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The French Revolution

Introduction

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French Revolution (1789-1799), political and social upheaval,. The revolution resulted, in the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy and in the foundation of the First French Republic. It was generated by lots of causes, the most important of which were the Social Inequality, Corrupt Government and the influence of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution. Recent scholarship tends to downplay the social class struggle and emphasize political, cultural, ideological, and personality factors in the advent and unfolding of the conflict.

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- Historical reasons for the Revolution -- Open Rebellion -

- From monarchy to Republic -- The Reign of Terror -

- The Napoleonic Regime -- The Significance of the Revolutionary

and Napoleonic Era -

- Revision Exercise-

Historical reasons for the Revolution

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There were a vast complex of reasons causing the French Revolution, including internal problem, such as the

and the, and outside influence, the and the . These are the main factor of the break up of the Revolution..

Social Inequality InefficientgovernmentEnlightenment ideathe American Revolution

success of

Social Inequality

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NextSocial Class of French Society before the

Revolution

The Second Estate-- Nobility

Social Inequality

Social Class of French Society before the Revolution

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H eld the best position s in the gover n m w n t an d ar m y . E xem pt fr om m ost taxes. P r iv ileged Class. E n joy a lu xu r iou s life.

The Third Estate– City Workers and

Peasants

Social Inequality

Social Class of French Society before the Revolution

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S u ff er ed the m ost fr om H eavy T axation W or k er s w er e poor ly pr id. P easan ts su ff er ed m ost. T hey had a har d lives.

Social Inequality

Social Class of French Society before the Revolution

King, the Bourdon Monarchy

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Social Inequality

Social Class of French Society before the Revolution

The Third Estate --

Bourgeoisie

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H eld n o P olitical P ow er thou gh ver y w ealthy . W ell- edu cated. D eeply in fl u en ced by the E n ligh ten m en t. W an t a shar e in the r u n n in g of gover n m en t.

Social Inequality

Social Class of French Society before the Revolution

Th First Estate --Clergy

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U n lim ited r igh ts, lar gest lan dow n er , exem pt fr om m ost taxex. P r iv ileged Class.

Inefficient Government

- Louis XVI -

In the 17th century, France was the most powerful country in Europe.

ruled as an absolute monarch. But his successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, were not capable ruler rulers. Louis XVI was very weak. He had no interest in politics. His government was corrupt and inefficient.

The financial situation in France was also extremely bad. Louis XIV and his successors spent too much money on . The luxurious life of the kings and nobles made the country poorer. By 1789, the French Government was nearly bankrupt.

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Louis XIV

foreign wars

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Inefficient Government

- Louis XVI -

In the 17th century, France was the most powerful country in Europe. Louis XIV ruled as an absolute monarch. But his successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, were not capable ruler rulers. Louis XVI was very weak. He had no interest in politics. His government was corrupt and inefficient.

The financial situation in France was also extremely bad. Louis XIV and his successors spent too much money on foreign wars. The luxurious life of the kings and nobles made the country poorer. By 1789, the French Government was nearly bankrupt.

Louis XVIThe grandson of Louis

XV, Louis XVI was

considered a well-

intentioned but weak

king. A heavy tax burden

and court extravagances

led eventually to a

popular revolt and the

French Revolution. He

and his wife were later

executed by guillotine by

the revolutionary regime.

Marie

Antoinette

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Inefficient Government

- Louis XVI -

In the 17th century, France was the most powerful country in Europe. Louis XIV ruled as an absolute monarch. But his successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, were not capable ruler rulers. Louis XVI was very weak. He had no interest in politics. His government was corrupt and inefficient.

The financial situation in France was also extremely bad. Louis XIV and his successors spent too much money on foreign wars. The luxurious life of the kings and nobles made the country poorer. By 1789, the French Government was nearly bankrupt.

Marie Antoinette

Marie Antoinette was the queen

of France who died on the

guillotine in 1793 during the

French Revolution. Her lavish

life-style made her unpopular.

Paying no attention to her

country financial crisis, she

refused to make any

concessions to hungry mobs

who marched on the palace in

Versailles. Instead, she called

out troops. Violence followed,

and she and her husband, King

Louis XVI, were imprisoned by

revolutionaries and later

executed.

