BACHELOR OF SCIENCE AGRICULTURE VI SEMESTERTheory: Importance of post harvest technology in...

SUNRISE UNIVERSITY, ALWAR

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE AGRICULTURE VI SEMESTER

College of Agriculture Sunrise University Alwar B.Sc (Hon’s) Agriculture

Scheme of Session 2019 - 2020

Code Subject

Maximum Marks

T P MS1 MS2 IA

EA

Total

6BAG001 Farming Systems, Sustainable

Agriculture and Organic Farming 2 0 10 10 20 60 100

6BAG002 Principles of Seed Technology 2 0 10 10 20 60 100

6BAG003 Extension Methodologies for

Transfer of Agricultural

Technology

2 0 5 5 10 30 50

6BAG004 Livestock Production and

Management 2 0 10 10 20 60 100

6BAG005 Environmental Science** 2 0 10 10 20 60 100

6BAG006 Post-harvest management and

value addition of fruits and

vegetables

2 0 10 10 20 60 100

6BAG007 Diseases of Horticultural Crops

and their management 2 0 5 5 10 30 50

6BAG008 Fundamentals of Agri. Business

Management 2 0 5 5 10 30 50

Total 650

6BAG001 : Farming Systems, Sustainable Agriculture and Organic farming

Theory:

Sustainable agriculture: definition, current concept ; Factors affecting ecological balance and

ameliorative measures; Land degradation and conservation of natural resources; Low external

input agriculture (LEIA) & high external input agricultural (HEIA); Irrigation problems; Waste

lands and their development; Differences between conventional and sustainable agricultural

systems; Organic farming: definition, principles , components and relevance in present context;

Organic production requirements; Biological intensive nutrient management-organic manures,

vermicomposting, green manuring, recycling of organic residues, biofertilizers; Soil amendments;

Integrated diseases and pest management – use of biocontrol agents, biopesticides, pheromones,

trap crops, bird perches; Organic produce: quality considerations, certification, and accreditation;

Farming systems: definition, principles and components, Intergrated farming system (I F S)

models for wetland, irrigated dryland and dryland situations.

Practical:

Preparation of cropping scheme for irrigated situations; Preparation of cropping scheme for

dryland situations; Study of existing farming systems in nearby villages; Preparation of integrated

farming system model for wetlands; Preparation of integrated farming system model for drylands;

Preparation of enriched Farm Yard Manure; Preparation of Vermicompost; Study of profitable

utilization of agricultural wastes; Visit to poultry and

6BAG002 : Principles of Seed Technology

Theory

Importance of improved seed in agriculture. Seed technology-definition, objective, relationship with other

sciences. Seed quality-definition, characters of good quality seed and classes of seed. Seed policy, seed

demand forecasting and planning of certified, foundation and breeder seed production. Determination of

crop seed varieties, factors affecting deterioration and their control; Maintenance of genetic purity during

seed production. Steps involved in development of seed progeramme and seed multiplication. Production

of nucleus of & breeder seed, Maintenance and multiplication of pre-release and newly released varieties

in self and cross pollinated crops. Seed production- foundation and certified seed production of

maize,bajra,sorghum( hybrids,synthetics and composites),rice,cotton,tomoto and hybrids:chillies and

cucurbits(varieties and hybrids) : seed production of wheat,barley, gram and rape seed mustard. Seed

certification phases of certification, procedure for seed certification and field inspection, fields counts.

Seed act 1966 and Seed act enforcement, Central seed committee, Central Seed Certification Board, State

Seed Certification Agency.Central and State Seed Testing Laboratories;Duties and powers of seed

inspectors,offences and penalities. Seed control order:Seed control order 1983.Intellectual Properties

Rights, Patenting,WTO,Plant Breeders Rights and Farmer,s Right.Seed drying-Forced air seed

drying,principle,properties of air and their effect on seed drying,moisture equilibrium between seed and

air.Seed processing-planning and establishment of seed processing plant;air screen machine and its

workingprinciple, different upgrading equipment and their use.Principles of seed treatment , Seed storage;

stages of seed storage, factors affecting seed longevity storage and conditions required for good storage,

general principles of seed storage. Seed marketing- marketing structure, marketing organization.

Practical:

Seed sampling principles and procedures.Physical purity analysis of field and horticultural crops; Moisture

testing; Germination analysis and viability test of field and horticultural crops; Vigour test of field and

horticultural crops; KOH and NaOH test for varietal identification; Visit of GOT field at University farms;

Varietal identification in seed production plots;Planting ratio,Minimum seed certification standards of

important crops in the vicinity.

6BAG003 : Extension Methodologies for Transfer of Agricultural Technology

Theory :

Communication - Meaning, Definition, Models, Elements and their Characteristics, Barriers in

Communication. Extension Programme Planning - Meaning, Definition of Planning, Programme,

Project, Principles and Steps in Programme Planning Evaluation - Meaning, concept and types.

Extension Teaching methods - Meaning, Definition and Classification. Individual contact methods

– Farm and Home visit, Telephone call, E-mail. Group contact methods – Group discussion,

Method and Result demonstrations; Small group discussion techniques – Lecture, Panel,

Workshop, Syndicate group, Brain Storming, Seminar, Conference and Buzz group. Mass contact

Methods- Campaign, Exhibition, Kisan Mela, Radio & Television -Meaning, Importance, steps,

Merits & Demerits. Factors influencing in selection of Extension Teaching methods. Innovative

Information sources – Internet, Cyber Cafes, Video and Tele conferences, Kisan call centers.

Diffusion-Meaning, Definition and Elements. Adoption Process- Meaning, Stages, Innovation

decision process, Adopter categories and their characteristics, Factors influencing adoption

process.

Practical:

Organization of Group discussion and Method demonstration. Planning and Writing of scripts for

Radio and Television. Preparation of selected audio-visual aids- Charts, Posters, Over Head

Projector(OHP) Transparencies, Power Point Slides. Leaflet, Folder, Pamphlet, News Stories and

Success Stories. Handling of Public Address Equipment (PAE) System, Still Camera, Video

Camera and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector.

6BAG004 : Livestock Production and Management

Theory:

Place of livestock in the national economy. Different livestock development programs of

Government of India. Important exotic and Indian breeds of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and swine.

Measures and factor affecting fertility in livestock. Reproductive behaviors like puberty, estrus,

pregnancy and parturition. Milk secretion, milking of animal and factor affecting milk yield and

composition. Selection and breeding of livestock for higher milk and meat production. Feeding

and management of calves, growing heifers and milch animals. Housing principles, space

requirements for different species of livestock. Disease control measures, sanitation and care.

Breeding, feeding and production records. Breed characteristics of poultry. Systems of housing,

feeding and management. Incubation, hatching and brooding. Vaccination and prevention of

diseases, Preservation and marketing of eggs, its economics and keeping quality. Cost of

production of milk.

Practical:

Identification, handling and restraining of farm animals. Judging and culling of dairy cattle and

poultry. Feeding and ration formulation for categories of livestock. Housing and management of

poultry. Visit to livestock farms. Economics of livestock production

6BAG005 : Environmental Science

Theory:

Scope and importance of environmental studies and biological chemistry. Renewable resources : Forest, Water, Food, energy

and land - various environmental cycles viz. carbon, nitrogen and water etc. Energy flow in the ecosystem : concept of

photosynthesis and respiration. Woman and child welfare – food, balance diet, vitamins and minerals etc. HIV/AIDS – viruses

and nucleic acids, modification and propagation. Role of information technology on environment and human health –

nutrition/malnutrition in communities. Concept of biological processing of industrial wastes. *

Ecology : Definition and scope. Ecosystems: Definition, types, concept, structure, functions, components and food pyramids.

Producers, consumers and decomposers of an ecosystem. Bio-diversity: Definition, classification, threats to biodiversity and

its conservation. The Environment Protection Act, The Air Act, The water Act, The Wildlife Protection Act and Forest

Conservation Act.**

Environmental pollution: Causes, effects and control of air, water, soil, thermal, noise and marine pollution. Causes, effects

and management of soil nuclear hazards and industrial wastes.***

Practical:

Estimation of chlorophyll content of fresh water/sea water ecosystem. Study of transpiration and water balance in plants.

Estimation of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C). Community survey for nutritional health status. Estimation of proline as stress

indicator in plants. *

Estimation of pesticide contamination in Agro-Ecosystem. Determination of sound level by using sound level meter.

Estimation of respirable and non respirable dust in the air by using portable dust sampler. Estimation of species abundance of

plants. Visit to ecosystems and study of biodiversity. **

Collection, processing and storage of effluent samples; Determination of Bio-Chemical oxygen demand (BOD) in effluent

sample; Determination of chemical oxygen demand (COD) in effluent sample; Estimation of dissolved oxygen in effluent

samples; Determination of total dissolved solids (TDS) in effluent samples; Estimation of nitrate contamination in ground

water. Analysis of temporary and total hardness of water sample by titration. Determination of heavy metals in sewage and

sludge. ***

6BAG006 : Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables

Theory:

Importance of post harvest technology in horticultural crops. Maturity indices, harvesting and post-harvest

handling of fruits and vegetables. Classification of fruit crops on the basis of ripening and ripening process. Factors

affecting ripening of fruits and vegetables. Pre- harvest factors affecting quality on post-harvest shelf-life of fruits

and vegetables. Factors responsible for detioration of harvested fruits and vegetables. Chemicals used for hastening

and delaying ripening of fruits and vegetables. Primary processing of fruits and vegetables. Methods of storage –

pre-cooling, pre-storage treatments, low temperature storage, controlled atmospheric storage, hypobaric storage,

irradiation and low cost storage structures. Various methods of packing, packaging materials and transport.

Importance and scope of fruit and vegetable preservation in India. Principles of preservation by heat, low

temperature, chemicals and fermentation. Unit layout– selection of site and precautions for hygienic conditions of

the unit. Preservation through canning, bottling, freezing, dehydration, drying, ultraviolet and ionizing radiations.

Preparation of jams, jellies, marmalades, candies, crystallized and glazed fruits, preserves, chutneys, pickles,

ketchup, sauce, puree, syrups, juices, squashes and cordials Spoilage of canned products, biochemical, enzymatic

and microbial spoilage. Laws prohibiting processed fruit and vegetables food adulteration in India

Practical:

Practice in judging the maturity of various fruits and vegetables. Construction of zero energy cool chambers for on

farm storage. Determination of physiological loss in weight (PLW), total soluble solids (TSS), total sugars, acidity

and ascorbic acid content in fruits and vegetables. Effect of ethylene on ripening of banana, sapota and mango.

