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    Aurangzeb

    Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir(Urdu: --

    - , Hindi: ) (4 November1618 [O.S. 25 October]3 March 1707 [O.S. 20 February]), more commonly known as Aurangzeb

    (Hindi:)[1]or by his chosen imperial title Alamgir (Hindi:) ("Conquerer ofthe World", Urdu: ), was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India, whose reign lasted from1658 until his death in 1707.

    [2][3]

    Aurangzeb, whose rule lasted for nearly half a century, was the second longest reigning Mughal

    emperor afterAkbar.During his reign theMughal Empire reached its zenith with its territories

    encompassing over 1.25 million square miles and with more than 150 million subjects, nearly

    1/4th of the world's population at that time.[4][5]

    But after his death in 1707, the Mughal Empiregradually began to shrink. Major reasons include a weak chain of "Later Mughals", an

    inadequate focus on maintaining central administration leading to governors forming their own

    empires, a gradual depletion of the fortunes amassed by his predecessors and the growth of

    secessionist sentiments among the various communities within the Mughal Empire.

    Aurangzeb's communal policies are mixed. On one hand he authorized the Fatawa-e-

    Alamgiri[further explanation needed]

    over the entire empire, briefly taxed non-Muslims,[6]

    destroyedmany Hindu temples which were accused ofsyncretism and executedGuru Tegh Bahadur.

    [7][8][9]

    On the other hand, he increased the number of Hindu administrators and senior court officials

    (such as Raja Jai Singh and Swarup Singh of Orchha) and many Hindu and Sikh templescontinued to expand during his reign.

    [10]

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    Contents

    [hide]

    1 Rise to throne

    o

    1.1 Early life

    o 1.2 Education

    o 1.3 Following Sufism

    o 1.4 Bundela War

    2 Mughal Viceroy

    o 2.1 War of succession

    3 Aurangzeb's reign

    o 3.1 Establishment of Islamic law

    o 3.2 Expansion of the Mughal Empire

    o 3.3 Foreign Relations

    o 3.4 Revenue administration

    4 Coins Gallery 5 Rebellions

    o 5.1 Deccan Wars

    o 5.2 Ahom Campaign

    o 5.3 Sikhs

    o 5.4 The Pashtun rebellion

    6 Legacy

    7 See also

    8 References

    o 8.1 Additional references

    9 External links

    Rise to throne

    Early life

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    A painting from circa 1637 shows the brothers (left to right)Shah Shuja,Aurangzeb andMurad

    Baksh in their younger years.

    Aurangzeb was born the third son and sixth child of Prince Khurram (later the fifth Mughalemperor Shah Jahan) and Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Bno Begam) in Dahod on the way to

    Ujjain.[11]

    After an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb and his brotherDara Shikoh

    were submitted as hostages in June,1626 underNur Jahan at his grandfatherJahangir's court inLahore.

    [11]AfterShah Jahan was officially declared theMughal Emperor,Aurangzeb andDara

    Shikoh returned to live with their parents in Agra on 26 February 1628.[11]

    As Aurangzeb grew

    up his daily allowance was fixed to Rs.500, while he spent his allowance in religious educationand the study of history, he accused his brothers of alcoholism and womanizing.

    [11]

    On May 28, 1633 when Aurnagzeb was 15 years of age he narrowly escaped death in an elephantfight and successfully defended himself from a stampede. While his other brothers fled from the

    arena, Aurnagzeb's valor was well appreciated by his father the mughal Emperor Shah Jahan

    who gave him the title Bahadur (Hero) and had him weighed in Gold and presented him giftsworth Rs 2 lakhs. This heroic deed was celebrated inPersian andUrdu verses.

    [11]

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    If the (elephant) fight had ended

    fatally for me it would not have beena matter of shame. Death drops the

    curtain even on Emperors; it is no

    dishonor. The shame lay in what mybrothers did!

    [11]

    Aurangzeb to Shah Jahan taunting Dara Shikoh's cowardice , Ahkam-i-Alamgiri - Hamidullah Khan

    He visited Kashmir with Shah Jahan and was presented with the parganah of Lukh-bhawan inSeptember,1634.