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Inefficient Government

- Louis XVI -

In the 17th century, France was the most powerful country in Europe. Louis XIV ruled as an absolute monarch. But his successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, were not capable ruler rulers. Louis XVI was very weak. He had no interest in politics. His government was corrupt and inefficient.

The financial situation in France was also extremely bad. Louis XIV and his successors spent too much money on foreign wars. The luxurious life of the kings and nobles made the country poorer. By 1789, the French Government was nearly bankrupt.

Louis XIVKnown as the Sun King

because he chose the sun

as his royal emblem, Louis

XIV encouraged French

artists and writers while

also building the most

militarily powerful nation in

Europe. Louis XIV’s aim

was for a supreme France,

in war or in peace. His

reign (1638-1715) , the

longest in European

history, was marked by a

great flowering of French

culture.

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Inefficient Government

- Louis XVI -

In the 17th century, France was the most powerful country in Europe. Louis XIV ruled as an absolute monarch. But his successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, were not capable ruler rulers. Louis XVI was very weak. He had no interest in politics. His government was corrupt and inefficient.

The financial situation in France was also extremely bad. Louis XIV and his successors spent too much money on foreign wars. The luxurious life of the kings and nobles made the country poorer. By 1789, the French Government was nearly bankrupt.

Foreign Wars

The French government

had undergone periodic

economic crises, resulting

from the long wars waged

during the reign of Louis

XIV, royal mismanagement

of national affairs under

Louis XV, the losses

incurred in the French and

Indian War (1756-63), and

increased indebtedness

arising from loans to the

American colonies during

the American Revolution

(1775-83).

The French and Indian

War, A conflict

respective Native

American allies in a

quest for domination

of North America

which. ended in

complete victory for

the British, The

removal of a French

threat to colonial

security helped bring

about the American

Revolution.

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The influence of the Enlightenment

During the 18th century, all major European countries were influenced by the Enlightenment. France was the centre of the movement. The ideas of French thinkers such as , and were widespread. Their writings greatly influenced the bourgeoisie and encouraged them to rebel against tyranny.

VoltaireRousseau Montesquieu

- Voltaire -

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The influence of the Enlightenment

During the 18th century, all major European countries were influenced by the Enlightenment. France was the centre of the movement. The ideas of French thinkers such as , and were widespread. Their writings greatly influenced the bourgeoisie and encouraged them to rebel against tyranny.

VoltaireRousseau Montesquieu

- Voltaire -

Next

VoltaireThe French writer and philosopher Voltaire

is considered one of the central figures of t

he Age of Enlightenment of the 1700s, a pe

riod which emphasized the power of huma

n reason, science, and respect for humanit

y. Voltaire believed that literature should s

erve as a vehicle for social change. His bitin

g satires and philosophical writings demon

strated his aversion to Christianity, intoler

ance, and tyranny and brought him into fre

quent conflict with the religious and politic

al communities. The expression captured i

n this portrait of Voltaire in 1718 hint at the

sharp sense of humor with which he won t

he favor of 18th-century French society.

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The influence of the Enlightenment

During the 18th century, all major European countries were influenced by the Enlightenment. France was the centre of the movement. The ideas of French thinkers such as , and were widespread. Their writings greatly influenced the bourgeoisie and encouraged them to rebel against tyranny.

VoltaireRousseau Montesquieu

- Voltaire -

Next

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau contributed to

many branches of social philosophy. The

Social Contract is a classic defense of the

democratic form of government. Rousse

au trusted the eneral will?of a democra

tic people, as expressed by a vote of the

majority, to make all important decisions.

This trust in the majority contrasts great

ly with the ideas of philosophers who cha

mpioned minority and individual rights.

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The influence of the Enlightenment

During the 18th century, all major European countries were influenced by the Enlightenment. France was the centre of the movement. The ideas of French thinkers such as , and were widespread. Their writings greatly influenced the bourgeoisie and encouraged them to rebel against tyranny.

VoltaireRousseau Montesquieu

- Voltaire -

Next

Montesquieu (1689-

1755)

French writer and

philosopher. He

argued for the

separation of powers

into the executive,

the legislature and

the judiciary to avoid

tyranny. His ideas

were included in the

American

Constitution.

