.88Thenewbuildinghousedoffices

forthedepartmentsofeducation,theologicaleducation(ScottTheologicalCollegeand

eightBibleInstitutes),radio,AICmissions(theAICMissionaryBoard),literature(printing),

medicineandtheAfricaInlandMission,nowadepartmentoftheAIC.89Underthebishop’s

leadership,theAIChadaphysicalseatofpowerinthenation’scapital.

MulwausedhispositionasbishoptocreatepartnershipswiththeglobalEvangelical

communityinordertoexpandtheworkoftheAIC.HebelievedtheAfricanchurchneeded

educatedleaderstoprovideguidanceandeducationfortheAIC.Hearrangedforseveral


84J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida);WellingtonMulwa,‘80thAnniversary:AfricaInlandChurch,AddressbyWellingtonMulwa’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81,12-13

85Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,12-13;Gehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard’,577.

86Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,12-13.

87Ibid.

88AfricaInlandMission–KenyaFieldCouncil,24-25March1975,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

89Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,9-12;Gehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard’,578.

235

graduatesofScottTheologicalCollegetostudyatEvangelicalschoolslikeWheatonCollege

(Illinois),TrinityEvangelicalDivinitySchool(Illinois),ColumbiaBibleCollege(South

Carolina)andLondonBibleCollege.By1975thefirsttwoAfricanleadershadcompleted

theirstudiesandreturnedtoKenyatotakeupleadershipresponsibilitiesintheAIC.90In

1973heflewtotheUnitedStatesandEnglandtomeetwithhomecouncilsandspeakat

localchurchesinordertopromotetheworkoftheAfricanchurch.91AMay1974minuteof

theInternationalCouncil(IC)containedthisnote:‘WeknowalreadythatKenya,through

itsveryactivepresident,ismakingallkindoflinksinotherpartsoftheworldquiteapart

fromtheA.I.M.’Aneditorcrossedouttheword‘President’andwroteaboveitthetitle

‘Bishop’.92BetweenJanuaryandJuly1974,Mulwatookanextensiveglobaltour,travelling

totheUnitedStates,Canada,Singapore,HongKongandthePhilippinesonbehalfoftheAIC.

HealsorepresentedtheAfricanchurchatthe1974InternationalCongressonWorld

EvangelizationinLausanneandaffixedhissignaturetothecovenant.Histripwasfunded

bytheChristianNationalsEvangelismCommission(CNEC),laterre-namedPartners

International,anorganizationestablishedin1943forthepurposeoffunding‘native’

workersinChina(theorganization’soriginalnamewasChinaNativeEvangelistic

Crusade).93HesuccessfullysecuredsupportfromCNECtofundtheworkof‘tennational

90Ibid.

91MinutesofMeetingoftheBritishHomeCounciloftheAfricanInlandMission,3September1973,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham);‘KenyanChurchLeadertoSpeak’,LakelandLedger,6October1973.

92‘ChurchMissionRelationswithParticularReferencetoAfricanMembersoftheInternationalCounciloftheA.I.M.’,12May1974,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

93AfricaInlandMission–KenyaFieldCouncil,2-4December1974,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham);PartnersInternational,‘History’,https://www.partnersintl.org/about-us/history(accessed14January2017).

236

evangelists’tobeginwork‘amongtheGriamapeopleonthecoast’.94Hedevelopeda

personalrelationshipwiththeDutchphilanthropistAnnaMarieRookmaaker(1915-2003),

whointhemid-1960shaddevelopedchildsponsorshipschemesforunderprivileged

childreninAfricaandAsia.95Rookmaakerwasthewifeofthewell-knownEvangelical

scholarandactivist,HenderikRoelof‘Hans’Rookmaaker(1922-1977).96MrsRookmaaker

(affectionatelyknownas‘Anky’)wastroubledbypaternalisticattitudesamongWestern

missionariesandhelddeepconvictionsaboutindigenouschurchleadership.She

circumventedtraditionalmissionagenciesandpreferredworkingdirectlywithnational

leaders.97In1968AnkyestablishedtheorganizationRedteenKind(SaveaChild)forthe

purposeofprovidingaidtoorphansinAfricaandIndia.98Mulwausedthefundsheraised

throughRookmaakertoopenhomesforunderprivilegedchildrenonvacantAIMmission

stations.99HealsodevelopedapartnershipwithBrotfürdieWelt(BreadfortheWorld),a

relieforganizationthatmobilizesProtestantchurchesinGermanytoprovidefinancial

94AfricaInlandMission–KenyaFieldCouncil,2-4December1974,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

95J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida).HildebrandtmentionedMulwa’srelationshipwithRookmaakerintheinterview.ItiscorroboratedinacollectionofunpublishedpapersonthethehistoryoftheDanish-basedFriendsMissionaryPrayerBandinIndiabyPaulH.Jeyasingh,‘TheStoryoftheDanishpetMission’(unpublishedpaper,2014),https://docs.google.com/document/d/1BbwdQAkhO1xJlI2L9RL7hZr8WU2COGqjmez6GfwMMn4/edit,27-28;Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,15.MulwareferstheAIC’spartnershipwiththeorganizationinhisremarks.

96LaurelGasque,ArtandtheChristianMind:TheLifeandWorkofH.R.Rookmaaker(Wheaton:CrosswayBooks,2005),59-90.

97Jeyasingh,‘TheStoryoftheDanishpetMission’,28.

98Gasque,ArtandtheChristianMind:TheLifeandWorkofH.R.Rookmaaker,89,181.

99J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida);Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,15.

237

assistanceforchurchesinthedevelopingworld.100HisrelationswiththeWesternchurch

wereusedtofundchurchplanters,children’shomes,reliefeffortsandadministrativecosts

fortheAICheadquartersinNairobi.101Mulwawasanassertiveleaderwhoforgedalliances

withWesternEvangelicalsforthepurposeofbolsteringtheworkoftheAICinKenya.

BishopMulwawantedWesternmissionariestocontinueworkinginKenyaafterthe

hand-over,buthewasuncompromisinginhisinsistencethattheyshouldworkunderhis

authority.In1971theKenyan-borngeneralsecretaryofthePresbyterianChurchinEast

Africa,JohnGatu,irritatedmembersoftheEvangelicalmissioncommunitywhenhe

famouslycalledforanAfrica-wide‘moratoriumonmissionaries’attheMilwaukeeMission

Festival.102Gatu’scallforamoratoriumgainedsuchawidehearingintheearly1970sthat

BillyGrahamfeltcompelledtoopposeGatu’sideaspubliclyinakeynoteaddressatthe

LausanneCongressin1974.103Mulwa,however,wasopposedtoamissionarymoratorium

andopenlyexpressedhisowndesireforWesternmissionariestoremaininKenya.Ina

1971interviewpublishedinInlandAfricaafewmonthsbeforethehistorichand-overon

16October,MulwawasaskedifWesternmissionarieswerestillwantedinAfrica.

‘Absolutely!’hereplied.‘Wehavenointentionofdrivingoutthewhitebrethren.’104He

wentontodescribehisdesireforWesternmissionariestoserveinvariouscapacities,

100J.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida);BrotfürdieWelt,‘WhoWeAre’,https://www.brot-fuer-die-welt.de/en/bread-for-the-world(accessed20January2017).


102JohnGatuinC.PeterWagner,‘ColortheMoratoriumGrey’inInternationalReviewofMission(1975),vol.64,165-76.

103BrianStanley,‘“Lausanne1974”:TheChallengefortheMajorityWorldtoNorthern-HemisphereEvangelicalism’,JournalofEcclesiasticalHistory,Vol.64,No.3[July2013],543-44.

104DavidHornberger,‘Kenya’sNewAICPresident’,InlandAfrica[June-July1971],7.

238

including‘BibleTraining’,‘SecondaryEducation’andMedicalWork’.105WhenMulwa

travelledtoLondonin1973toreportontheprogressofthechurch,heevenmadean

appealformoreWesternmissionaries.AtameetingwiththeBritishHomeCouncilin

Londonon3September1973,Mulwaspokeofthegreatneedsofthechurchand‘expressed

thecontinuingneedformoreexpatriatemissionaries’.106Mulwaexplainedthatthereason

WesternmissionarieswerestillneededwasthatKenyawasstill‘adevelopingcountry’and

neededthesupport,expertiseandfinancialassistanceofthe‘olderoverseaschurches’to

aidthe‘fastdevelopingyoung’Africanchurch.107

MulwawantedmissionariestoremaininKenya,buthealsoinsistedthattheywork

undertheauthorityoftheAfricanchurch.Thebishopwasnotafraidtounseata

missionarywhowasunabletoworkunderhisleadership.Whenhecametoofficein1970,

heforcedErikBarnettoutofhispositionasfielddirector.Barnettrecallsthebishop’s

wordstomissionrepresentatives:‘Iwantavoiceinchoosingyourfielddirector…andthe

onethingIdon’twanttohaveisIdon’twanttohaveErikBarnett.’108Thoughthebishop’s

reasonswerenotdisclosed,Barnetthadstronglyopposedthedevolutionofthemissionin

the1960s.AfterMulwa‘chasedaway’Barnettin1970,hehadAIMmissionaryRaymond

WolferemovedfromhispostasaprofessorattheAICScottTheologicalCollegein1972.109

Thereason,accordingtoWolfe,wasthathehadbeen‘opposedtohim[Mulwa]eversince

105Ibid.,8.

106MinutesoftheBritishHomeCouncil,3September1973,AIMInternationalArchives,Nottingham.

107Hornberger,‘Kenya’sNewAICPresident’,8.

108ErikBarnett,InterviewsofErikStanleyBarnett,Collection510,BGCArchives(Wheaton),T3.ThereasonsforBarnett’sresignationin1970arenotfoundintheofficialrecord.

109RaymondWolfetoSidneyLangford,9July1972.

239

hisordination’andthebishopaccusedhimofcausing‘division’intheAIC.110Wolfe

candidlyadmittedthathewasloyaltotheAICbutcouldnotgivehisloyaltytoMulwawhen

hebecamebishop.111Mulwadidnottolerateinsubordinatemissionaries.Afterthe

bishop’sdeathin1979,theBritisheditionofInlandAfricanotedthathewasaleaderwho

‘stressedtheneedforcontinuedmissionaryactivity’butthathewas‘strongagainstany

kindofexpatriatecontrolinchurchaffairs’.112ThebishopwelcomedAIMmissionaries,but

healsodemandedtheirallegiance.

BishopMulwatookthemergerseriously.Hewanteda‘merging’ofnotjustthe

missionandthechurchbutalsothemissionaryandthechurch.HewantedAIM

missionariestobecomeintegratedwiththechurchandassisttheAICwithitswork.He

wasfrustratedwiththemission-stationmentalityandpressedformissionariestowork

side-by-sidewithAfricans.A1972documentsummarizingthefieldstudythathadbeen

commissionedbythemissionin1968expressedconcernthatmissionariesoftencarried

outtheirworkinisolationfromtheAfricanchurch.Thereportnotedthat‘themissionary

isviewedastheresidentofthe“missionstation”withitsbuilt-inisolationfromthe

community’.113Thebishopwantedacollaborativerelationshipwiththemissionandthe

missionary,andhefrequentlypleadedforachange.A1974minutereads:‘BishopMulwa

againurgedallmissionariestotakeactivestepstobecomeintegratedintothefellowship

110RaymondWolfetoSidneyLangford,2August1972.

111Ibid.

112MauriceWheatley,‘BishopWellingtonMulwa’,10-11.

113‘C.S.F.EvaluationReport:SummaryandRecommendationsforA.I.M.InternationalConference’,8May1972,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

240

andprogrammeoftheAfricaInlandChurch.’114A1975minutereadsthat‘BishopMulwa…

againaskedallmissionariestoreallygetinvolvedintheworkandministryofthelocal

churches.’115In1975,atalargegatheringofAIMworkersonthemission’slargeststation

locatedinKijabe,Mulwaexclaimed:‘Wewantyouasmissionariestobeoutandbeone

withthepeople.Missionariesarelikemanure,theydonothingbutstink[whentheyare

gatheredinoneplace],butifyouspreadthemoutyouhavegreatgrowthandwonderful

crops.’116MulwawantedAIMmissionariesandAICchurchleaderstogetoutinthe

churchesspreadacrossKenyaandworktogetherwiththeirAfricanbrethrenforthe

commoncauseofspreadingtheEvangelicalfaith.ThefirstbishopoftheAICwasa

visionaryleaderandaneffectivefundraiserwithanimposingpersonality.Heestablished

theAICasavisiblepresenceinKenya,createdaglobalnetworkforexpandingtheworkof

thechurchinthenation,anddemandedthatmissionariesbowtothewilloftheAfrican

churchandworkinharmonywithit.

Thethirdmajordevelopmentthatusheredinaneramarkedbythedominanceof

theAICwastheexponentialgrowthoftheAfricanchurch.DavidBarrett’s1968

groundbreakingstudySchismandRenewalinAfrica:AnAnalysisofSixThousand

ContemporaryReligiousMovementsalertedmissioncommunitiesinthelate1960stothe

114AfricaInlandMission–Kenya,FieldCouncil,2-4December1974,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

115AfricaInlandMission–Kenya,FieldCouncil,24-25March1975,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

116WellingtonMulwa,accordingtoJ.Hildebrandt,interviewbyauthor,3April2014(Florida).HildebrandtcouldnotrecalltheprecisedateofthismeetingthoughMulwawaspresentatalargegatheringofAIMmissionariesinDecember1975.Hepresenceisnotedinthe‘ReportbyByangKatoontheWorldCouncilofChurchesgivenatAIMfieldconference’,December1975,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81,T306,Side1.

