B D Chaurasia's Human Anatomy Edition Fourth - Medical Books

for Dental Students

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9 789389 396362

ISBN: 978-93-89396-36-2

4819/XI, Prahlad Street, 24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India [email protected], [email protected]; www.cbspd.comE-mail: Website:

New Delhi Bengaluru Chennai Kochi Kolkata Mumbai | | | | |Bhopal Bhubaneswar Hyderabad Jharkhand Nagpur Patna Pune Uttarakhand Dhaka (Bangladesh) Kathmandu (Nepal)| | | | | | | | |

CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd

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These would help in better preparation of both theory and practical examinations.

has been thoroughly revised, especially and sections, as per Dental Council of India’s Head and Neck Brainrecommendations. Many new diagrams have been added and the previous ones modified. Some selected diagrams from the first edition have been adapted and incorporated.

• A few further reading for inquisitive students has been provided at the end of the chapters in Head and Necksection.

• Molecular control of development of various organs has been given in this edition.• Flowcharts of all cranial nerves have been provided in the Brain section • For testing the knowledge acquired after understanding the main topics of Head, Neck and Brain, Frequently

Asked Questions and Viva Voce questions have been added in all the chapters of these two regions.

• • • Clinicoanatomical Problems Multiple Choice Questions Mnemonics

The and sections of the book colorfully present the following inherent salient features:Head and Neck Brain

• • Frequently Asked Questions Viva Voce

• • • • Regional and Applied Anatomy Clinical Anatomy Dissection Facts to Remember

Section 1 covers in Chapters 1–8, including the terminology, features of bones, joints, muscles, general anatomyblood vessels, skin, fasciae, etc.

Section 4 effectively covers (Chapters 38–41), i.e. upper limb, thorax, abdomen, other regions of human body pelvis and lower limb. Each region is discussed in one chapter only giving clinically relevant details.Section 5 includes (Chapters 42–45), i.e. clinical procedures, genetics, topics of importance in human anatomyembryology and histology. Embryology includes mentioned briefly and general embryology embryology of head and neck described adequately. Histology covers microscopic structures of basic tissues and important systems necessary for the dental students.

Section 2 deals with in Chapters 9–28. Gross anatomy of head and neck has been given in detail. head and neckSteps of dissection have been put in blue boxes marked . Illustrated clinical anatomy is given along with Dissectioneach concerned topic to increase the book’s utility during the clinical years. Appendix with it comprises parasympathetic ganglia, tables of arteries, clinical terms, etc.

Organisation of the text chapters/sections:

Section 3 deals with in Chapters 29–37. Chapter 32 exclusively deals with cranial nerves and their clinical brainanatomy. New flowcharts for all the cranial nerves have been added. Various surfaces, lobes, sulci, gyri and important areas are also delineated in the audiovisual presentation available to the readers on .CBSiCentral App

Krishna Garg MBBS, MS, PhD, FIMSA, FIAMS, FAMS, FASI is ex-Professor and Head, Department of Anatomy, Lady Hardinge Medical College (LHMC), New Delhi. She joined LHMC in 1964 where she completed her MS and PhD, and taught anatomy till 1996. She has received fellowships of the Indian Medical Association, Academy of Medical Specialists, and the International Medical Science Academy. She was elected fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (FAMS) in 2005. She was honoured with Excellence Award in Anatomy in 2004 by Delhi Medical Association. She has received Life Time Achievement Award, Fellowship of Anatomical Society of India, and DMA Distinguished Services Award, in 2015. She is visiting faculty of DNB, MDS and a PhD examiner. She is Chief editor of BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy 8/e (Vols 1–4); author of Companion Pocketbook—BDC Human Anatomy (Vols 1–3) and coauthor of Textbook of Histology 5/e, Textbook of Neuroanatomy 6/e, Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses, Anatomy and Physiology for Allied Health Sciences, Practical Anatomy Workbook, Practical Histology Workbook and Practical Anatomy Workbook for Dental Students; and editor of Human Embryology 2/e and Handbook of General Anatomy 6/e. Another book she has written is Anatomy and Physiology for Diploma in Pharmacy Students.

Editor

Salient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient Features• Regional and Applied Anatomy• Dissection and Clinical Anatomy

• Facts to Remember• Clinicoanatomical Problems• Multiple Choice Questions

• Mnemonics• General Anatomy

• Clinical Procedures• Genetics

• Embryology• Histology

HumanAnatomy

BD Chaurasia’sFourth Edition

New TNew TNew TNew TNew Topicsopicsopicsopicsopics• Frequently Asked Questions• Viva Voce• Further Reading• Molecular Basis of Development• Flowcharts of Cranial Nerves

for Dental Students

Other CBS Bestsellers in Human Anatomy

BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy: Regional and Applied Dissection and Clinical 8th ednVolume 1: Upper Limb and ThoraxVolume 2: Lower Limb, Abdomen and PelvisVolume 3: Head–NeckVolume 4: Brain–Neuroanatomy

Companion Pocketbook for Quick Review BD Chaurasia’s Human AnatomyVolume 1: Upper Limb and ThoraxVolume 2: Lower Limb, Abdomen and PelvisVolume 3: Head, Neck and Brain

BD Chaurasia’s Handbook of General Anatomy 6th edn

BD Chaurasia’s dream Human Embryology 2nd edn

Textbook of Histology 5th edn

Textbook of Neuroanatomy with Clinical Orientation 6th edn

Practical Anatomy Workbook revised 2nd edn

Practical Histology Workbook revised 2nd edn

Practical Anatomy Workbook for Dental Students

Edited by

Krishna Garg MBBS, MS, PhD, FIAMS, FAMS, FIMSA

Ex-Professor and HeadDepartment of Anatomy

Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi

Visiting Faculty of AnatomyKalka Dental College, Meerut, UP

Salient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient Features• Regional and Applied Anatomy• Dissection and Clinical Anatomy

• Facts to Remember• Clinicoanatomical Problems• Multiple Choice Questions

• Mnemonics• General Anatomy

• Clinical Procedures• Genetics

• Embryology• Histology

New TNew TNew TNew TNew Topicsopicsopicsopicsopics• Frequently Asked Questions• Viva Voce• Further Reading• Molecular Basis of Development• Flowcharts of Cranial Nerves

CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt LtdNew Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Kolkata • Mumbai

Bhopal • Bhubaneswar • Hyderabad • Jharkhand • Nagpur • Patna • Pune • Uttarakhand • Dhaka (Bangladesh) • Kathmandu (Nepal)

HumanAnatomy

BD Chaurasia’sFourth Edition

for Dental Students

ISBN: 978-93-89396-36-2

Copyright © Editor and Publisher

Fourth Edition: 2020First Edition: 2007

Second Edition: 2012

Third Edition: 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the author andthe publisher.

