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Author: Radle, Rebecca

Title: Underserved Students and Career Development: Are Students Adequately

Prepared for Options after High School?

The accompanying research report is submitted to the University of Wisconsin-Stout, Graduate School in partial

completion of the requirements for the

Graduate Degree/ Major: MS School Counseling

Research Adviser: Carol L. Johnson, Ph.D.

Submission Term/Year: Summer, 2013

Number of Pages: 35

Style Manual Used: American Psychological Association, 6th

edition

I understand that this research report must be officially approved by the Graduate School and

that an electronic copy of the approved version will be made available through the University

Library website

I attest that the research report is my original work (that any copyrightable materials have been

used with the permission of the original authors), and as such, it is automatically protected by the

laws, rules, and regulations of the U.S. Copyright Office.

STUDENT’S NAME: Rebecca Radle

STUDENT’S SIGNATURE: Rebecca Radle_________________________________ DATE: 7/25/2013

ADVISER’S NAME Carol L. Johnson, Ph.D.

ADVISER’S SIGNATURE: __________________________________________________DATE: 7/26/2013

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

This section to be completed by the Graduate School This final research report has been approved by the Graduate School.

___________________________________________________ ___________________________

(Director, Office of Graduate Studies) (Date)

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Radle, Rebecca L. Underserved Students and Career Development: Are Students

Adequately Prepared for Options after High School?

Abstract

Students need their school counselors to assist them with developing the knowledge and

skills to be successful in their future. While some students are receiving many great resources,

knowledge, and benefits, there are still students being ignored, tracked into less challenging

coursework, and falling through the cracks. Underserved students are the ones who may benefit

from career guidance the most, but they are often receiving inadequate services and thus may

have limited career development opportunities.

Literature suggests that students coming from diverse backgrounds may not receive

adequate career development and that may further perpetuate the cycle of low academic

achievement, poverty, and high dropout rates. They are more likely to have fewer opportunities

to advance and find success beyond high school. Current career development interventions and

theories are not always sufficient to meet the special circumstances and barriers that underserved

students face.

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Acknowledgments

I would first and foremost like to thank my thesis advisor, Carol Johnson. She has

encouraged and supported me with my thesis from the beginning and it was because of one of

her classes that I became interested in career development. Thank you for all of the work you

put into my thesis and helping me get it completed.

I would also like to thank my parents. I would not be writing this thesis if it were not for

all of their support throughout my educational pursuit. They have maintained interest and

excitement with me throughout this thesis journey, even when I know they have no idea what I

am really writing about. I love you both. Thank you!

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Table of Contents

............................................................................................................................................. Page

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 2

Chapter I: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5

Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 8

Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 8

Research Questions………………………………………………………………………..8

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study ....................................................................... 9

Definition of Terms ......................................................................................................... 9

Chapter II: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 11

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………11 Background of Diverse Students .................................................................................... 11

Relevancy of Career Development Models .................................................................... 17

School Counselor Best Practice ..................................................................................... 21

Chapter III: Summary, Discussion and Recommendations ......................................................... 27

Summary ....................................................................................................................... 27

Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 28

Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 32

References ................................................................................................................................ 34

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Chapter I: Introduction

Children spend roughly twelve years of their lives in school. These years are spent

completing homework, fulfilling requirements, learning life lessons, and gaining knowledge that

will last a lifetime. While children are learning about how to read, write, do math, and much

more, they are also developing their own identities and building their own hopes, dreams, and

future plans. Most students have a fantasy job when they are in kindergarten and by the time

they reach high school, that dream of becoming a movie star or professional athlete is replaced

by something entirely different. However, some students may never know what they want to be

when “they grow up.” They become seniors in high school and are often left to face the world

with little direction regarding what they should do after high school. As a result of career

indecision, students may turn to the school counselor. According to the American School

Counseling Association (2012), the role of a school counselor is to help all students in the areas

of academic achievement, personal/social development, and career development thus advocating

for students as they become college or career ready.

One major expectation for a school counselor is to provide career development to all

students. Career development curriculum is designed to have students explore their interests,

their likes and dislikes, and their values so they can discover what path might be right for them.

Once they have an idea of who they are and what skills they may need, they can transition into

preparing for the most promising career. “The instructional program goal should be to help

students develop strong self-concepts, attain basic skills, develop realistic plans for the future,

and achieve academic success” (Matthiae, 2007, p. 17). The major problem with career

development in schools is that not all students are not getting the same quality of career

development as others or they are not getting services at all.

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Students from inner city schools often face multiple barriers when it comes to getting

prepared for options beyond high school. They have lower levels of educational attainment, less

work experience, and are at greater risk of being unemployed and underemployed after high

school (Turner & Conkel, 2010). Schools with have high expectations that college is not only

an option but an expectation seem to provide more emphasis on students’ career development

opportunities. Some inner city schools may find students are having a hard time graduating and

are likely receiving little attention to their career development. School counselors are

performing a disservice to the students if they are not encouraging high expectations, exploring

options for post-secondary planning, and working with families to help first-generation students

college or career ready. The reality is that underserved students receive little to no career

guidance, and they may be the ones who need it the most. Early career interventions may be even

more vital for students in places where education and career development opportunities have

been denied (Jackson & Nutini, 2002). Students living in poverty and minority students are

more often than not placed in less challenging classes, are attending schools with low graduation

rates, and are in schools that vary in academic rigor and quality of teacher instruction (Hughes et

al., cited in Owens, Lacey, Rawls, & Holbert-Quince, 2010). This may put low income and

minority students at an extreme disadvantage when compared to their peers who are receiving

high quality instruction, academic rigor, and who are in schools where going to college is

expected and encouraged.