241

newrealitiesofindependentchurchesemergingontheAfricancontinent.117Thefindings

bewilderedscholarsandmissionariesalike.AsBarrettnotesinthepreface:

ThisstudydescribesoneofthemostremarkableachievementsoftheAfricanreligiousgenius.OutofabewilderinglydisparatepatchworkofChristianforeignmissionaryendeavourincountlessAfricansocieties,aspontaneousyetextraordinarilycoherentresponseisemerging,whichindicateshowcreativelyAfricacanrespondtotheChristianFaithwhenforeignassistanceand(assomewouldadd)foreigninterferencearewithdrawn.118

‘Foreignassistance’(theforeignmissionary)hadestablishedavibrantchurchin‘African

societies’andnowthoseverychurchesweregrowingevenwheninsomecasesthe

missionaryhadtobe‘withdrawn’.ThegrowthoftheAfricanchurchwasrenderingthe

missionaryobsolete.E.H.ArensenpublishedastraightforwardreviewofBarrett’sbook

fortheAIMcommunityina1969issueofInlandAfrica.119Barretthadconductedhis

researchonthegrowthofChristianityinAfricawhilelivinginNairobi,andin1973he

publishedanotherstudy:KenyaChurchesHandbook:TheDevelopmentofKenyan

Christianity,1498-1973.120CommissionedbytheNationalChristianCouncilofKenya

(formerlynamedtheChristianCouncilofKenya),thestudyprovidedasurveyof

ChristianityinKenyafromtheeraofRomanCatholicmissionsinthesixteenthcentury

throughtheriseofProtestantmissionsinthenineteenthcenturyandfollowedbythe

dramaticgrowthofthechurchinKenyainthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.Chock-

117DavidB.Barrett,SchismandRenewalinAfrica:AnAnalysisofSixThousandReligiousMovements(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1968).

118Ibid,xvii.

119E.H.Arensen,‘SchismandRenewalinAfrica:ABookReview’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.VII,No.2[March-April1969],21.

120Ibid.

242

fullofcharts,mapsandstatistics,Barrett’s1973studyprovidedanever-before-seen

printedpanoramaofthestatusofChristianityinKenyathatastoundedevenAfricans.John

Mbiti,theKenya-bornandCambridge-educatedprofessoratMakerereUniversityin

Uganda,expressedastonishmentatthefindings:

ThisHandbookisadisturbingrevelation.Nobodycouldhaveguessedthestatisticalsurprisescontainedinthisbook…TheinformationcontainedhereinshattersmanypreconceivednotionsaboutChristianityinKenya,anditsdataleavenodoubtthatKenyahasbecomeverymuchaChristiancountry.121

MbitiwasanAnglicanclergyman,andsohewasmostlikelyusingtheword‘disturbing’in

thesensethatthefindingswereshocking.Barrett’sstudyprovidedstatisticalevidencethat

‘disturbed’formerperceptionsthatChristianitywasmerelyaEuropeanreligion.

ChristianityhadgrowninKenyafromlessthanonepercentofthepopulationin1900toa

remarkable66.3percentin1973!122TherewasnowempiricalevidencethatChristianity

hadbecomethedominantreligioninKenya.

Barrett’s1973studycrownedtheAICasoneofthelargestProtestant

denominationsinthecountry,withsome300,000baptizedmembersin1,700

congregations.123ApublicitypieceontheAICpublishedafter1971,butbeforeBarrett’s

1973studywasreleased,estimatedthemembershipoftheAICtobearound300,000in

1,600churches.124In1975BishopMulwareportedthattherewerenowmorethan2,000

121TheRev.ProfessorJohnS.Mbiti,‘Preface’inBarrett,etal.,KenyaChurchesHandbook,xviii.

122Barrett,KenyaChurchesHandbook,160.

123Ibid,184.

124‘IntroducingtheAfricaInlandChurch’,ca.1972,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

243

AICchurchesinKenyawithmorethan550,000members.125A1979‘FactSheet’produced

bytheAIMestimatedthesizeoftheAICchurchinKenyatobeatonemillion.126Itis

difficulttoconfirmtheaccuracyofthereportingbyBarrett,MulwaortheAIM.Morad’s

1995surveyofthegrowthoftheAICindicatesthattherewere960AICchurchesin1970,

growingto1,533by1980,andreaching2,116placesofworshipby1990.127Morad’s

numbersaremoreconservativethanBarrett’s,thoughhisstudydoesindicatethattheAIC

wasrapidlygrowingatarateofmorethan50newchurchesayear.ThoughMulwamay

havebeenextrapolatingfromBarrett’sdata,itisconceivablethattheAICgrewfromabout

300,000adherentsin1970tosome500,000by1975andreachingnearly1millionbythe

endofthedecade.Eveniftheprecisestatisticsaredifficulttoascertain,thenumbers

reportedbyBarrett,Mulwa,MoradandtheAIMindicatethattheAICwasarapidlygrowing

indigenouschurch.ThegrowthoftheAfricanchurchwasattributedtotheworkofAfrican

pastors,missionariesandevangelists.Morad’s1993studycommissionedbytheAICshows

thatbetween1940and1975,fewermissionarieswereprovidingassistanceforchurch

plantingendeavoursevenasthenumberofchurchplantsincreased.Accordingtothe

study,therewere456AICchurchesestablishedinKenyaduringthe1960swithmorethan

400ofthosechurchesbeingplantedbyAfricansworkingwithouttheassistanceofAIM

missionaries.Inthedecadeofthe1970s,Africansplanted532ofthe573AICchurches

125Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,8.Worshipattendancesaremoredifficulttoconfirm.SidneyLangford,AIM’sGeneralSecretary,reportedina1974radioaddressthat‘onemillionattendAfricaInlandChurcheseachSunday’,butthisisprobablyareferencetoalltheAIMfields.See‘NewsClips’,InlandAfrica(March1974),14.

126A.I.M.KenyaFactSheet,April1979,Nairobi,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81.

127StephenMorad,‘LocalChurchSurveyoftheAfricaInlandChurch’(unpublishedreport,1995),BGCArchives(Wheaton),PapersofStephenD.Morad,Collection689,15.

244

establishedinKenya,againwithnoassistancefromWesternmissionaries.128Duringthe

1960sand1970s,onlytwenty-threeofthemorethanonethousandchurchesthatwere

plantedinKenyabeganundertheauspicesofWesternmissionaries.129TheAIC

experiencedrapidgrowthinthe1970s,andAfricansplayedthedominantrole.

Africanswereprovidingleadershipforagrowingindigenouschurchandtheywere

nowinthevanguardofevangelisticeffortsthroughoutKenya.Thiscreatedadegreeof

uncertaintyonthepartofmissionariesabouttheirplaceintheneworder.Iftheywereno

longerengagedinestablishingchurchesandcountingconverts,howcouldtheyjustifytheir

existencetosupporters?SomeAIMworkersexpressedconcernthattheymight‘losetheir

statistics’andhavedifficulty‘impressinghomeconstituenciesthatthey/orAIMare

productive’.130Thehomecouncilsexploredotherfieldsforevangelismasmissionariesin

Kenyatriedtoadjusttonewroles.TheAmericanHomeOfficefloatedtheideaofturning

AIM’sattentiontothe‘blacksofAmerica’asamajorevangelistictarget.131Themissionwas

unabletorecruitworkersforthisventure,theBritishdisplayedlittleinterestandby1974

theprojectwasin‘aholdingpattern’.132MissionariesinKenyamovedintoancillaryroles:

hostingshort-termserviceteams,workinginmedicalmissions,orservinginradio,filmand

theologicaleducation.IssuesofInlandAfricaintheearly1970sarefilledwithpicturesand

128Ibid.

129Ibid.,13.

130‘AfricaInlandMissionEvaluationStudyReport’(Minneapolis,MN:ChristianServiceFellowship,1970),AIM-InternationalArchives,(Nottingham),139.

131JohnAlexanderGration,‘NewFields’,4September1970,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

132JohnAlexanderGration,‘UrbanCommitteeReport’,24September1974,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

245

storiesofAIMmissionariesservingonthefieldinalmosteverywayexceptchurchplanting.

Anarticletitled‘SummerInvasion’showscollegestudentsfromschoolslikeWheaton

College(Illinois)andMoodyBibleInstitute(Illinois)working‘withpatientsinthehospital’

ordoing‘secretarialworkintheRadioStudio’orhelpingas‘Nurses’Aids’inaclinic.133An

articleshowingpicturesofmissionariesrecordingamessagefromanAfricanpastoris

typical:‘Notonlyistheregularradioworkitselfexpandingbutawholenewfieldis

openingincassetteministry.’134Anotherarticlewiththecaption‘MedicineonWheelsand

Wings’includespicturesofmissionariestakingmedicalsuppliestoKenya’sNortherntribes

viaLandRoversandaeroplanes.135AIMmissionarieswereshownworkingonfilmsets

laudingtheworkofAfromedia,‘aChristianfilm/TVproductioncenterbasedinNairobi’.

AIMassistedinthisnewventureinordertoprovideprogrammingforAfricantelevision

stationsinNairobito‘witness’and‘extendthechurchwhereitcannotnormallygo’.136

SteveWilson,anAIMmissionarywhograduatedwithanengineeringdegreefromLe

Tourneau(Texas),ispicturedusinghisskillstohelpbuildplacesofworshipforAIC

churchesinKenya.Hehadnowfoundhis‘nicheinthematrixthatmakesupGod’sMaster

Plan’workingin‘hisroleasamissionarybuilderandengineer’.137AfewAIMmissionaries

servedinadministrationandteachingintheAIC’stheologicalschool,ScottTheological

133EdwardH.Arensen,‘SummerInvasion’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LVII,No.1[January-March1973],4-5.

134EdwardH.Arensen,‘NotSoundProof’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LVII,No.2[April-June1973],4-5.

135RichardAnderson,‘NomadMedicine’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.LVII,No.1[January-March1973],10-11.

136ArtDavis,‘Afromedia:TakeOne:SoundOne’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)[July-September1974],6-9.

137BobClements,‘TheSteveWilsons’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),[April-June1975],8-9.

246

College.138ThemissioncontinuedtoexertsignificantinfluenceinKenya,especiallyasa

serviceprovider,butitbecameincreasinglylessvisible.139AstheminutesoftheBritish

HomeCouncilnoted,‘itwasfeltthatthemissionwasprimarilya“serviceagency”ofthe

churches.’140ThenumberofAIMpersonnelservinginKenyaincreasedfrom255in1971

to268in1976,whilethenumberservinginallitsfieldsdeclinedfrom471to442during

thesameperiod.141ThenetgaininKenyaisdueinparttothetransferofmissionary

personnelfromotherfields,includingTanzania,UgandaandZaire.142ThoughKenya

enjoyedamodestincreaseinAIMmissionaries,theyweregraduallyrecedingfromthe

frontlinesofecclesiasticalwork.A1975articleinInlandAfricareads,‘Themissionaries

have“workedthemselvesoutofjobs”’.Thearticlefurtherstatesthatwhilestillneeded,

‘themissionariesservebehindthescenes’.143AIMmissionarieswerepresentandserving,

buttheAfricanchurchnowplayedthedominantrole.

‘InAfricanHands’

InMay1975theInternationalCounciloftheAIMgatheredinKentforaseriesof

meetingsonthe80thanniversaryofthemission.PhilipS.Henman,nowthepresidentof

138Gehman,‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.Kenya’,346.

139JulieHearn,‘The“Invisible”NGO:USEvangelicalMissionsinKenya’,JournalofReligioninAfrica,Vol.32(Feb.2002),48-50.HearnobservesthatAIMandothermissionscontinuedtoexertsignificantinfluenceinKenyaafterthe1970s.Sheargues(perhapscynically)thatKenyanpoliticalleaderslikeMoi(amemberoftheAIC)co-optedmissionagenciesforpoliticalgainbycollaboratingwiththeminordertoprovideneededservicestovoters.

140BritishHomeCouncilMinutes,2November1971,AIMInternationalArchives,(Nottingham).

141DistributionandStatusofAllA.I.M.Personnel,1927-1981,AIMInternationalOffice(Bristol).

142Ibid.

143HalOlsen,‘ViewfromAfrica’,InlandAfrica[July-September1975],11.

247

themission’sBritishHomeCouncil,hostedtheMaymeeting.144Hemusthavebeenpleased

bythe1971mergerbetweenthemissionandthechurchinKenya.Evangelisticworkin

KenyawasnowinthecapablehandsofAfricanEvangelicals,anditwastimeforthe

missiontoexploreotherfields.Themissionpassedthefollowingresolution:

Motionprevailedthatonthis,theeightiethanniversaryoftheMission,wecommitourselvestothefulfillmentofourevangelisticmandate.Unreachedareas,representingliterallythousanduponthousandsforwhomChristdied,presentthemselvestousasdidourpresentfieldsatthebeginningofthecentury.145

MostofKenyawasnolongerconsideredan‘unreachedarea’asithadbeeninthebeginning

ofthetwentiethcentury.Theminutesstruckahopefulchord,reflectingonpast

accomplishmentsandlayingoutplanstoexploreopportunitiestocarryoutitsworkinthe

ComorosIslands,MozambiqueandtheSeychelles.146Ajobdescriptionwasdrawnupfor

anassociatesecretary,whosesoleresponsibilitywouldbethe‘researchandinvestigation

ofunreachedareas’andtomakerecommendationstotheInternationalCouncilfornew

opportunities.147Themissionhadworkeditselfoutofajobinitsoldfields,anditwas

lookingfornewopportunities.

InOctober1975theAIChelditsowncelebrationinKenya.TheAfricanchurchwas

markingthe80thanniversaryofthemissionasthe80thanniversaryofthechurch.The

gatheringwasplannedandhostedbyBishopWellingtonMulwaandattendedby

missionaries,churchleaders,governmentofficialsandrepresentativesfromother

144Ibid.

145InternationalCouncil,AfricaInlandMission,Tonbridge,Kent,19-23Mary1975,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

146Ibid.