Identification of equipment and machinery used in preservation of fruits and vegetables. Preservation by drying

and dehydration. Preparation of jam, jelly and marmalades. Preparation of squash, cordials and syrups. Preparation

of chutneys, pickles, sauces and ketchup. Visit to processing units, market yards, cold storage units and packing

industries.

6BAG007 : Disease of horticulture crops their management

Theory: Economic importance, symptoms, etiology, disease cycle and management

of diseases of citrus (canker,dieback); mango ( malformation and black tip); banana

(panama wilt and sigatoka); grapevine (downy mildew and anthracnose);

pomegranate (bacterial blight); papaya (foot rot and ring spot); guava (wilt and Zn

deficiency); apple (scab); ber (powdery mildew): potato (late blight and black heart);

tomoto (early blight and leaf curl); chilli (anthracnose); brinjal (Phomopsis blight

and little leaf disease); bhindi (yellow vein mosaic); pea (powdery mildew); cabbage

(black rot); cucurbits (downy mildew ); onion (purple blotch); ginger (rhizome rot)

and rose (powdery mildew).

Practical: Study of symptoms, etiology, host-parasite relationship and control

measures of diseases of citrus, mango, grapevine, pomegranate, papaya, guava, ber,

potato, tomoto, chilli, brinjal, bhindi, pea, onion. Field visits at orchards and vegetable

fields during the semester.

6BAG008 : Fundamentals of Agri -business management

Theory -

Agribusiness: Meaning. Definition, Structure of Agribusiness, (Input. Farm. Product Sectors). Importance

of Agribusiness in the Indian Economy, Agricultural Policy. Agribusiness Management. Distinctive

features, Importance of Good Management. Definitions of Management. Management Functions,

Planning. Meaning, Definition, Types of Plans (Purpose or Mission. Goals or Objectives. Strategies,

Polices. Procedures, rules. programmes, Budget) characteristics of sound plan, Steps in planning,

Organisation. Staffing, Directing. Motivation, Ordering, Leading. Supervision, Communication, control.

Capital Management. Financial Management of Agribusiness: Importance of Financial Statements,

Balance sheet, Profit and Loss Statement, Analysis of Financial statements. Agro-based Industries:

Importance and Need, Classification of Industries, Types of Agro-based Industries. Institutional

arrangement, Procedure to set up agro-based industries, Constraints in establishing agro-based industries.

Marketing Management: Meaning, Definitions. Marketing Mix. 4Ps of Marketing. Mix, Market

segmentation, Methods of Market. Product life cycle. Pricing policy, Meaning. pricing method. Prices at

various stages of Marketing. Project, definitions, project cycle. Identification, Formulation. Appraisal,

Implementation. Monitoring and evaluation, Appraisal and Evaluation techniques, NPW, BCR. IRR, N/C

ratio, sensitivity analysis. characteristics of agricultural projects: preparation of project reports for various

activities in agriculture and allied sectors: Dairying, poultry, fisheries. agro-industries etc.

Practical:

Study of input markets: seed. fertilizers, pesticides. Study of output markets. grains, fruits, vegetables,

flowers. Study of product markets. retail trade commodity trading, value added products. Study of

financing institutions cooperatives commercial banks, RRBs. Agribusiness Finance Limited, NABARD:

Preparations of projects. Feasibility reports; Project appraisal techniques: Case study of agro-based

industries.

Farming Systems, Sustainable Agriculture and Organic farming

Unit No Description

1 Concept

2 Definition

3 Principles

4 Components

5 Conclusion

Course Name : B.Sc. (Hon’s) Agriculture 6TH Semester Subject Code : 6BAG001

Farming system is The scientific integration of different

interdependent and interacting farm enterprises for the

efficient use of land, labour and other resources of a farm

family which provide year round Income to the farmers year

round income to the farmers specially located in the

handicapped zone

Farming system


What is it

Farming system approach envisages the integration of agroforestry, horticulture, dairy, sheep

and goat rearing, fishery, poultry, pigeon, biogas, mushroom, sericulture and by-product

utilization of crops with the main goal of increasing the income and standard of living of

small and marginal farmers.

Role of Farming System

Food security

Provide balanced food

Quality food basket

High productivity and enhanced farm income

Effective recycling of resources Minimizing environmental pollution

Employment generation


Role of Farming System

Food security:

Food security is defined as the balanced food supply and effective demand for food.

Ensuring food security to the individual wards off the gender- based intra-household discrimination.

Thus food security needs to be redefined as “livelihood security for the household and all members

within, which ensures both physical and economic asses to balanced diet, safe drinking water,

environmental sanitation, primary education and basic health care.


There is need of farming system which has several components like dairy, poultry, goatry, fisheries etc.

along with crop production.

In this way, farming system would not meet the food for but also cater the need of protein, fat, vitamins

and minerals required for good health.

Conjunction of horticulture and agroforestry with cropping would ensure the seasonal access to fruits,

fuel, fodder and fibre.

Provides Balanced Food


As the living status is improved the requirement of cereals will be decreased and supplemented by other

items viz. milk, egg, meat, fruit etc.

Integration of allied enterprises with cropping increase the nutritive value of the products.

Cropping with pigeon+fish+mushroom founds to have the

highest protein of 1963 kg.

Integration of cropping with fish + mushroom and pigeon/poultry could result in 31 to 52 %

higher protein yield than cropping alone.

Quality food basket


Higher productivity and enhanced farm income

• Integration of fish in rice system decreasing the rice grain yield due to presence of fish trenches

occupying 10% of the rice area, however, additional income increased.

• The profit can be increased more when fish, vegetable system and livestock include in rice – rice farming

system.

Effective recycling of resources

The effective recycling of farm resources is possible by adoption of farming system research.

Crop by-product is utilized as fodder for animals, and animal by-product i.e. milk, and dung may be

utilized for increasing income and soil fertility, respectively.


Minimize environmental pollution

• In Punjab, Haryana and western Utter Pradesh, burning of rice residue is common

practice, which increased the concentration of green house gases in atmosphere, in

addition to huge amount of nutrient loss.

• Such situation could be avoided by introduction of some more enterprises like

animal husbandry on the farm.

• Rice straw may be used as animal feed.


Farming System Research

Farming System Concept was developed in 1970.

It is designed to understand farmer priorities, strategies and resource allocation decisions.

Used in conjunction with on-farm research to identify and adopt technologies useful to

location specific problems of farmers.

Farming systems research and development approach associated with small farmers and focuses on their

conditions and aspirations.

Its goal to develop sustainable land use system which will optimize

resource use and increase income and employment for farm families.


Integrated farming system

• Integrated Farming Systems a component of farming

system research introduces a change in farming

techniques for maximum production in a cropping

pattern and take care of optimal utilization of

resources.

• It focused round a few selected, inter-dependent, inter-

related and often systems inter-linking production

• Animals based on few crops, and related subsidiary

professions.


Field crops Crop production

Vegetables Fruit cultivation

Poultry farming Livestock

integration Duckery

Aquaculture Agroforestry

Bee- keeping Mushroom cultivation

Bio-gas plant

Different component of Integrated Farming System


Integrated approach in wetland situation

• Rice based cropping with poultry-cum-fish culture

• Crop-poultry-fishery

• Cropping with dairy

• Cropping with goat rearing

• Cropping with aquaculture


Objectives of Integrated farming systems

To identify existing farming systems in specific area and assess their relative viability.

To formulate farming system models involving main and allied enterprises for different farming

situations.

To ensure optional utilization and conservation of available

resources and effective recycling of farm residues within system.

To maintain sustainable production system without damaging resources base environment.

To raise overall profitability of farm household by complementing

main allied enterprises with each other..


Analysis of existing farming systems in terms of resource use efficiency, production and productivity,

income, employment and sustainability across different agro-climatic zones.

Evaluation and identification of farming system through participatory approach that ensures threshold

level of income for the livelihood security.

Developing appropriate institutional and market linkage including value addition for

enhancing sustainability.

Imparting training and capacity building of various stakeholders on IFS.


Goal of Integrated Farming Systems

Maximization of yield of all component enterprises

Provide steady and stable Income

Rejuvenation of system’s productivity

Achieve agro-ecological equilibrium


Advantages of Integrated Farming System

• Increased Productivity

• Profitability

• Sustainability

• Balanced Food

• Environmental safety

• Recycling of resources

• Income round the Year

Adoption of New Technology

Meeting fodder crisis

Solving Fuel and Timber crisis


Improves literacy

Increasing the standard of living of the farmer


Constraints and Opportunities

. 1. Lack of appropriate technology

2. Lack of farmers participatory research

3. Inadequate Training

4. Lack of rural infrastructure

5. Policy implication

6. Inadvertent avoidance of farm women

7. Socio-economic constraints

8. Inadequate institutional support

.

.

.


Future research thrust

Need to study the sustainability of the identified systems under different topographical situations in the

long run including high value crops.

Need to study the nutrient dynamics of soil with continuous cropping and recycling of manurial

resources with different systems over time.

Modeling of the identified farming system options to suit a given agro-climatic and socio-economic

situation.

Need to identify the constraints in adoption of identified farming systems by the farmers for further

refinement.


Conclusion

Efficient utilization of scarce and costly resources is the need of the hour to make crop production a viable

proposition in the present day competitive scenario.

Following the concept of Integrated farming systems through supplementation of allied agro-enterprises by

recycling the waste of one enterprise in another is a right step in this direction

It provides alternate and sustainable avocation to marginal and sub-marginal farmers. Fruit, mushroom,

apiary, animal production and poultry have been more viable with them.

The crop residues and biomass available in plenty in the crop production system need to be properly

managed to harness full benefits.

Improving the integrated approach not only enhances farm income but also overcomes environmental

pollution.

A better planning and utilization of the available resources will usher in bright prospects for the farm

economy as a whole.


13. Focus on earning respect instead of laughs.

It can be tempting to communicate with others in a lighthearted way; after all, this can be a

good way to make friends in a professional setting. But remember that the most successful

communicators are those who have earned respect, rather than laughs. While telling a joke or

two to warm up an audience can be effective, avoid ending a presentation with a laugh.

B.Sc. 30

Course Name : B.Sc. (Hon’s) Agriculture 2nd Semester Subject Code : EXTED 122

Principles of Seed Technology

Unit No Description

1 Introduction

2 Advantages

3 Seed processing steps

4 pre conditioning and pre cleaning

5 Cleaning


Introduction

• Seed processing is a vital part of the seed production needed to move the improved genetic

materials of the plant breeder into commercial channels for feeding the rapidly expanding

world population. The farmer must get the quality seed that is free from all undesired materials

because farmers entire crop depends on it.

• Seed processing is that segment of the seed industry responsible for upgrading seed (Fig.

1), improving planting condition of seed, and applying chemical protectants to the seed.