“There are nearly limitless benefits, and gains that come with a college degree. To begin

with, a college education allows both social and economic access that is typically not afforded to

individuals who are non-college graduates” (Owens, Lacey, Rawls, & Holbert-Quince, 2010, p.

291). College degrees are now a basic requirement for many careers and yet there is still a

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major gap in college opportunities for racial and ethnic minority students, and students from low

income communities. Only 47% of low income high school graduates immediately enroll in

some form of post-secondary education, compared to 82% of high-income students and only

18% of African Americans and 19% of Hispanic high school graduates earn a college degree

compared to 35% of Caucasians (Education Trust, cited in Jackson, & Nutini, 2002). Fewer

degrees for underrepresented populations may happen for a number of reasons including a lack

of money, limited information, and the expectation level of those around the students.

Underserved students are often receiving little attention and help planning for their career

pathways. When parents and school counselors fail to address the needs of these students, they

may be widening the achievement and opportunity gap for many students who could benefit

from it the most.

Outdated counseling techniques that are irrelevant and often do not take cultural diversity

into consideration may further limit opportunities for underserved youth. The learning

experiences of culturally diverse groups are likely to differ from most career counseling theories

due to the systematic barriers that have limited the education of many groups in the United

States. Career development theories and practices have to acknowledge, update, and account for

the cultural barriers and contexts that their clients may face (Jackson, & Nutini, 2002).

“The personal, social, and emotional needs of youth are increasing due to the breakdown

of family, exposure to violence, and growing up in a negative environment affecting attitudes

and behaviors” (Matthiae, 2007, p. 17). Now more than ever, students need their school

counselors to assist them with the knowledge and skills necessary to be successful in their future

roles. While some students are receiving many great resources, knowledge, and benefits, there

are still students being ignored, tracked into less challenging coursework, and falling through the

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cracks. Underserved students are the ones who may benefit from career guidance the most, but

they are often the same ones who are receiving inadequate services from their families, school

counselors, and often have limited career development opportunities.

Statement of the Problem

Literature suggests that students coming from diverse backgrounds do not receive

adequate career development and that perpetuates the cycle of low academic achievement,

generational poverty, high dropout rates, and have less opportunities to advance and find success

beyond high school. Current career development interventions and theories are not always

sufficient to meet the special circumstances and barriers that underserved students face. This

mindset has a lasting effect on underserved students and if it continues may widen the

educational opportunity gap even more. This is why school counselors need to have an

understanding of what they can do to help underserved students explore their career development

interests and plan for future options. Counselors must make the effort to seek out underserved

students in order to understand their unique backgrounds and adapt their lessons and counseling

strategies to meet student’s needs.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the research pertaining to underserved students

and the career development assistance received while in school. School counselors need to keep

up with relevant theorists, assessments, and interventions that help ALL students. Literature was

reviewed during spring and summer 2013.

Research Questions

The literature review will address the following questions:

1. Who are the underserved students and why is career counseling important?

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2. What career advising gaps are there for underserved students and how can those be

addressed?

3. What are the best career counseling practices that school counselors can use to help

remove barriers for underrepresented students?

Assumptions and Limitations

It is assumed that not all school counselors may be meeting the career development

needs of all students, especially the students coming from diverse backgrounds. Underserved

students may not be receiving adequate, appropriate, and relevant career development services

that may result in limited post-secondary options. It is also assumed that the literature reviewed

is accurately reflecting the needs of the students and the services provided by school counselors.

Some of the literature reviewed was older and there may be updated statistics or figures

not available to the researcher at this time. There is research taking place in different countries

other than the United States that may have relevant information, but not readily available to the

researcher. While the information used is relevant and important, there may be some

information that differs slightly from education in the United States. Lastly, there is the

limitation of time and resources. This literature review was completed during spring and summer

2013 and some literature may have been limited or overlooked.

Definition of Terms

The following terms will be defined for clarification for the reader:

Career Counseling. Involves a formal relationship in which a professional counselor

assists a client or group of clients to cope more effectively with career concerns (Niles & Harris-

Bowlsbey, 2009).

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Career Development. Lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as

contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span. Career Development involves the

person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, values

expression, and life-role self-concepts (Herr et al., cited in Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2009).

Feedforward. To give someone suggestions for the future (Goldsmith, 2002).

Socioeconomic Status (SES). An individual's or group's position within a hierarchical

social structure. Socioeconomic status depends on a combination of variables, including

occupation, education, income, wealth, and place of residence (Merriam-Webster, n.d.).

Underserved. Provided with inadequate service (Merriam-Webster, n.d.).