147‘JobDescription,AssociateSecretaryforOutreach’,ca.1975,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

248

denominationsinKenya.148TheeventwasheldattheKenyattaInternationalConference

CentreinNairobiandattendedbyseveralthousanddelegates.149BishopMulwarecounted

ahistoryoftheAICbeginningin1895withthearrivalofPeterCameronScott.Henoted

thatwhilesomehad‘arrivedtocolonisethecountry’,Scottandtheearlymissionaries‘had

comewithdifferentaims’.150MulwawasembracingthehistoryoftheEvangelicalmission

asthehistoryoftheAICandhediscriminatedbetweentheaimsofcolonialpowersand

thoseofpioneermissionaries.Hemarkedthehistoricdayof1971whenthemissionhad

become‘adepartmentwithinthechurch’andobservedthattheAIChadmovedforwardby

‘leapsandbounds’sincehisinstallationas‘HeadoftheAICinKenya’.151

Thebackdropforthebishop’sremarksonthe‘80thanniversary’oftheAICwasthe

scheduledgatheringoftheWCCinNairobi.InNovember1975the5thAssemblyofthe

WorldCouncilofChurcheswouldbeconvenedinKenya.Itwouldbethefirstgatheringof

theWCCtobeheldsouthoftheequator,andthelocationmirroredthesignificantSouthern

shiftthatwasoccurringinglobalChristianity.152EventheAIM,astaunchopponentofthe

WCC,acknowledgedthelandmarkgatheringinitsofficialorgan:‘Noonecanblamethe

148Mulwa,‘80thAnniversary’,1.

149SophedelaHaye,ByangKato:AmbassadorforChrist,BiographyofDr.ByangH.Kato(Harpenden,UK:AfricaChristianPress,1986),87.Areported10,000personswereinattendance,butthelargesthallinKenyattaInternationalConferenceCentrecanonlyholdbetween3,500and4,000delegates.

150Mulwa,‘80thAnniversay’,3.

151Ibid.,12.

152OgbuU.Kalu,‘AfricanChristianity:FromtheWorldWarstoDecolonisation’inHughMcLeod,ed.,TheCambridgeHistoryofChristianity.Volume9(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006),200;ErnestW.Lefever,AmsterdamtoNairobi:TheWorldCouncilofChurchesandtheThirdWorld(WashingtonD.C.:EthicsandPolicyCenterofGeorgetownUniversity,1979),40-46.

249

W.C.C.fortheir[sic]decisiontomeetinAfrica.’153Whilethearticlesoundedacriticalnote,

themissionwasacknowledgingthatthedecisiontoholdtheWCCgatheringinAfricawas

befitting.AyearbeforetheWCCgathering,BishopMulwahadpromisedthechurch,the

missionandhissupportersthattheAICwouldremaintruetoitsEvangelicalconvictions.

Thebishophadwrittenaletterto‘allAICsupporters’in1974assuringthemthatthe‘The

AfricaInlandChurchinKenyaisnotedbyallinKenyaasthemostevangelicalchurchgroup’

inthenation.154InMarch1975thebishopinvitedallthemissionariestojointhe‘A.I.C.

Kenya-widegathering’on11Octoberwhereheplannedtogivehisremarksand‘makea

declarationastotheirstandontheWorldCouncilofChurches’.155Alongwithhisspeech

on11October1975,thebishoppresented‘TheAIC80thAnniversaryCovenant’.156The

documentwasnearlyidenticaltotheLausanneCovenantthathadbeenadoptedby

representativesoftheglobalEvangelicalcommunityinJuly1974inSwitzerland.Large

portionsoftheactualtextutilizetheprecisewordingoftheLausanneCovenant,including

captionslike‘ThePurposeofGod’and‘TheAuthorityandPoweroftheBible’and‘Christian

SocialResponsibility’.157Thedocumentwasreworkedasthecovenantof‘theAfricaInland

153‘W.C.C.tomeetinAfrica’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica)[January-March1975],3.

154WellingtonMulwatoAllAIMHomeCouncils,AllAIMMissionaries,KenyaandAICSupporters,November1974,Nairobi,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

155AfricanInlandMission,KenyaFieldCouncil,24-25March1975,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

156‘TheAIC80thAnniversaryCovenant’,AfricaInlandChurch,Kenya,11October1975,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

157Ibid.

250

Church,Kenya’.158GlobalEvangelicalismwasfirmlytransplantedinKenyaandpresided

overbyastalwartAfricanbishop.

ByangKato,thegeneralsecretaryoftheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaand

Madagascar(AEAM),alsospokeattheevent.ByangKato(1936-1975)wasborninNigeria,

convertedtoChristianityattheageoftwelvethroughaSudanInteriorMission(SIM)

representativeandeducatedatLondonBibleCollegeandDallasTheologicalSeminary

(Texas).159In1967,whileservingasalecturerattheIgbajaSeminaryinNigera,hewas

namedthegeneralsecretaryoftheEvangelicalChurchofWestAfrica(ECWA),a

denominationfoundedbytheSudanInteriorMission(SIM)in1954.160Hewasthefirst

AfricanEvangelicaltoearnadoctorateintheologyandwaselevatedtothepositionof

generalsecretaryoftheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar(AEAM)in

1973.161AfterKatowasinstalledasgeneralsecretary,theAEAMpublishedapamphlet

promotingitsworkunderthetitle,‘Africa’sEvangelicals’.162Onthefrontofthepamphlet

wasapictureofKatostandingnexttoAIMmissionaryEricMaillefer,whowasservingas

theAEAMadministrativesecretary.AlsopicturedwasSamuelOdunaike,whocontinued

hisroleaspresidentoftheAEAM.AlongwithMulwa,KatowasanAfricanrepresentative

attheInternationalCongressonWorldEvangelism(ICOWE)inJuly1974andembraced

158Ibid.ForthedocumentsonLausanne,seeJohnStott,ed.,MakingChristKnown:HistoricMissionDocumentsFromtheLasuanneMovement,1974-1989(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,1996),7-54.

159Haye,ByangKato,17-72;MarkA.NollandCarolynNystrom,eds.,‘ByangKato(1936-1975)’,inCloudsofWitnesses:ChristianVoicesfromAfricaandAsia(DownersGrove,IL:IVPBooks,2011),84-90.

160Haye,ByangKato,80,88.

161Bremen,40-40;NollandNystrom,eds.,‘ByangKato(1936-1975)’,inCloudsofWitnesses:ChristianVoicesfromAfricaandAsia,84-90.

162‘Africa’sEvangelicals:AssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar’,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternational,Collection81.

251

theespritdecorpsofLausanne.163IntheofficialpublicationoftheAEAMeditedbyKato,the

December1974issuenotedthatthe‘“LausanneSpirit”Spreads’inKenya,Nigeria,South

Africa,Uganda,Ghana,andtheCentralAfricaRepublic.164AstheleaderoftheAEAM,Kato

urgedAfricanstoremaincommittedtoEvangelicalChristianity,buthealsoencouraged

themtoembracetheirAfricanculturewhenitdidnot‘conflict’withtheChristian

message.165Histheologicalvisionisbestsummarizedinanarticlehewrotein1975

(publishedposthumouslyinBibliothecaSacra):‘ItisGod’swillthatAfricans,onaccepting

ChristastheirSaviour,becomeChristianAfricans.AfricanswhobecomeChristiansshould

thereforeremainAfricanwherevertheirculturedoesnotconflictwiththeBible.’166Hewas

rejectingtheChrist-against-CulturepostureofFundamentalistsontheonehandaswellas

syncretistictheologyofsomeadherentsoftheecumenicalmovementontheother.Kato

advocatedanAfricanviamediabetweentheWorldCouncilofChurchesontheleftand

McIntire’sInternationalCouncilofChristianChurchesontheextremeright.

Followingthe5thassemblyoftheWCCKatowasinvitedtotheAIMmissionstation

atKijabetogiveareporttomissionariesontheecumenicalgathering.BishopMulwaand

AICchurchleaderswhohadattendedtheWCCeventinNairobijoinedKato.167Duringhis

speechatKijabe,hewasdiplomaticinhiscommentsontheWCCgatheringandreported

163Haye,ByangKato,80.

164Afroscope(December1974),AssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar,Nairobi.

165ByangH.Kato,‘ChristianityasAnAfricanReligion’,EvangelicalReviewofTheology,Vol.4,No.1[April1980],31-39.

166ByangKato,‘TheologicalIssuesinAfrica’,BibliothecaSacra,Vol.133,No.530[April-June1976],146.

167‘ReportbyByangKatoontheWorldCouncilofChurchesgivenatAIMfieldconference’,December1975,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection81,T306,Side1.

252

thepresenceofJohnStottand‘manyoutstandingEvangelicalChristians’whoattended.168

Henotedwithcalmnessthattherewas‘verylittletheologicalcontent’andfounditcurious

thataHinduandaSikhwereseatedontheplatformofagatheringthatfocusedon

Christianunity.169HesharedastoryofstandinginfrontofalargewallattheWCC

gathering,wheredelegateshadbeeninvitedtowriteouttheirprayersandpostthemon

largeplacards.Herecountedthatsomeonewroteonthewall:‘OhGod,deliverusfromthe

shacklesoftheWorldCouncilofChurches’.170TheaudienceofAIMmissionariescanbe

heardlaughing.Katowasgivenarousingapplauseattheendofagraciousspeechinwhich

henotedthat‘theopportunityisverywidefortheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaand

Madagascar’.171InKato’sowndiaryinDecember1975,henotedwithjoythattheAEAM

hadgrown‘overonehundredpercentinlessthantwoyears’andstatingthatthe

Evangelicalbody‘nowrepresentstenmillionChristiansinAfrica’.172Hiscommentmay

havebeenareferencetostatisticsbeinggatheredbyAEAMshowingthat‘therewere90

million“Christians”inAfricawithatleast10millionevangelicalChristians.’173Therewere

nowapproximatelyhalfamillionmembersoftheAICinKenya,andareported10million

EvangelicalsontheAfricancontinent.Katotragicallydiedinadrowningaccidentwhileon

168Ibid.

169Ibid.

170Ibid.

171Ibid.

172ByangKato,Diary,15December1975,inSophiedelaHaye,89.ThiscommentmayhavebeenbasedonastudythatwasreferencedinAfroscope(December1974).

173‘AfricaDecidesfortheBEST’,Afroscope,AssociationofEvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar,April1975.BESTistheacronymfortheBanguiEvangelicalSchoolofTheology.ThecreationofBESTintheCentralAfricaRepublicwasinspiredbyKatoandtheAEAM.

253

holidayinMombasafourdaysafterhis15Decemberjournalentry.Theyoungtheologian

waseulogizedinChristianityTodayandmemorialserviceswereheldinNigeria,Kenya,and

theUnitedStates.174Histheologicalpapersandaddresseswereposthumouslypublished,

andtheleadersheinspiredcarriedhisvisionforAfricanEvangelicalismforward.175The

AEAMexperiencedsignificntexpansionundertheguidanceofanotherNigerian,Dr

Tokunboh(Tok)Adeyemo,agraduateofTalbotTheologicalSeminary(California)who

wentontoundertakedoctoralstudiesattheUniversityofAberdeenundertheguidanceof

AndrewF.Walls.176AstalwartEvangelicalbishopwasnowleadingtheAICinKenya,and

Evangelicalstatesmenwereprovidinginspirationandleadershipforarapidlygrowing

EvangelicalcommunityontheAfricancontinent.AIMcouldbeginexploringotherlands

whilethemissionarieswhoremainedinKenyaworkedunderauthorityofAfrican

churchmen.

ThedevolutionofthechurchinKenyaon16October1971markedtheendofanera

fortheworkoftheAIMinKenya.Itwasthedeathofanolderaandtheriseofasomething

new.TheadvanceofAfricanisation,theenergeticleadershipofBishopWellingtonMulwa

andtherapidgrowthofthechurchinKenyapermanentlyalteredtherelationshipbetween

theAIMandtheAIC.Themissionbecamesubservienttothechurchandmissionaries

beganworkingbehindthescenes.AnuncompromisingAfricanbishopsummarily

dismissedthosewhocouldnotadjusttothenewarrangements.Africantheologianswere

shapinganexpandingEvangelicalcommunityontheAfricancontinent.Intheearly1970s,

174Haye,ByangKato,98-104.

175NollandNystrom,eds.,‘ByangKato(1936-1975)’,inCloudsofWitnesses,94-95.

176Breman,TheAssociationofEvangelicalsinAfrica,53-58.

254

EvangelicalisminAfricawasnowthedominionofAfricansandtheriseof‘Africa’s

Evangelicals’permanentlyalteredtherelationshipbetweentheAIMandtheAIC.1975

cametoanappropriatecloseasInlandAfricadevoteditsfinalissueoftheyeartoasingle

theme:‘WorldEvangelisminAfricanHands’.177

177InlandAfrica(October-December1975),frontcover.

255

7

Conclusion

TherelationshipbetweentheAfricaInlandChurch(AIC)andtheAfricaInland

Mission(AIM)wasmarkedbycontentionanduncertaintyduringtheperiodof

decolonisation.Themissionandthechurchitfoundedfrequentlystruggledwithhowto

coexistinKenya.Between1939and1947,themissionformallyestablishedtheAICand

resistedtheAfricandemandformoreschools.Themission’sambivalentattitudetoward

educationduringthe1940sresultedinamajorschismintherecentlyestablished

denominationandgaverisetobreakawayindependentchurches.TheformationoftheAIC

raisedthequestionofhowthenondenominationalmission(withnoecclesiastical

hierarchy)wouldberelatedtothestructureandauthorityofanewlyformedAfrican

denomination.WouldmissionariesbecomemembersoftheAfricanchurchandwould

AfricanspastorsprovidedirectionforWesternmissionaries?Wouldthemissionremain

independentoftheAfricanchurchbutrelatedinsomeotherway?Themissiondeferred

256

discussionontheissueofitsrelationshipwiththechurchinordertoaddressmore

pressingmatters.