The Influence of the American Revolution

The success of the Americans in their War of Independence set a good example for the French. It showed that a government could actually be formed by the people. It encouraged the French to fight for their freedom. As a result, the French started their revolution shortly after the birth of the United State.

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Open Rebellion –The Estates General

Louis XVI wanted to raise money from his people. In May 1789, he called a meeting of the Estates General which had not been held since 1614. According to tradition, the three Estate were to meet in separated halls, and each Estate could only had one vote. But the Third Estate demanded that the three Estates meet together and voting by head. The First and Second Estate refused to do so. On 17 June, the Third Estate declared National Assembly. The Estates General was destroyed.

First EstateSecond

EstateThird Estate

2 %

2 %

96 %

Percentage

of Population

Number of

Representati

ves

Voting by

Block (used

by the

Estates

General)1 Votes303

282

610

1 Votes1 Votes

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The Tennis Court Oath

Inside the tennis court, one of the main leaders Bailly, voiced the ideas of Mounier, another leader that they would not leave Versailles until there was a constitution which they agreed on. Everyone accepted the oath. That Oath was known as the Tennis Court Oath.

On 20 June, 1789, the members of the National Assembly stood

outside the meeting hall, soon after they had found out that King Louis had canceled the royal session because his son died.Then after it started to pour

and drenching the Third Estate members, so they sought shelter in a nearby indoor tennis court .

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The Tennis Court Oath

Inside the tennis court, one of the main leaders Bailly, voiced the ideas of Mounier, another leader that they would not leave Versailles until there was a constitution which they agreed on. Everyone accepted the oath. That Oath was known as the Tennis Court Oath.

On 20 June, 1789, the members of the National Assembly stood

outside the meeting hall, soon after they had found out that King Louis had canceled the royal session because his son died.Then after it started to pour

and drenching the Third Estate members, so they sought shelter in a nearby indoor tennis court .

Th

e T

en

nis

Cou

rt O

ath

The National Assembly members taking the

Tennis Court Oath at Versailles on June 20,

1789.

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The Storming of Bastille

At last, Louis XVI gave in ordered the other two Estates to join the National Assembly. But he also planning to bring in troops to dissolve it. Meanwhile, there were many hungry and unemployed people in Paris. When they heard about the King’s intention, they attacked the on 14 July. To the French, the fall of Bastille marked the end of tyranny. The French Revolution began.

People Marching to the Bastille

The Storming of the Bastille

Bastille

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The Storming of Bastille

At last, Louis XVI gave in ordered the other two Estates to join the National Assembly. But he also planning to bring in troops to dissolve it. Meanwhile, there were many hungry and unemployed people in Paris. When they heard about the King’s intention, they attacked the on 14 July. To the French, the fall of Bastille marked the end of tyranny. The French Revolution began.

People Marching to the Bastille

The Storming of the Bastille

Bastille

Bastille -a prison which

was the symbol of

absolutism. People

who opposed the king

were imprisoned there

without trial. The site

is now an open square,

called the Place de la

Bastille. Bastille Day is

the national holiday in

France, celebrated

annually on July 14.

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The revolution soon spread throughout France. The National Assembly passed laws to remove all the privileges of the clergy and the nobility. In August 1789, they approved the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’. It emphasizes liberty, equality and fraternity. These inalienable rights included participation, through chosen representatives, in the making of laws; equality of all persons before the law; equitable taxation and the freedom of religion, speech, and the press. It clearly reflects the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man

Next

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In September 1791, the National Assembly drew up a constitution for France. It set out how the country was to be ruled. It allowed Louis XVI to continue be king, but not as an absolute monarch . Power would be held by an assembly that was to be elected by the people. France became a constitutional monarchy .

The National Assembly

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In April 1792, France declared war on Austria and Prussia. Revolutionary Wars Begin. In September, a new assembly called the National Convention was elected. It ended the monarchy in France. France was declared a republic. It was called the First French Republic (1792-1804).

The Tricolour Revolutionary Flag was made up of the blue, white and red colour which represent liberty, equality and fraternity .

“ Can you hear the shouts of the soldiers ? Citizens, get your weapons ! March onwards, onwards ! Let the poisoned blood of our enemies soak into our field. ”

The First French Republic

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In April 1792, France declared war on Austria and Prussia. Revolutionary Wars Begin. In September, a new assembly called the National Convention was elected. It ended the monarchy in France. France was declared a republic. It was called the First French Republic (1792-1804).