Underserved Students. Students who have been traditionally excluded from full

participation in our society and its institutions. The basis of exclusion has primarily been race

and color including African Americans/Black, Asian, Hispanic, American Indian and multiracial

(Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, 2012).

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Chapter II: Literature Review

This literature review examines the backgrounds of various underserved students

including African American, Hispanic, and low-income families with students living in poverty.

This chapter includes a discussion about the relevancy of various career development models

that school counselors may use with underserved populations. Lastly, this review provides a

discussion on what career-related techniques, theories, and services school counselors could

provide that may best meet the needs of all students.

Background of Diverse Students

In an article by Owens, Lacey, Rawls, and Holbert-Quince (2010) that studied African

American male college students, they found that today, white students have a significant

advantage over African American students due to their college readiness, social economic status,

and access to education. There are countless benefits to gaining a college degree, but African

American males are not being equally represented in the college completion rate as their white

counterparts. African American students are found to be less prepared for rigorous college

classes and also received little information about the college process in general. The authors

attributed this lack of information and preparation to the fact that many of the students in this

demographic come from poverty.

Poverty affects not only learning opportunities but also the potential to succeed in school

(Hughes, Stenhjem, & Newkirk, 2007). More often than not, poor and minority students

are placed in less challenging classes and attend schools with low graduation rates and

that vary in academic rigor and quality of instruction (Hughes et al., 2007). As

researchers have highlighted, some of these factors are important predictors in the

success of college students (Owens, Lacey, Rawls, Holbert-Quince, 2010, p. 293).

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Along with the instructional barriers, African American students also face conflicts when they do

attend college. There tends to be a feeling of resistance, alienation, and general lack of a sense

of belonging. All of these provide for a difficult environment for students to thrive and complete

their degrees.

Approaching the end of high school for any student is often a time of excitement and

anxiety, but for African American and Latino students, this time can also be burdened with

conflicting emotions, expectations, and pressures (Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville, 2007).

Graduating African American and Latino students are often in the middle of forming their self-

identities and building relationships with their peers, their families, and communities and in

addition, they are also establishing and adjusting their racial and ethnic sense of self. When

graduation becomes more of a reality, so does the likelihood of their admission and transition to

a higher education community. “Compared to approximately 65% of white high school

graduates who entered college during 2001, only 55% of African American and 52% of Latino

students enrolled in college” (Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville, 2007, p. 261). According to

Constantine, Kindaichi, and Miville (2007), African American and Latino vocational transition is

dependent on internal factors, and factors such as prior educational experiences, cultural and

family experiences, and perceptions of barriers to educational and vocational goals.

A study cited by Constantine, Kindaichi, and Miville (2007) revealed that students who

were members of “involuntary” minority groups (groups who historically were introduced to the

United States through oppression) had ideas of how to proceed in society, and that idea leads

them to believe that educational success will not bring future success. They also generally have

mistrust for mainstream schooling due to institutional racism that they faced on a daily basis

(Ogbu cited in Constantine, Kindaichi, and Miville, 2007).

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African American and Latino youth experience numerous internal conflicts when it

comes to their schooling. Some have a general sense of apathy, they heard and internalized

notions that they won’t succeed; leaving their expectations low. These students also felt a

pressure to constantly prove themselves and their belongingness in an educational setting

(Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville, 2007). Even if these students were seeking higher

education, there may be language barriers that hindered performance, and there may also be

incongruence between their cultural values and the values of the educational institution. When

it comes to career and future-oriented learning and goal setting, these students were experiencing

a lot of conflict. While these adolescents have high vocational or educational goals, their

expectations from others and themselves were low (Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville, 2007).

There are often many barriers that these students face when they are transitioning from high

school to post secondary options.

Kenny, Gualdron, Scanlon, Sparks, Blustein, and Jernigan (2007) conducted a study that

compiled sixteen interviews with students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. They

hoped to gain a more in-depth idea of what supports and barriers the adolescents faced in their

educational and vocational pursuits. One immediate barrier that was addressed was that

traditional vocational development that was still offered to students assumed a degree of choice

and self-determination. This assumption may not be accurate for youth who face systematic

barriers such as racism and poverty. One major theme found in various research on urban youth

and their career goals and aspirations was that factors other than choice determine career

attainment. They believed it was beyond them and their power to succeed in life. Systematic

and pervasive racism could have a major role in why students have an external locus of control

over their futures. Not only is their racism a pervasive issue, but they are also exposed to high

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levels of poverty, drugs and violence, undeserving schools and neighborhoods, and covert and

overt discrimination (Kenny, et al. 2007).

In a study by Kenny et al. (2007), students from urban public schools were asked about

their educational and career goals. All but one of the sixteen participants said they hoped to go

to college. Next they asked the students what barriers they felt they faced in pursuit of their

educational goals. The barriers identified were: friends (anti-school values, social detachment),

self-discipline, family (family misfortune, neglect or lack of care), drugs, school quality,

neighborhood violence and race. The students also were asked what they think would be helpful

to them and their career goals. They mentioned: family (support, guidance, emotional support,

setting expectations, stability, material resources), school and/or teachers (support, guidance,

setting expectations), and friends (positive influence, emotional support, support, guidance).