Published by Satish Kumar Jain and produced by Varun Jain forCBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd4819/XI Prahlad Street, 24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India.Ph: 011-23289259, 23266861, 23266867 Fax: 011-23243014 Website: www.cbspd.com

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Printed at Nutech Print Services, Faridabad, Haryana, India

Disclaimer

Science and technology are constantly changing fields. New research andexperience broaden the scope of information and knowledge. The editorhas tried her best in giving information available to her while preparing thematerial for this book. Although all efforts have been made to ensureoptimum accuracy of the material, yet it is quite possible some errors mighthave been left uncorrected. The publisher, the printer and the editor willnot be held responsible for any inadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies.

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Human anatomy for dental students had asuccessful inning in its third edition. Since change

for keeping in sync with the newer developments isnecessary, the fourth edition is being published.

The text has been updated and diagrams havebeen corrected and improved. Some important linediagrams of first edition of BD Chaurasia’s HumanAnatomy have been put in Head and Neck section.

Molecular basis of development of various organshas been initiated as most of the diseases have agenetic origin.

Some references as “Further Reading” are given atthe end of all chapters of head, neck and brain forinquisitive students. Hallmark of this edition is theinclusion of Viva Voce questions at the end of Headand Neck and Brain sections. Learning their answerswill prepare the students for their numerous practicalexaminations. These would even give themconfidence for their postgraduate medical entranceexaminations and the interviews for their jobs.

Accordingly, the various sections in this book are asfollows:

Section I General Anatomy contains 8 chapters.

Section II Head and Neck comprises, the mostimportant component of anatomy for BDS students.It contains description of all the bones, dissection,illustrated gross anatomy and clinical anatomy. Themuscles of various parts have been given in tabularform. Revision can be done by facts to remember,frequently asked questions, MCQ and viva voce atthe end of all chapters.

Section III Brain highlights of this section areflowcharts of the cranial nerves.

Section IV Other Regions of Human Body coversupper limb, thorax, abdomen and pelvis and lowerlimb, very briefly, giving important clinical anatomypoints.

Section V Topics of Importance in Human Anatomycontains clinical procedures, genetics, embryologyand histology.

Chapter on embryology gives a bird’s eye view ofthe general embryology. Emphasis has been given onthe molecular development and congenitalanomalies of structures in head and neck, namely,tongue, thyroid, parathyroid, pharyngeal arches,pouches, clefts, skull, face, teeth, eye, ear, etc.

Chapter on histology is in two parts. Generalhistology is given with relevant drawings. As far assystemic histology is concerned, only the partsnecessary for BDS students are given, such as histologyof salivary glands, trachea, oesophagus and generalplan of gastrointestinal tract with diagrams. Inaddition, the endocrine system and special senses aredescribed to complete the organs studied by BDSstudents.

Obligations are due to Mr SK Jain, Chairman andManaging Director; Mr Varun Jain, Director; Mr YNArjuna, Senior Vice President (Publishing, Editorial andPublicity); Ms Ritu Chawla, Production Manager; andthe entire editorial and production teams at CBSPD.Thanks to Ms Jyoti Kaur who has done the formattingpart very efficiently, Mr Sanjay Chauhan for doingbeautiful graphic work and Mr Kshirod who hasproficiently done the proofreading.

I shall be obliged to the readers for any constructivecriticism and suggestions for improvement of thebook.

Krishna [email protected]

Preface to the First Edition

With an ever-increasing number of students pursing dentistry as a profession, an urgent need was

felt for a comprehensive book on human anatomy fordental students. The books presently available fordental students have a large number of lacunaewhich require appropriate rectification. With thisbroad objective in mind, this book has been plannedto provide gross anatomy of the whole body withdetailed anatomy of the head and neck accordingto the syllabus prescribed by the Dental Council ofIndia. I am grateful to the Almighty for providing methis unique opportunity.

The fourth edition of BD Chaurasia’s HumanAnatomy published in 2004 and edited by me hasbeen widely accepted as the base-line book on thesubject for dental students. In this book the textmaterial of Volume 3 (Head and Neck section) hasbeen revised and included. Dissection as perrequirement of BDS students have been given in blueboxes. Multiple Choice Questions and Clinico-anatomical Problems of head and neck region havealso been incorporated.

The other regions, namely, brain, upper limb, thorax,abdomen, pelvis and lower limb, have beencondensed in description, however, without anycompromise on the illustrations which have beenrevised and improved substantially. It is thus acontinuous, well illustrated study of each region.Muscles of all the regions have been tabulated.Besides, at the end of each section the entire courseof all the nerves with clinical terms has beenincorporated from the viewpoint of revision andretention. Similarly, the brief course of arteries and theirbranches have been tabulated to aid quickmemorization.

The clinical anatomy has also been illustratedprofusely with relevant photographs to provide a

glimpse of the future to the first year students of BDScourse.

I am obliged to Prof Ved Prakash, Prof Mohini Kaul,Prof Indira Bahl and Prof Kumkum Rana for providinghelp whenever required.

I am grateful to Dr Suvira Gupta, Ex-DirectorProfessor and Head, Department of Radiology, GBPant Hospital, New Delhi, for her expert guidance onvarious radiographs, CT, ultrasound and MRI scans inhead and neck sections of the book. Thanks are dueto Dr Neeta Agarwal and Dr Dalvinder Singh forconstantly encouraging me.

Mr Ankur Mittal and Mr Ajit Kumar, students of BPT2004 batch from Banarasidas Chandiwala Institute ofPhysiotherapy, New Delhi, have diligently read theentire text and helped me in correcting the errors ofomission. Their help is gratefully acknowledged.

I am obliged to Mr YN Arjuna, Publishing Director ofCBS Publishers & Distributors, for providing exemplaryguidance and constructive critism for this book in spiteof his extremely busy schedule. His team comprisingMr Karzan Lal Prasher, Mr. Mukesh Kumar Sharma, MsNeelam, Mr Akhilesh Kumar Dubey and MsMehjabeen, has given the best technical support ingetting the book in its present format which isattractive and appealing.

Mr SK Jain, Managing Director, CBS Publishers &Distributors, has been constantly monitoring theprogress of the book so that it is released at theappropriate time.