Advantages

• Make possible more uniform planting rates by proper sizing

• Improve seed marketing by improving seed quality

• Prevent spread of weed seed

• Prevent crops from disease by applying chemical protectants

• Reduces seed losses by drying

• Facilitate uniform marketing by providing storage from harvest time until the seed is

needed for planting.


Seed production

Availability of quality seeds of improved cultivars is considered crucial for realizing

productivity and adoption of cultivars in different agro-climatic conditions. The quality of

seed alone is known to account for at least 10-15% increase in the productivity (ICAR 1993).

However, lack of quality seed continues to be one of the greatest impediments to bridging the

vast yield gap. Therefore, to approach the potentially realizable yield of a cultivar, production

and distribution of quality seed is essential. The good quality seed should have the following

characters: Genetic purity, and uniformity and should conform to the standards of the

particular cultivar. Disease free, viable seeds. Free from admixtures of other crop seeds,

weeds and inert matter. Acceptable uniformity with respect to size, shape and color.

Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is

given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management

techniques. The benefits of seed production are


Scope and importance of seed production

Indian Agriculture has made enormous progress in the last 50 years. Food grains production has

risen from 50 million tons in 1947 to 212 million tons in 2003-04. The country has advanced from a

situation of food scarcity and imports to that of food security and exportable surpluses. The Green

Revolution of India has been universally acclaimed as a successful enterprise of the farmers, the

Scientists and the Government. The land mark achievements in agriculture in the 60s and 70s were

the result of a combination of inputs like introduction of high yielding varieties, increased fertilizer

use, expansion of irrigation facilities, massive extension efforts, improved farm practices and, above

all, ingenuity and industry of the Indian farmers. However, the growth of agriculture sector has not

kept pace with the growth of the population and has stagnated. The unsatisfactory growth of

agriculture, Principles of Seed Technol


Scope and importance of seed production Cont.. • apart from serious implications for food security of the country, has been adversely impacting

the growth rate of country‟s economy. The imperative of National food security, nutritional

security and economic development demand a very focused and determined approach to raise

productivity and production in agriculture. In view of the fact, that the area under cultivation

is unlikely to increase significantly, thrust will have to be on raising productivity per unit of

cultivated land. Substantial increase in yield and quality of crops depends upon a number of

factors viz., inputs like fertilizers, irrigation and plant protection measures and suitable

agronomic practices. However, the use of high quality seed thus plays a pivotal role in the

crop production. The use of poor quality seeds nullifies the utility of all agronomic practices

and every other input applied to the crop no matter how lavishly they are applied.

Economically, the cost of seed is a very small component of the total cost of production.

Sindhur Sen (1974) summarizes the importance of seed quality thus “What are known as the

seeds of hope may turn into seeds of frustration” if they are not of high quality. It is therefore,

important to use the seed confirming to the prescribed standards in terms of high genetic

purity, physical purity, physiological quality and health quality. Since ages, Indian farmers

were mostly dependent on traditional varieties; therefore seed requirements were met through

farm saved seeds. The use of traditional varieties coupled with farm saved seeds whose

quality is not guaranteed, resulted in drastic reduction in production. Seed is the critical

determinant of agricultural production on which depends the performance and efficacy of

other inputs. Quality seeds appropriate to different agro-climatic conditions and in sufficient

quantity at affordable prices are required to raise productivity. Availability and use of quality

seeds is not a onetime affair. Sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity

necessarily requires continuous development of new and improved varieties of crops and

efficient system of production and supply of seeds to farmers.


Demand Forecasting of seed

In adequate estimation of demand and the consequences of over production or under

production can cause serious financial consequences for a seed company. Too many

carryovers and stock write-offs will prove to be expensive, while lack of seed means a loss of

revenue and a source of frustration for the sales force and the dealer network. This

combination of special features in the seed industry makes the accurate assessment of demand

even more critical. Some of these features are


Steps involve in seed processing

• Step 1- Pre-conditioning and pre-cleaning

• Step 2- Cleaning

• Step 3-Cleaning and Grading


Pre conditioning and pre cleaning

• Pre conditioning:- Isolation of seed from plant parts with which it was harvested. e.g.

Shelling

• Pre cleaning:- Removal of external materials like trash, stones, clods which are either in

larger size or lighter in weight. No pre cleaning is required for hand harvested and

winnowed seeds


Seed Scalper

It removes the larger inert matter

from the seeds. If it contains a

single sieve it is called as

scalpers, two sieves – rough

cleaners. The unit consists of a

vibrating or rotating screen or

sieve having perforation large

enough to allow the rough seed

pass through readily.


Debearders

The machine has horizontal

beater with arms rotating inside a

steel drum. When the seeds pass

through it do the action of

rubbing the seeds and clip the

seeds of oats, debeard barley,

thresh white cap in wheat,

remove awns and beards, de hull

some grass seeds and polish the

seed.


Other equipments


Step-2-Cleaning

• The second stage of cleaning is carried out with air blasts and vibrating screens and is

applicable to all kinds of seeds. It is essentially the same as scalping but more refined. It

is performed mostly by one machine known as air-screen cleaner.


Air-Screen cleaner cum grader

The air-screen machine is the

basic cleaner in most seed

processing plants. Almost all

seed must be

cleaned by air-screen cleaner

before specific specifications

can be attempted. Machine size

varies from small, two- screen

farm models to large industrial

cleaners with 7-8 screens


Step-3- Cleaning and Grading

• To obtain quality seed, it is necessary to clean the seed

obtained from the farm to get rid of inert materials,

weed seeds, other crop seeds, other variety seeds,

damaged and deteriorated seed. Different kinds of

seeds can be separated when they differ in one or more

physical characteristics. Physical characteristics

normally used to separate seeds are size, shape, length,

weight, colour, surface texture, affinity to liquids,

electrical conductivity, etc. The problem lies in

identifying the most important property and use the

machine that separates seed using the identified property.


upgrading

• Seed lots require further cleaning treatment to remove adulterants that are similar to pure

seed in size and shape, to be separated by air screen cleaner. Removal of seeds larger or

smaller than required size (sizing) and removal of cracked, damaged or otherwise

defective seeds (grading) is accomplished in this final stage of processing.


Some of the identified properties and machines operating by following the properties are listed below:


Specific Gravity separator

This method makes use of a

combination of weight and

surface characteristics of the

seed to be separated


Spiral separator

The separator, which classifies

seed according to its shape and

rolling ability, consists of sheet

metal strips fitted around a

central axis in the form of a

spiral.


Other useful equipments

• Colour separator

• Magnetic separator

• Intended cylinder etc.


Extension Methodologies for Transfer of Agricultural Technology

Unit No Description

1 Communication

2 Teaching Method

3 Techniques

4 Information Sources

5 Factors


Extension Methods

“What a man hears, he may doubt. What he sees he may possible

doubt.

But what he does himself he cannot doubt.”

Seaman Knapp


Extension Methods

• Program based on the needs of people

• Plan of Work, Plan of Action

• Implementation

• Evaluation


Extension Methods by Nature of Contact

• Individual Contact

– Farm or Home Visit

– Office Visit

– Telephone Calls

– Personal Correspondence

– Result Demonstrations



• Group Contact

– Meetings, Workshops and Short Courses

– Method Demonstrations

– Leader Training

– Tours and Field Days

– Organized Clubs

– Camps

– Teleconferences



• Mass Contact

– News Stories and Personal Columns

– Radio and Television

– Newsletters

– Publications

– Exhibits

– Interactive and Computer-aided instruction

– Telephone Message Services

– Web Sites

– Satellite and Internet Conferences


Extension Methods by Form of Communication

• Written

– Bulletins, Fact Sheets, Publications, Newsletters, News Articles, and

Personal Letters

• Spoken

– Meetings, Farm and Home Visits, Office Visits, Calls, Radio

• Visual

– Demonstrations, Exhibits, Slides, Videos, Television, Web Pages


Extension Methods by Function

• Information Delivery

– Meetings, newsletters, bulletins, correspondence

• Skill Building

– Workshops, demonstrations, role- playing

• Problem Solving, knowledge applying

– Synthesis of information and skills to solve real world problems of

farms, families and communities


Advantages of Individual Contacts

Individualized instruction

First hand knowledge of local problems

Climate of readiness for learning

May be a quick and easy way to give information

Immediate feedback

Builds confidence in agent as a source of help Can be used to

contact hard to reach


Disadvantages of Individual Contacts

• High cost per contact

• Limits the total number of contacts

• Requires good time management

• Time for follow-up

• Public perceptions if replies are not timely

• May not reach priority audiences

• Responses may not be well planned


Advantages of Group Contacts

• Low cost per participant

• Can reach large audiences

• Adaptable to different learning styles

• Experiential learning, group learning process

• Use of demonstration methods

• Programs can be repeated with one preparation

• Recognizes need for social contact


Disadvantages of Group Contacts

Requires high level of organization, equipment, resources

Requires showmanship and skills at public speaking Ability to use

variety of teaching techniques

Limits meetings to locations appropriate to groups Programs must be

presented when a group can attend

Instruction must be planned for diversity of audience needs and interests


Advantages of Mass Contacts

Reaches large audience

Reaches those who might not attend meeting Can be very timely, reaches

audience quickly Builds recognition and reputation of Extension Adaptable to

variety of topics and audiences

Used at learner’s convenience Can build a sustainable

audience


Disadvantages of Mass Contacts

• May be more expensive

• Requires constant revision to stay current

• Limited interaction or feedback

• May create poor image if not well done

• Radio and TV at convenience of station

• May require extensive production time

• Competes with “entertainment” programs


Newest Delivery Methods

• Web Sites

• Interactive Video Conferences

• Interactive Web Conferences

• Other New Methods

• Pros and Cons


Week Six Discussion Questions

• Identify at least six “Extension Teaching Methods”

• Determine if the method is designed for: individual contact, group contact or mass contact.

I prefer that your methods cut across more than one group.

• For each of the six methods, describe the strengths and weaknesses of each method

and be prepared to share in class discussion.

• Think about which methods are more cost effective and which are higher in teaching and

learning effectiveness

• Think about what methods may be emerging and what methods may be decreasing in

popularity.

• Please base this weeks study on more than the reading assignments. Think about your

own program observations and what you know of different teaching methods in

Extension.


Audience Guidelines Individuals

Treat clients as equals rather than as persons of lower rank

Listen and guide interaction through open-ended questions

Be empathic rather than neutral, self-centred or judgmental

Discuss problems descriptively rather than evaluatively Make sure advice is appropriate

for the individual

Be able to demonstrate nutrition behaviour(s) recommended

Help people find individual solutions to their nutrition- related problems


Groups

Acknowledge group members and their individual experiences

Tolerate silence

Halt side conversations

Help the groups stay on the topic

Guide and encourage involvement without intimidation

Know when and how to resume control Discourage unpleasant or dominant

interactions

Balance speaking with listening and asking questions

Extension work requires numerous methods and teaching tools.