    [11]On 13 December 1634 he was given his first command of 10000 horse, with

    an additional 4000 troopers.[11]

    He was allowed to use the Red tent, an imperial prerogative,

    indeedShah Jahan had big plans for him particularly in theMughal military.[11]

    Education

    The manuscript of theQuran - parts of which are believed to have been inscribed by Aurangzeb.

    It measures 14.5cm x 24cm, with lavishgold insets and is made ofpaper handcrafted fromriceand natural materials. The script is written in ink made from valuable minerals, and is inlaid with

    ruby,lapis lazuli,gold,silver andgarnet.[12][13]

    Sadullah Khan (later wazir to Shah Jahan), Mir Muhammad Hashim of Gilan and Muhammad

    Saleh Kamboh were a few of his childhood teachers.[11]

    Aurangzeb had a keen mind and quickly

    learnt what he read. He mastered theQuran and thehadith and readily quoted from them.[11]

    Hespoke and wrote Arabic and Persian like a scholar.

    [11] He also learnt Chagtai Turki when he

    served in Kandahar.[11]

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    He wroteArabic with a vigorous naskh hand and used to copy the Quran in it.[11]

    Two richly

    bound and illuminated manuscripts of his exist in Mecca and Medina, with another copy

    preserved in Nizamuddeen Aoliya.[11]

    Aurangzeb was a prolific writer of letters and commented on petitions in his own hand .[11]

    He

    frequently quoted Islamic verses but had no special taste for poetry.

    [11]

    Following Sufism

    Aurangzeb was a strict follower of Sufism and used to carry out his personal expenses by

    stitching caps which are still worn by Muslims while conducting their prayers, and by writing

    The Holy Quran.

    Aurangzeb was a Sufi and followed the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi method of Sufism. He was a

    disciple of Khwaja Muhammad Masoom, the third son and successor of the founder of

    Mujaddidi order ShaykhAhmad Sirhindi.His letters to Shayk and the replies from him show that

    he was highly devoted to him and followed him in every matter of his life and rule.[14]

    Thoughthe Shaykh was not involved in politics, Aurangzeb established Islamic law inspired and

    instructed by him.

    Soon after coronation, he wrote to Shaykh that due to the duties of the empire, he was unable to

    attend his shaykh's company, therefore he should send one of his noble sons to the capital forspiritual and Islamic guidance to Aurangzeb. The shaykh sent his son, Khwaja Saif ad-Din

    Sirhindi (5th son) who was a scholar and Sufi shaykh by himself and only 27 years old. He not

    only guided Aurangzeb to observe the Islamic law properly, he was also the source of most ofthe Islamic rules Aurangzeb implemented in the empire. One of those is the ban on musical

    instruments throughout the country, which was initially suggested by Khwaja Saif ad-Din in

    accordance with the Sharia law.

    Many other famous Sufis also revered Aurangzeb, including the Punjab Sufi Sultan Bahu (ca

    1628 - 1691), who wrote a book with spiritual secrets specially for him. The book was written in

    Persian and titled "Aurang-i-Shh", toresemble the name of the emperor. The author has praisedthe emperor with titles such as The Just King.

    [15]

    Bundela War

    To contain theBundela rebellion led by the renegade Jhujhar Singh, theMughal EmperorShah

    Jahanplanned a campaign to strike the rebellious territory known asBundelkhand and its capitol

    Orchha from 3 sides: Syed Khan-i-Jahan with 10,500 men from Badaun, Abdullah KhanBahadur Firuz Jang with 6000 men from the north and Khan-i-Dauran with 6000 men from the

    south-west.[11]

    The three generals were of equal rank and henceShah Jahan and Inayat Khan,[16]

    ensured unity and co-operation amongst them, Aurangzeb, then a 16 year old commander of10,000, escorted by 1000 archers and 1000 horses, was made the (nominal) commander-in-

    chief.[11]

    He was to stay in the rear, away from the fighting and take the advice of his generals as

    theMughal Army gathered and commenced theSiege of Orchha in the year 1635.[11]

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    If the campaign was meant to be

    Aurangzeb's baptism of fire, we mustsay the baptism was performed at a

    great distance from the fire![11]

    Dow's account of the war

    The campaign was known for its spectacular usage of Artillery according to Mughal accountsmore than 220 Cannons were combined with Mughal armies of 32,000 men, that ultimately

    captured the Bundela capital during the combined Siege of Orchha, on October 4, 1635.