I wish to thank all my family members for theircooperation. It is my fervent hope that prayer and thededication put in this book proves to be useful for BDSand MDS students. I earnestly welcome the teachersand the students in all the colleges to providesuggestions that would help make furtherimprovements in this book.

Krishna Garg

1. Introduction 3Language of Anatomy 4

Positions 4Planes 4Terms Used in Relation to Trunk, Neck and

Face 5Terms Used in Relation to Upper Limb 6Terms Used in Relation to Lower Limb 6Terms of Relation Commonly Used in

Embryology 6Terms Related to Body Movements 6

In the Neck 7In Upper Limb 7In Lower Limb 8Terms Used for Describing Bone Features 9

Clinical Anatomy 10Facts to Remember 10Multiple Choice Questions 10

2. Skeleton 11Bones 11

Definition 11Functions 11

Classification of Bones 11According to Shape 11Developmental Classification 12Regional Classification 13Structural Classification 13

Gross Structure of an Adult Long Bone 13Parts of a Young Growing Bone 14

Epiphysis 14Diaphysis 14Metaphysis 14Epiphysial Plate of Cartilage 15

Blood Supply of Bones 15Arterial Supply 15Venous Drainge 15Lymphatic Drainage 15

Nerve Supply of Bones 15Growth of a Long Bone 15

Factors Affecting Growth 15Cartilage 16

General Features of Cartilage 16


3. Joints 18Classification of Joints 18

Structural Classification 18Fibrous Joints 18Cartilaginous Joints 18Synovial Joints 18Functional Classification 18Regional Classification 19According to Number of Articulating

Bones 19Fibrous Joints 19Cartilaginous Joints 21Synovial Joints 22

Characters 22Classification of Synovial Joints 22Plane Synovial Joints 22Hinge Joints (Ginglymi) 22Pivot (Trochoid) Joints 22Condylar (Bicondylar) Joints 22Ellipsoid Joints 23Saddle (Sellar) Joints 23Ball-and-socket (Spheroidal) Joints 23Mechanism of Lubrication of a Synovial

Joint 23Blood Supply 23Nerve Supply 24Lymphatic Drainage 24Stability 24


4. Muscles 25Derivation of Name 25

Types of Muscles 25Skeletal Muscles 25

Parts of a Muscle 25Two Ends 25Two Parts 26

Section I GENERAL ANATOMY

Contents

vPreface to the Fourth Edition Preface to the First Edition vii

Structure of Striated Muscle 26Contractile Tissue 26Supporting Tissue 26

Fascicular Architecture of Muscles 27Parallel Fasciculi 27Oblique Fasciculi 27Spiral or Twisted Fasciculi 28

Naming the Muscles 28Features Used in Naming Muscles 28Shape 28Size 28Number of Heads 28Attachment 28Depth 28Position 28Action 29

Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscle 29Nerve Supply of Smooth Muscle 29Nerve Supply of Cardiac Muscle 30

Actions of Muscles 30Clinical Anatomy 30Facts to Remember 31Multiple Choice Questions 31

5. Circulatory System 32Components 32

Types of Circulation of Blood 33Arteries 33

Characteristic Features 33Types of Arteries and Structure 33Palpable Arteries 34

Veins 35Characteristic Features 35Structure of Veins 35

Capillaries 35Size 35Sinusoids 35

Anastomoses 35Definition 35Types 35

End Arteries 36Clinical Anatomy 37Facts to Remember 37Multiple Choice Questions 38

6. Lymphatic System 39Components 39

Lymph Capillaries and Lymph Vessels 39Central Lymphoid Tissues 40Bone marrow 40Thymus 40Peripheral Lymphoid Organs 41

Lymph Nodes 41Spleen 43Circulating Pool of Lymphocytes 43Growth Pattern of Lymphoid Tissue 43


7. Nervous System 45Parts of Nervous System 45Cell Types of Nervous System 46

Neuron 46Neuroglia 48

Functions of Glial and Ependymal Cells 48Reflex Arc 48Peripheral Nerves 49Spinal Nerves 49

Nerve Plexuses for Limbs 50Blood and Nerve Supply of Peripheral

Nerves 51Nerve Fibres 51

Myelinated Fibres 51Nonmyelinated Fibres 52Classification of Peripheral Nerve Fibres 52

Autonomic Nervous System 53Sympathetic Nervous System 53Parasympathetic Nervous System 55

Neurotransmitters 56Clinical Anatomy 56Facts to Remember 57Multiple Choice Questions 57

8. Skin, Fasciae and Ligaments 58Skin 58Surface Area 58Pigmentation of Skin 58

Thickness 59Structure of Skin 59

Epidermis 59Dermis or Corium 59

Surface Irregularities of the Skin 59Appendages of Skin 160

Nails 60Hair 61Sweat Glands 61Sebaceous Glands 62

Functions of Skin 63Fasciae 63Superficial Fascia 63

Distribution of Fat in this Fascia 63Types of Fats 63Important Features 64

Deep Fascia 64Definition 64Distribution 64Important Features 64

Modifications of Deep Fascia 65Ligaments 66

Types of Ligaments 66Raphe 66Clinical Anatomy 66Facts to Remember 67Multiple Choice Questions 67

viii HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

9. Introduction and Osteology 71Skull 72Bones of the Skull 72Exterior of the Skull 74Norma Verticalis 74Clinical Anatomy 74Norma Occipitalis 75Norma Frontalis 76Clinical Anatomy 78Norma Lateralis 78Clinical Anatomy 81Norma Basalis 81Interior of the Skull 89Clinical Anatomy 93, 94The Orbit 96Foetal Skull/Neonatal Skull 98Ossification 98Clinical Anatomy 99Craniometry 99Mandible 100

Age Chnges in the Mandible 103Structure Related to Mandible 103

Clinical Anatomy 104Maxilla 104Parietal Bone 108Occipital Bone 108Frontal Bone 109Temporal Bone 110Sphenoid Bone 113Ethmoid Bone 115Vomer 116Inferior Nasal Concha 116Zygomatic Bone 116Nasal Bones 117Lacrimal Bone 117Palatine Bone 118Hyoid Bone 118Clinical Anatomy 119Cervical Vertebrae 119Typical Cervical Vertebra 119First Cervical Vertebra 121Second Cervical Vertebra 122Seventh Cervical Vertebra 123Clinical Anatomy 123Ossification of Cranial Bones 124Development of neurocranium 125Development of skull bones 125, 127Foramina of Skull Bones and their Contents 126Mnemonics 127Facts to Remember 128Clinicoanatomical Problem 128Multiple Choice Questions 129