Each has its place, and they supplement one another.

Together they provide the stimulus for interest, desire, action, and achievement.


Livestock Production and Management

Unit No Description

1 Introduction

2 Livestock Census

3 Livestock Production

4 Importance of livestock farming

5 Transformation in the utility of livestock


Introduction

• India‟s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world.

Sl.N

o.

Species Population % share in world’s

livestock

1. Cattle 190.9 million 12.5% (2nd)

2. Buffalo 108.7 million 56.7% (1st)

3. Sheep 65 million 2.4%

4. Goat 135.1 million

5. Pig 10.29 million 1.5%

6. Poultry 729.2 million 3.1%

Total livestock 512.05 million -------


Livestock Census

• First livestock census was conducted in the year 1919

• So far, 19 such censuses have been conducted

• Last livestock census: 19th Livestock Census (2012)

• Forthcoming: 20th livestock census (2017)

• Funding agency: 100% funding from Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries

(DAHD&F), Ministry of Agriculture, GOI

• Census conducting agency: State Department of Animal Husbandry

• Contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP): 25.6% of Agricultural GDP and 4.11% of

National GDP is from livestock sector (in 2012).


Livestock Production

• Livestock Production and Agriculture are intrinsically linked, each being depending on the

other and both crucial for overall food security.

• According to estimates of the Central Statistical Office (CSO), the value of output from

livestock sector at current prices was about Rs. 7,33,054 crore during 2014 which is about

28.7% of the value of output from agricultural and allied sector. At constant prices the value

of output from livestock is about 27.8% of the value of output from total agriculture and

allied sector


Importance of livestock farming

• Animal husbandry is an integral component of agriculture

• Supporting livelihood of more than 2/3rd of the population.

• Livestock provide

Nutrient-rich food products (milk, meat, egg) Draught power

Dung as organic manure and domestic fuel

Hides & skin

Regular source of cash income Natural

capital

As a insurance against income shocks of crop failure



Transformation in the utility of livestock

• Influenced by changes in agriculture and food consumption patterns

• The non-food functions of livestock are becoming weaker

• Importance of livestock as source of „draught power‟ has declined

• Use of dung manure is increasingly being replaced by chemical fertilizers.

• On the other hand, their importance as a source of quality food has increased.


Scope for growth in livestock sector

• Sustained income and economic growth

• Fast-growing urban population

• Burgeoning middle income class

• Changing lifestyles

• Increasing proportion of women in workforce

• Improvements in transportation and storage practices and rise of supermarkets

• Increase in consumption of animal food products


Scope for growth in livestock sector

• Demand for animal food products is responsive to income changes and is expected to increase

in future

• Between 1991-92 and 2008-09, India‟s per capita income grew at an annual rate of 4.8% and

urban population at a rate of 2.5%.

• By the end of 12th Plan (2012-2017) demand, for milk is expected to increase to 141 million

tons and for meat, eggs and fish together to15.8 million tons.

• Global market for animal products is expanding fast and is an opportunity for India to

improve its participation in global market.


Growth rate in livestock sector

• Livestock sector grew at an annual rate of 5.3% during 1980s 3.9% during 1990s and 3.6%

during 2000s.

• Despite deceleration, growth in livestock sector remained about 1.5 times larger than the crop

sector

• It implies the critical role of livestock sector in cushioning agricultural growth


Land and livestock holding

• Distribution of livestock is more equitable than that of land.

• Marginal farm households (≤1.0 hectare of land) who comprised 48% of the rural households

• But they control

More than 50% of country‟s cattle and buffalo

2/3rd of small animals 2/3rd of

poultry and 24% of land.

• Nearly 70% of the rural household keeps one or other form of

livestock


Economic contribution of livestock

• Livestock has been an important source of livelihood for small farmers.

• Livestock contributed about 16% to small farmer‟s income,

more so in states like

Gujarat :24.4%

Haryana 24.2%

Punjab 20.2% and

Bihar 18.7%.


Livestock and poverty alleviation

• The distribution patterns of income and employment show that small farm households hold

more opportunities in livestock production.

• The growth in livestock sector is demand-driven, inclusive and pro-poor.

• Incidence of rural

Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,

poverty is less in states like Punjab,

Kerala,

Gujarat, and Rajasthan where livestock accounts for a sizeable share of agricultural income as

well as employment.

• Empirical evidence from India as well as from many other developing countries suggests that

livestock development has been an important route for the poor households to escape poverty.


Poverty Linek

• Based on the Suresh Tendulkar panel's recommendations in 2011-12, the poverty line had been

fixed at Rs 27 in rural areas and Rs 33 in urban areas, levels at which getting two meals may

be difficult.

• Rural area: If a person earning less than Rs.9855 per annum he will be considered as poor.

• Urban area: If a person earning less than Rs.12045 per annum he will be considered as poor.


Latest Poverty Line

• Rs 32 a day in rural areas and Rs 47 in towns and cities should not be considered poor

• Those spending over Rs 32 a day in rural areas and Rs 47 in towns and cities should not be

considered poor-RBI Governor.


Need for policy interventions

• There are number of socio-economic and environmental challenges that need to be

overcome through

• Appropriate policies

• Technologies and

• Strategies in order to exploit the pro-poor potential of livestock.

Contribution of single hen in poverty alleviation

• If a farmer keeps one Non-descript hen: in a year, he can earn net income of Rs. 565.3 under

scavenging system. Hence, single hen is helping to alleviate 5.7% of poverty in an

individual.

• If a farmer keeping one Kadaknath Hen: in a year, he can earn net income of Rs. 2240 under

scavenging system (Kadaknath: Egg and Black meat fetches higher market value because of

medicinal value).

Hence, single hen is helping to alleviate 18.59% of poverty in an individual.


Productivity of livestock in India and World

• Improving productivity in a huge population of low-producing animals is one of the major

challenges.

• The average annual milk yield of Indian cattle is 1172 kg which is only about 50% of the

global average and much less than developed countries.

Country Average annual milk yield per cow

India 1172 kg

New Zealand 3343 kg

Australia 5600 kg

UK 7101 kg

US 9332 kg

Israel 10214 kg


Productivity per animal

• Average daily milk yield of cattle and buffalo in 2009-10 Crossbred cows 6.87 kg

Buffaloes 4.57 kg

Indigenous cow 2.14 kg

• The meat yield of most species is 20-60% lower than the world average.

• Average daily milk yield of cattle and buffalo in 2014-15

Exotic/Crossbred Cows

(kg/day)

Indigenous/Non-

Descript Cows

(kg/day)

Buffalo

(kg/day)

Goat

(kg/day)

7.15 2.54 5.15 0.46


Production potential and yield

• The growth in milk production decelerated from 4.4% during 1990s to 3.9% during 2000s.

• There remains a huge gap between the potential and the realized yields in Indian livestock.

• Only 27-75% of the dairy animal potential yield is realized in different regions of the country

because of constraints related to

Feeding Breeding

Health

Management

Technologies

Marketing Inputs


Milk production status

Year Production (Million

tons)

Per capita availability

(gm/day)

2010-11 121.8 281

2011-12 127.9 290

2012-13 132.4 299

2013-14 137.7 307

2014-15 146.3 322


Crossbreeding programme

• Crossbreeding of indigenous species with exotic stocks to enhance genetic potential of

different species has been successful only to a limited extent

• Limited AI services, deficiency in quality germ-plasm, infrastructure, technical manpower,

poor conception rate

• After more than three decades of crossbreeding, the crossbred population is only 16.6% in

cattle, 21.5% in pigs and 5.2% in sheep.


Feed and fodder scenario

• Livestock derive major part of their energy requirement from agricultural byproducts and crop

residues

• Hardly 5% of the cropped area is utilized to grow fodder

• India is deficit in

• Dry fodder by 11%

• Green fodder by 35% and Concentrates

feed by 28%.

• The common grazing lands too have been deteriorating quantitatively and qualitatively.


Livestock health status

• Frequent outbreaks of diseases like FMD, BQ, PPR, Influenza etc. continue to affect livestock

health and productivity.

• India has about 55000 veterinary institutions including polyclinics, hospitals, dispensaries and

stockman centers.

• Veterinary and animal health services are largely in the public sector domain and remain poor.


Indirect losses due to FMD


Livestock and Environment

• India‟s huge population of ruminants remains a major source of greenhouse gases adding to

global warming.

• Reducing greenhouse gases through mitigation and adaptation strategies will be a major

challenge.

• Over grazing in pasture and forest area is resulting in pasture degradation and deforestation.

• Reducing the carbon footprint in livestock production is

essential for earning carbon credits.


Budget spending on livestock sector

• Livestock sector did not receive the policy and financial attention it deserved.

• The sector received only about 12% of the total public expenditure on agriculture and allied

sectors

• It is disproportionately lesser than its contribution to agricultural GDP.

• The sector too has been neglected by the financial institutions.

• The share of livestock in the total agricultural credit has hardly ever exceeded 4% in the total

(short-term, medium-term and long-term).


Livestock insurance

• The institutional mechanisms to protect animals against risk are not strong enough.

• Currently, only 6% of the animal heads (excluding poultry) are provided insurance cover.

• Livestock extension has remained grossly neglected in the past. Only about 5% of the farm

households in India access information on livestock technology.

• These indicate poor outreach of the financial and information delivery systems.


Livestock market

• Access to markets is critical to speed up commercialization of livestock production.

• Lack of access to markets may act as a disincentive to farmers to adopt improved

technologies and quality inputs.

• Except for poultry products and to some extent for milk, markets for livestock and livestock

products are underdeveloped, irregular, uncertain and lack transparency.

• Further these are often dominated by informal market intermediaries who exploit the

producers


Pro-poor livestock potential

• The extent to which the pro-poor potential of livestock can be harnessed would depend on

how technology, institutions, policies and financial support address the constraints of the

sector.

• The number-driven growth in livestock production may not sustain in the long run due to its

increasing stress on the limited natural resources.

• The future growth has to come from improvements in technology and service delivery

systems leading to accelerated productivity, processing and marketing.


Environmental Science

Unit No Description

1 Importance

2 Biological Effect

3 Ecology

4 Bio Diversity

5 Pollution


Environment

• Environmental Science: “The systematic & scientific study of our environment and our role

in it. This branch include the knowledge of Pure science & to some extent Social Sciences”.

• Environmental Studies: “The branch of Study concerned with environmental issues. It has a

broader coverage than environment science and includes the social aspects of the

environment”.