“ Can you hear the shouts of the soldiers ? Citizens, get your weapons ! March onwards, onwards ! Let the poisoned blood of our enemies soak into our field. ” During the Revolutionary Wars, volunteers from Marseilles in the south of France marched north to fight the foreign enemies. They sang the above song on the way. Now, it has became the National song of France.

The Tricolour Revolutionary Flag was made up of the blue, white and red colour which represent liberty, equality and fraternity .

The First French Republic

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The Reign of Terror

- The cause of the Reign of Terror -

- What was the Reign of Terror ? -

- How did the Reign of Terror end ? -

Next

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NextIn 1793, Louis XVI was executed. Almost all European countries joined together to form the First Coalition against France.As a result of foreign invasion and internal rebellion, the National Convention set up the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The cause of the Reign of Terror

The execution of Louis XVI

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NextIn all of France, revolutionary tribunals and commissions were responsible for the execution of almost 17,000 individuals. All elements of the opposition suffered from the terror. Of those condemned by the revolutionary tribunals, approximately 8 percent were nobles, 6 percent were members of the clergy, 14 percent belonged to the middle class, and 70 percent were workers or peasants charged with draft dodging, desertion, hoarding, rebellion, and various other crimes.

What was the Reign of Terror ?

Guillotine, a machine used to behead people who were suspected of being against the revolution.

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How did the Reign of Terror end ?

The radical revolutionary leader of the Committee of Public safety Robespierre was executed in 1794The Directory was set up in 1795The Reign of Terror ended.

Robespierre

Next

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In 1793, Louis XVI was executed. Almost all European countries joined together to form the First Coalition against France.As a result of foreign invasion and internal rebellion, the National Convention set up the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The cause of the Reign of Terror

The execution of Louis XVI

Next

Marie Antoinette on the Guillotine, October 16,

1793.

King Louis XVI was brought to trial , December 11, 1792

How did the Reign of Terror end ?

The radical revolutionary leader of the Committee of Public safety Robespierre was executed in 1794The Directory was set up in 1795The Reign of Terror ended.

Robespierre

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Maximilien Robespierre

Maximilien Robespierre

was one of the most con

troversial figures in the F

rench Revolution. In the

cause of fostering demo

cracy, Robespierre helpe

d bring about the Reign

of Terror, in which thous

ands were executed by t

he guillotine. He eventu

ally met the same fate.

Jean Paul MaratJean Paul Marat was on

e of the most radical lea

ders of the French Revol

ution. He urged popular

violence against any wh

o supported the French

King Louis XVI. Stirred b

y his views, which he pu

blished in his newspape

r, L mi du Peuple, revol

utionaries broke into Pa

ris prisons and killed ov

er 1,000 political prison

ers, including priests an

d aristocrats.

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1769 1796 1799

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The life of

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Napoleon Bonaparte

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Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was the

greatest military genius of the

19th century. He conquered most

of Western Europe and Egypt for

France, while instituting reforms in

these new territories aimed at

guaranteeing civil liberties and

improving the quality of life. He

crowned himself emperor of

France in 1804 and introduced

reforms intended to unify the

revolution-fractured nation. Many

of Napoleon reforms are still in

effect today.

Napoleonic Empire in 1812French

EmpireDependent State

French Allies

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The life of

The Napoleonic Regime

Napoleon Bonaparte

Born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Co

rsica

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1785 Jointed the army

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1796 Married Josephine

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1799 Ended the and set up a new government , the . He became the First Consul and held great power

Directory

Consulate

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1804 became Emperor of France

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1805 Defeated the Third Coalition.Napoleoni

c Wars started

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1806 Introduced the Continental System.(In order to stop European countries under his control from trading with Britain.)

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1808 Controlled almost the whole of Europe.

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1809 Divorced Josephine and married

Marie Louise, daughter of the Austrian e

mperor

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1812 Suffered great loss in the Russian Campaign.

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1813 Lost the Peninsular War to Spain and Portugal and the Battle of Nations (The Fourth Coalition). Exiled to the island of Elba

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1814 Napoleon escaped back to France and returned to power.