10. Scalp, Temple and Face 130Scalp and Superficial Temporal Region 130Dissection 131

Clinical Anatomy 134Face 135The Facial Muscles 136Clinical Anatomy 141

Sensory Nerve Supply 142Clinical Anatomy 142Arteries of the Face 143

Facial Artery 139Dissection 143Clinical Anatomy 144Eyelids on Palpebrae 146Dissection 146Clinical Anatomy 147Lacrimal Apparatus 147Dissection 147Clinical Anatomy 147Development of Face 148Mnemonics 149Facts to Remember 149Clinicoanatomical Problems 149Frequently asked Questions 151Multiple Choice Questions 151Viva Voce 151

11. Side of the Neck 152The Neck 152Dissection 153Clinical Anatomy 154Deep Cervical Fascia 154Investing Layer 154Clinical Anatomy 156Pretracheal Fascia 157Clinical Anatomy 157Prevertebral Fascia 157Clinical Anatomy 157Carotid Sheath 158Pharyngeal spaces 158Sternocleidomastoid 159Clinical anatomy 160Posterior Triangle 161Dissection 161Clinical Anatomy 162Contents of the Posterior Triangle 162Clinical Anatomy 164Mnemonic 165Facts to Remember 165Clinicoanatomical Problem 165Further Reading 165Frequently asked Questions 166Multiple Choice Questions 166Viva Voce 166

12. Anterior Triangle of the Neck 167Structure in the Anterior Median Region

of the Neck 168Dissection 169

Section II HEAD AND NECK

ixCONTENTS

Clinical Anatomy 170Anterior Triangle 171Submental and Digastric Triangle 171Dissection 172Carotid Triangle 173Dissection 173Muscular Triangle 175Dissection 175Ansa Cervicalis 175Common Carotid Artery 177Clinical Anatomy 177

External Carotid Artery 177Potential Tissue Spaces 180Mnemonics 180Facts to Remember 180Clinicoanatomical Problem 180Further Reading 181Frequently Asked Questions 181Multiple Choice Questions 181Viva Voce 181

13. Parotid Region 182Parotid Gland 182Dissection 182Clinical Anatomy 183

Parotid Duct/Stenson’s Duct 187Clinical Anatomy 188Development 188Facts to Remember 188Clinicoanatomical Problem 188Further Reading 189Frequently Asked Questions 190Multiple Choice Questions 190Viva Voce 190

14. Temporal and Infratemporal Regions 191Temporal Fossa 191Infratemporal Fossa 191Landmarks on the Lateral Side of the Head 192Muscles of Mastication 192Dissection 192Maxillary Artery 195Dissection 195Temporomandibular Joint 198Dissection 198Clinical Anatomy 202Mandibular Nerve 202Otic Ganglion 205Clinical Anatomy 206Mnemonics 207Facts to Remember 207Clinicoanatomical Problem 207Futher Reading 208Frequently Asked Questions 208Multiple Choice Questions 209Viva Voce 209

15. Submandibular Region 210Suprahyoid Muscles 210Dissection 212

Submandibular Salivary Gland 214Dissection 214Comparison of the Three Salivary Glands 217Clinical Anatomy 218Facts to Remember 219Clinicoanatomical Problem 219Further Reading 219Frequently Asked Questions 220Multiple Choice Questions 220Viva Voce 220

16. Structures in the Neck 221Glands 221Dissection 221Thyroid Gland 221Clinical Anatomy 225Histology 226Development 226Parathyroid Glands 227Clinical Anatomy 228Thymus 228Clinical Anatomy 229Development of Thymus and Parathyroid 229Blood Vessels 230Dissection 230Subclavian Artery 230Clinical Anatomy 233Common Carotid Artery 233Dissection 233Clinical Anatomy 234Internal Carotid Artery 234Internal Jugular Vein 236Clinical Anatomy 237Nerves of the neck 237Glossopharyngeal 237Vagus 237Accessory 237Cervical Part of Sympathetic Trunk 239Dissection 239Clinical Anatomy 240Lymphatic Drainage of Head and Neck 241Dissection 241Clinical Anatomy 244Styloid Apparatus 244Development of Arteries 245Mnemonics 246Facts to Remember 246Clinicoanatomical Problem 246Further Reading 246Frequently Asked Questions 246Multiple Choice Questions 247Viva Voce 247

17. Prevertebral and ParavertebralRegions 248Vertebral Artery 248Dissection 248Scalenovertebral Triangle 249Trachea 251

x HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

Clinical Anatomy 252Oesophagus 252Clinical Anatomy 252Joints of the Neck 252Clinical Anatomy 255Scalene Muscles 256Dissection 256Cervical Pleura 258Cervical Plexus 258Phrenic Nerve 260Clinical Anatomy 261Facts to Remember 261Clinicoanatomical Problems 261Frequently Asked Questions 262Multiple Choice Questions 262Viva Voce 263

18. Back of the Neck 264Introduction 264Dissection 264Muscles of the Back 265Suboccipital Region 269Dissection 269Clinical Anatomy 271Mnemonics 272Facts to Remember 272Clinicoanatomical Problem 272Further Reading 272Frequently Asked Questions 273Multiple Choice Questions 250Viva Voce 273

19. Contents of Vertebral Canal 274Introduction 274Dissection 274Clinical Anatomy 276Spinal Nerves 277Clinical Anatomy 278Vertebral System of Veins 278Facts to Remember 279Clinicoanatomical Problem 279Frequently Asked Questions 279Multiple Choice Questions 279Viva Voce 279

20. Cranial Cavity 280Introduction 280Contents 280Dissection 280

Cerebral Dura Mater 281Clinical Anatomy 284Cavernous Sinus 284Dissection 284Clinical Anatomy 286

Superior Sagittal Sinus 287Clinical Anatomy 288

Sigmoid Sinuses 288Clinical Anatomy 288Hypophysis Cerebri (Pituitary Gland) 289

Dissection 289Clinical Anatomy 291Trigeminal Ganglion 292Dissection 292Clinical Anatomy 293Middle Meningeal Artery 293Clinical Anatomy 294Other Structures Seen in Cranial Fossae after