Most Precise Definition of Environment

• Environment is Define as “The Complex of Physical, Chemical & Biotic factors affecting an

organism and ultimately determining its form and survival” is known as Environment.


Ecology

• Definition:- Ecology is derived from two Greek words “Oikos” &

“Logos”

• Ecology= Oikos + Logos

• Oikos means house or dwelling place

• Logos means study of

• Thus Ecology can be define as “Study of organisms with respect to their house or dwelling

place”.


Ecosystem

• Definition:- Ecosystem is Define as “Natural Functional Ecological Unit Comprising of living

organisms & their non living environment which interact to form a self supporting system” is

known as Ecosystem.


Components of Environment

Biotic

i.e. Living

Components

Abiotic

i.e. Non-Living

Components

Environment

• Environment can be divided into following Components


Components Of Environment

• Biotic: It Includes all the living organisms.

e.g. plants, animals, birds etc.

• Abiotic: All the non living things are included in this category.

e.g. Climatic conditions, soil, minerals etc.



Hydrosphere

Biosphere

Environment

Lithosphere

Atmosphere

• Environment can also be classified into various Physical Components



• Atmosphere: The region surrounding the earth is known as

atmosphere.

Atmosphere is generally a mixture of gases surrounding the earth.

• Hydrosphere: All the water bodies on the earth surface are included in hydrosphere. It

includes Oceans, rivers, glaciers, lakes, ponds, etc.



• Lithosphere: The uppermost part of the earth crust is known as Lithosphere. Lithosphere

includes, soil and its particles, rocks, metal. etc.

• Biosphere: The life supporting mantle of the earth extending from few kilometer into the

atmosphere to the deep ocean is known as Biosphere

The region of the earth where life exist is known as

Biosphere.


Objectives of Environmental Education

• Awareness: To help individuals and social groups to acquire basic

awareness of and sensitivity towards the environment & its related

problem.

• Knowledge: To help individuals and social groups to acquire basic

understanding of the environment, its associated problems and their

responsible role towards the betterment of the environment.

• Attitude: To help individuals and social groups to acquire social values,

strong feeling of concern for the environment and the motivation for

actively participating in its protection and improvement.


• Skills: To help individuals and social groups to acquire the

skills for solving environmental problems.

• Evaluation ability: To help individuals and social groups to

evaluate environmental measures and education program in

terms of ecological, political, economical, social, aesthetic

and education factors.

• Participation: To help individuals and Social groups to

develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding

environmental problems to ensure appropriate action to

solve those problems.


Man –Environment Relationship

Q. Man and environment relationship.

• Environment Man

The relationship between humans and environment has varied from the early periods of human

settlement on the earth to the present day. The relationship between environment and human beings

has also being varying from place to place at any given period of time. For example, early humans

considered the environment to be dominant. They were afraid of lightning and thunder, dense

forests, wild animals, vast oceans and large rivers, to name a few.

The environment has considerably affected human beings right from his evolution. The

environment affects humans in many ways. Population on the earth varies due to variation in the

environment. The main factors which affect the distribution of population and human settlement

are:



1) Topography of Land

The populations in the high mountainous areas, such as the Himalayas in India, Andes in South

America, Rocky in North America, etc., have very low settlement level. This is because the relief

is rugged here which represents obstacles in the construction of roads, railways and

communication. Due to steep slopes, agriculture is done with a great difficulty and industries also

could not be established. These places having very less economic activity have less population and

hence have small isolated settlements.

Whereas the plain areas of the world are most suitable for human settlement. Fertile plains of

Ganga in India, Indus in Pakistan, Hwang-Ho in China and plains of Europe have huge population

concentration having compact or huge semi-compact type of settlement.



2) Climate

Most of the areas of the earth having density less than two persons/sq. km are not favorable for

settlement because of their unfavorable climate.

Areas of cold climate-North Siberia, North Canada, Alaska etc. have low density of population.

Hot and arid regions of -Sahara, Kalahari Desert in Africa, Great Australian Desert etc. are not

suitable for human settlement. In tropical regions due to heavy rain and temperature, the density

of population is very low, example in Amazon basin population density is less than two persons/sq.

km. But places with favorable climate and favorable terrain, have dense population and hence have

compact settlement.



• 3) Soils

• Fertile alluvial soils encourage dense population which in turn gives rise to compact type of

settlement. This is so because alluvial soils give rise to agricultural activities. Java Islands of

Indonesia has fertile soil of young volcanic material and agriculture is an important activity, hence

dense and compact settlements are found here. Whereas in Sumatra, due to infertile soil, the

population density is very low.



• 4) Mineral Deposits

• Mineral wealth is yet another factor responsible for population distribution and density. The

presence of coal and iron-ore in different parts of the world has attracted huge population. Coal

mining regions have become regions of dense population for example, Jharkhand in India and gold

mines in Australian desert.



• 5) Water supply

• Population distribution is very much affected by water supply. The earliest settlements or

civilizations developed on the banks of major rivers, example-Nile, Indus, etc. Adequate water

supply provides irrigation facilities to farmers and hence population increases due to increase in

primary activities. In dry regions, population is concentrated in those areas where there is water,

hence nucleated- circular settlements are found.



• Thus it can be said that the environment plays an important role in deciding population

distribution, density, settlement type and pattern.

• The Industrial Revolution which provided mechanical power, invention of steam engine and

other machinery, greater use of metals etc. gave them opportunities to modify the environment.

At the same time agriculture provided abundant food so that they could settle down

permanently. The family grew in size and people migrated to different parts, via rail, road and

sea, because of improvement in transport system, example the new lands in America and

Australia were settled by people from Europe.

• Another development which enabled humans to survive was the use of preventive and

cumulative steps taken to protect them from epidemics and diseases-it increased the span of

human life and reduced death rate.


Environment: the total of our surroundings

• All the things around us with which we interact:

• Living things

• Animals, plants, forests, fungi, etc.

• Non-living things

• Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks

• Our built environment

• Buildings, human-created living centers

• Social relationships and institutions


Humans exist within the environment

• Humans exist within the environment and are part of nature.

- Our survival depends on a healthy, functioning planet.

• The fundamental insight of environmental science is that we are part of the natural world.

- Our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal.


Humans and the world around us

• Humans depend completely on the environment for survival.

- Enriched and longer lives, increased wealth, health, mobility, leisure time

But natural systems have been degraded

- Pollution, erosion, and species extinction

- Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival.

Environmental science is the study of:

- How the natural world works

- How the environment affects humans and vice versa

With environmental problems come opportunities for solutions.


Renewable resources:

- Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave energy

- Renew themselves over short periods of time: timber, water, soil

- These can be destroyed

Non-renewable resources: can be depleted

- Oil, coal, minerals

Natural resources: vital to human survival

Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed for survival


Global human population growth

•

•

More than 6.7 billion humans Why so

many humans?

- Agricultural revolution

- Stable food supplies

- Industrial revolution

- Urbanized society powered by fossil

fuels

- Sanitation and medicines

- More food


Thomas Malthus and human population

• Thomas Malthus

• Population growth must be controlled,

or it will outstrip food production.

• Starvation, war, disease

• Neo-Malthusians

• Population growth has disastrous

effects.

• Paul and Anne Ehrlich, The Population

Bomb (1968)

• Agricultural advances have only

postponed crises.


Resource consumption exerts impacts

• Garret Hardin‟s “tragedy of the commons” (1968)

• Unregulated exploitation causes resource depletion

• Grazing lands, forests, air, water

• No one has the incentive to care for a resource.

• Everyone takes what he or she can until the resource is depleted.

• Solution?

• Private ownership?

• Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use?

• Governmental regulations?


The “ecological footprint”

• The environmental impact of a person or

population

- Amount of biologically productive

land + water

- For resources and to

dispose/recycle waste

Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth‟s

capacity to support us

•


Environmental science

• Can help us avoid mistakes made by past civilizations

- Human survival depends on how we interact with our environment.

- Our impacts are now global.

- Many great civilizations have fallen after depleting their resources.

The lesson of Easter Island: people

annihilated their culture by destroying

their environment. Can we act more

wisely to conserve our resources?


Environmental science is not environmentalism

• Environmental science

• The pursuit of knowledge about the natural

world

• Scientists try to remain objective

• Environmentalism

• Environmental activism

• A social movement dedicated to protecting the

natural world


The nature of science

• Science:

- A systematic process for learning about the world and testing our understanding of it

- The accumulated body of knowledge that results from a dynamic process of observation,

testing, and discovery

• Science is essential:

- To sort fact from fiction

- Develop solutions to the problems we face


Applications of science

Energy-efficient methanol- powered fuel cell car from DaimlerChrysler

Restoration of forest ecosystems altered by human suppression of fire

Policy decisions and management

practices Technology


Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables

Unit No Description

1 INTRODUCTION

2 AREAS OF VALUE-ADDED FLORICULTURE

3 VALUE ADDED TECHNOLOGY

4 DIFFERENT VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS

5 WHY USE VALUE ADDITION IN FLORICULTURE


INTRODUCTION

• Value addition is a process in which for the same volume of a primary product, a high price is realized by

means of processing, packing, upgrading the quality or other such methods.

• Value-added floriculture refers most generally to manufacturing process that increases the value of primary

commodities.

• Value-added floriculture may also refer to increasing the economic value of a commodity through particular

production process eg. organic produce, or through regionally branded products that increase consumer

appeal and willingness to pay a premium over similar but differentiated products.


• Value-added floriculture is regarded by some, a significant rural development strategy.

• Value added floriculture is a process of increasing the economic value and consumer appeal of any floral

• Commodity through changes in genetics, processing and packaging diversification with this profitability of

a commodity is increased especially small scale floriculture industry.

• Profit potential is increased when an indistinctive raw commodity is converted into a unique product.

• The value addition for marketing flowers includes adoption of postharvest technology and improved

logistics.


AREAS OF VALUE-ADDED FLORICULTURE

• Essential oil extraction from flowers

• Cut flower production for occasion/flower forcing

fresh

dried

• Live plant/potted plant

• Foliage and other parts of plants

fresh

dried

potpourri


VALUE ADDED TECHNOLOGY

• Working with flowers is of course a benefit, but a successful operation requires a great deal of

highly specialized knowledge and skills, since the industry is highly technical and scientific.

• It includes preparation of garlands, bouquets, veni, button-hole, flower baskets, floats, floral

wreaths, corsages etc can add value up to 5-10 times from flowers and green foliages

• It also includes making of dry flowers and extraction of essential oil or pigments.

• These new models of value addition in flower have high export potential and can play a

significant role in generation a new flower market strategy.

• Even making of value added products is an artistic and creative work much more closely

related with women.