    Aurangzeb then raised the Mughal flag on the highest terrace of theJahangir Mahal and installed

    Devi Singh as the new administrator, while Jhujhar Singh had escaped.[11]

    After a flurry ofevents, theGonds killed Jhujhar and his son in their sleep and sent their heads to the Mughal

    EmperorShah Jahan in December 1635.[11]

    Aurangzeb then went to Dhamuni where Shah Jahan

    paid him a visit.[11]

    There, he ordered the demolition of Bir Singh Dev's temple and had aMosque constructed.

    [11]Aurangzeb returned from Dhamuni to wait for his father at Orchha and

    together they traveled through the country.[11]

    Mughal Viceroy

    On the way to Sironj they reached Daulatabad where Aurangzeb on July 14, 1636 took formalleave of the emperor to take up his new post as the Viceroy of theDeccan.

    [11][17]At this time, he

    began building a new city near the former capital of Khirki which he named Aurangabad after

    himself. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of

    Ahmadnagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy prince named Murtaza Shah III, theMughal Emperor dispatched his son theSubedar of the Deccan Aurangzeb, who in the year 1636

    brought the Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. Pleased by Aurangzeb's efforts in the Deccan his

    father Shah Jahan presented him a magnificent Talwar called Alamgir.[18] In 1637, Aurangzeb

    married Rabia Durrani. During this period the Deccan was relatively peaceful. In the Mughalcourt, however, Shah Jahan began to show greater favour to his eldest sonDara Shikoh.

    In 1644, Aurangzeb's sisterJahanara was accidentally burned when the chemicals in her perfume

    got close to a lamp while in Agra. This event precipitated a family crisis with political

    consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure when he returned to Agra three weeks

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artilleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Orchhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahangir_Mahalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gond_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daulatabad,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadnagarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam_Shahihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtaza_Shah_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subedarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam_Shahihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talwarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dara_Shikohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahanara_Begum_Sahibhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahanara_Begum_Sahibhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dara_Shikohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talwarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam_Shahihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subedarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtaza_Shah_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam_Shahihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadnagarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daulatabad,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gond_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahangir_Mahalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Orchhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artilleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb#cite_note-Alamgiri-10
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    after the event, instead of immediately. Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in

    that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects to the Mughal

    EmperorShah Jahan and his injured daughter the Mughal princessJahanara.[11]

    Shah Jahan wasoutraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately

    dismissed him from his position of Viceroy of the Deccan, Aurnagzeb was also no longer

    allowed to use Red tents (an imperial prerogative, which Shah Jahan handed over to DaraShikoh)or associate himself with the official military standard of theMughal Emperor.[11]

    In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months and mentioned his grief to fellowMughal commanders. Thereafter, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan appointed him governor of

    Gujarat where he served well and was rewarded for bringing stability. In 1647, the Mughal

    EmperorShah Jahan made him governor ofBalkh andBadakhshan (in modernAfghanistan and

    Tajikistan), replacing Aurangzeb's ineffective brother Murad Baksh. These areas were, at thetime, under attack from various tribal oriented forces and Aurangzeb's tough military skills

    proved useful to deter their threats. He was appointed governor ofMultan andSindh where he

    gained fame during theMughal-Safavid War,a protracted military struggle against the Safavid

    army over the city of Kandahar. Aurangzeb himself led many assaults and learned from hismistakes by writing a lengthy memorandum as a guide for theMughal Army,whichShah Jahan

    himself praised.[19]