School counselors have three domains designated as counseling areas in academic,

personal-social, and career support for student (ASCA, 2012). While school counselors are

supposed to provide services to all students, there are some students who seek out more

information about college and higher education than others. Bryan, Holcomb-McCoy, Moore-

Thomas, and Day-Vines (2009), designed a longitudinal study to determine which students

sought out their school counselor for college information. They found that African Americans

and females were more likely to contact their school counselor for college information.

Students in high poverty, large schools, and schools with few counselors were less likely to seek

the help of their school counselor.

The demographic differences in schools also contribute to inequitable college access.

Schools that educate students from affluent families are more likely to have a "college

focus" (McDonough, 2005a) where parents, students, and school personnel (including

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school counselors) expect students to attend college. In schools that serve primarily poor

and working-class students, high school graduation is often emphasized over college

preparation, and college information, if provided at all, is more likely to direct students to

community colleges as the only option for higher education after high school (Bryan et

al., 2009, p. 3).

This could be part of the reason that only certain students are seeking out career help

from their counselors. In schools where college is the focus, there may be more options already

built into the curriculum or the school settings, whereas students from low income schools may

only receive help regarding graduating from high school. The down side to this is the students

most often represented in the low income schools have parents who do not have higher education

backgrounds and they need just as much help and information about college as their children do.

However, the schools often are not providing the low income students the proper information

when they are the ones who need it and would likely benefit from it the most.

Families are clustered into two groups: (a) families with both high parental education and

income, and (b) families with neither high parental education nor income. As the

distribution of American families polarizes into these two clusters, access to college will

become more polarized by income class, with the least access and choice concentrated

among low-income families of color (Carnevale & Rose, cited in Bryan et al., 2009, p.

3).

The literature clearly shows that school counselors can have a positive impact on

students’ career goals. Bryan et.al (2009) stated that college plans of low income students and

students of color are more likely to be influenced by their school counselor, but they are the least

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likely to have counselors, have under-prepared counselors, and have counselors who are forced

to give up career counseling due to school demands. Reasons for students not receiving career

counseling may range from there being too high of a student/counselor ratio, lack of resources

about college planning, and limited school-wide support and emphasis on college readiness. A

major contributor to students seeking help from the counselor was if they perceived the

counselor to have high aspirations for them post high school. If students felt the counselor didn’t

believe in them or think they would not make it, they would not seek help, which can be

detrimental to the students’ progress during and after high school.

Research has also suggested that inner city youth face multiple career development

barriers and hurdles relative to their entry into the world of work. They face greater challenges

and have fewer resources than their peers from other parts of society (Turner & Conkel, 2010).

Some of the barriers include lower graduation rates, less work experience, and greater risks of

unemployment after high school. All of these may lead to a widening of the socioeconomic and

opportunity gap between those living in the inner city and those who live in suburban areas

surrounding the cities.

The inner city is "characterized by minimal educational opportunities, high

unemployment and crime rates, broken families, and inadequate housing" (Turner & Ziebell,

2011, p. 1). As a whole, students living in repressed areas and going to school in the inner city

face a myriad of barriers to their future educational and occupational goals. They have fewer

opportunities to engage in career exploration, receive little information on various careers that

they may be interested in, and get fewer opportunities to understand the link between working

and reaching their goals. Part of this may be due to the high unemployment in the inner city and

there may also be a lack of role models to showcase what future career success looks like

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(Turner & Ziebell, 2011). Along with environmental barriers, there are also internal beliefs and

barriers. With the high stress levels that adolescents in the city face, they start to develop beliefs

that they have little control over what happens to them and the contexts of their lives. Those who

believe they have more control over their academics and career development are more likely to

be engaged in career exploration activities and have self confidence and strive to work on their

career development (Turner & Ziebell, 2011).

Relevancy of Career Development Models

Owens, Lacey, Rawls, and Holbert-Quince (2010) assessed the relevancy of career

development theories for students of color. They found that commonly used theories developed

by Super, Roe, and Holland often overlook issues that students of color face. “There is an

assumption that the career development process is sequential; however, in most cases this does

not hold true across ethnic groups, including African American clients” (Cook, Heppner, &

O'Brien, cited in Owens, Lacey, Rawls, & Holbert-Quince, 2010, p. 295). These authors also

addressed the newer perspectives in the career development field including the constructivist

theory and the social cognitive career theory. These theories were developed to address a myriad

of issues surrounding the context that influences career choices; however, the authors challenged

these theories as still not being specific enough to those who have faced barriers and obstacles

that are unique compared to others. For example, Latino students face challenges unique to their

day-to-day lives versus the challenges that white students encounter. Career development

theories should address the unique reality and challenges that students encounter. Owens, et al.

(2010) also mentioned that special counseling skills and a deeper understanding of cultures are

necessary for proper career counseling. Counselors should be able to connect with their students

and have a general understanding of the environmental contexts in which students live. They

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also need to show a willingness to support students as they get through the unique barriers and

then help students grow from them.