• No much scientific technology is needed for preparation of these products except some

training and economic support.

• This couldn‟t be seen in isolation as income generating activity.

• Infect it is supplemental to existing income.

• In case of urban or rural women, they can attend to their daily house hold maid or labour.

• Just some extra time & effort to earn some extra income is needed.


DIFFERENT VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS

• Flower ornaments

• Flower bouquets

• Floral handicrafts

• Garlands

• Flower baskets

• Floral wreath

• Potpourri

• Flower arrangement

• Edible flowers

• Essential oils

• Fragrance

• Phyto chemical

• Herbal medicine

• Plant pigments

• Dye yielding

• Ornamentals

• Tinting of flowers

• Drying of flowers


Garland

Veni

Gajra

Crown

Flower ornaments

Corsages

Buttoneries

Bouquets

Dry Flower Basket

WREATH

FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS IN SEALED GLASS CONTAINERS

WHY USE VALUE ADDITION IN FLORICULTURE

• Unstable prices for raw commodities

• Federal farm policies

• Changing consumer preferences

• Make more money by cutting out the middle man.


METHODS OF VALUE ADDITION OF FLOWERS

• Flower Ornaments and Flower arrangement are the important method of value addition.

• Value addition of flower crops also includes post-harvest and processing technologies.

• Post-harvest includes:

Stage of harvest

Grading

Pulsing

Packing

Increasing the vase life

• Processing includes:

Drying of flowers,

Potpourris

Tinting of flowers

Extraction of essential oil, dyes and drugs.


OBJECTIVES OF VALUE ADDITION

• To improve quality.

• To enhance selling.

• To gain higher profit.

• To reduce post harvest loss.

• Can provide demand for high quality.

• Use of unsold flowers (unmarketable) i.e. roses used gulkand.

• Increase export.

• To generate employment.


NEED FOR VALUE ADDITION

• To improve the profitability of farmers

• To empower the farmers and other weaker sections of society especially women through

gainful employment opportunities and revitalize rural communities.

• To provide better quality, safe and branded products to the consumers.

• To emphasize primary and secondary processing.

• To reduce post harvest losses.

• Reduction of import and meeting export demands.

• Way of increased foreign exchange.

• Encourage growth of subsidiary industries.

• Reduce the economic risk of marketing.

• Increase opportunities for smaller farms and companies through the development of markets.

• Diversify the economic base of rural communities.

• Overall, increase farmers‟ financial stability.


CHOICE FOR VALUE ADDITION

• Any attempt for value addition should focus for following parameter for deriving maximum

benefit.

• Unique - The product we develop should be one of its own kinds for which crop and

variability indigenous to our country should be exploited.

• Novelty - The product should be new and unusual like blue or black rose and likewise so that

no one can compete.

• Export potential - The product developed should have demand in international market for

higher return and appreciation of benefit of global trade.

• High value - The product should have high value for low volume for ease of trading and

distribution and the extracts from Indian spices and herbal medicinal plants can fulfill this

requirement.

• Availability - Consistent availability of the product in required quantity should be ensured for

stable market and faith.

• Market - Any product that is developed must have market because market is the key for

success of any product.


WAYS TO ADD VALUE

• Process the raw material

• Pre cut, wrap and package

• Take a unique approach

• Label the product

• Distinct product appearance

• Increase shelf life

• Provide recipes/cookbook

• Gift baskets or multi-pack

• Build reputation, relationship


CHALLENGES

• Varieties as per market preference

• Technology for value added products

• Knowledge of standards

• Synergy in the plan and approach of agencies at various levels in different functional areas

viz. Research, extension, finance, quality assurance and certification.


Disease of horticultural Crops & their management

Unit No Description

1 Diseases of Citrus

2 Diseases of Mango

3 Diseases of Banana

4 Diseases of Grapes


Gummosis: Phytophthora parasitica, P. palmivora,P. citrophthora

Symptoms- The symptoms appear as yellowing of leaves, followed by cracking of

bark and profuse gumming on the surface. The main source of infection is infected

planting material. As a result of severe gumming, the bark becomes completely rotten

and the tree dries owing to girdling effect. Prior to death, the plant usually blossoms

heavily and dies before the fruits mature. In such cases, the disease is called foot rot

or collar-rot.

Pathogen -Aseptate, intercellular & intracellular hypha. Sporangia are ovoid or

ellipsoid. Sporangium attached with the sporangium at the right angles sporangia

germinate to release zoospore.

Management -Preventive measures like selection of proper site with adequate

drainage, use of resistant rootstocks and avoiding contact of water with the tree trunk

by adopting ring method of irrigation are effective. Alternatively the disease portions

are scraped-out with a sharp knife and the cut surface is disinfected with Mercuric

chloride (0.1%) or Potassium permanganate solution (1%) using a swab of cotton.

Painting 1 m of the stem above the ground level with Bordeaux helps in controlling

the disease. Also spraying and drenching with Ridomil MZ 72@ 2.75 g/l or Aliette

(2.5 g/l) is effective in controlling the disease.

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Diseases of Citrus


Diseases of Mango

150

The disease appears on young leaves, stem, inflorescence and fruits. Leaves show

oval or irregular, greyish-brown spots which may coalesce to cover larger area of the leaf.

The affected leaf tissues dry and shred. Leaves on infected petioles droop and fall. On

young stem, grey- brown spots develop. These enlarge and cause girdling and drying of

the affected area. The disease appears on young leaves, stem, inflorescence and fruits.

Often, black necrotic areas develop on the twigs from the tip downwards causing a

dieback. In humid weather, minute, black dots develop on the floral organs. The infected

flower- parts ultimately shed resulting in partial or complete deblossoming. Latent

infections of fruit are established before harvest. The ripening fruits show typical

anthracnose. Black spots appearing on skin of the affected fruits gradually become sunken

and coalesce.

Pathogen

Mycelium septate and coloured. Conidia Single celled, hyaline, small and elongated.

Mode of survival and spread

On dried leaves, defoliated branches mummified flowers and flower brackets. Contact

with diseased fruit during transport and storage. The secondary spread is through airborne

conidia.

Favourable conditions

Temperature of 25°C and Relative Humidity 95-97%]


Disease Cycle

Spores blown wind from infected areas readily adhere to hairy, unopened

flowers near tip of the inflorescence and germinate in five to seven hours. Fungus

grows rapidly during cloudy weather accompanied with heavy morning mist. Warm,

humid weather and low night

temperatures favour dissemination of the pathogen. Overall disease development is

favoured by high humidity.

Management

Dusting the plants with fine sulphur (250-300 mesh) at the rate of 0.5 kg/tree. The

first application may be soon after flowering, second 15 days later (or) spray with

Wettable sulphur

151

(0.2%), (or) Carbendazim (0.1%),(or) Tridemorph ( 0.1%),(or)

Karathane (0.1%).

Mango malformation : Fusarium moliliforme var. subglutinans

Symptoms

Three types of symptoms: bunchy top

phase, floral malformation and vegetative

malformation. In bunchy top phase in nursery

bunching of thickened small shoots, bearing

small rudimentally leaves. Shoots remain

short

stunted giving a bunchy top appearance. In

vegetative and malformation, excessive

vegetative

Pathogen

Micro conidia are one or 2 celled, oval to fusiform and produced from

polyphialides. Macro conidia are rarely produced. They are 2 -3 celled and falcate.

Chlamydospores are not produced.

Mode of spread

Diseased propagatives materials.


Stem end rot: Diplodia natalensis

152

The dark epicarp around the base of the pedicel. In the initial stage the affected

area enlarges to form a circular, black patch. Under humid atmosphere extends rapidly

and turns the whole fruit completely black within two or three days. The pulp becomes

brown and somewhat softer. Dead twigs and bark of the trees, spread by rains

Pathogen- The fungus produces brown to black, globose to sub globose, pyriform,

erumpent pycnidia that are ostiolate. They are 120-155x370-465 micron meter. Two

types of conidia are produced within a pycnidium. One is hyaline, thin walled and

unicellular.Tha another one is thick walled and bicelled with four to six longitudinal

striations.

Management -Prune and destroy infected twigs and spray Carbendazim or

Thiophanate Methyl(0.1%) or Chlorathalonil (0.2%) as fortnightly interval during

rainy season.

Red-rust: Cephaleuros virescens

Symptoms -Algae attacks foliage and young twigs. Rusty spots appear on leaves,

initially as circular,

slightly elevated, coalesce to form irregular spots. The spores mature fall off and leave

cream to white valvet texture on the surface of the leaves.

Symptoms

B.Sc (Hon’s) Agricultur 6BAG007 Course Name : B.Sc. (Hon’s) Agriculture 6TH Semester Subject Code : 6BAG007

Diseases of Banana Panama disease :Fusarium oxysporum f. spcubense

Economic Importance -The first major disease which attacked

banana was called Panama disease from the area where it first

became serious. Banana wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease and

gets entry in the plant body through roots and wounds caused by

nematodes. It is most serious in poorly drained soil. Disease

spreads through infected suckers.

Symptoms

153

Yellowing of the lower most leaves starting from margin to midrib of the leaves.

Yellowing extends upwards and finally heart leaf alone remains green for some time and it is

also affected. The leaves break near the base and hang down around pseudostem. Longitudinal

splitting of pseudostem. Discolouration of vascular vessels as red or brown streaks. The fungus

spreads through use of infected rhizomes Continuous cultivation results in build up of inoculum.

Pathogen -Mycelium is septate, hyaline and branched. Fungus produces micro, macro

conidia and also chlamydospores. Micro conidia - Single celled or rarely one septate hyaline

elliptical or oval. Macro conidia - Sickle shaped hyaline, 3-5 septate and tapering at both ends.

Chalamydospores - Thick walled, spherical to oval, hyaline to slightly yellowish in colour.

Mode of spread and survival -The pathogen is soil borne. It survives in soil as chlamydospores

for longer periods. The primary spread of the disease is through infected rhizomes and

secondary spread is through irrigation water. Continuous cultivation results in build up of

inoculum.


Management

Avoid growing of susceptible cultivars viz., Rasthali, Monthan, Red banana and

Virupakshi. Grow resistant cultivar Poovan. Since nematode predispose the disease

pairing and prolinage wit Carbofuran granules. Corm injection of 3 ml of 2%

Carbendezim injected in the

corm by making a hole to a depth of 10cm with 45 0 angle on 5 th and 7 th month as

mentioned earlier.

154

Symptoms- Leaves become yellow and progress upwards. The petiole breaks and

leaves hang. When it is cut open discolouration in vascular region with pale yellow

to dark brown colour. The discolouration is in the central portion of the corm.