Removal of Brain 294Dissection 294

Internal Carotid Artery 294Petrosal Nerves 295

Mnemonics 296Facts to Remember 296Clinicoanatomical Problems 296Further Reading 297Frequently Asked Questions 297Multiple Choice Questions 298Viva Voce 298

21. Contents of the Orbit 299Orbits 299Dissection 299Extraocular Muscles 300Dissection 300Clinical Anatomy 304Vessels of the Orbit 305Dissection 305Clinical Anatomy 307Nerves of the Orbit 307Optic Nerve 307Clinical Anatomy 308Ciliary Ganglion 308Oculomotor Nerve 308Trochlear Nerve 309Abducent Nerve 309Ophthalmic Division of V 309Mnemonics 312Facts to Remember 312Clinicoanatomical Problem 312Further Reading 312Frequently Asked Questions 312Multiple Choice Questions 313Viva Voce 313

22. Mouth and Pharynx 314Oral Cavity 314

Clinical Anatomy 314Oral Cavity Proper 315

Clinical Anatomy 316Teeth 316

Clinical Anatomy 317Stages of Development of Deciduous Teeth 318Molecular Regulation 319Hard and Soft Palates 320Dissection 320

Muscles of the Soft Palate 322Clinical Anatomy 325Development of Palate 325

xiCONTENTS

Pharynx 325Dissection 326

Parts of the Pharynx 326Waldeyer’s Lymphatic Ring 326Clinical Anatomy 326

Palatine Tonsils 327Clinical Anatomy 329

Structure of Pharynx 330Muscles of Pharynx 331Structures in between Pharyngeal

Muscles 332Dissection 333

Killians’ Dehiscence 333Clinical Anatomy 333

Deglutition 334Auditory Tube 334Clinical Anatomy 336Mnemonics 336Facts to Remember 336Clinicoanatomical Problem 336Further Reading 336Frequently Asked Questions 337Multiple Choice Questions 337Viva Voce 338

23. Nose, Deep Paranasal Sinuses andPterygopalatine Fossa 339Nose 339Clinical Anatomy 340Nasal Septum 341Dissection 341Clinical Anatomy 342Lateral Wall of Nose 342Dissection 343Conchae and Meatuses 343Dissection 344Clinical Anatomy 345Olfactor Nerve 345Clinical Anatomy 345Paranasal Sinuses 345Dissection 345Clinical Anatomy 347Pterygopalatine Fossa 348

Maxillary Nerve 348Pterygopalatine Ganglion 349Dissection 350Clinical Anatomy 351Facts to Remember 351Clinicoanatomical Problem 352Further Reading 352Frequently Asked Questions 353Multiple Choice Questions 353Viva Voce 353

24. Larynx 354Constitution of Larynx 354Dissection 354

Cartilages of Larynx 355Cavity of Larynx 358

Clinical Anatomy 359Intrinsic Muscles of Larynx 359

Clinical Anatomy 362Movements of Vocal Fold 363Mechanism of Speech 364Facts to Remember 364Clinicoanatomical Problem 364Further Reading 365Frequently Asked Questions 366Multiple Choice Questions 366Viva Voce 366

25. Tongue 367Introduction 367Dissection 367Clinical Anatomy 368Muscles of the Tongue 369Hypoglossal Nerve 371Clinical Anatomy 371Histology 372Development of Tongue 373Taste Pathway 374Clinical Anatomy 374Facts to Remember 374Clinicoanatomical Problem 375Further Reading 375Frequently Asked Questions 376Multiple Choice Questions 376Viva Voce 376

26. Ear 377External Ear 377External Acoustic Meatus 378Dissection 379Tympanic Membrane 379Clinical Anatomy 380Middle Ear 382Dissection 382Tympanic or Mastoid Antrum 386Dissection 386Clinical Anatomy 387Internal Ear 388Blood Supply of Labyrinth 391Vestibulocochlear Nerve 391Clinical Anatomy 392Development 392Molecular Regulation 392Reasons of Earache 392Mnemonics 392Facts to Remember 392Clinicoanatomical Problem 393Noise Pollution 393Further Reading 393Frequently Asked Questions 394Multiple Choice Questions 394Viva Voce 394

27. Eyeball 395Outer Coat 395Dissection 396

xii HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

Cornea 397Dissection 397Clinical Anatomy 397Middle Coat 398Clinical Anatomy 399Inner Coat/Retina 399Clinical Anatomy 400Aqueous Humour 401Clinical Anatomy 401Lens 401Dissection 402Clinical Anatomy 402Vitreous Body 402Development 403Molecular Regulation 403Facts to Remember 403Clinicoanatomical Problem 403Further Reading 403Frequently Asked Questions 404Multiple Choice Questions 404Viva Voce 404

28. Surface Marking and RadiologicalAnatomy 405Surface Landmarks 405

Landmarks on the Face 405Surface Marking of Various Structures 410Arteries 410Veins/Sinuses 411Nerves 412Glands 413Paranasal Sinuses 414Radiological Anatomy 415

Appendix: Parasympathetic Ganglia,Arteries, Pharyngeal Arches andClinical Terms 418Cervical Plexus 418Phrenic Nerve 418Sympathetic Trunk 418Parasympathetic Ganglia 418Arteries of Head and Neck 422Structures Derived From/Derivatives of

Pharyngeal Arches 424Endodermal Pouches 424Ectodermal Clefts 424

Molecular Regulation 425Clinical Terms 425Spots 427

xiiiCONTENTS

Section III BRAIN

29. Introduction 431Divisions of Nervous System 431

Anatomical 431Functional 431

Cellular Architecture 431Neuron 432Neuroglial Cells 432Reflex Arc 433

Parts of the Nervous System 433Central Nervous System (CNS) 433Peripheral Nervous System 433

Clinical Anatomy 435Facts to Remember 435Frequently Asked Questions 436Multiple Choice Questions 436

30. Meninges of the Brain andCerebrospinal Fluidm 437Introduction 437Dura Mater 437Arachnoid Mater 437

Prolongations 437Pia Mater 437

Prolongations 437Extradural (Epidural) and Subdural Spaces 438Subarachnoid Space 438

Cisterns 438Communications 439

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) 439Formation 439

Circulation 439Absorption 439Functions of CSF 439

Clinical Anatomy 441Facts to Remember 442Frequently Asked Questions 442Multiple Choice Questions 442Viva Voce 442

31. Spinal Cord 443Introduction 443Spinal Nerves 444Nuclei of Spinal Cord 444

Nuclei in Anterior Grey Column or Horn 444Nuclei in Lateral Horn 445Nuclei in Posterior Grey Column 445