“Vocational researchers have noted that career counseling was formulated by white

European scholars (Fouad & Bingham, 1995) and is based on a framework of masculine and

Western European values of individuality, self-determination, the centrality of work, separation

between work and family, and a linear career development process (Cook, Heppner, & O'Brien,

2002), which may be irrelevant to, or in conflict with the values of clients not belonging to

dominant groups” (Vespia, Fitzpartrick, Fouad, Kantamneni, & Chen, 2010, p. 19). Career

counselors have the potential to help diverse students and clients find meaningful work and cope

with workplace issues; however, if career counselors are ignoring the culture of the clients, they

may do a major disservice to them.

Vespia, et al. (2010) conducted a study that assessed career counselors’ multicultural

counseling competencies. They found that current framework for counselors’ multicultural

competencies are based on: awareness of their own influences and biases; knowledge of cultural

differences in diverse groups; and specific counseling skills. The study found that multicultural

training was the only variable that predicted self-reported and externally-rated multicultural

competence. They also found correlation that multicultural training is the most optimal when

counseling students have an experiential component in their training. This means that in their

career counseling graduate level classes, practicum, and internships they should be counseling

and exposed to a wide variety of clients from diverse backgrounds (Vespia et al., 2010). One of

the most surprising findings from the study was that the counselors self-reported competence

scores did not match the external scores that rated their actual multicultural counseling

competence. These counselors believe that through their training they are ready and prepared to

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be a competent multicultural counselor, but they struggle when it comes to applying their

knowledge, skills, and practices.

Turner and Conkel (2010) evaluated the effectiveness of career interventions with

adolescents living in an inner city. In doing the research, they found that using a model that does

not address the unique contexts that affect career development including, race, culture,

socioeconomic status barriers, and gender, may hinder and not adequately prepare students from

diverse backgrounds to face career challenges and decisions. They challenged the traditional

career counseling models that focus on activities such as exploration, person-environment fit,

and goal setting, saying that these models may not account for nor meet the unique needs of

students from inner cities. Turner and Conkel (2010) explored the use of a newer model called

Integrative Contextual Model of Career Development (ICM). This model is used to help students

overcome career barriers and thrive as contributing members in society.

ICM, which was drawn from different theoretical perspectives, describes how adolescents

are more likely to develop proactive approaches to their present situations and possible

career futures by learning and using specific career development skills. The skills

described in ICM are (a) self-and career-exploration skills (Flum & Blustein, 2000); (b)

person-environment fit skills (i.e., understanding how one's own interests, skills, values,

and abilities relate to various occupations in the world of work (Parsons, 1909); (c) goal-

setting skills; (d) social, pro-social (i.e., acting without thought to one's own personal

benefit), and work readiness skills (i.e., a wide range of skills consisting of an orientation

toward work that results in a positive demonstrable work ethic (Bloch, 1996); (e) self-

regulated learning skills (i.e., a set of learning strategies consisting of forethought,

performance/volitional control, and self-reflection, designed to maximize one's

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educational and vocational opportunities (Lapan, Kardash, & Turner, 2002) and

(Zimmerman, 2000); and finally (f) the consistent utilization of social support with regard

to overcoming both societal barriers (e.g., race inequalities) and individual career barriers

(Turner & Conkel, 2010, p.457)

The goal of this model is to help students develop these skills which, in turn may enhance

student’s abilities to increase and maximize their opportunities. Turner and Conkel (2010)

conducted a study which compared the use of ICM with either the use of traditional career

development models or no career development at all. They found that students who participated

in all activities related to ICM had greater person-environment fit skills; greater social, pro-

social, and work readiness skills; greater efficacy in reaching their career goals an greater

emotional support than did students who did not complete any career development activities.

These same students also reported greater emotional support, person-environment fit, and goal

setting than students who participated in traditional career development activities (Turner &

Conkel, 2010). These results suggest that traditional career development models may not be as

helpful to gain career and vocational information and skills for adolescents living in an inner

city. Results also showed that any career development intervention for inner city students is

likely more helpful for developing career related skills than no intervention at all.

There were theories and career models that were overlooking students of color unique

backgrounds. Owens, Lacey, Rawls, and Holbert-Quince (2010) stated that commonly used

theories previously developed by Super, Roe, and Holland often overlook diversity issues and

may not address all barriers that student of color encounter. Even newer developed theories such

as the social cognitive career theory which is supposed to be more encompassing, is not specific

enough to meet the unique needs and perspectives that these students of diversity bring. This

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finding was concurrent with research by Turner and Conkel (2010), who found that using a

model that does not address the unique contexts that affect career development (race, culture,

SES) hindered and did not adequately prepare students to face career challenges and decisions.

New models are being developed (such as the ICM model) to help students overcome barriers

and thrive in society.

Schools may wonder which multicultural practices that school counselors should adopt.

Owens, Lacey, Rawls, and Holbert-Quince (2010) mentioned that counselors must be able to

connect with their students and have a strong understanding of environmental contexts in which

students live. However, Vespia, Fitzpatrick, Fouad, Kantamneni, and Chen (2010) found that

counselors rated their multicultural counseling competencies as high, but their practices fell short

when externally rated. Counselors thought they were more prepared to handle the uniqueness of

diverse students by simply being able to connect with them and understand them, but when it

came to actual practices and implementation of services, there was a disconnect.