Themostsignificantchallengefacingthemissionduringtheperiod1939-1947was

howtorespondtotheAfricandemandformoreeducation.Africansviewededucationasa

meanstoachievesocialprogress.Themissionresistedthesedemandsbecauseitviewed

evangelisticworkasparamount.TheinvolvementoftheAIMineducationwasprimarily

forthepurposeofevangelism,anditseducationalstandardswerebehindthoseofthe

ChurchMissionarySocietyandtheChurchofScotlandMission.Whenthemission

perceivedthatitslacklustreperformanceineducationwasimpedingitsabilitytoexpandin

Kenya,AIMreviseditspoliciesandbegantheprocessofimprovingitseducationalwork.

Themissionwasunabletorightthevesselandsetanewcoursequicklyenoughtosatisfy

manyofitsAfricanchurchmembers.SignificantschismresultedwiththeAfrican

BrotherhoodChurchandSchools(ABCS)beingestablishedin1945inthemission’s

homelandofUkambaniandtheAfricanChristianChurchandSchools(ACCS)beingfounded

in1947amongtheAgikuyu.BoththeABCSandtheACCSwerethoroughlyEvangelicalwith

confessionalstatementsnearlyidenticaltothatoftheAIM/AIC.Theypartedwayswiththe

AIMbecausetheywantedtostresstheimportanceof‘schools’aspartoftheirmission,even

inscribingtheircommitmentintheverynamesoftheirdenominations.Thesignificant

schismscausesbythemission’sinadequateresponsetoAfricandemandsformore

educationwerenotdiscussedinmissionpublications,evenasthemissioncommunityin

Kenyawasfrustratedbytheeducationaldilemmaanddistraughtbytheschism.The

‘educationalwars’createdschismintheAIManddelayeddiscussiononhowthemission

andthechurchshoulddefinetheirrelationship.

257

Between1948and1954,themissionwasperplexedbytherapidreligious,political

andsocialchangesreverberatingthroughoutKenyaandtheAfricancontinent.TheWorld

CouncilofChurcheswasestablishedin1948,andAIMtriedto‘planttheEvangelicalflagin

themiddleoftheroad’whilestavingoffcriticismsfromvocalFundamentalistslikeCarl

McIntire.ThemissionwasalsorespondingtotheperceivedthreatoftheEastAfrica

Revivalinthepost-warperiod.TheRevival,knownvariouslyastheUgandaRevival,the

BalokoleMovementandtheRuandaRevivalMovement,becomeinfluentialinKenyaduring

thelate1940sandearly1950s.Themissionopposedtherevivalonthegroundsthatit

promoteddoctrinalexcessesandthreatenedchurchorder.Themilitantexpressionof

politicalprotestduringthe1950swastheMauMauRevolt,whichresultedinthe

declarationofastateofemergencybytheBritishgovernmentin1952.Themission

denouncedthemovementas‘anti-God,anti-Bible,anti-Missionaswellasanti-European’.1

MissionariesincreasinglyviewedtheMauMauUprisingasaforeshadowingofcoming

independenceinKenyaandbelievedthatitsevangelisticworkcouldbenegatively

impacted.AIMfrequentlyrecountedthesocialchangesofpost-warKenyain

correspondence,periodicalsandmissionpublications.Missionariescomplainedaboutthe

ever-crowdingurbancentresofKenya,thebuyingandsellingofconsumergoods,the

appetiteforWesternaccessoriesandtheacceleratingdemandforeducation.AIMworkers

decriedthesofteningofattitudestowardsocialtabooslikesmoking,drinkinganddancing,

andadamantlyupheldFundamentalistconventions.Socialattitudestowardracealso

createdaquandaryforthemission.When‘negroes’appliedtoAIMtoserveas

missionaries,themissionrejectedtheirapplicationsbutdeniedbeingracists.

1KennethRichardson,GardenofMiracles:TheStoryoftheAfricaInlandMissionLondon:AfricaInlandMissionPress,1976),91.

258

Themissioninterpretedtherapidreligious,politicalandsocialchangesthroughan

eschatologicallens,believingthatthechallengesitwasfacingmeantthat‘theendwasnear’.

TheunresolvedissueofthehowthemissionandthemissionarywererelatedtotheAfrican

churchwasraisedagainduringthisperiod.Thespiritofnationalismwasgrowingandwith

itthenaggingawarenessthatthemission’srelationshipwiththechurchremained

undefined.However,theecclesiasticalquestionwasinconsequentialtothemission

becauseofitssincerebeliefthat‘thetimewasshort’and‘theendwasnear’.Evangelism

becamemoreurgentduringtheperiodofuncertaintyandmissionariescarriedouttheir

workwhiletheyhadtime.Themissionrecruitedmoreforeignworkersandacceleratedits

evangelisticeffortsevenasitignoredthecomplicatedissueofhowthemissionshouldbe

relatedtothechurchitfounded.Thereligious,socialandpoliticalchangesparadoxically

diminishedtheimportanceofaddressingthemission’srelationshipwiththeAfricanchurch.

Millennialconvictionssubduedearthlyconcerns;evangelismwastheurgentmatter.

In1955themissioncelebrateditsDiamondJubilee,andmissionariesreflectedon

thepastwithasenseofwonderatthegrowthofthechurchinAfricaduringitssixtyyears

ofservice.Thefestivemoodof1955quicklygavewaytoacrimoniousdebatesaboutthe

relationshipbetweenthemissionandtheAfricanchurch.Between1955and1963,AIM

missionariesresistedaproposalbyPhilipS.Henman(1899-1986),thechairmanofthe

BritishHomeCouncilandtheInternationalCouncil,foramission-churchmerger.During

the1950s,AIMofficialsandmissionarieswereawareofwhattheywerecallinga

‘nationalisticurge’sweepingthroughthecolonyandadjacentlands.Henmanpresciently

believedthatnationalismwouldcreateproblemsfortherelationshipbetweenthe

missionaryandtheAfricanchurch.In1959heboldlycalledfora‘mergingofthetwo

259

constitutions’,andwontheapprovaloftheBritishHomeCouncilaswellastheAmerican

Home.

KennethL.Downing,thegeneralsecretaryoftheCentralFieldCouncilinKenya,

askedthehomecouncilsformoretimetostudytheproposals.Downinghadnointention

ofsupportingthemerger.Hewastemporizinginordertowinsupportfromhiscolleagues

inthefield.DowningandthemembersoftheCentralFieldCouncilrebuffedHenman’s

counselandbeganworkingona‘partnershipagreement’betweenthemissionandthe

church.Downingandthefieldcouncilwereelectedbythemissionariestomanagefield

policyandserveastheirrepresentatives.ThemissionhadcreatedanInternationalCouncil

in1955,butademocraticstructureonthefieldstillcontrolledmissionpolicy.Themission

hadestablishedanAfricanchurchin1943,butitwasstillthedutyofthemissionaryto

serveas‘theChairofLocalChurchCouncilsinhisarea’andto‘actinlocoparentistothe

growingchurchinpartswherenolocalchurchcouncilhasyetbeenformed’.2The

missionariesonthefieldviewedthemselvesasexpertsonmissionpolicy,andtheydidnot

believetheAfricanchurchwaspreparedtotakeontheresponsibilityofproviding

oversightfortheworkofthemission.Downingarguedthat‘theMissionmustretain

ultimateauthority’becausethereweretoomanymatters‘thataretooheavyforit[the

church]atpresent’.3MissionariesalsoworriedabouttheincreasedinfluenceoftheWCC

ontheAfricanchurchandfeltthatithadaresponsibilitytoprotectAfricansfromthe

‘dangers’ofecumenism.ThepartnershipagreementproposedbyDowningdistinguished

betweentheresponsibilitiesoftheAIMandtheAIC,encouragedeachtocooperatewhere

2KennethL.Downing,‘TheRelationshipoftheMissionandtheChurch’,April1960,BGCArchives(Wheaton),AIMInternationalWheaton,Collection81.

3Ibid.

260

possibleandstillmadeitclearthatthemissionandthechurchwereautonomous

organizations.Ratherthanmerging,theAIMandtheAICweretoremainseparateentities

andcollaborateintheirmissionlabourswherepossible.Henmanresignedfromhis

chairmanshipsoftheBritishHomeCouncilandtheInternationalCouncil.RalphDavis,the

generalsecretaryoftheInternationalCouncil,alsoresignedfromhispostandlater

referredtothemissionhelovedasa‘headlessbody’.4Thepaternaldispositionofthe

missiondeterredAIMfrommergingwiththechurchitfounded,andthedemocratic

structureonthefieldallowedmissionariestosubvertthewillofthehomecouncils.

Between1964and1971,Africanchurchleadersbecameincreasinglydissatisfied

withthepartnershipagreementthathadbeenadoptedin1963.Africanleaderswere

disappointedwiththeagreement’simplementationandbeganpressingforsignificant

revisions.Theheadywindsofnationalismwereblowingevenstrongerafter1964as

‘Africanisation’becamethewatchwordineverysphereofKenyansociety.ErikBarnettand

thefieldrepresentativesinKenyaagreedtorevisetheagreementbutremainedinflexible

ontheissueoffusion.Missionariesonthefieldwereconcernedthatamergerwouldresult

inthelossofmissionidentityandworriedthatthesolefocusto‘evangelize’wouldbecome

institutionalizedinecclesiasticalbureaucracy.ThemajorityofAIMmissionarieswere

fiercelyindependentinspiritandpreferredautonomyonthefieldratherthantheprospect

ofservingundertheauthorityofanationalchurch.Somemissionariesdistrustedthe

motivesofAfricanchurchleadersandbelievedthatthecallforamergerwasinfactagrab

forpropertyandpower.ManyAIMmissionariescontinuedtodisplaypaternalistic

4RalphT.DavistoR.Seume,2January1963,inAnderson,WeFeltLikeGrasshoppers,218.

261

attitudesanddidnotbelievethatAfricanswerecapableofmanagingtheworkofthe

missionaryonthefield.

In1965themissionreluctantlybeganworkingonarevisedpartnershipagreement

inanefforttomollifyAfricandemandsforunification.Therelationshipbetweenthe

missionandthechurchbecameincreasinglytensein1966whenthemissiontook

unilateralactiontowithdrawitsmembershipfromtheNationalChristianCouncilofKenya

(formerlytheChristianCouncilofKenya)whileAfricanchurchleaderswerekeptinthe

dark.In1968,withrelationshipsslightlyimproved,themissionfeltcompelledtoissuea

revisedpartnershipagreementthatgaveAfricanchurchleadersgreaterauthorityand

encouragedacloser-workingrelationshipbetweenthechurchandthemission.The

revisedpartnershipagreementof1968wasashort-livedrapprochement.InFebruary

1969theCentralChurchCounciloftheAfricanInlandChurchissuedamemorandum

expressingtheirdissatisfactionovertherevisedpartnershipagreementandcalledonce

againforacompletemerger,‘withonename,oneleader,oneconstitution,onecentral

officeandonesetofrules’forworkinginKenya.5Missionofficialsdismissedtheirrequest,

maintainingtheirsteadfastconvictionthat‘theremustbetwoorganizations’.6Inearly

1970thechurchissuedanultimatumforamergerandthenthreatenedto‘findwaysand

5MinutesofJointSessionoftheA.I.C.andtheA.I.M.,10-11February1969,citedinJohnAlexanderGration,‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyabetween1895and1971’(PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,1973),315;StephenD.Morad,‘TheSpreadingTree:AHistoryoftheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya,1895-1995’[unpublishedbook,n/d],PapersofStephenD.Morad,BGCArchives(Wheaton),Collection689.

6SummaryofDiscussiononChurch/MissionRelationships,AfricaInlandMission–KenyaField,SpecialMeetingoftheFieldCouncil,Nairobi,7-8May,1969,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

262

means’7oftakingcontrolofmissionproperty.ProminentmembersoftheAmericanand

CanadianhomecouncilstravelledtoKenyainJune1970andinanunprecedentedmove,

negotiateddirectlywithAfricanchurchleaders,effectivelybypassingtheauthorityof

BarnettasthedulyelectedsecretaryoftheKenyaFieldCouncil.Barnettresignedfromhis

postaftertheagreement,andon16OctoberofthefollowingyeartheAfricaInlandMission

handedoveritspropertyandpowerstotheAfricanInlandChurchinKenyaatapublic

ceremony.AIMwasanindependentmission,andErikBarnettwasanindependently

minded,second-generationmissionarywhowantedthemissiontoretainitsautonomyin

Kenya.TheindependentethosofthemissionembodiedbyErikBarnettwasthemost

significantobstacletodevolutioninthe1960s.

Between1971and1975,theAfricaInlandChurchbecameoneofthedominant

forcesforthedirectionanddisseminationofEvangelicalChristianityinKenya.The

October1971‘takeover’ofthemissiongavetheAfricanchurchalmostcompletecontrolof

AIM’soperationalfreedominKenya.Westernmissionariesservingonthefieldbecame

membersoftheAIC,acceptednewrolesasco-adjuvantworkersandservedatthepleasure

oftheAfricanchurchitfounded.TheoverallnumberofAIMmissionariesdeclinedduring

thisperiod,thoughtherewasaslightincreaseinthenumberofmissionariesservingin

Kenya.TheassertiveleadershipofthefirstbishopoftheAIC,WellingtonMulwa,wasa

dynamicforceintherisingdominationoftheAfricanchurch.Hepresidedoveroneof

Kenya’slargestProtestantdenominationsinthe1970swithamembershipof

approximatelyhalfamillionpersonsby1975.Underhisleadershipthemissionretained

itsEvangelicalidentityandexpandeditsEvangelicalwitnessthroughoutKenya.