Sensory Receptors 446Tracts of the Spinal Cord 446

Descending Tracts 446Ascending Tracts 447


32. Crainal Nerves 452Cranial Nerves 452Embryology 452

Nuclei 453

First Cranial Nerve/Olfactory Nerve 457Clinical Anatomy 458Second Cranial Nerve/Optic Nerve 458

Field of Vision 458Visual (Optic) Pathway 459

Structures in Visual Pathway 459Structures Concerned with Visual

Reflexes 459Clinical Anatomy 460Third Cranial Nerve/Oculomotor Nerve 463Clinical Anatomy 464Fourth Cranial Nerve/Trochlear Nerve 465

Functional Components 465Nucleus 465Course and Distribution 465

Clinical Anatomy 465Sixth Cranial Nerve/Abducent Nerve 466

Functional Components 466Nucleus 467Course and Distribution 465

Clinical Anatomy 465Fifth Cranial Nerve/Trigeminal Nerve 468

Sensory Components of V Nerve 468Motor Component 469

Clinical Anatomy 471Seventh Cranial Nerve/Facial Nerve 472

Functional Components 472Nuclei 472Course and Relations 472Branches and Distribution 473Ganglia 475

Clinical Anatomy 475Eighth Cranial Nerve/Vestibulocochlear

Nerve 477Pathway of Hearing 477Vestibular Pathway 477

Clinical Anatomy 480Last Four Cranial Nerves 480Ninth Cranial Nerve/Glossopharyngeal

Nerve 480Functional Components 480Nuclei 481Course and Relations 481Branches and Distribution 482

Clinical Anatomy 482Tenth Cranial Nerve/Vagus Nerve 483

Functional Components 484Nuclei 485Course and Relations in Head and Neck 485Branches in Head and Neck 485

Clinical Anatomy 487Eleventh Cranial Nerve/Accessory Nerve 488

Functional Components 488Nuclei 488Course and Distribution of the Cranial Root

and Spinal Root 488Clinical Anatomy 489Twelfth Cranial Nerve/Hypoglossal Nerve 490

Functional Components 490Nucleus 490

Course and Relations 490Branches and Distribution 491

Clinical Anatomy 491Facts To Remember 492Frequently Asked Questions 492Multiple Choice Questions 492Viva Voce 492

33. Brainstem 494Introduction 494Medulla Oblongata 494

External Features 494Internal Structure 495

Pons 497External Features 497Internal Structure of Pons 498

Midbrain 499Subdivisions 499Internal Structure of Midbrain 499


34. Cerebellum 503Introduction 503

Relations 503External Features 503Parts of Cerebellum 504

Morphological Divisions of Cerebellum 504Connections of Cerebellum 505Grey Matter of Cerebellum 505Functions of Cerebellum 506


35. Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Basal Nucleiand White Matter 508Cerebral Hemisphere 508

External Features 508Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere 509Functions of Cerebral Cortex 510

Diencephalon 510Dorsal Part of Diencephalon 511Ventral Part of Diencephalon 511

Thalamus 511Structure and Nuclei of Thalamus 516

Metathalamus (Part of Thalamus) 516Medial Geniculate Body 516Lateral Geniculate Body 516

Epithalamus 516Pineal Body/Gland 517

Hypothalamus 517Boundaries 517

Subthalamus 518

xiv HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

Basal Nuclei 518Corpus Striatum 518

Caudate Nucleus 518Lentiform Nucleus 519

White Matter of Cerebrum 520Association (Arcuate) Fibres 520Projection Fibres 520Commissural Fibres 520

Corpus Callosum 520Internal Capsule 521

Gross Anatomy 521Fibres of Internal Capsule 522Blood Supply 522


36. Blood Supply of Spinal Cord andBrain 526Blood Supply of Spinal Cord 526Arteries of Brain 526

Vertebral Arteries 526Intracranial Branches 527Basilar Artery 527Internal Carotid Artery 527

Circulus Arteriosus or Circle of Willis 528

Posterior Compartment 550Triceps Brachii Muscle 550Clinical Anatomy 551Forearm and Hand 551

Front of Forearm 551Superficial Muscles 551Deep Muscles 551Palmar Aspect of Wrist and Hand 551Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 551

Dorsal Aspect of Wrist 553Clinical Anatomy 553Superficial Veins 553Clinical Anatomy 554Joints of Upper Limb 554

Shoulder Girdle 555Shoulder Joint 555Elbow Joint 556Radioulnar Joints 556Wrist (Radiocarpal) Joint 556First Carpometacarpal Joint 556

Nerves of Upper Limb 556Musculocutaneous Nerve 556Axillary or Circumflex Nerve 557Radial Nerve 557Median Nerve 557Ulnar Nerve 558

Branches 529Arterial Supply of Different Areas 530Clinical Anatomy 531Facts to Remember 531Frequently Asked Questions 532Multiple Choice Questions 532Viva Voce 532

37. Miscellaneous 533Summary of the Ventricles of the Brain 533Lateral Ventricle 533Third Ventricle 533Fourth Ventricle 533Nuclear Components of Cranial Nerves 533

Olfactory 533Optic 533Oculomotor 533Trochlear 533Trigeminal 534Abducent 534Facial 534Vestibulocochlear 534Glossopharyngeal 534Vagus and Cranial Part of CN XI 535Spinal Part of Accessory Nerve 535Hypoglossal 535

Efferent Pathways of Cranial Part ofParasympathetic Nervous System 535

Arteries of the Brain 535

Section IV OTHER REGIONS OF HUMAN BODY

38. Upper Limb 539Bones of Upper Limb 539

Clavicle 539Scapula 540Humerus 541Radius 542Ulna 543Carpal Bones 544Metacarpal Bones 544Phalanges 544

Muscles of the Pectoral Region 544Mnemonics 544Axilla 545

Contents of Axilla 545Brachial Plexus 545Axillary Vein 546

Back 546Skin and Fasciae of the Back 546

Muscles Connecting the Upper Limb withthe Vertebral Column 546

Scapular Region 547Muscles of the Scapular Region 547

Clinical Anatomy 549Compartments of the Arm 549Anterior Compartment 549Cubital Fossa 549

xvCONTENTS

Arteries of Upper Limb 559The Breast/Mammary Gland 559

39. Thorax 563Bones of Thorax 563Sternum 563Clinical Anatomy 563Thoracic Wall 568The Pleura 569Lungs 570Mediastinum 572Pericardium 574Heart 575Trachea 580Oesophagus 581Thoracic Duct 582Typical Intercostal Nerve 582Arteries of Thorax 583Atypical Intercostal Nerve 584