Internal rot of fruits with dark brown discoloration. When the pseudostem is cut

transversely bacterial ooze can be seen.

Pathogen -It is rod shaped, gram negative bacterium with one polar flagellum.

Management -Eradicate infected plant. Expose soil to direct sunlight. Use of clean

planting material. Fallowing and crop rotation is advisable.Disinfection of pruning of

tools. Providing good drainage.


Moko disease :

Pseudomonas

solanacearum /

Burkholderia

solanacearum

Diseases of Grapes Downy mildew: Plasmopara viticola

155

Premature defoliation. Dwarfing of tender shoots. Brown, sunken lesions on the

stem. White growth of fungus on berries which subsequently becomes leathery and

shrivels. Later infection of berries result in soft rot symptoms. No cracking of the

skin of the berries.

Pathogen -Mycelium is intercellular with spherical haustoria, coenocytic, thin walled

and hyaline. Sporangiophores arise from hyphae in the sub stomatal spaces. It

branched at right angle to the main axis and at regular intervals. Secondary branches

arise from lower branches.The sporangia are thin walled, oval or lemon shaped. The

Zoospores are pear shaped, biflagellate and 7 – 9 micron meter. The oospores are

thick walled.

Mode of Spread and Survival- Through sporangia by wind, rain etc. As oospores

present in the infected leaves, shoots and berries. Also as dormant mycelium in

infected twigs. Optimum temperature: 20-22°C. Relative humidity: 80-100 per cent.

Symptoms- Irregular, yellowish,

translucent sports on the upper surface of

the leaves. Correspondingly on the lower

surface, white, powdery growth on

leaves. Affected leaves become, yellow,

brown and gets dried.


Diseases of Pomegranate and Papaya

Pomegranate

Cercospora fruit Spot: Cercospora s

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Symptom

The affected fruits showed small irregular black spots, which later on coalesce, into big spots.

Management

The diseased fruits should be collected and destroyed. Two to three spray at 15 days interval

with Mancozeb 0.25%.

Leaf Spot or Blight: Colletotrichum gloesporioides; Pseudocercospora punicae; Curvularia

lunata and Cercospora punicae)

Symptom -The disease is characterized by appearance of small, irregular and water-soaked spots

on leaves.Affected leaves fall off.

Pathogen- Conidiophores are olivaceous brown, short, fasciculate, sparingly septate. Conidia are

hyaline to pale olivalceous cylindric and septate.

Mode of spread and survival -The pathogen spread through wind borne conidia.

Management- Spraying Mancozeb 0.25 % at 15 days interval gives good control of the disease.

Alternaria fruit spot: Alternaria alternata


Powdery mildew – Oidium caricae

Symptoms -While mycelia growth appear on the upper surface

of the leaf, flower stalks and fruit. Seven attak causes yellowing and defiation of leaves.

Pathogen- It is an obligate parasite. The mycelium is hyaline, septate and haustoria develop in

epidermal cells. Conidia are hyaline.

Mode of spread and survival- The pathogen spread through wind borne conidia.

Management -Spray Wettable Sulphur 0.25% or Dinocap 0.05% or Chinomethionate 0.1% or

Tridemorph 0.1%.

Papaya ring spot – Papaya ring spot virus

Symptoms -Vein clearing, puckering and chlorophyll leaf tissues lobbing in. Margin and

distal parts of leaves roll downward and inwards, mosaic mottling, dark green blisters, leaf

distortion which result in shoe string system and stunting of plants. On fruits circular

concentric rings are produced. If affected earlier no fruit formation.

Pathogen -The virus particles are rod shaped and thermal inactivation point of the virus lies

between 54 and 60˚C.

Mode of spread- Vectored by aphids Aphis gossypii, A. craccivora and also spreads to cucurbits

not through seeds.

15

7

Disease of Guava


Disease of Apple

Scab –Venturia inaequalis

158

Symptoms- Symptom appears on leaves and fruits. On lower side of the leaf

lesion appear as olivaceous spots which turn dark brown to black and become

velvety. On young foliage, the spots have a radiating appearance with a feathery

edge. On older leaves the lesions are more definite in outline. The lesion may form a

convex surface with corresponding concave area on the opposite side. In severe

infection leaf blade curved, dwarfed and distorted. Fruits show small, rough, black

circular lesions. The centre of the spots become corky and on mature fruits, yellow

halo is seen around the lesions.

Pathogen -The mycelium is internal. Ascospores are two celled, greenish, grey or

yellowish in color.


Diseases of Chilli Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum

159

Symptoms: Seedlings killed before emergence. Water soaking and shrivelling of

stem. Factors favouring infection:Moist soils poordrainage 90-100% R.H soil temperature

20°C.

Pathogen Mycelium is hyaline, coenocytic and zoosporangia are lobed and branched.

Zoospores are biflagellate and oogonia are spherical with smooth walled.Antheridia are

monoclinous, intercalary or terminal. Oospores are aplerotic, single with thick wall.

Mode of spread and survival The pathogen is soil borne. Zoospores spread through

irrigation water. The disease spreads to main field by planting infected seedlings.

Management Soil drenching with Copper oxychloride 0.25%


Diseases of Brinjal Bacterial Wilt: Pseudomonas solanacearum

160

Symptoms -Bacterial wilt symptoms on leaf surface Wilting, stunting, yellowing of the

foliage and finally collapse of the entire plant are the characteristic symptoms of the disease.

Lower leaves may droop first before wilting occurs. The vascular system becomes brown.

Bacterial ooze comes out from the affected parts. Plant show wilting symptoms at noontime

will recover at nights, but die soon.

Pathogen -The bacterium is non acid fast, non spore forming, non capsulated and motile by a

polar flagellum. The bacterium produces acid but no gas in dextrose, sucrose, lactose and

glycerol. Starch hydrolyzed with slight liquefaction of gelatin.

Management -Use resistant variety .Crop rotation with cruciferous vegetables such as

cauliflower help in reducing the disease incidence. Fields should be kept clean and effected

parts are to be collected and burnt. Spray Copper fungicides to control the disease (2%

Bordeaux mixture.). The disease is more prevalent in the presence of root knot Nematodes, so

control of these nematodes will suppress the disease spread.


Diseases of Bhendi Bhendi

Cercospora Leaf Spots:Cercospora malayensis, C. abelmoschi

161

Symptoms

In India, two species of Cercospora produce leaf spots in bhendi. C. Malayensis

causes brown, irregular spots and C. abelmoschi causes sooty black, angular

spots.Both the leaf spots cause severe defoliation and are common during humid

seasons.

Pathogen- Conidiophores are pale to medium olivaceous brown, multiseptate, some

times branched, geniculate and irregular. Conidia are obclavate to cylindric,

olivaceous brown and straight to curved.

Management- Spraying Mancozeb 0.25 % control the disease. Fusarium wilt:

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum

Symptoms-The conspicuous symptom is a typical wilt, beginning with a yellowing

and stunting of the plant, followed by wilting and rolling of the leaves as if the roots

were unable to supply sufficient water. Finally, the plant dies. If a diseased stem is

split lengthwise, the vascular bundles appear as dark streaks. When severely infected,

nearly the whole stem is blackend.


Diseases of Potato Late blight of potato: Phytopthora infestans

162

Symptom: It affects leaves, stems and tubers. Water soaked spots appear on

leaves, increase in size, turn purple brown& finally black colour White growth develops

on under surface of leaves. This spreads to petioles, rachis& stems. It frequently

develops at nodes. Stem breaks at these points and the plant topples over. In tubers,

purplish brown spots and spread to the entire surface on cutting, the affected tuber show

rusty brown necrosis spreading from surface to the center.

Pathogen The mycelium is endophytic, coenocytic and hyaline which are inter cellular

with double club shaped haustoria type. Sporangiophores are hyaline, branched

intermediate and thick walled. Sporangia are thin walled, hyaline, oval or pear shaped

with a definite papilla at the apex. The sporangium may act as a conidium and

germinate directly to form a germ tube. Zoospores are biflagellate possess fine hairs

while the other does not.


Diseases of Cucurbits

Cucumber and squash

Vascular Wilt: Erwinia tracheiphila

163

Symptoms

Symptoms of the disease first appear on a single leaf which suddenly wilts and becomes

dull green. The wilting symptoms spread up and down the runner sometimes as a recurring

wilt on hot, dry days. Soon infected runners and leaves turn brown and die. The bacteria

spread through the xylem vessels of the infected runner to the main stem, then to other

runners. Eventually the entire plant shrivels and dies.

Less susceptible plants, such as certain squash varieties, may show dwarfing of growth

before the wilt symptoms become apparent.

Creamy white bacterial ooze consisting of thousands of microscopic, rod-shaped

bacteria may sometimes be seen in the xylem vascular bundles of an affected stem if it is

cut crosswise near the ground and squeezed. This bacterial ooze will string out forming

fine, shiny threads (like a spider's web) if a knife blade or finger is pressed firmly against

the cut surface, then slowly drawn away about 1 cm.


Management

Larger plantings must be protected by insecticides. Some carbaryl (Sevin), malathion, or

rotenone insecticides or combination products are registered to treat cucumber beetles. They

will provide control of the beetles if applied when beetles first appear in the spring. Early

control, beginning as soon as the plants emerge, is most important as a single beetle can

introduce the bacteria. One to four generations of the beetle may occur on unprotected plants

and applications

of these insecticides at weekly intervals may become necessary. Apply a light even coating of

the insecticide over the entire plant, especially where the stem emerges from the soil (that is

where

the beetles often congregate).

Scab: Cladosporium cucumerinum

164

B.Sc (Hon’s) Agricultur 6BAG007 Course Name : B.Sc. (Hon’s) Agriculture 6TH Semester Subject Code : 6BAG007

Symptoms Scab lesions appear on all parts of the vine that are above ground. The first

symptoms appear as light water soaked or pale green spots on the leaves. These spots are

numerous and appear on and between veins. Similar elongated spots develop on petioles and

stems. Gradually, the spots turn grey to white and become angular.

The affected leaves near the tip of the vine may be stippled with dead and yellowish

spots, stunted and crinkled. Fruits are infected at all stages of growth but is most susceptible

while young. Fruit spots are grey, slightly sunken and about 2.0mm in dia.

Pathogen Conidia are oblong, dark, mostly aseptate.

Management Crop rotation with corn once in 4 years. Grow resistant varieties like Highmoor

and Maine no.2. Spray Mancozeb 0.2 %.