7AndrewGichuhatoErikBarnett,2June1970,quotedinGration,‘TheAfricaInlandMissionandItsNationalChurch’,335.

263

In1973ByangKato(1936-1975),anesteemedAfricantheologianwithreliable

Evangelicalcredentials,waselevatedtothepostofgeneralsecretaryoftheAssociationof

EvangelicalsinAfricaandMadagascar(AEAM).KenDowninghadbeen‘seconded’bythe

missiontoestablishtheEvangelicalfellowshipandprovidedreliablevisionandsteady

leadershipfortheassociation.Kato,whohadearnedhisdoctorateintheologyfromDallas

TheologicalSeminary,insistedonaviamediabetweenthewholesaleadoptionofAfrican

culturalpracticesontheonehandandtheuncriticalacceptanceofWestern-branded

Christianityontheother.HiselevationtogeneralsecretaryoftheAEAMandhiseffective

advocacyforEvangelicalChristianityontheglobalstagesignalledaneweraforthe

Evangelicalmovement.TheleadershipoftheEvangelicalchurch,togetherwiththe

Evangelicalmovement,wasnowinthehandsofAfricanEvangelicals.Duringtheearly

1970s,thedevolutionofthechurchinKenyaandtheriseof‘Africa’sEvangelicals’

permanentlyalteredtherelationshipbetweentheAIMandtheAICasthemissionbecame

subservienttothechurch.

TheprocessofdevolutionintheAfricanInlandMissioninKenyawasretardedby

missionprinciples.AIM’ssingle-mindedcommitmenttoevangelismduringthe

‘educationalwars’ofthe1940screatedschismanddeferredthequestionofhowthe

missionshouldbeorganicallyrelatedtothechurchitfounded.Religious,socialand

politicalchangesinthepost-warperiodheightenedAIM’smillennialimpulsesand

diminished,initsowneyes,theimportanceofexaminingtheproblematicrelationshipof

themissionwiththeAfricanchurch.Evangelismwastheurgenttask.Thepaternalistic

dispositionofthemissiondeterredthemissionfromfusionontheeveofindependencein

Kenyaandthedemocraticstructuresofthefieldcouncilseffectivelythwartedhomecouncil

264

pressureforamerger.Theindependentspiritofthemissionenduredinthe1960s,

embodiedbyaformidablesecond-generationmissionaryonthefieldinKenya.Single-

mindedness,educationalwarsandmillennialimpulsesdelayedseriousconsiderationof

mission-churchrelationshipsbefore1963whileapaternalisticdispositionandafiercely

independentethospreventedfusionafterUhuru.Nationalism,Africanisationandthe

unflaggingdemandsofanAfricanchurchcombinedtoovercomethemission’s

intransigenceduringdecolonisation.

Evangelicalism,MissionsandAfricanChristianity

Evangelicalismbecameaglobalmovementinthetwentiethcentury.TheAfrica

InlandMissionwasavolunteermissionsocietyunitedaroundcommon,historic

EvangelicalcommitmentswithadeterminedvisiontospreaditsbrandofChristianityto

Africa.Influentialpersonalities,formalandinformalnetworksandacontinualflowof

publicationsandcorrespondencereinforcedthemission’sEvangelicalidentity.MarkNoll

arguedinTheRiseofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofEdwards,WhitefieldandtheWesleysthat

EvangelicalismisnotadenominationbutamovementofChristianswhoholdsimilar

beliefsandrelatetoeachotherthroughnetworks,societies,publicationsandpersonal

relationships.8ThisismirroredintheworkoftheAfricaInlandMissionasasocietyof

individualswhohailedfromvarieddenominationalbackgroundsandfrequentlyidentified

themselvesunderthebanner‘Evangelical’.Themissionembracedthelabel‘Evangelical’

andspreaditsmessagethroughitsperiodicalInlandAfricaandamenagerieofmission-

publishedbooksandpamphletsthatweredisseminatedintheEnglish-speakingworldfor

8MarkNoll,TheRiseofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofEdwards,WhitefieldandtheWesleys(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,2003),19.

265

thepurposeofpromotingitswork.MissionleaderslikePhilipHenman(British)andRalph

Davis(American)identifiedthemselvesasEvangelicalsandleveragedanetworkof

relationships(ratherthandenominations)forthecausetheyrepresented.Evangelical

organizationsliketheAIMwereheldtogetherbycertainconvictionsstrengthenedbythese

networks,pulicationsandrelationships.TheconvictionsthatheldEvangelicalstogether

havebeensharplyidentifiedinDavidBebbington’sstudyEvangelicalisminModernBritain:

AHistoryfromthe1730stothe1980s.Bebbingtonidentifiedthecentraltraitsof

Evangelicalismasbiblicism,conversionism,crucicentrismandactivism.9Evangelicals

placedaspecialemphasisontheBible(biblicism),theyinsistedonthenecessityof

conversion(conversionism),theylaidgreatstressontheatonement(crucicentrism)and

theywereunflaggingintheirreligiouszeal(activism).MissionariesworkingwiththeAIM

fromvarieddenominationsandcountriesfrequentlyusedexpressionslike‘personal

experienceofsalvation’,10‘lovefortheWordofGod’,11and‘thecentralityofthecross’,12

whileissuingrousingcallsto‘goevangelize’.13Themissionalsoemphasizedtheessential

needto‘propagateEvangelicalstandards’throughoutAfricainboththemissionandthe

church.14AIM’sEvangelicalconvictionsinfluenceditsrelationshipwiththechurchit

9DavidW.Bebbington,EvangelicalisminModernBritain:AHistoryfromthe1730stothe1980s(GrandRapids:MI:Baker,1989),1-19.

10‘QualificationsforCandidatesRe-Emphasized’,pamphletformissionaryqualifications,1956,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

11Ibid.

12‘WitherAfrica?’,InlandAfrica(British),Vol.XXXI,No.154[July-September1949],53.

13‘GoEvangelize!’,InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),Vol.XXIX,No.3[May-June,1945].9-12.

14PapergivenbyD.M.MillerattheF.I.M.S.ConferenceinLondon,June1950,AIMInternationalArchives(Nottingham).

266

foundedasthemissionworriedaboutitsneedtoprotecttheAfricanchurchfromthe

ecumenical‘dangers.’

ThetransmissionofEvangelicalChristianitytothenon-Westernworldisrecounted

inBrianStanley’sTheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofBillyGrahamandJohn

Stott.StanleygivesprominencetotheworkofEvangelicalmissionsforwhathecallsthe

‘increasinglymultidirectionalnatureofevangelicalinternationalism’andtheriseof

EvangelicalismintheglobalSouth.15HisworksituatestheEvangelicalmovementwithin

thetransatlanticrevivalsoftheeighteenthcentury,heldtogetherbycommonEvangelical

traitsanddiffusedintothenon-WesternworldthroughtheworkofEvangelicalmission

agenciesinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Stanleymarksouttheearly1970sas

theriseof‘southernChristianity’andthe1974Lausannegatheringasanimportantturning

pointforglobalEvangelicalism.Thisperiodizationconformsidenticallytothehistorical

contoursoftheAIManditsrelationshiptothegrowingAfricanchurchitestablished.Asit

turnedout,theconcernsthatAIMhadoverwhetherornottheEvangelicalfaithwould

continueflourishinginAfricansoilafterthehistoric‘hand-over’wereunfounded.The

EvangelicalfaithflourishedundertheguidanceofindigenousAfricanleaders.

Thelabel‘Fundamentalist’hasbeenbandiedaboutintheliteraturewithvaried

degreesofimprecision.Evangelicalismevolvedinthetwentiethcentury,eventually

distancingitselffromthecomplaintsofitsFundamentalistcritics.JoelA.Carpenter’sstudy

ReviveUsAgain:TheReawakeningofAmericanFundamentalismarguesthat

Fundamentalismunderwentsignificantchangesinthe1940s,andbythe1950s‘hadmade

15BrianStanley,TheGlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofBillyGrahamandJohnStott(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsity,2013),61.

267

amajorcomeback’.16ThenewEvangelicalismthatemergedinthe1940sretainedits

commitmentto‘Fundamental’orthodoxyevenasitworkedtocreateacoalitionof

Evangelicalsthatwerecriticalof‘Fundamentalistextremists’ontheonehand,andwaryof

theliberalhueoftheWorldCouncilofChurchesontheother.Theevolutionof

conservativeEvangelicalismintheUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdomhadimplications

forthespreadofChristianityinthenon-Westernworld.Forexample,thesingle-minded

commitmenttoevangelisminthe1930swastypicaloftheFundamentalistthinkingin

America,whileinthe1940sconservativeEvangelicalshadbegunre-thinkingthis

bifurcation.AIM’swillingnesstoadoptaneweducationpolicyinthe1940swasaresponse

torealitiesonthefieldinAfrica,butitalsolikelyrepresentedmoreprogressiveattitudes

withinEvangelicalismoneducationandsocialprogress.17AIMleaderswereinthe

vanguardoftheEvangelicalrenaissancethatbeganinthe1940sandcontinuedspreading

throughthe1970sonthecoattailsofleaderslikeBillyGrahamandJohnStott.Thegeneral

secretaryoftheAIM,RalphDavis,helpedtoorganizetheNationalAssociationof

Evangelicalsintheearly1940s,whiletheesteemedchairmanoftheBritishHomeCouncil,

PhilipHenman,helpedleadandfund‘newEvangelical’endeavoursliketheLondonBible

Collegeduringthesameperiod.KennethDowningworkedtocreateanEvangelical

coalitioninAfricainthe1960s,whileBishopMulwaalongwithByangKatospreadthe

‘spiritofLausanne’(notFundamentalism)onthecontinentinthe1970s.AIMwasa

conservativeEvangelicalmissionagency,butitisanoversimplificationtolabelthemission,

16JoelA.Carpenter,ReviveUsAgain:TheReawakeningofAmericanFundamentalism(NewYork/Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997),233.

17ThisargumentismadeinBernardK.Nzioka,‘EducationAmongtheAkambaPeople,1895-1970:AnInvestigationoftheEducationalPoliciesoftheAfricaInlandMissionandtheDevelopmentofEducationintheAkambaCommunity’(PhDdiss.,TrinityEvangelicalDivinitySchool,2010),282-83.

268

itsmissionaries,orthechurchitfoundedasFundamentalists.InhiscontributiontoEarthen

Vessels:AmericanEvangelicalsandForeignMissions,1880-1980,Carpenterarguedthatnon-

denominationalmissionagenciesliketheAIMwere‘generallymoderateto“progressive”

alongthespectrumofattitudestowardotherChristians’.18Thiswasgenerallytrueofthe

AIM(thoughattitudesofindividualmissionariesvaried)whencomparedwithstrident

FundamentalistslikeCarlMcIntire.AIMwaspartofthemoreprogressiveelementsof

conservativeEvangelicalismthatweretryingtobreakfreeofsomeoftheFundamentalist

excessesofthe1920sand1930s,andthemissionwasheavilycriticizedbyMcIntire.

However,itisalsotruethatduringthe1950sand1960s,AIMwasmoreconcernedabout

the‘dangers’oftheecumenicalmovementthanAfricanleaders.Asthisthesishasshown,

AIMwasconcernedabouthowitspositionontheissueofecclesiasticalseparationmight

affectitssupportamongmoreconservativeelementsoftheAmericanandBritishchurches

thatsupportedthemission.Acasecouldbemadethatthemission’spositiononthe

ecumenicalmovementwasasmuchofapracticalconcernasitwasatheologicalone.AIC

leaders,whowerenotbeholdentoAmericandonors,appearedlessconcernedthanthe

missionovertheecumenicalmovement.TheAICbishopservedaschairpersonofthe

NationalChristianCouncilofKenyaintheearly1970s,thoughinhiscorrespondencewith

WesternsupportershewascarefultoemphasizehisstrongEvangelicalconvictionsandhis

oppositiontotheWCC.TheAIMdistanceditselffromFundamentalists,andtheEvangelical

churchitfoundedwasevenlessinhibitedbythemission’spreoccupationtoseparatefrom

otherChristianbodiesinAfrica.AIMwasnotaFundamentalistmissionsociety,andwhat

18JoelA.Carpenter,‘PropagatingtheFaithOnceDelivered:TheFundamentalistMissionaryEnterprise,1920-1945’inJoelA.CarpenterandWilbertR.Shenk,eds.,EarthenVessels:AmericanEvangelicalsandForeignMissions,1880-1980(GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,1990),125.

269

emergedinKenyabetween1939and1975washistoricEvangelicalism,notearly

twentieth-centuryAmericanFundamentalism.

SteveBrouwer,PaulGifford,andSusanD.Rosehavearguedthattherapidgrowthof

ProtestantChristianityinthenon-Westernworldinthelatetwentiethcenturyisduein

largemeasuretothe‘exporting’ofAmericanFundamentalism.Thestudybeginsinamost

unorthodoxmanner:it asserts that ReinhardBonnke,aGermanevangelistwhoholds

massivecrusadesinAfrica,andPaulYonggiCho,aKoreanministerwholeadstheworld’s

largestchurch,areexportingAmericanFundamentalism.Theauthorstakeastheirstarting

pointtheassumptionthatall‘“Bible-believing”Protestantswithaspecificmissiontowin

soulsforJesusineverycountryonearth’aredefactoAmericanFundamentalists.They

classify‘thesubstantialportion’ofEvangelicalsinthiscategory,andthereforealarge(and

growing)percentageofChristiansinthenon-Westernworld.19Whiletheirworkpurports

to beseriousscholarship,ithasthefeelofinvestigativejournalism.Thehighlybiased

name-callingcomesacrossasanefforttocastallEvangelicalsinanegativelight,asElmer

GantrytypesorsavvyT.V.personalities,who,accordingtotheauthors,areallgivento

‘authoritarianism,anaggressivetendencytoidentifyU.S.interestswithGod’sinterests,and

anintoleranceofpeopleofdifferentcultures.20Suchprocrusteanpronouncementsare

unhelpfulinexplainingthetremendousdiversityoftheEvangelicaltradition.Asthisstudy

hasdemonstrated,AIMwasnotassociatedwithoneparticularnation,norwasitpeddlinga

distinctivelyAmericanreligion.Missionariescamefromawidevarietyofnations

19SteveBrouwer,PaulGiffordandSusanD.Rose,ExportingtheAmericanGospel:GlobalChristianFundamentalism(NewYork:Routledge,1996),3.