40. Abdomen and Pelvis 585Rectus Sheath 585

Definition 585Abdominal Cavity 587The Peritoneum 588Digestive System 590

Liver 593Extrahepatic Biliary Apparatus 595

Clinical Anatomy 596Spleen 596Portal Vein 597

Formation 597Course 597Termination 598Branches of Portal Vein 598Tributaries 598

Portosystemic Communications(Portocaval Anastomoses) 598

Urinary System 598Female Reproductive System 602Male Reproductive System 605Arteries and Nerves 608Abdominal Part of Sympathetic Trunk 612

Branches 612Aortic Plexus 612Pelvic Part of Sympathetic Trunk 613Collateral or Prevertebral Ganglia and

Plexuses 613

Gastrointestinal Tract 613Genitourinary Tract 614

41. Lower Limb 616Bones of Lower Limb 616

Hip Bone 616Femur 617Patella 618Tibia 618Fibula 619

Bones of the Foot 619Front of Thigh 620

Femoral Triangle 620Muscles of front of the Thigh 621Adductor Canal 621

Clinical Anatomy 622Medial Side of Thigh 623Gluteal Region 623

Structures under Cover ofGluteus Maximus 623

Important Muscles 624Clinical Anatomy 624Politeal Fossa 625Clinical Anatomy 625Back of Thigh 626

Muscles of Back of the Thigh 626Front, Lateral and Medial Sides of Leg

and Dorsum of Foot 626Muscles of Anterior Compartment

of Leg 627Lateral Side of Leg 627Medial Side of Leg 627

Back of Leg 627Flexor Retinaculum 628Superficial Muscles 628Deep Muscles 629

Sole of Foot 629Venous Drainage 631Clinical Anatomy 631Joints of Lower Limb 631

Hip Joint 631Knee Joint 632Ankle Joint 634Tibiofibular Joint 634Joints of the Foot 634Gait 634Arches of Foot 634

Nerves and Arteries of Lower Limb 635Arteries of Lower Limb 641

xvi HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

Section V TOPICS OF IMPORTANCE IN HUMAN ANATOMY

42. Clinical Procedures 645Intramuscular Injections 645

Procedure 645Intravenous Injection 645Saphenous Cut-open or Cut-down 646Palpating the Pulse 646

Measurement of Blood Pressure 647Lumbar Puncture 647Dental Procedures 647

43. Genetics 648The Genes 648

Properties of Genes 648

Functions of Genes 648Sites of Genes 648Types of Genes 648

Some Important Terms 648Modes of Inheritance (Mendel’s

Laws of Inheritance) 649The Chromosomes 649

Structure of Chromosomes 649Groups of Chromosomes 649Classification of Chromosomes 650Chemistry of Chromosomes 650Barr Body (Sex Chromatin) 650Karyotyping 650

Mitochondrial DNA 651Mitochondrial Inheritance 651

Chromosomal Aberrations 651Disease due to Autosomal Numerical

Chromosomal Aberration 651Disease due to Autosomal Structural

Chromosomal Aberration 652Diseases due to Numerical Aberration of

Sex Chromosomes 652Single Gene Inherited Diseases 653

Prenatal Diagnosis 654Prenatal Diagnosis Therapy 654

Indications of Prenatal Diagnosis 654Methods of Diagnosis 655Genetic Counselling 656

44. Embryology 657Scope of Embryology 657Gametogenesis 657

Chromosomal Changes duringMaturation of Germ Cells 657

First Meiotic Division 657Second Meiotic Division 658

Male Reproductive System 658Spermatogenesis 658Spermiogenesis 658Maturation of Spermatozoon 660

Female Reproductive System 660Oogenesis 661Structure of Oocyte at Ovulation 661

Cyclical Changes in Female Genital Tract 661Proliferative Phase 661Secretory Phase 662Menstrual Phase 662

Fertilization 662Bilaminar Disc 663Trilaminar Disc 665Derivatives of Ectoderm 666Derivatives of Mesoderm 666Derivatives of Endoderm 666Fetal Membranes and Placenta 666

Morphology of Placenta 666Functions of Placenta 667Yolk Sac 667Umbilical Cord 667Allantois 668Amnion 668

Amniotic Fluid 668Development of Arteries 668

Development of IntraembryonicArteries 668

The Pharyngeal or Branchial Arches 670Components of Each Arch 670

Pharyngeal Pouches 671First Pharyngeal Pouch 671Second Pharyngeal Pouch 671Third Pharyngeal Pouch 671Fourth Pharyngeal Pouch 672Fifth Pharyngeal Pouch 672

Ectodermal Clefts 673Anomalies of Pharyngeal Pouches

and Clefts 673Development of Tongue 673

Anterior Two-thirds 673Posterior One-third 674Posterior Most Part 674Congenital Anomalies 674

Development of Thyroid Gland 674Anomalies of Thyroid Gland 675

The Skull, Face, Nose, Palate and Teeth 676The Skull 676Chondrocranium 676Viscerocranium 676Anomalies of Skull 676

Face 678Nasolacrimal Duct 680Salivary Glands 680

Nose 680Nasal Cavities 680Lateral Wall 680Paranasal Sinuses 680Anomalies of Nose 680

Palate 681Soft Palate 681

Anomalies of Face and Palate 681Mouth 681

Structures Derived from Ectoderm andEndoderm Lined Stomatodaeum 681, 682

Development of Teeth 682Permanent Teeth 682Anomalies of Teeth 682

Summary of Skull, Face and Nose 683Development of Eye 684

Optic Vesicle 684Retina, Iris and Ciliary Body 685Lens 685Choroid, Sclera and Cornea 685Accessory Structures of Eyeball 686Eyelids 686Lacrimal Gland 686

Anomalies of Eye 686Summary of Development of Eye 686Development of Ear 687

Introduction 687Membranous Labyrinth 687Middle Ear 688Ossicles 688

xviiCONTENTS

Muscles 688External Ear 689Pinna or Auricle 689Tympanic Membrane or Ear Drum 689Congenital Anomalies of Ear 689

Summary of Development of Ear 689

45. Histology 690Introduction 690Epithelial Tissue 690

Simple Epithelium 690Pseudostratified Epithelium 692Compound Epithelium 692

Membranes 694Connective Tissue 694

Cells 694Fibres 695Ground Substance 696

Classification of Connective Tissue 696Loose Connective Tissue 696Dense Connective Tissue 697

