Aythya ferina -- (Linnaeus, 1758)ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ANSERIFORMES -- ANATIDAECommon names: Common Pochard; Fuligule milouin; Northern Pochard; Pochard

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This widespread diving duck is undergoing rapid population declines across Europe. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd) in both Europe and the EU27.

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Iceland; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Canary Is. (to ES); Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United KingdomVagrant:Faroe Islands (to DK)

PopulationThe European population is estimated at 198,000-285,000 pairs, which equates to 397,000-570,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 85,400-127,000 pairs, which equates to 171,000-254,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendIn Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 30-49% in 22.8 years (three generations). In winter, the population size in Europe is estimateed to be decreasing at the same rate. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyThis species requires well-vegetated eutrophic to neutral swamps, marshes, lakes and slow-flowing rivers with areas of open water and abundant emergent fringing vegetation. It also breeds on saline, brackish and soda lakes and occasionally even in sheltered coastal bays (Kear 2005). The breeding grounds are reoccupied from early March (in the south) to early May (in Siberia) (Scott and Rose 1996) with breeding starting from April-May.

The nest is a depression or shallow cup in a thick heap of vegetation positioned on the ground or over water and concealed in thick waterside vegetation (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), or on floating mats of reeds or other vegetation (Johnsgard 1978). Clutches are usually eight to ten eggs. The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of seeds, roots (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), rhizomes (Kear 2005) and the vegetative parts of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants, as well as aquatic insects and larvae, molluscs, crustaceans, worms, amphibians and small fish (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). Northern populations of this species are highly

migratory, with those breeding in the milder parts of western or southern Europe being sedentary or only making short-distance dispersal movements (Snow and Perrins 1998) governed by harsh weather conditions (Scott and Rose 1996).Habitats & Altitude

Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance OccurrenceArtificial/Aquatic - Excavations (open) suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Wastewater Treatment Areas suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable non-breedingMarine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Estuaries suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools suitable non-breedingAltitude Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsThe species is threatened by disturbance from hunting (Evans and Day 2002, Kear 2005, Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), water-based recreation (Fox et al. 1994, Kear 2005) and from machinery noise from urban development (Marsden 2000). It is also threatened by habitat destruction (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014) on its wintering grounds due to eutrophication (partially as a result of nutrient run-off from agricultural land) (Kear 2005). The species suffers from nest predation by American Mink (Neovison vison) in Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003), and adults are poisoned by ingesting lead shot (Spain) (Mateo et al. 1998). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006). This species is hunted in Northern Ireland (Evans and Day 2002), Spain (Mateo et al. 1998) and Italy (Sorrenti et al. 2006), and the eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).Threats & Impacts

Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and StressesBiological resource use

Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources (unintentional effects: (subsistence/small scale) [harvest])

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (intentional use - species is the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) No decline Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality; Species disturbance

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (unintentional effects - species is not the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could

cause fluctuationsMedium Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Threats & ImpactsThreat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses

Human intrusions & disturbance

Recreational activities

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) No decline Low Impact

StressesSpecies disturbance

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

American Mink (Neovison vison)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Avian Influenza Virus (H subtype)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactFuture Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Pollution Agricultural & forestry effluents (nutrient loads)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation

Residential & commercial development

Housing & urban areas

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) No decline Low Impact

StressesSpecies disturbance

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayEU Birds Directive Annex II. CMS Appendix II. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the U.K. attracted nesting pairs to the area by causing an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994). In the Trebon Basin Biosphere Reserve, Czech Republic, it was found that artificial islands and wide strips of littoral vegetation are the most secure breeding habitats that can be created for the species (nest survival in littoral habitats was improved by reduced nest visibility, increased water depth, and increased distance from the nest to the habitat edge, and nest survival on islands was improved with increased distance to open water) (Albrecht et al. 2006). The use of lead shot in Europe is being phased out.

Conservation Actions ProposedThis species would benefit from the protection and maintenance of wetland habitat. Lead shot use should continue to be prohibited and legislation properly enforced. Accurate monitoring of bag numbers in countries where this species is hunted should be implemented and maintained.

BibliographyAlbrecht, T., Horák, D., Kreisinger, J., Weidinger, K., Klvana, P. and Michot, T.C. 2006. Factors Determining Pochard Nest Predation Along a Wetland Gradient. Journal of Wildlife Management 70(3): 784-791.Bartoszewicz, M. and Zalewski, A. 2003. American mink, Mustela vison diet and predation on waterfowl in the Slonsk Reserve, western Poland. Folia Zoologica 52(3): 225-238.Carboneras, C. and Kirwan, G.M. 2014. Common Pochard (Aythya ferina). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52903 on 28 March 2015).Evans, D.M. and Day, K.R. 2002. Hunting disturbance on a large shallow lake: the effectiveness of waterfowl refuges. Ibis 144(1): 2-8.Giles, N. 1994. Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula) habitat use and brood survival increases after fish removal from gravel pit lakes. Hydrobiologia 279/280: 387-392.Gudmundsson, F. 1979. The past status and exploitation of the Myvatn waterfowl populations. Oikos 32(1-2): 232-249.

BibliographyHagemeijer, W.J.M. and Blair, M.J. 1997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T & A D Poyser, London.Johnsgard, P.A. 1978. Ducks, geese and swans of the World. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London.Kear, J. 2005. Ducks, geese and swans volume 2: species accounts (Cairina to Mergus). Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.Marsden, S J. and Bellamy, G.S. 2000. Microhabitat characteristics of feeding sites used by diving duck Aythya wintering on the grossly polluted Manchester Ship Canal, UK. Environmental Conservation 27(3): 278-283.Mateo, R., Belliure, J., Dolz, J.C., Aguilar-Serrano, J.M. and Guitart, R. 1998. High prevalences of lead poisoning in wintering waterfowl in Spain. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 35: 342-347.Melville, D.S. and Shortridge, K.F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.Scott, D.A.; Rose, P.M. 1996. Atlas of Anatidae populations in Africa and western Eurasia. Wetlands International, Wageningen, Netherlands.Snow, D.W. and Perrins, C.M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Sorrenti, M., Carnacina, L., Radice, D. and Costato, A. 2006. Duck harvest in the Po delta, Italy. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 864-865. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

Map (see overleaf)