20Ibid.,270.

270

(such as Australia,Canada,and the UnitedKingdom)andtheyworkedunderthebannerof

transatlanticEvangelicalism.Asalreadymentioned,Evangelicalismmustnotbesimply

equatedwithFundamentalism.TherelationshipbetweenFundamentalismand

EvangelicalisminEvangelicalismandFundamentalismintheUnitedKingdomduringthe

TwentiethCenturyfitsmoreaccuratelywiththehistoryoftheAIM.Fundamentalismwasa

movementwithinEvangelicalism,itwaslesspronounced(thoughpresent)inBritish

circles,anditsinfluencebegantofadeconsiderablyinthesecondhalfofthetwentieth

century.AIMwasclearlyinfluencedbysomeofthe‘extravagances’ofFundamentalism,but

theseweremutedbytheBritishinfluence,21andAIMleaderswereinthevanguardofthe

newEvangelicalmovement.WhatemergedinKenyaundertheauspicesofWellington

MulwaandByangKatowasnotAfricanFundamentalism,butAfricanEvangelicalism.

Missionaries,asthisstudyhasshown,did not aimtoexportAmericanorBritish

culturetoEastAfrica,eveniftheyexemplifiedsomeoftheculturalhabitsoftheirnative

lands.AIMmissionarieswerefirstandforemostconcernedaboutevangelisticwork.In

ChristianMission:HowChristianityBecameaWorldReligion,DanaRobertchallengesthe

‘postcolonialre-readingsofhistory’thatglossoverthesuccessesofWesternmissionaries

anddismisstheirworkas‘anassaultonindigenouscultures’andanexpressionof‘cultural

imperialism’.22HerworkcreditsthelabourofWesternmissionarieswith‘themakingofa

worldreligion’andrecallstheirhumanitarianworkineducation,medicine,andhuman

rights.AsRobertpointsout,missionarieshavebeenunfairlymalignedinboththepopular

21DavidBebbingtonandDavidCeriJones,eds.,EvangelicalismandFundamentalismintheUnitedKingdomDuringtheTwentiethCentury(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013),374.

22DanaRobert,ChristianMission:HowChristianityBecameaWorldReligion(Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell,2009),93-96.

271

andscholarlyliterature.Robert’sworkprovidesamuch-neededcorrectiontopost-colonial

dismissalsofmissionariesasdestructiveforcestoindigenouscultures.Notwithstanding,

Robert’sexcellentmonographdoesnotalwaysgivedueconsiderationtothefailuresof

Westernmissionaries.ThetransgressionsofAIMmissionariesareevidentinthehistorical

record.WhiletherewerepropheticvoiceswithinAIM,missionariesoftendisplayed

attitudesofracismandpaternalismthathavebeentypicalofpeopleintheUnitedStates,

BritainandSouthAfricaduringasignificantpartofthetwentiethcentury.Some

missionariesbelittledtheirconvertsforwantingeducationfortheirchildren,others

impugnedthemotivesofAfricanleaderswhentheypressedforAfricanisation,andAIM’s

harshrejectionofAfricanculturalpracticeswasoftengroundedinalackofcritical

theologicalreflection.EvenwhiletheAICgrewandmatured,AIM’s‘sins’oftenstrainedthe

relationshipwiththechurchitbroughtintobeing.Robertisrighttochallengepost-

colonialcritiquesthatcharacterizemissionariesasfailedambassadorsofcultural

imperialism.Missionarieswerefirstandforemostambassadorsofthegospelwho

succeededintheirwork,thoughstilldeservingofscrutinyfortheirmanifold

transgressions.

ChristianitywassuccessfullytransmittedtoAfricaviathemissionarymovement,

buttheworkofWesternmissionariesisonlypartofthestory.MarkNoll’sTheNewShape

ofWorldChristianity:HowAmericanExperienceReflectsGlobalFaithcreditsindigenous

witnessforthespreadofEvangelicalChristianityinthenon-Westernworld:‘Thebest

scholarshipincreasinglydescribesmissionaryactivityasanecessary,butnotsufficient,

272

explanationfortheemergenceofnewChristianchurches.’23AsthestudyofAIMhas

demonstrated,whilemissionariesplayedavitalroleinthespreadoftheEvangelicalfaith,

indigenousconvertsoftenbecamemoreeffectiveevangelistsandchurchworkers,andthe

recordindicatesthatmostoftheworkofchurchplantingwasdonebyAfricansbyatleast

the1940s.Inaddition,theprocessofAfricanisationandtherapidgrowthofthechurchin

AfricaappeartobedirectcorrelationsinKenya.Duringthe1940sthroughthe1960s,AIM

workersfrequentlystruggledwithhowtoadjusttothechangesinAfricaastheirconverts

becameevenmoreeffectiveintheworkofchurchplantingandevangelism.Thetired

argumentthatChristianmissionariesactedaspseudo-agentsofimperialexpansiondoes

notadequatelyexplainwhyAfricanseagerlyembracedthegospelandengagedin

evangelisticworkalongsideWesternmissionaries.Africanswereeagertothrowoffthe

shacklesofWesterncontrol,evenastheywholeheartedlyembracedtheChristianmessage.

InWhoseReligionisChristianity:TheGospelBeyondtheWest,LaminSannehwantstogive

‘prioritytoindigenousresponseandlocalappropriationanddirection’forthespreadof

Christianityinthetwentiethcentury.24Hespeaksofthe‘indigenousdiscoveryof

Christianity’ratherthanthe‘Christiandiscoveryofindigenoussocieties’thathasbeenthe

emphasisofsecularcritics.TheacceptanceofChristianityinKenyabearsaremarkable

resemblancetoSanneh’scentralargument.WhileAIMmissionaries‘translated’(aword

Sannehutilizes)theChristianmessagetoindigenouspeople,Africansappropriatedthe

messageevenastheystruggled(andsometimesdefied)themessengers.Intheinstances

23MarkA.Noll,TheNewShapeofWorldChristianity:HowAmericanExperienceReflectsFaith(DownersGrove,IL:IVPAcademic,2009),77.

24LaminSanneh,WhoseReligionisChristianity:TheGospelBeyondtheWest(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,2003),24.

273

whereconvertsleftthemissioninthe1940stoestablishtheirowndenominations,

Africans‘appropriated’missiondoctrineforanAfricancontextandprovidedguidancefor

theirownindependentdenominations.Inthe1970s,BishopMulwaappropriatedthe

LausanneCovenantforanAfricancontext,evenwhileheinsistedoncomplete

AfricanisationofthechurchandsackedWesternmissionariesfornotcomingunderhis

control.Mulwaalsodistinguishedbetweentheaimsofcolonialgovernmentsandthoseof

Evangelicalmissionaries.Africachurchleaderscommendedmissionariesfortheirgood

work,criticizedmissionariesfortheirfailures,pressedforcontrolofthechurchandthe

mission,allthewhileholdingunswervinglytotheEvangelicalfaith.

Twenty-fiveyearsago,BrianStanleyargued‘concernfornationalprestigewas

rarelyuppermostinChristianminds’formissionariesduringthecolonialperiodandthat

‘themostpowerfulmotivationswerethosewhichstemmedfromtheheartofthehistoric

evangelicalconscience’.25Asthisstudyhasindicated,AIMopposedtheMauMauUprising

butitwasnotopposedtotheindependencethatemergedinitswake.Themainconcernof

themissionwashowindependencewouldaffectitscontinuedevangelisticwork.Thisway

oflookingatmissionariesdoesnotabsolvethemoftheirsins,butitdoesencourage

historianstounderstandtheirsubjectsbetterbytakingreligiousmotivationseriously.

Alongsimilarlines,theseriesofstudiesinConvertingColonialism:VisionsandRealitiesin

MissionHistory,1706-1914editedbyDanaRobertlendssupporttothethesisthat

missionaries‘werenaivelyunawareofhowthelargerpoliticalcontextsinwhichthey

functionedimpactedthespiritualandculturalissuesthatoccupiedtheirdays’.26AIM

25BrianStanley,TheBibleandtheFlag:ProtestantMissionsandBritishImperialismintheNineteenthandTwentiethCenturies(Leicester,UK:Inter-VarsityPress,1990),182.

274

missionarieswerecertainlynot‘unaware’of‘thelargerpoliticalcontexts’,butthey

frequentlystruggledwithknowingwhatthosechangeswouldmeanfortheirwork.They

werepoorstrategistswhoweregenerallybehindthetimes,motivatedprimarilyby

religiousconvictionsandbewilderedbychangingconditionsonthefield.EvenasAfricans

demandedmoreschools,AIMrejectedgovernmentaidforeducationalwork(totheirown

peril)outoffearthatitwouldimpedetheirevangelisticlabours.Theywonderedwhat

nationalismandindependencewouldmeanfortheirworkwithoutanyapparentplan.They

bemoanedtheexportofAmericanproductsandWesternconsumerismbecauseit

interferedwiththeirreligiouswork.IfitwastheiraimtosustaintheBritishEmpire,or

exportAmericanculture,theywerepoorsubjectsofthecrownanddisappointingpatriots.

Theconvenienceofcolonialismwasutilizedbymissionariesand‘converted’(touse

Robert)fortheirownaims.

Christianmissionarieslargelysucceededintransmittingthefaithtothenon-

Westernworld,andEvangelicalismbecameaglobalmovementduringthesecondhalfof

thetwentiethcentury.PhilipJenkins’studyTheNextChristendom:TheComingofGlobal

ChristianityshowedtoawideaudiencetheremarkablegrowthofChristianityinAfrica,

AsiaandLatinAmericaduringthetwentiethcentury.Forexample,Christianitygrewin

Africafromlessthan9millionadherentsintheyear1900tomorethan335millionbythe

year2000,andthereweresimilarlyimpressivegrowthpatternsinAsiaandLatin

America.27Hisexpositionislargelyapopulardistillationofthemonumentalresearch

26DanaRobert,ed.,ConvertingColonialism:VisionsandRealitiesinMissionHistory,1706-1914(GrandRapids,MI/Cambridge:Eerdmans,2008),5.

275

publishedintheWorldChristianEncyclopaediaeditedbyDavidB.Barrett.Hecreditsthe

researchofspecialistslikeAndrewWallsandWalterBuhlmanfortheirground-breaking

workinscholarlycirclesbeginninginthe1970s.Jenkinsdrawsfromanabundanceof

statisticaldataandfleshesoutthestoryofChristianity’sgrowthinthenon-Westernworld

usingadditionalprimaryandsecondarysourcesfromthetwentiethcentury.Hechallenges

thesecularcaricatureofthemissionaryasineffective:‘Ifthemodernmissionarystereotype

hadanyforce,wecanscarcelyunderstandwhytheChristianexpansionproceededasfast

asitdid,orhowitcouldhavesurvivedtheendofEuropeanpoliticalpower.’28Asthisstudy

hasdemonstrated,AIMmissionarieswereoftenshortsighted,paternalisticandeven

stubborn.YettheydidsucceedintransmittingtheEvangelicalmessageinawaythat

appealedtoAfricans.WhilethelaboursofWesternmissionariesandAfricanconverts

contributedtothespreadofChristianitytothenon-Westernworld,thedynamismofthe

Evangelicalmovementitselfmayhaveplayedanimportantrole.Themovementwasnot

heldtogetherbyan‘EvangelicalActofUniformity’,butoperatedinsteadunderwhatmay

betermedan‘EvangelicalActofToleration’.Anglicans,BaptistsandPresbyterians

labouredside-by-sideinAfrica,andwhiletheysometimessteppedoneachother’stoes,

theywerelargelyabletoworktogetherforthegreatercause.AsanAfricanchurch

emergedinKenyainthe1940s,itwasneitherAnglican,norBaptist,norPresbyterian,but

somethingdifferent,yetfullyEvangelical.InChristianityReborn:TheGlobalExpansionof

EvangelicalismintheTwentiethCentury,aroundtableofprominenthistorianshaveargued

27DavidB.Barrett,GeorgeT.KurianandToddM.Johnson,eds.,WorldChristianEncyclopedia:AComparativeSurveyofChurchesandReligionsintheWorld,SecondEdition(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),12.

28PhilipJenkins,TheNextChristendom:TheComingofGlobalChristianity(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),42.

276

that‘thegreateststrengthofevangelicalism’mayinfactbe‘itsabilitytoadapttolocal

culturalexpressionsonceitisfreedfromthetethersofmissionarycontrolandintrusive

formsofinfluence.’29

Evangelical‘faithmission’societiesliketheAIMwereuniquefromdenominational

missionsocietiesliketheChurchMissionarySocietyandtheChurchofScotlandMission.

KlausFielderhasprovidedtheonlyhistorytodateoftheindependent‘faithmission’

movementbeginningwiththeestablishmentoftheChinaInlandMission(CIM)in1865.