Musk melon and water melon

Gummy Stem Blight - Mycosphaerella melonis

165

B.Sc (Hons) Agriculture 6BAG007 Course Name : B.Sc. (Hon’s) Agriculture 6TH Semester Subject Code : 6BAG007

166

Symptoms Infected stems first appear water-soaked and then become dry, coarse

and tan. Older stem lesions (dead tissue) reveal small black fruiting bodies (pycnidia)

within the affected tissues. Large lesions girdle stems and plants wilt in the heat of the

day. Stem lesions on melons exude a gummy, red-brown substance which may be

mistaken for a symptom of Fusarium wilt.

country in the spring, pycnidia

are produced, giving rise to conidia, which serve as the primary inoculum. Conidia are

released through a pore (ostiole) in the pycnidia and if moisture is high, conidia exude

as "spore horns"

containing thousands of conidia. Conidia vary in size, are short and cylindrical, with

usually one septum near the middle, or they may be unicellular. Under moist conditions,

they are readily dispersed by splashing water.

Both temperature and moisture are critical for germination, sporulation,

penetration of conidia, and subsequent symptom development, but moisture (relative

humidity over 85 percent, rainfall and duration of leaf wetness from 1 to 10 hours) has

the greatest influence. The optimal temperature for symptom development varies

depending on the cucurbit for watermelon 75° F is optimal, for cucumber 75-77° F, and

for muskmelon 65° F. The optimal temperature for muskmelon reportedly is lower

because its resistance increases at high temperatures.

This can be significant to determine when early-season disease scouting should be

initiated for future control. Penetration by conidia is probably direct and does not need

to occur through stomata or wounds. Wounding, striped cucumber beetles, and aphid

feeding, along with


Angular Leaf Spot - Pseudomonas

lachrymans

Symptoms

167

Symptoms of the disease firsts appear as small, angular, water-soaked lesions on

the leaves. When moisture is present, bacteria ooze from the spot in tear like droplets

that dry and form a white residue on the leaf surface. Water-soaked areas turn gray or

tan, die, and may tear away leaving irregular holes. Water-soaked spots may also appear

on the fruit and are frequently followed by soft rot bacteria.

Pathogen The bacterium is a rod with 1 – 5 polar flagella and forms capsule and a green

fluorescent pigment in culture. The colonies on beef – peptone agar are circular,

smooth, glistening,

transparent and white.

Management Angular leaf spot may be controlled by planting disease-free seed.

Rotating with unrelated crops, keeping workers out of fields when foliage is wet and

Spray 400ppm Streptomycin sulphate.


Diseases of Crucifers Beet root

Leaf Spot: Cercospora beticola

168

Symptoms This is a commonly occurring disease on foliage of beet roots. High

humidity usually favours the spread of this disease. Numerous small circular spots appear

on the leaf surface. The spots increase in size, becoming brownish or purplish in color.

Individual spots are usually circular but several may coalesce into larger areas of dead

tissue. The spots dry up giving a shot- hole appearance to the leaves. In case of severe

infection spots cover the entire leaf surface resulting in pre-mature death and dropping of

the leaves. As leaves die, the crown becomes cone-shaped with a rosette of dead leaves at

the base. Defoliation occurs throughout the growing season resulting in reduction in root

size and yield. Older leaves are mostly affected.

Pathogen

Conidia are borne singly at the tip of conidiophores. They are hyaline, elongate,

filiform and multiseptate. Perfect stage is not known.


Management Removal and destruction of affected plants and practicing crop rotation are

beneficial in controlling the disease. Spraying with Copper oxychloride (0.3 %) thrice at

an interval of 15 days controls the disease effectively.

Downy Mildew: Perenospora schachtti

169

Symptoms The disease is mostly prevalent during the cooler months. Symptoms

appear as irregular greasy greyish areas on the leaves. Under moist conditions, these areas

expand rapidly and a white powdery growth appears on the lower surface of the affected

leaves. Affected leaf dries and shrivels quickly. Flower shoots on infected plants become

stunted and distorted. The entire inflorescence has a compact appearance and excessive

leaf development may give an appearance witches broom. The fungus survives on the crop

residues in the soil and is also carried by the seed.

Pathogen Peronospora produces sporangia abundantly on the cotyledons and is splashed

from there to other plants. The sporangia germinate by means of a germ tube and not by

zoospores.

Management Preventive measures such as good field sanitation, crop rotation and use of

resistant cultivars is recommended. Seed treatment with Thiram (2.5-3 g/kg of seed)

protects the emerging seedlings from the disease attack. Spraying with Dithane Z-78 (0.3

%) thrice at an interval of 15 days is also recommended as an effective control measure.


Diseases of Tomato Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum

170

Symptoms Damping off of tomato occurs in two stages, i.e. the pre-emergence and the

post- emergence phase. In the pre-emergence the phase the seedlings are killed just before

they reach the soil surface. The young radical and the plumule are killed and there is

complete rotting of the seedlings. The post-emergence phase is characterized by the

infection of the young, juvenile tissues of the collar at the ground level. The infected tissues

become soft and water soaked. The seedlings topple over or collapse.

Management Used raised seed bed. Provide light, but frequent irrigation for better drainage.

Drench with Copper oxychloride 0.2% or Bordeaux mixture 1%. Seed treatment with fungal

culture Trichoderma viride (4 g/kg of seed) or Thiram (3 g/kg of seed) is the only preventive

measure to control the pre-emergence damping off. Spray 0.2% Metalaxyl when there is

cloudy weather


Bacterial Leaf Spot : Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria

171

Symptom Moist weather and splattering rains are conducive to disease development.

Most outbreaks of the disease can be traced back to heavy rainstorms that occur in the

area. Infected leaves show small, brown, water soaked, circular spots surrounded with

yellowish halo. On older plants the leaflet infection is mostly on older leaves and may

cause serious defoliation.

The most striking symptoms are on the green fruit. Small, water-soaked spots first

appear which later become raised and enlarge until they are one-eighth to one-fourth inch

in diameter. Centers of these lesions become irregular, light brown and slightly sunken

with a rough, scabby surface. Ripe fruits are not susceptible to the disease. Surface of the

seed becomes contaminated with the bacteria, remaining on the seed surface for some

time. The organism survives in alternate hosts, on volunteer tomato plants and on infected

plant debris.

Pathogen The bacterium is gram negative, short rod shaped and has a single, polar

flagellum.


Management

Disease-free seed and seedlings should always be used and the crop should be rotated with

non-host crops so as to avoid last years crop residue. Seed treatment with mercuric chloride

(1:1000) is also recommended for control of disease. Spraying with a combination of copper and

organic fungicides in a regular preventative spray program at 5 to 10 day intervals or Spraying with

Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm) thrice at 10 days intervals effectively controls the disease.

Mosaic: Tomato mosaic virus (TMV)

172

Symptom-The disease is characterized by light and day green mottling on the leaves often

accompanied by wilting of young leaves in sunny days when plants first become infected. The

leaflets of affected leaves are usually distorted, puckered and smaller than normal. Sometimes the

leaflets become indented resulting in "fern leaf" symptoms. The affected plant appears stunted,

pale green and spindly. The virus is spread by contact with clothes, hand of working labour,

touching of infected plants with healthy ones, plant debris and implements.

Pathogen Virus paricles are rod shaped, not enveloped, usually straight and thermal inactivation

point is 85 - 90˚C.

Management Seed treatment with organomercurial and spraying the crop with zineb 0.2% gives

adequate protection against the disease.


Fundamentals of Agri -business management

Unit No Description

1 Meaning

2 Planning

3 Advantage

4 Disadvantage

5 Stages of Growth


AGRI BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Agribusiness management Agriculture

Business

Management

Agriculture

Business

Art of cultivating various categories of crops including animal husbandry, forestry,

fishery and other related activities.

An economic unit , Aims to sell goods and services to customers

, At prices that will provide an adequate return to its owners,

Commercialization of any enterprise

Management A set of activities(planning & decision making, organizing, leading / directing &

controlling) directed at an organization‟s resources

human, financial, physical, and information) with the aim of achieving

organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner.


AGRIBUSINESS

Agribusiness is the sum total of

all operations involved in the manufacture and distribution of farm supplies;

production activities on the farm; and

the storage, processing and distribution of farm commodities and items made from them.

Refers to the various businesses involved in

food production, including farming, seed supply, agrichemicals, farm

machinery, wholesale and distribution, processing,

marketing, and retail sales.


Commercialization of Agriculture

Increase productivity

Use of modern technologies

Reducing cost of production

Value addition

Export agriculture

Higher farm income

Agribusiness - Objectives


Agribusiness is defined as all business enterprises that buy from or sell to farmers.

Transaction may involve either an input or a produce or service and Encompasses items such as:

Productive resources Agricultural commodities Facilitative services

AGRIBUSINESS

Productive resources

Seed, Fertilizer

Pesticides,

Equipment & machinery Energy,

Feed, etc.

Agricultural commodities

Raw & processed commodities of food

Eg. Paddy ,Rice, Ricebran & Ricebran oil


Facilitative services

Credit & insurance,

Storage, processing & marketing, Transportation,

Packing & distribution, Consultancy

AGRIBUSINESS

Important Features of Agribusiness

Agribusiness is a multifaceted point of view, complex vertical structure, largely depend

and partly independent.

Successful decision making at firm level is the basis for development in future.

Viability of the an industry is traceable to the viability of the firms.

Agribusiness is market oriented


Farm supplies

Production

Processing

Marketing

Research & Extension

Govt. Policies & Programmes

Major areas of Agribusiness

Scope for Agribusiness in India

India is endowed with varied ago-climate

(Facilitates production of temperate, sub- tropical and tropical agricultural

commodities)

Growing demand for agricultural inputs (Feed and fodder, inorganic

fertilizers, biofertilizers)

Biotechnology applications

(Production of seed, bio-control agents, industrial harnessing of microbes

for bakery products)


• Service

• Profit

• Community participation

• Growth

• Subsidiaries

Objectives

Characteristics

• Characterized by smallness

• Involves lesser capital

• Mostly one man venture

• They are highly diversified

• wide range of products

• Wide dispersal geographically


• Small Scale Industry (SSI)

• Ancillary Industry

• Tiny Enterprises

• Export Oriented Units

• Women Enterprises

• Village &Small Scale Industries

Types

Advantages • Less capital outlay but more employment

generation

• Does not require sophisticated technology

• Facilitates decentralization and dispersal of business units

• They offer a wide range of choices to consumers

• Can serve specialized needs

• Utilizes the resources in full without wastage


• Inadequate management ability

• Inadequate finance

• Poor competitive position

• Uncertain business continuity

Disadvantages

Stages of Growth

• First Stage - Owner managed

• Second Stage - Early Growth

• Third Stage – Middle management

• Fourth Stage – Multilayer Stage


Thanking You

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BACHELOR OF SCIENCE AGRICULTURE VI SEMESTERTheory: Importance of post harvest technology in...

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