    In 1652, Aurangzeb was re-appointed governor of the Deccan. In a bold effort to extend the

    Mughal Empire,Aurangzeb gathered an army of 40,000 and attacked theQutb Shahi dynasty at

    Golconda in the year 1657, and Bijapur in the year 1658. Although Aurangzeb almost cameclose to achieving total victory both times, theMughal EmperorShah Jahan ordered the Mughals

    to withdraw, most probably due to the woes ofDara Shikoh who then interceded and arranged

    for a peaceful end to the war and gained the support and favor of the Qutbshahis of Golcondaand theAdil Shahi ofBijapur.

    War of succession

    Sepoy's loyal to theMughal Emperor Aurangzeb, maintain their positions around Agra, in the

    year 1658.

    Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, and because he was the most famous Mughal commander,Aurangzeb's elder sisterRoshanara appropriated his seal to ensure that he would not authorize,

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    initiate or involve himself in any possible war of succession.[20][verification needed]

    When Shah Jahan's

    second son Shah Shuja declared himself emperor in Bengal. Imperial armies sent by the heir

    apparentDara Shikoh and Shah Jahan were quick to restrain this effort, and Shah Shuja retreatedtoBengal.

    Soon after, Shah Shuja's youngest brother Murad Baksh,with secret promises of support fromAurangzeb, declared himself emperor in Gujarat. Aurangzeb, ostensibly in support of Murad

    Baksh, and marched north from Aurangabad, gathering support from his allied nobles and

    generals. Following a series of victories, Aurangzeb declared that Dara Shikoh had illegallyusurped the throne. Shah Jahan, determined that Dara Shikoh would succeed him, handed over

    control of the empire to him. ARajput named Raja Jaswant Singh, was defeated by Aurangzeb at

    Dharmatpur near Ujjain and then concentrated his forces and attention on defeating his elder

    brother Dara Shikoh. A series of bloody battles followed, with troops loyal to Aurangzebdefeating Dara Shikoh's armies particularly during the Battle of Samugarh. In a few months,

    Aurangzeb's forces surrounded the Mughal capitol city ofAgra.Fearing for his life, Dara Shikoh

    departed for Delhi, leaving Shah Jahan behind. After Aurangzeb shut down the Sakia that

    supplied water to the city, the aged emperor surrendered the Agra Fort to the besieging forces,but Aurangzeb refused any meeting with his father and instead met with the recently arrived

    Ottoman ambassador Manzada Husein Agha, explaining his rise to the throne, the ambassadorpropitated Aurangzeb to bring an end to the internal conflict among theMughals.

    [21]

    Later, Aurangzeb declared that his brother andMughal heir apparentDara Shikoh was no longer

    a Muslim, Aurangzeb also accused Dara Shikoh of poisoning the Mughal Grand VizierSaadullah Khan, during the reign of Shah Jahan, both of these statements however remained

    contrary to any factual evidence. After being betrayed by his own commander, Dara Shikoh and

    his son Suleiman Shikoh were captured by Mughal forces and then paraded in silver chainsinside the city of Agra causing considerable distress among the locals, later both of them were

    executed by the orders of the newMughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

    In a sudden reversal, Aurangzeb arrested his brother and long time ally Murad Baksh, whose

    supporters defected to Aurangzeb in return for rich gifts.[22]

    Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces,

    and moved to thePunjab.The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generalsJaiSingh and Dilir Khan, submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara Shikoh's son Suleiman Shikoh, escaped.

    Aurangzeb offeredShah Shuja the governorship ofBengal.This move had the effect of isolating

    Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared

    himself Mughal Emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory prompting Aurangzeb tomarch from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the Battle of Khajwa,where

    Shah Shuja and his Chain mail armored War elephants were routed by the forces loyal to

    Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled toArakan (in present-dayBurma), where he was executed by

    the local rulers.[23]Murad Baksh was finally executed, ostensibly for the murder of his formerdivanclerk named Ali Naqi, in 1661.