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1815 Napoleon was defeated by Britain and Prussia at the Battle of Waterloo. He was exiled to an island.

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Napoleon Bonaparte

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1821 Napoleon died at the island of St.Helena.

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Napoleonic Code

* protected personal property;

* abolished class divisions and feudal privileges;

* made every man equal before the law;* gave every citizen the freedom to choose his religious and job.

Next

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Significance of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic

Era

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Revolution of 1830 Revolutio

n of 1848

Unification of Italy (1859-1870)

Unification of Germany (1864-1871)

19th-Century world

Liberalism

Nationalism

American Civil War (1861-1865)

Independence

movements in Latin America

(1810-1865

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1799 Ended the and set up a new government , the Consulate. He became the First Consul and held great power

Directory

DirectoryDirectory, executive branch of

the Republican government of

France, established in 1795 in

accordance with the constitution promulgated by

the National Convention. As a

result of corruption within the

Directory, the finances of the

government became so

strained that early in 1796 a

proclamation of bankruptcy

was issued. So on the 9

November,1799, National hero

Napoleon ended the Directory

and set up the Consulate.

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1799 Ended the and set up a new government , the Consulate. He became the First Consul and held great power

Directory

Consulate

Consulate, form of government in France f

rom 1799 to 1804, established after the ov

erthrow of the Directory by Napoleon, late

r the emperor of France. Napoleon served

as first consul. The two other consuls, Em

manuel Joseph Sieyes and Pierre Ducos, s

erved as his advisors. The powers of the va

rious legislative bodies, however, were ver

y limited, while those of the first consul we

re made almost absolute. Napoleon held g

reat power. The Consulate was later dissol

ved in 1804 when Napoleon became empe

ror.

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Significance of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic

Era

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Revolution of 1830 Revolutio

n of 1848

Unification of Italy (1859-1870)

Unification of Germany (1864-1871)

19th-Century world

Liberalism

Nationalism

American Civil War (1861-1865)

Independence

movements in Latin America

(1810-1865

Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna was held after the fall of Napoleon.But it could not stop the spread of liberalism and nationalism. Many revolutions broke out in 19th-

century Europe.

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Significance of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic

Era

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Revolution of 1830 Revolutio

n of 1848

Unification of Italy (1859-1870)

Unification of Germany (1864-1871)

19th-Century world

Liberalism

Nationalism

American Civil War (1861-1865)

Independence

movements in Latin America (1810-1865)

Liberalism and Nationalism

The French Revolution gave birth of the ideas of Liberalism and Nationalism which emphasized freedom and the nation-ruling of people. The European were deeply influenced by these two ideas.

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1. Which of the following did not belong to the Third Estate in medieval Europe ?

Revision

A Multiple Choice Question

A . The SerfsB . The Priest

C . The BourgeoisieD . The Workers

1. Which of the following did not belong to the Third Estate in medieval Europe ?

Revision

A Multiple Choice Question

A . The SerfsB . The Priest

C . The BourgeoisieD . The Workers

Totally Correct !

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1. Which of the following did not belong to the Third Estate in medieval Europe ?

Revision

A Multiple Choice Question

A . The SerfsB . The Priest

C . The BourgeoisieD . The Workers

Oops! The answer should be “B. The priest” as Priests belonged to the First Estate

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2. The three colours of the Tricolour shown from the left to the right are …A . Red, white, blueB . White, red, blueC . Blue, red, white D . Blue, white, red

2. The three colours of the Tricolour shown from the left to the right are …A . Red, white, blueB . White, red, blueC . Blue, white, redD . Blue, white, red

Exactly !

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2. The three colours of the Tricolour shown from the left to the right are …A . Red, white, blueB . White, red, blueC . Blue, white, redD . Blue, white, red

The right answer is D

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3. Robespierre was the leader of the …A . Directory

B . National Guard

C . ConsulateD . Committee of the Public Safety

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3. Robespierre was the leader of the …A . Directory

B . National Guard

C . ConsulateD . Committee of the Public Safety

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How clever you are !