School Counselor Best Practice

The national office for the College Board has developed a program for School Counselor

Advocacy that has eight components specifically designed to get students college and career

ready. “School counselors are uniquely positioned as the school professionals best able to guide

all students toward college readiness” (CollegeBoard.org, 2010). This eight component model

is used to inspire and prepare students for college or other career related opportunities after high

school. This model especially helps students from underserved populations, which is of

particular interest and importance to this research. According to the College Board, when

school counselors implement this model, they provide a variety of information and tools to

students, parents, schools, and communities; all of which assist students for life after high school.

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The eight components that the College Board proposes are as follows: College Aspirations,

Academic Planning for College and Career Readiness, Enrichment and Extracurricular

Engagement, College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes, College and Career

Assessments, College Affordability Planning, College and Career Admission Processes, and

Transition from High School Graduation to College Enrollment (CollegeBoard.Org, 2010).

College aspirations for the school counselors mean building a culture in the school where

students believe early on that they can not only make it to college but also succeed in college.

They do this by nurturing confidence in students to aspire to college, helping students with

developing resiliency and overcoming barriers they may face that lead them to believe they

cannot be successful in the future, by maintaining high expectations and convictions that all

students can be successful in the future. Academic planning for college and career readiness for

school counselors means that they help students with their schedules and planning for the future;

including rigorous coursework and connecting the classroom to real life.

Enrichment and extracurricular engagement means that school counselors are ensuring that

all students are getting exposed to extracurricular and/or enrichment opportunities to foster

talents and interests, build leadership, and to connect students with the school. College and

career exploration and selection processes, and college and career assessments are designed for

school counselors to provide students with proper career and college exploration, selection, and

investigating. College affordability planning is where school counselors provide information to

students and their families about the cost of college and not going to college, different options on

how to pay for higher education, providing scholarship opportunities, and information on

financial aid and how to complete it. College and career admission processes is used to ensure

that students have an understanding early on about what admission policies are for different

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higher education facilities so they can adequately prepare for them while in school. Lastly,

transition from high school graduation to college enrollment means that school counselors are

connecting students with resources to assist with life after high school and empowering them to

overcome barriers that may hinder their transition (CollegeBoard.Org, 2010).

The eight component model is meant to be used at every level of the educational journey.

For this model to be successful, school counselors need these four considerations at each of the

eight components: context, cultural competence, multilevel interventions, and data.

Interventions should be customized and should be applied in ways that are culturally sensitive.

Data should be used to identify discrepancies, to develop goals, and for accountability purposes.

This is just one option that school counselors can implement in their school to ensure that their

students have many positive and successful opportunities for their future.

Turner and Ziebell (2011) studied the career beliefs of inner-city youth, and included a

section on implication for school counselors and how they can assist inner-city youth with their

career development planning. School counselors should strive to enhance students’ flexibility

and adaptability beliefs through career exploration, planning, and decision making. Through core

curriculum and individual student planning, school counselors should approach exploration,

planning, and decision making by assisting students with developing knowledge rather than just

presenting ideas. Using approaches that are discovery oriented, problem based, experiential,

and inquiry based are all encouraged as they promote independence and skill development

(Turner & Ziebell, 2011).

There are various low-cost and online career resources available to school counselors and to

students. Having students explore these resources may be beneficial for keeping students

interested and invested into their future. O*NET allows students to search many occupations

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and to explore them in-depth by looking at each occupations skills, abilities, educational path,

activities, tasks, and interests. Students who are able to access these resources may be able to

understand their own values, interests, career related personalities, and their learning styles.

Turner and Ziebell (2011) also offer another approach to assisting inner-city youth with their

career development through development of a portfolio. “By using portfolios, students can build

a comprehensive picture of how their interests, abilities, educational plans, and other career-

related personal attributes match current occupational demands. Research has shown that

portfolio usage can help students build skills in self-directed decision making using a feed

forward, facilitative, feedback instructional loop (Kicken et al., 2009 cited in Turner & Zibell,

2011). School counselors who utilize the portfolio method with their students can give direct

and fast feedback to their students. Not only that, but these portfolios can be started at an early

grade level and follow the students on their entire K-12 journey. They can revisit it, revise it,

and keep adding to their previous work. Schools can keep these online files for the students and

discuss with them what is in it and provide more resources depending on the direction the student

wants to go. The portfolio method can help students learn how to engage in ongoing career

exploration, planning, and decision making. These skills are essential for healthy transition into

the work world and work opportunity changes (Turner & Ziebell, 2011).

Earlier in the literature review, Turner and Ziebell (2011) found that one career belief of

inner-city youths is that success is not related to the amount of effort. The last recommendation

that Turner and Ziebell address is helping students connect their efforts with their success so they

can have a better internal locus on control, which may be stripped away from them throughout

their young lives. The authors mention making use of attribution training and counseling through

short vignettes that show college students talking about their college successes and failures due

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to a lack of effort on the part of the student. Another way is through individual career counseling

sessions with students to identify strengths and hold students accountable for their successes and

futures (Turner & Ziebell, 2011).