TheStoryofFaithMissions:FromHudsonTaylortoPresentDayAfricaprovidesbriefhistory

ofthemajorfaithmissions,includingtheAIM.HearguesthattheindependentEvangelical

missionsthatemergedinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiespossessed

uniquecharacteristicsthatdistinguishedthemfromthedenominationalmissionsthat

emergedduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.Themissionariesofthese

independentsocietieswerefromvarieddenominationalbackgroundsandtheywere

requiredtogooutin‘faith’(ratherthandependonadenominationalsalary).Churchorder

andinstitutionalworkwerealwayssubjugatedtoevangelisticwork,missionarieswere

‘members’ofthemission(ratherthanemployees),layandordainedmissionarieswere

welcomedasworkers(andtreatedequally),andthemissionwastobe‘field-directed’

ratherthangovernedbyahomecouncil.30Fiedler’sworkisahelpfulintroductiontofaith

missionsocieties,thoughitoffersverylittleinthewayofhistoricalanalysis.Forexample,

hisworkdoesnotprovidecommentaryonhowfaithmissionsocietiesdevolvedtheir

29DonaldM.Lewis,ChristianityReborn:TheGlobalExpansionofEvangelicalismintheTwentiethCentury(GrandRapids/Cambridge:Eerdmans,2004),4.

30KlausFiedler,TheStoryofFaithMissionsfromHudsonTaylortoPresentDayAfrica(Oxford,UK:RegnumBooksInternational,1994),32.

277

authorityduringdecolonisation.However,hishistorydoescastimportantlightonsomeof

theuniquecharacteristicsoffaithmissionsocieties.AIMboreallthedistinguishing

characteristicsofafaithmissionandremainedtruetoitsfoundingprinciplesevenwhen

doingsomadeitsworkmoredifficultorthreateneditsrelationshipwiththechurchit

founded.Themissioninitiallyrejectededucationalgrantsbecauseitsconvictionagainst

solicitingfundsviolatedthe‘faithprinciple’.Evangelisticworktookprecedenceover

ecclesiasticalworkformissionaries.Thefield-managedanddemocraticstructureofthe

votingmembersofthemissionmadeitpossibletoresistpressurefromfar-removed

missionofficials.ThesewereattributesthatwereuniquetoEvangelicalfaithmissions,and

AIM’sunswervingdevotiontothemcontributedtothedelayeddevolutionofthemission.

JohnStuart’sstudyBritishMissionariesandtheEndofEmpire:East,CentralandSouthern

Africa,1939-64doesnotcoverBritishmissionariesworkingwiththeAIM,butitdoesshow

thattherewerevariedresponsesbyBritishmissionariesandmissionsocietiestothe

questionofdevolutionduringdecolonisation.AsStuartobserves,‘Therewasnosingle

missionaryresponsetotheendofempireinAfrica.Missionaryresponsesweretoovaried

andtoocomplexforthistohavebeenthecase.’31

TheliteratureonthegrowthofChristianityinAfricaandthenon-Westernworldis

rapidlyevolving,thoughitremains‘oneofthemostimportantbutleastexaminedchanges

intheworldoverthepastcentury.’32AIMwasthelargestProtestantmissionworkingin

31JohnStuart,BritishMissionariesandtheEndofEmpire:East,Central,andSouthernAfrica,1939-64(GrandRapids/Cambridge:Eerdmans,2011),13.

32JoelCarpenterandLaminSanneh,eds.,TheChangingFaceofChristianity:Africa,theWestandtheWorld(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005).

278

Kenya,yetithasgarneredminisculescholarlyattention.33Duetothemission’sleadingrole

inProtestantmissions,andthesignificantinfluenceofthechurchitestablished,the

missionisperiodicallymentionedintheliteratureonthehistoryofthechurchinAfrica.

BengtSundkler’svoluminousstudyofthechurchinAfricamaybethemostcomprehensive

treatmentofthehistoryofChristianityinAfrica.34Sundklerprovidedtheseminalworkfor

thestudyofindependentchurchesinAfricaearlyinhiscareer,35butsomefiftyyearslater

hearguedthattherehasbeentoogreatafocusonAfrican‘Independentchurches’tothe

neglectof‘mission-relatedchurches’.Heassertsthatscholarsare‘mistaken’tospeakof

themission-relatedchurchesasthoughtheywerenotauthenticallyAfrican.Hefurther

arguesthat‘theoverwhelmingmajorityofAfricanChristianshavebelonged’tomission-

establishedchurches‘andstilldo’.36HeprovidesaconciseaccountoftheAfricaInland

Mission,callingit‘possiblymoreinterestingthananotherother’becauseofits‘widespread’

influenceontheAfricancontinent.37Hementionsthe‘offshoots’fromthemissioninthe

1940s,includingthe‘AfricanBrotherhoodChurch’andthe‘AfricanChristianChurchand

School’.38HeviewsthesechurchesasauthenticallyAfricanchurches,alongwiththeAICin

KenyaandTanganyika,evenifthelatterchurcheslaggedbehindintheprocessof

Africanisation.InAdrianHastings’magisterialwork,TheChurchinAfrica,1450-1950,AIM

33SeeIntroduction,pp.19-21.

34BengtSundklerandChristopherSteed,AHistoryoftheChurchinAfrica(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000).

35BengtG.M.Sundkler,BantuProphetsinSouthAfrica(London:LutterworthPress,1948).

36Sundkler,AHistoryoftheChurchinAfrica,3.

37Ibid.,558,886-887,891,1000.Thequoteisfoundinp.886.

38Ibid.,887.

279

ismentionedinasentencethatisworthrepeating:‘Itseemsoddthatgroupslikethe

SalvationArmyandtheQuakers,ora“faithmission”liketheAIMinKenyashouldwantto

ownestatesofthousandsofacres,butfewsocietieswerenotaffectedbylandlust.’39As

thisthesishasshown,AIMwasa‘faithmission’(ratherthanan‘industrialmission’)and

possessedasingle-mindeddevotiontoevangelisticwork.YettheAIMneverseemedto

questionthewisdomofowningsuchalargetractoflandinthe‘whitehighlands’while

offeringprivilegededucationforitsownchildrenrightunderthenosesofland-starved

Africanswhowerealsofrustratedoverthemission’ssubstandardeducationalperformance.

WhileAIMmissionarieswereeffectiveevangelists,theymadesomerather‘odd’blunders.

InAHistoryofAfricanChristianity,1950-1975,Hastingsobservedthatin1950AIMwasone

ofthefewmissionsocietiesthatwas‘expandinginawayotherswerenot’.40Hastings

mentionstheAfricanChristianChurchandschools‘asamajorbreakfromtheAfrican

InlandMission’aswellastheAfricanBrotherhoodChurch‘foundedin1945amongthe

Kamba,mostofitsearlymembershavingformerlybeenintheAfricanInlandMission’.41

Hisworkreferstotherowbetweenthemissionandthechurchin1966overAIM’sdesire

tosevertieswiththeChristianCouncilofKenya.42Hastingsalsoobservesthat‘Kenyawas

certainlytheMeccainblackAfricaforWesternmissionariesduringtheperiod1967-1975

withtheAIMhaving‘byfarthebiggestnumberofpersonnel’.43Hiscomprehensive

39AdrianHastings,TheChurchinAfrica,1450-1950(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1994),424.


41Ibid.,79.

42Ibid.,163

43Ibid.227.

280

coverageoftheperiodtakesa‘chronologicalshape’buthisdecisiontooutlineeachchapter

followinganA,B,Csequence(Acomprisingpoliticalhistory,Btheecclesiasticalaccount,

andCindependency)isforced.ThestrengthofHastings’workisthatitdoesbringpolitical

developments(namelydecolonisation)intothenarrativeofchurchhistory.Theweakness

ofthisstructureisthatpoliticaldevelopmentscontrol(andconfuse)thenarrative.The

relationshipbetweentheAIMandtheAICwasaffectedbypoliticaldevelopmentsinAfrica.

Butsocial(e.g.,populationgrowth,changingracerelations),religious(e.g.,theEastAfrican

Revival,theEcumenicalMovement)andtheologicaldevelopments(millennialconvictions)

weremorecrucial.

EvansonN.Wamagatta’smonograph,ThePresbyterianChurchinEastAfrica:An

AccountoftheGospelMissionarySocietyOrigins,1895-1946isrepletewithreferencestothe

AIM.44Duringthe1930s,theGMSbegantoseriouslyconsidertheideaofamergerwith

anothermissionsociety.InspiteoftheAIM’searlyallianceswiththeGMS(1895-97,1901-

1915),andthesharedidentitiesofthetwomissions,theGMSdidnotseriouslyconsider

AIMasaviablepartner.AsWamagattanotes,‘TheAIMwasthemostidealforalliancewith

theGMSsincetheywerebothAmericanfaithmissionsandtheirdoctrineswerealmost

identical.’45Wamagattaarguesthatthereasonsuchanalliancewasrejectedwastheissue

ofeducation:‘Suchanalliancewas,however,nottenableinthe1930sbecausetheAIMwas

theweakesteducationallyoftheProtestantmissions.’46Asthisstudyhasshown,AIM

44EvansonN.Wamagatta,ThePresbyterianChurchinEastAfrica:AnAccountofItsGospelMissionarySocietyOrigins,1895-1946(NewYork:PeterLang,2009).

45Ibid.,204.

46Ibid.

281

laggedbehindotherProtestantmissionsineducationduringthe1930sand1940s.The

educationalcrisesinKenyawassointensethatitcreatedspin-offdenominationslikethe

AfricanBrotherhoodChurchandtheAfricanChristianChurchandSchools.TheGMS

mergerwiththePresbyterianChurchofEastAfricawasadirectresultoftheeducational

wars.ThestandardscholarlyworkonEastAfricanRevivalisnowTheEastAfricanRevival:

HistoryandLegacies.47AIMisnotdiscussedintheworkthoughitismentionedina

footnotethatintheWestNilesomeofitsmissionariesacceptedtherevivalwhile‘inCongo

andKenyatheAIMdistrustedtherevivalistsandbannedtheiractivitiesintheir

churches’.48Theresearchpresentedinthisthesisconfirmsthemission’s‘distrust’of

revivalistsandofferssomeexplanationforAIM’seffortstoclampdownontheiractivities.

Influentialmembersofthemissiondismissedtherevivalas‘spurious’expressingtheir

concernaboutthepublicconfessionofsins,thedisorderitcreatedinworshipgatherings

andthe‘breakdown’ofthe‘restrainingbarsbetweencolour,raceandsex’.49Derek

Peterson’sstudy,EthnicPatriotismandtheEastAfricanRevival:AHistoryofDissent,c.

1935-1972helpfullyshowsthattheAIMwasnotaloneinitsoppositiontotherevival.50As

therevivalspreadinSouthernUganda,Buganda,WesternKenyaandNorthwest

Tanganyika,itwasopposedbytheconvertedandunconvertedalikewhowereconcerned

thatembarrassingprivateaffairswerebeingmadepublicduringopenconfessions.

Petersonarguesthat‘ethnicpatriots’opposedtherevivalbecauseoftheirdesireforsocial

47KevinWardandEmmaWild-Wood,TheEastAfricanRevival:HistoryandLegacies(Surrey,UK:Ashgate,2012).

48Ibid.,133,fn.17.

49Seep.113.

50DerekR.Peterson,EthnicPatriotismandtheEastAfricanRevival:AHistoryofDissent,ca.1935-1972(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012).

282

control.Hisstudyisimportantbecauseitexploresthequestionofwhyoneofthemost

celebratedmovementsinEastAfricawasopposedbyethnicgroupsinEastAfrica.

NotwithstandingPeterson’sbrilliantarchivalandfieldresearch,hisstatementthat‘The

MauMauwarbeganasasociallyconservativestruggleagainstsexualpromiscuityand

morallaxity’stretchestheimagination.51Nevertheless,hisresearchdoesshowthatoneof

theprimaryreasonsforoppositiontotheEastAfricaRevivalamongotherwisedisparate

groups(e.g.,AIMandMauMau)wasthepracticeofpubliclyconfessingprivate

(embarrassing)sins.IfAIMmissionariesandtheMauMauoath-enforcershadanythingin

commonitwaslikelytheirdesirefor‘control’.

Conclusion

In1943theAfricaInlandMissionestablishedtheAfricaInlandChurchinKenya.The

missionresistedAfricandemandsforeducationbecauseofitssingle-mindedcommitment

toevangelism,aposturethatresultedinsignificantschism.AIMrespondedtoreligious,

politicalandsocialchangeswithmillennialfervourandmadeevangelisticworktheurgent

matterevenasitremainedfirmlyincontroloftheAfricanchurch.Theproblemofsorting

outthemission’srelationshipwiththechurchitfoundedwasovershadowedby

educationalwars,churchschism,andthemission’semphasisonevangelism.Ontheeveof

independenceinKenyathemissionrejectedaproposedmergerbythehomecouncils.The

paternalisticdispositionofAIMmissionariesandthedemocraticstructureofthemission

combinedtothwartthewillofinfluentialmissionofficialsinBritainandNorthAmerica.

AfterUhuruinKenya,theindependentspiritofthemissionendured,stubbornlyresisting

51Ibid.,226.Forcommendationandcriticism,seeJohnIllife,reviewofEthnicPatriotismandtheEastAfricanRevival:AHistoryofDissent,C.1935-1972,byDerekR.Peterson,AfricanAffairs.112,no.448:510-511.

283

thepressureoftheAfricanchurchfordevolution.Thecombinedforcesofnationalismand

Africanisationovercamemissionintransigenceandgaveriseto‘Africa’sEvangelicals’inthe

early1970s.