3. Robespierre was the leader of the …A . Directory

B . National Guard

C . ConsulateD . Committee of the Public Safety

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Sorry !the answer is D

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4. The king who ruled France before the 1789 Revolution was …

A . Louis XVI

B . Marie AntoinetteC . Napoleon BonparteD . Charles I

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4. The king who ruled France before the 1789 Revolution was …

A . Louis XVI

B . Marie AntoinetteC . Napoleon BonparteD . Charles I

That’s right !

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4. The king who ruled France before the 1789 Revolution was …

A . Louis XVI

B . Marie AntoinetteC . Napoleon BonparteD . Charles I

I think answer A is more suitable.

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5. When the Third Estate found that their meeting hall was locked by Louis XVI, then they …A . Damaged the palace and went away angrily

B . Shouted loudly

C . Knocked the door violentlyD . Moved to an indoor tennis court

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5. When the Third Estate found that their meeting hall was locked by Louis XVI, then they …A . Damaged the palace and went away angrily

B . Shouted loudly

C . Knocked the door violentlyD . Moved to an indoor tennis court

100 % Correct

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5. When the Third Estate found that their meeting hall was locked by Louis XVI, then they …A . Damaged the palace and went away angrily

B . Shouted loudly

C . Knocked the door violentlyD . Moved to an indoor tennis court

It should be D

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6. The Revolutionary Tribunal was used to …

A . Kill Louis XVI and other noblesB . Execute people who were suspected of being against the Revolution C . Help other European countries to start the revolution

D . Execute people for fun

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6. The Revolutionary Tribunal was used to …

A . Kill Louis XVI and other noblesB . Execute people who were suspected of being against the Revolution C . Help other European countries to start the revolution

D . Execute people for funIntelligent !

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6. The Revolutionary Tribunal was used to …

A . Kill Louis XVI and other noblesB . Execute people who were suspected of being against the Revolution C . Help other European countries to start the revolution

D . Execute people for funD is the most accurate

answer

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7. The Reign of Terror started because A . Of foreign invasion and internal rebellion

B . The death of Louis XVI C . The Directory was corrupt and inefficient

D . The government wanted to kill people as the population grew rapidly

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7. The Reign of Terror started because A . Of foreign invasion and internal rebellion

B . The death of Louis XVI

C . The Directory was corrupt and inefficient

D . The government wanted to kill people as the population grew rapidly

Exactly Correct !

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7. The Reign of Terror started because A . Of foreign invasion and internal rebellion

B . The death of Louis XVI

C . The Directory was corrupt and inefficient

D . The government wanted to kill people as the population grew rapidly

The answer is A.

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8. Where did Napoleon born ?

A . St. Helena

B . France

C . Corsica D . Russia

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8. Where did Napoleon born ?

A . St. HelenaC . Corsica D .

Russia

B . France

It’s too easy for you.

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8. Where did Napoleon born ?

A . St. HelenaC . Corsica D .

Russia

B . France

Oops ! The answer should be

C

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9. Napoleon won in the A . Peninsular WarB . Russian Campaign C . Battle of WaterlooD . Battle of Austerlitz

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9. Napoleon won in the A . Peninsular WarB . Russian Campaign C . Battle of WaterlooD . Battle of Austerlitz

Perfect !

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9. Napoleon won in the A . Peninsular WarB . Russian Campaign C . Battle of WaterlooD . Battle of Austerlitz

The answer is

D

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10. The First French Empire was formed by

A . Louis XVI

B . Napoleon C . John

LockeD . The Third Estate

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10. The First French Empire was formed by

A . Louis XVI

B . Napoleon C . John

LockeD . The Third Estate

Exactly ! !

Next

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10. The First French Empire was formed by

A . Louis XVI

B . Napoleon C . John

LockeD . The Third Estate

I think the answer should be

B.

Wow! You have finished the Revision Exercise and the self-studying course of the French Revolution. Is it easy to you. Certainly is ! In fact, there are a list of story about the Revolution that you can found in the Internet. If you are interested in this topic, or you want a further reading, we have some Web site provided to you as follow. Hope you enjoy the journey in the tale of History.

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Link

includes a history, construction information, a gallery of pictures and biographies of people related to the guillotine.

story of the French Revolution.

dedicated to the study of Napoleon Bonaparte and his times. It is a place where people interested in Napoleonic history can meet to exchange ideas and knowledge or just to talk about their favorite subject.

Napoleon Series

Saint Just and Robespierre

Guillotine, The

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