Holcomb-McCoy (2010) explored the involvement of low-income parents and parents

of color in their students’ college and readiness activities. “Although all students benefit from

family and/or parent involvement, low-income students and students of color (i.e., African

American, Latino/Hispanic) fare significantly better in gaining admission to four-year colleges

and universities when their parents are involved in their schooling” (Wadenya & Lopez, 2008

cited in Holcomb-McCoy, 2010). School counselors have an impactful position when assisting

students and their parents with college and career information. One thing that school counselors

may have to pay particular attention to is their biases. Holcomb-McCoy (2010), states that low-

income students and students of color are more likely to rely on their high school counselor for

college information and financial aid information. While school counselors have the ability to

give this information, they have recently been criticized for their “gate-keeping” function in

schools.

Overall, the literature suggests that school counselors have an impact on the following

aspects of college preparation: structuring information and organizing activities that

foster and support students' college aspirations and an understanding of

college and its importance, (b) assisting parents in understanding their role in fostering

and supporting college aspirations, (c) assisting students in academic preparation for

college, (d) supporting and influencing students' decision malting about college, and (e)

organizationally focusing the school on its college mission (Holcomb-McCoy, 2010).

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School counselors hold a lot of responsibility when it comes to fostering the educational

or career path of students. Holcomb-McCoy (2010) mentions that if school counselors support

and help prepare students and their families in middle school for college, they would increase

students’ chances for enrolling in a university. This study aimed to uncover the beliefs and

attitudes of school counselors who work in high-poverty and high-minority schools. The overall

results were favorable, indicating that most school counselors have positive beliefs about

working with parents when it came to college preparation. However, the majority of school

counselors also indicated that they spend “some time” working with parents about college.

Parental knowledge about college and higher education is critically important to the future

postsecondary success of low-income students and students of color. Holcomb-McCoy (2010)

suggest that all high school counseling programs should strive build a cultural connection

between the school and the parents, helping the parents feel more at ease and comfortable at the

school.

A final suggestion for developing innovative ways of conveying financial aid information

to parents is to train some parent volunteers and then have the parent volunteers lead workshops

and informational sessions for the other parents. That way they are getting involved in peer-to-

peer conversations and this may decrease some of the anxiety, confusion, and language or

cultural barriers. School counselors who present opportunities for parents to get involved and to

collaborate with school personnel, community members, and college personnel will be able

connect parents and bridge all facets that may be overwhelming or confusing (Holcomb-McCoy,

2010).

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Chapter III: Summary, Discussion, Recommendations

This chapter includes a summary of the literature that was presented in Chapter II. In

addition, this chapter includes recommendations that will help school counselors better

understand their role in career development with students from diverse backgrounds and the

chapter concludes with recommendations for future research.

Summary

The role of a school counselor is to provide services to students within the frame work of

personal/social development, academic achievement, and career development. This is a national

standard for all school counselors, yet there are many students who are getting inadequate career

development from their counselors. Students from diverse backgrounds are in need of school

counselors who can provide them with the proper tools for life after high school. These students

have unique backgrounds and barriers that may limit their educational and occupational goals.

They also may have many adults who do not expect them to succeed. School counselors need to

adapt their old career development theories for updated ones that encompass the unique

background of these students. Students notice how their school counselor perceives them and if

they sense that their counselor doesn’t think they will amount to anything, it can be extremely

damaging to the students and their future goals and career plans. School counselors have the

potential to help students reach goals they never thought they could, but unfortunately they also

have the potential to destroy dreams if they do not understand underserved students’

backgrounds. If counselors do not include all students in career planning, or if counselors are

using outdated career development models, they may limit career opportunities for all students.

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Discussion

Most of the research agreed that white students receive more educational opportunities

and college information which results in them getting enrolled in college versus African

American or Latino students. Owens, Lacey, Rawls, and Holbert-Quince (2010) found that

African American students were less prepared for college courses and received little information

about the college process. This was consistent with research by Constantine, Kindaichi, and

Miville (2007) who stated “Compared to approximately 65% of White high school graduates

who entered college during 2001, only 55% of African American and 52% of Latino students

enrolled in college” (p. 261). This is important as counselors play a critical role in servicing all

students.

Research further supported that students from diverse backgrounds were generally found

in school or home environments where expectations for their career and academic success were

low. Constantine, Kindaichi, and Miville (2007) stated that students from diverse backgrounds

tended to have high educational and occupational goals for themselves, but when they received

little encouragement from others including the adults around them the minority students did not

have the same high goal outlook which reflected parent reservations to the students and made

them not want to reach those goals. This was consistent with research by Bryan et. al (2009),

who found that a major contributor to students seeking career and college information from their

school counselor was if they perceived their counselor to have high aspirations for them post

high school.

Another consistent yet disparaging theme found throughout the literature was that

students from diverse backgrounds tended to have an external locus of control regarding their

future success. Turner and Ziebell (2011) explored this notion and found that due to the high

29

levels of stress adolescents face living in inner cities, they started to develop beliefs that they had

little control over what happened to them and the contexts in their lives. This hopelessness

reflected in academics and participation in career development activities. The literature also

found that urban youth believed that outside factors rather than themselves determined their

success and career attainment. This was due to the systematic and pervasive racism that students

encountered every day and lack of positive role models who had successful career paths.