284

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RecordsoftheEvangelicalFellowshipofMissionAgencies,Collection165

KenyaNationalArchives,Nairobi(Kenya)

DistrictCommissioner,FortHall(DC/FH)DistrictCommissioner,Kiambu(DC/KBU)DistrictCommissioner,Kisumu(DC/KSM)MauMauMemorandaspecialcollection(MSS129/9)MinistryofHealth(MOH/3/24)PapersofErikBarnett(MSS3/568)ProvincialCommissioner,CentralProvince(VQ)

PrivatePapersofAIMPersonnel(USA)

JournalofRaymondWolfe,1972PrivatePapersoftheDowningFamily,1866-1974RichardGehmanPapers(Florida)

(B) Interviews

Coon,Roger.Interviewbyauthor,31March2014.Minneola,Florida

Entwistle,Roy.Interviewbyauthor,2April2014.Minneola,Florida

Gehmam,Richard.Interviewbyauthor,1April2014.Minneola,Florida

Hildebrandt,Dorothy.Interviewbyauthor,3April2014.Minneola,Florida

Hildebrandt,Jonathan.Interviewbyauthor,3April2014.Minneola,Florida

Houston,Tom.Interviewbyauthor,23-24July2014.Oxford,UK

(C) Periodicals

286

Afroscope,1968-1976

ChristianBeacon,1971-1976

HearingandDoing,1897-1917

InlandAfrica(British),1939-1975

InlandAfrica(NorthAmerica),1939-1975

(D) PublishedMaterials

1stAnniversaryoftheAfricaInlandChurch,15thOctober1972.Kijabe,Kenya:AfricaInlandChurchPublications,1972.

Barrett,DavidB.,etal.KenyaChurchesHandbook:TheDevelopmentofKenyanChristianity,1498-1973.Kisumu,Kenya:EvangelPublishingHouse,1973.

Barrett,DavidB.SchismandRenewalinAfrica:AnAnalysisofSixThousandContemporaryReligiousMovements.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1968.

Blakeslee,VirginiaH.BeyondtheKikuyuCurtain.Chicago:MoodyPress,1956.

Devitt,Edith.OntheEdgeoftheRiftValley.Langley,BC:UniversityPrinters,1992.

Dinesen,Isak.OutofAfrica.NewYork:RandomHouse,1938.

Frew,Frank.BetweenTwoMountains:APilgrimagefromKambaTraditionalBeliefstoChristianCommunity,1895-1970.Scarborough,ON:AfricaInlandMission,2006.

FromDarknesstoLight.London:AfricaInlandMission,c.1944.

Fulton,D.Darby.‘Mision-ChurchRelation:IntegrateorCooperate?’.EvangelicalMissionsQuarterly.Vol.4,No.2.Winter1968.

Graft,Joede.Muntu:APlay.Nairobi:EastAfricanEducationalPublishers,1977.

Grimes,MabelS.LifeoutofDeath,orTheStoryoftheAfricaInlandMission.London:AfricaInlandMission,1917.

Henry,CarlF.H.TheUneasyConscienceofModernFundamentalism.GrandRapids,MI:Eerdmans,1947.

Honer,MaryAnderson.TheDowningLegacy:SixDecadesatRiftValleyAcademy.Bloomington,IN:iUniverse,2010.

287

Hotchkiss,Willis.ThenandNowinKenyaColony:FortyAdventurousYearsinEastAfrica.LondonandEdinburgh:FlemingH.Revell,1937.

Huxley,Elspeth.TheFlameTreesofThika:MemoriesofanAfricanChildhood.NewYork:PenguinBooks,1959.

________.WhiteMan’sCountry:LordDelamereandtheMakingofKenya,volume1,1870-1914.London:Macmillan,1935.

Kane,J.Herbert.WindsofChangeinChristianMission.Chicago:Moody,1973.

Kenyatta,Jomo.FacingMt.Kenya.NewYork:VintageBooks,1965.

Lloyd,T.E.AfricanHarvest.London:LutterworthPress,1953.

Miller,D.M.MissionaryChallengeandEquipment.London:AfricaInlandMission,c.1948.

MissionaryQualifications.London:AfricaInlandMission,c.1949.

Newton,LucildaA.BigPeanuts.Chicago:MoodyPress,1946.

Pierce,WinifredM.Africa’sOutstretchedHand:AVividAccountoftheRev.andMrsJ.A.G.Ainley’sTourThroughEastandCentralAfrica.London:AfricaInlandMission,c.1948.

Peterson,WilliamJ.AnotherHandonMine:TheStoryofDr.CarlK.BeckeroftheAfricaInlandMission.NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1967.

Patterson,Col.J.H.TheMan-EatingLionsofTsavo.Chicago:FieldMuseumofNaturalHistory,1925.

Phillips,K.N.FromMauMautoChrist.Stirling:StirlingTractEnterprise,1958.

________.TomCollinsofKenya:SonofValour.London:AfricaInlandMission,1965.

Richardson,Kenneth.AnAfricanChurch.London:AfricaInlandMission,n.d.

Scotland’sUnknownWarrior,PeterCameronScott,FounderoftheAfricaInlandMission.London:AfricaInlandMission,c.1950.

Scherer,JamesA.Missionary,GoHome!AReappraisaloftheChristianWorldMission.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Princeton-Hall,1964.

Shafer,RuthT.AnAmericanFamilyinMaasailand.GrandRapids,MI:FourCornersPress,1985.

288

Thuku,Harry.AnAutobiography.Nairobi:OxfordUniversityPress,1970.

Wanyoike,E.N.TheLifeandWorkoftheRev.WanyoikeKamawe,1888-1970.Nairobi:EastAfricanPublishingHouse,1974.

Warren,Max.Revival:AnEnquiry.Gateshead:NorthumberlandPress,1954.

(E) OtherMaterials

‘Distribution&StatusofAllA.I.M.Personnel,1927-1981’.AIMInternationalOffice,Bristol.

II. SecondarySources

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Thiong’o,NgũgĩWa.AGrainofWheat.NewYork:PenguinBooks,2012.

________.DreamsinTimeofWar.NewYork:AnchorBooks,2011.

________.PetalsofBlood.NewYork:PenguinBooks,1977.

________.TheRiverBetween.Johannesburg,SA:HeinemannPress,1965.

________.WeepNot,Child.NewYork:PenguinBooks,1964.

Thomas,Norman.MissionsandUnity:LessonsfromHistory,1792-2010.Eugene,OR:WipfandStockPublishers,2010.

Thuku,Harry.AnAutobiography.Nairobi:OxfordUniversityPress,1970.

Tucker,RuthA.FromJerusalemtoIrianJaya:ABiographicalHistoryofChristianMissions.GrandRapids,MI:Zondervan,2004.

VanVleck,Jenifer.EmpireoftheAir:AviationandtheAmericanAscendency.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2013.

Wacker,Grant.America’sPastor:BillyGrahamandtheShapingofaNation.Cambridge,MA:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2014.

Walls,Andrew.TheCross-CulturalProcessinChristianHistory.Edinburgh,T&TClark,2004.

________.TheMissionaryMovementinChristianHistory:StudiesintheTransmissionofFaith.Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,1996.

300

Walls,AndrewsandCathyRoss,eds.Missioninthe21STCentury:ExploringtheFiveMarksofGlobalMission.Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,2008.

Wamagatta,EvansonN.ThePresbyterianChurchofEastAfrica:AnAccountofItsGospelMissionaryOrigins,1895-1946.NewYork:PeterLang,2009.

Ward,KevinandBrianStanley,eds.TheChurchMissionSocietyandWorldChristianity,1799-1999.GrandRapids,MI/Cambridge:Eerdmans,2000.

Ward,KevinandEmmaWild-Wood.TheEastAfricanRevival:HistoriesandLegacies.Aldershot,UK:AshgatePublishers,2011.

Ward,W.E.F.andL.W.White,eds.EastAfrica:ACenturyofChange.NewYork:AfricanaPublishingCorporation,1972.

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Welbourn,F.B.EastAfricanRebels:AStudyofSomeIndependentChurches.London:SCMPress,1961.

Wolffe,John.TheExpansionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofWilberforce,Chalmers,andFinney.DownersGrove,IL:InverVarsity,2007.

Yates,Timothy.ChristianMissionintheTwentiethCentury.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994.

(B) JournalArticles

Anonby,John.‘TheologicalReflectionsontheNovelsofNgũgĩwaThiong’o’.EastAfricaJournalofEvanelicalTheology.5.2,1986.

Breman,Christina.‘ABird’sEyeViewofA.E.A.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.17.1,1998.

________.‘APortraintofByangKato.’AfricaJournalofEvanglicalTheology.15.2,1996.

BruceJ.Berman,‘Nationalism,Ethnicity,andModernity:TheParadoxofMauMau’.CanadianJournalofAfricanStudies.Vo.25,no.2,1991.

Gehman,Richard.‘TheAfricaInlandMission:AspectsofItsEarlyHistory.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.23.2,2004.

________.‘TheEastAfricaRevival.’EastAfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.5.1,1986.

301

Ilowola,A.Cornelius.‘AnIntroductiontoIndependentAfricaChurches.’EastAfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.3.2,1984.

Imperato,PascalJames.‘Review:DifferingPerspectivesonMauMau’.AfricaStudiesReview,Vol.48,No.3.Dec.2005.

Kapteina,Detlef.‘TheFormationofAfricanEvangelicalTheology.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.2006.Vol.25:1.

Kibor,JacobZ.‘TheGrowthandDevelopmentoftheAfricaInlandMissionandAfricanInlandChurchinMarakwet,Kenya.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.24.2,2005.

MichelleBrattain,‘Race,Racism,andAntiracism:UNESCOandthePoliticsofPresentingSciencetothePostwarPublic’.TheAmericanHistoricalReview.Vol.112,No.5,Dec.,2007.

Omulokoli,Watson.‘FoundationalHistoryoftheAfricaInlandChurch,1895-1903.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.14.2,1995.

________.‘TheEarlyHistoryofChurchCooperationandUnityinKenya.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.23.2,2004.

________.‘TheRootsofthePresbyterianChurchofEastAfrica:TheEastScottishMission,1889-1901.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.16.1,1997.

Palmer,Timothy.‘ByangKato:ATheologicalAppraisal.’AfricaJournalofEvangelicalTheology.23.1,2004.

Wagner,C.Peter.‘ColortheMoratoriumGrey.’InternationalReviewofMission.1975.Vol.64,165-76.

(C) PublishedandUnpublishedTheses

Bacon,DanielW.FromFaithtoFaith:TheInfluenceofHudsonTaylorontheFaithMissionsMovement.D.Miss.,TrinityEvangelicalDivinitySchool,1983.

Gration,JohnAlexander.‘TheRelationshipoftheAfricanInlandMissionandItsNationalChurchinKenyaBetween1899and1971.’Ph.D.diss.,NewYorkUniversity,1974.

Kaleli,JonesMaweu.‘TheoreticalFoundationsofAfricanandWesternWorldviewsandTheirRelationshiptoChristianTheologizing:AnAkambaCaseStudy.’Ph.D.diss.,FullerTheologicalSeminary,1985.

Karanja,James.TheMissionaryMovementinColonialKenya:TheFoundationoftheAfricaInlandChurch.Göttingen:Cuvillier,2009.

302

Nzioka,BernardK.‘EducationAmongtheAkambaPeople,1895-1970:AnInvestigationoftheEducationalPoliciesoftheAfricanInlandMissionandtheDevelopmentofEducationintheAkambaCommunity.’PhDdiss.,TrinityEvangelicalDivinitySchool,2010.

Elolia,SamuelKiptali.‘ChristianityandCultureinKenya:AnEncounterbetweentheAfricanInlandMissionandtheMarakwetBeliefSystemsandCulture.’PhDdiss.,TrinityCollege,UniversityofToronto,1992.

Morad,StephenDaniel.‘TheFoundingPrinciplesoftheAfricaInlandMissionandTheirInteractionwiththeAfricaContextinKenya,1895-1939:TheStudyofaFaithMission.’Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofEdinburgh,1997.

Rae,J.G.‘AHistoricalSurveyoftheEducationalWorkoftheAfricaInlandMission.’M.A.Ed.thesis,UniversityofNewBrunswick,1969.

Teasdale,CharlesWilliam.‘AnEvaluationoftheEcclesiologyoftheAfricanInlandChurch.’MAthesis,WheatonCollege,1956.

Ward,Kevin.‘TheDevelopmentofProtestantChristianityinKenya,1910-1940.’PhDdiss.,UniversityofCambridge,1976.

(D) WorksofReference

Anderson,GeraldH.BiographicalDictionaryofChristianMission.GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1998.

Awde,Nicholas.Swahili-English,English-SwahiliDictionary.NewYork:HippocreneBooks,2000.

Barrett,DavidB.WorldChristianEncyclopedia:Acomparativestudyofchurchesandreligionsinthemodernworld,AD1900-2000.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1982.

Dear,I.C.B.andM.R.D.Foot,eds.TheOxfordCompaniontoWorldWarII.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995.

Fage,J.D.AnAtlasofAfricanHistory.NewYork:AfricanaPublishingCompany,1978.

Freeman-Grenville,G.S.P.TheNewAtlasofAfricanHistory.NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1991.

Larsen,Timothy,DavidBebbingtonandMarkNoll,eds.,BiographicalDictionaryofEvangelicals.Leicester,UK:Inter-VarsityPress,2003.

Lossky,Nicholas.DictionaryoftheEcumenicalMovement.Geneva:WCCPublications,1991.

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Matthew,H.C.G.andBrianHarrison.OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,InAssociationwiththeBritishAcademy:fromtheEarliestTimestotheYear2000.Volume26.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2004.

Mills,Stephen.Dreams,SchemesandFlyingMachines:100YearsofFlight,EastAfrica,1909-2009.Nairobi:MillsPublishing,2009.

NationalAtlasofKenya.Nairobi:KenyaGovernment,1970.

Marshall,PeterJ.TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryoftheBritishEmpire.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.

Moreau,A.Scott,ed.EvangelicalDictionaryofWorldMissions.GrandRapids:Baker,2000.

Ritchie,DonaldA.DoingOralHistory:APracticalGuide.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2003.

Wright,D.F.DictionaryofScottishChurchHistoryandTheology.Edinburgh:T&TClark,1993.

(E) Other

Gehman,Richard.‘TheSpreadingVineyard:TheGrowthoftheA.I.C.,Kenya’.UnpublishedManuscript,2016.

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