Cartilage 698Cells of the Cartilage 698Fibres 698Ground Substance 698

Classification of Cartilage 698Hyaline Cartilage 698Elastic Cartilage 699Fibrocartilage 699

Bone 700Functions 700Characteristic Features 700Cells of Bone 700

Intercellular Substances/Matrix 700Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone 701Microscopic Structure of Cancellous/Spongy

Bone 701Muscular Tissue 701

Skeletal Muscle 702Smooth Muscle 702Cardiac Muscle 703

Nervous Tissue 703Neuron 704Neuroglia 704Nerve Fibres 705Nerve Trunk 705

Parts of the Nervous System 706Spinal Cord 706Ganglia 706Cerebrum 706Cerebellum 708

Blood Vessles 709Arteries 709Capillaries 711Shunt Vessels or Arteriovenous

Anastomoses (AV Anastomoses) 711Sinusoids 711Veins 711

Lymphatic System 712

Lymph Node 712Lymph Flow 713Structure of Lymph Node 713Spleen 713

Thymus 714Structure 714

Palatine Tonsil 715The Glands 716Salivary Glands 717

Parotid Gland 717Submandibular Gland and

Tracheal Gland 717Sublingual Gland 718

Skin 718Epidermis 718Dermis 719Types of Skin—Thick and Thin 719

Upper Respiratory System 719Histology of Nose, Nasopharynx

and Larynx 719Nose 719Nasopharynx 720Larynx/Voice Box 720

Trachea and Conducting Part 720Digestive System up to Oesophagus 720

Oral Cavity 720Teeth 721

General Plan of Gastrointestinal Tract 721Oesophagus 722Endocrine System 723Hypophysis Cerebri 723Thyroid Gland 724Parathyroid Gland 725Suprarenal or Adrenal Gland 725Pineal Gland 726Pancreas 726Testis and Ovary 726Organs of Special Senses 726Olfactory Epithelium 726Taste Buds of Tongue 727

Tongue 727Papillae 727Taste Buds 728

Structure of the Eyeball 729Outer Corneoscleral Coat 729

Cornea 729Sclera 730Corneoscleral Junction 730

Middle Vascular Coat: Choroid,Ciliary Body and Iris Choroid 730

Inner Coat—Retina 731Lens 731Lacrimal Gland 731Structure of Eyelid 731Internal Ear 732Cochlea 732Scala Media or Cochlear Duct 733Components of Various Layers of GIT 733

Index 735

xviii HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

Syllabus for Undergraduate (BDS)as Prescribed by Dental Council of India

HUMAN ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY,HISTOLOGY AND MEDICAL GENETICS

1. Introduction

1. Anatomical terms.2. Skin, superficial fascia and deep fascia.3. Cardiovascular system, portal system collateral

circulation and arteries.4. Lymphatic system, regional lymph nodes.5. Osteology—including ossification and growth of bones.6. Myology—including types of muscle tissue and

innervation.7. Syndesmology—including classification of Joints.8. Nervous system.

2. Head and Neck

1. Scalp, face and temple, lacrimal apparatus2. Neck—deep fascia of neck, posterior triangle,

suboccipital triangle, anterior triangle, anterior medianregion of the neck, deep structures in the neck.

3. Cranial cavity—meninges, parts of brain, ventricles ofbrain, dural venous sinuses, cranial nerves attached tothe brain, pituitary gland.

4. Cranial nerves—III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, XII in detail.5. Orbital cavity—muscles of the eyeball, supports of the

eyeball, nerves and vessels in the orbit.6. Parotid gland.7. Temporomandibular joint, muscles of mastication,

infratemporal fossa, pterygo-palatine fossa.8. Submandibular region9. Walls of the nasal cavity, paranasal air sinuses

10. Palate11. Oral cavity, tongue12. Pharynx (palatine tonsil and the auditory tube) Larynx.

Osteology—foetal skull, adult skull, individual bonesof the skull, hyoid bone and cervical vertebrae.

3. Thorax

Demonstration on a dissected specimen of:1. Thoracic wall2. Heart chambers3. Coronary arteries4. Pericardium5. Lungs—surfaces; pleural cavity6. Diaphragm

4. Abdomen

Demonstration on a dissected specimen of:1. Peritoneal cavity2. Organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavity.

5. Clinical Procedures

a. Intramuscular injections: Demonstration on a dissectedspecimen and on a living person of the following sites ofinjection.1. Deltoid muscle and its relation to the axillary nerve

and radial nerve.2. Gluteal region and the relation of the sciatic nerve.3. Vastus lateralis muscle.

b. Intravenous injections and venesection: Demonstration ofveins in the dissected specimen and on a living person.1. Median cubital vein2. Cephalic vein3. Basilic vein4. Long saphenous vein

c. Arterial pulsations: Demonstration of arteries on adissected specimen and feeling of pulsation of thefollowing arteries on a living person.

1. Superficial temporal2. Facial3. Carotid4. Axillary5. Brachial6. Radial7. Ulnar8. Femoral9. Popliteal

10. Dorsalispedisd. Lumbar puncture: Demonstration on a dissected specimen

of the spinal cord, cauda equina and epidural space andthe inter vertebral space between L4 and L5.

6. Embryology

Oogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilisation, placenta,primitive streak, neural crest, bilaminar and trilaminarembryonic disc, intra embryonic mesoderm—formation andfate, notochord formation and fate, pharyngeal arches,pouches and clefts, development of face, tongue, palate,thyroid gland, pituitary gland, salivary glands, andanomalies in their development, tooth development in brief.

7. Histology

The cell: Basic tissues—epithelium, connective tissueincluding cartilage and bone, muscle tissue.

Nervous tissue: Peripheral nerve, optic nerve, sensoryganglion, motor ganglion, skin.

Classification of glands: Salivary glands (serous, mucous andmixed gland), blood vessels, lymphoid tissue tooth, lip,

tongue, hard palate, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum,ileum, colon, vermiform appendix, liver, pancreas, lung,trachea , epiglottis, thyroid gland, para thyroid gland,supra-renal gland and pituitary gland, kidney, ureter,urinary bladder, ovary and testis.

8. Medical Genetics

Mitosis, meiosis, chromosomes, gene structure, mendelism,modes of inheritance.

xx HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students

B D Chaurasia's Human Anatomy Edition Fourth - Medical Books

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