Lastly, the literature that was reviewed in this study agreed that students from diverse

backgrounds face a myriad of educational and occupational barriers. According to Turner and

Ziebell (2011), students from the inner city had fewer opportunities to engage in career

exploration, received very little information on various careers that they may be interested in,

and got fewer opportunities to understand the link between working and reaching their goals.

This was consistent with research by Turner and Conkel (2010), who stated that barriers for

students from diverse backgrounds indicated lower graduation rates, less work experience, and

greater risks of unemployment after high school. All of these lead to the widening SES and

opportunity gap. So what can school counselors do?

The literature presents school counselors with a lot of helpful information and

suggestions for their practices. Students of color and students living in poverty tend to believe

that their life circumstances are beyond their control and that if something good were to happen,

it was just pure luck. School counselors have a powerful position to help students understand

and believe that good things can happen to those who work hard, overcome stereotypes and set

goals for themselves. School counselors who set high expectations for all of their students and

encourage them to take advanced classes and help them become college ready are likely to see

results where students believe in themselves and their future successes. Schools may wish to

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invite positive role models to share insight and mentor for others to help encourage and network

with students.

Most students want to attend some form of higher education, but many do not think it is

within their reach. School counselors need to be extra mindful of their biases and practices.

Parents of students of color and parents of students living in poverty generally want to help their

child succeed, but due to the cycle of poverty, many of these parents know little about higher

education or how to help their child through the process. School counselors can help this

confusing transition time for students and their parents by providing information sessions about

financial aid, applying to higher education, grants, ACT/SAT, and by simply inviting the parents

to be a part of the process. School counselors should try to provide interpreters for those parents

whose English is a second language. It is easy for school counselors to become discouraged by a

low parent turnout, but they should not give up. Even helping a few families is a good start to the

foundation of building a future for others. School counselors, who believe that the parents do not

care, could potentially sever an important tie and resource for the students who they are trying to

encourage.

School counselors need to be aware of the career development theories they are using

with their students. Students of color may not benefit or connect with traditional theories that

were developed my white scholars. Students of color and students living in poverty benefit when

their unique life circumstances are addressed and incorporated into their career development

processes. School counselors need to evaluate their career development activities and see if all

of their students are benefiting from it. Using data to support progress made in this area is

critical to the counselor success.

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Newer career theory models are being developed to help students think critically about

their lives and how they fit into their future. One such model school counselors could try is the

ICM model. This model was designed specifically for students to help students overcome

barriers and become proactive in their own career development.

Another implication for school counselors is to start building career development

programs as early in the elementary grades as they can. Early intervention programs can be of

vital importance to students of color and minority students. Having programs that support and

strengthen the education of minority students can help these students prepare for higher

education and simply helping them believe that they can make it that far. Keeping a

collaborative relationship with colleges, schools, and business can be beneficial for school

counselors by offering programs, speakers, and tours for elementary, middle, and high school

students. This way, students can start their career exploration and interests early and they can

start to develop their sense of career efficacy.

School counselors have to be strong advocates for their students and for ensuring there is

a college ready climate in their schools. School counselors will benefit from using data to

understand the career development climate and the current attitudes of the students and the staff.

If the climate of the school is unfavorable, school counselors will have a starting point on what

needs to be changed and how they can facilitate that change. School counselors are leaders that

are uniquely positioned as the professional to guide students to career readiness. Understanding

and embracing that important role is vital. Counselors may need post graduate training and to

participate in current workshops that enhance their skills to serve the students. Counselors

connect students to resources and they have the power to instill the confidence in students to

want to finish high school and purse their goals after high school. It is crucial that school

32

counselors provide an inviting and supportive environment for all students, but especially

minority students. Students are challenged everyday by those who do not believe in them, and

the thing that should not happen is for them is to have their school counselor discourage them

too.

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research in career development for underserved students would include more

studies on diversity in career paths. Additionally, more research should be analyzed on current

career development interventions and strategies to determine what is working and what needs to

be improved upon. Interviewing underserved students and their families may be extremely

beneficial to research due to the lack of information on their career beliefs and what they think

would help them in their future. How can they break the cycle of generational poverty? What

about students who arrived in the United States illegally and how does that limit their

opportunities for financial aid, scholarships and advanced education? Immigrants who do not

value education at all may put family restrictions on advanced opportunities for learning.

Future research should also consider opportunities to create studies that focus on career

development of students in younger grades. Most research reviewed was conducted from high

school students from the inner-city. Reviewing students at the high school level is important

because of the transition to the “real world,” but having the knowledge, skills, and interventions

to start earlier can be extremely beneficial to both school counselors and students.

Lastly, determining how teachers and other school staff can also assist students in their

career development process would add to the research. School counselor use of data can help

understand this attitude and climate. Teachers could be a link to helping students understand hot

new careers and how what they learn in the classroom can be linked to their futures. There was

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very little information about teacher attitudes and guidelines for how they can assist with career

development. It is important to build partnerships with communities, families and schools to

enhance the opportunities for all students. Career education is an investment in the future of our

country and a way to improve the lives of students and the families of those who work so closely

with our students.

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