    [24]

    With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father Shah Jahan immured in Agra, Aurangzebpursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. After a series

    of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara Shikoh was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested

    and bound him. In 1659, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. He had Dara

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    Shikoh openly marched in chains back to Delhi where he had him executed on arrival on the

    30th of August, 1659. Having secured his position, Aurangzeb kept his frail fatherShah Jahan at

    theAgra Fort where Shah Jahan died in 1666 and was denied a state funeral.

    Aurangzeb's reign

    Establishment of Islamic law

    A prized copy of the Quran, its calligraphy is believed to have been inscribed by Aurangzebhimself.

    Soon after his ascension, Aurangzeb abandoned the liberal religious viewpoints of hispredecessors.

    [25]ThoughAkbar,Jahangir andShah Jahan's approach to faith was moresyncretic

    than the empire's founder, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious though his conservative

    interpretation of Islam and belief in theSharia (Islamic law) is well documented. Despite claims

    of sweeping edicts and policies, contradictory accounts exist.[26]

    Specifically, his compilation ofthe Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a digest of Muslim law, was either intended for personal use, never

    enforced, or only poorly done. While some assert the lack of broad adoption was due to an

    inherent flaw,[27]

    Hanafi law was sought to be codified under Aurangzeb but the work of severalhundred jurists, called Fatawa-e-Alamgiri

    [28] While it is possible the war of succession and a

    continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure

    impossible,[29]

    Aurangzeb's orthodoxy is also used to explain his infamous "burial" of music. Thescene describing the "death of music"(and all other forms of performance) is paradoxically

    dramatic.

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    Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb standing and holding a sword.

    Immediately after becoming the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb enforced morals, and strictly

    banned the consumption, usage and practices of: alcoholism, gambling, prostitution, sati,castration, servitude,eunuchs,music,nautch andnarcotics in the Mughal Empire.

    [citation needed]He

    learnt that at Sindh,Multan,Thatta and particularly at Varanasi, the HinduBrahmins attracted

    large numbers of indigenous local Muslims to their discourses. He ordered the Subahdars of

    these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims.[30]

    Aurangzeb alsoordered Subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims, regardless of their ethnic

    backgrounds. However newer temples continued to be built and expanded in both Varanasi and

    Amritsar.

    The Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded because he objected to Aurangzeb's forcedconversions. Francois Bernier, traveled and chronicled Mughal India during the war of

    succession, notes both Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb's distaste for Christians. This led to the

    demolition of Christian settlements near the British/European Factories and enslavement of

    Christian converts by Shah Jahan. Furthermore, Aurangzeb stopped all aid to Christian

    Missionaries (Frankish Padres) initiated byAkbar andJahangir.[31][page needed]

    Aurangzeb destroyed several non-Islamic shrines. Belgian historian-authorKoenraad Elst claimsthat according to chronicles of Muslim rulers themselves, Aurangzeb destroyed thousands of

    Hindu temples across India, the count being in four, if not five digits.[32][33]

    However, another

    historian Richard M. Eaton contested this claim and stated that a total of 15 Hindu temples weredestroyed during Aurangzeb's reign.

    [30] After the Jat rebellion in Mathura, Aurangzeb ordered

    destruction of the city's Keshava Deva temple and built an Islamic idgahin its place. In 1679, he

    ordered destruction of several prominent temples that had become associated with his enemies:

    these included the temples of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur.[34]

    Ram Puniyani states that Aurangzeb was not always fanatically anti-Hindu, and kept changing

    his policies depending on the needs of the situation. He banned the construction of new temples,

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    but permitted the repair and maintenance of existing temples. He also made generous donations

    of jagirs to several temples to win the sympathies of his Hindu subjects. There are several

    firmans (orders) in his name, supporting temples and gurudwaras, including Mahakaleshwartemple of Ujjain, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot, Umananda Temple (Guwahiat) and the

    Shatrunjaya Jain temples.[35]

    Expansion of the Mughal Empire

    From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He

    built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries ofhis empire. Aurangzeb pushed north-west into thePunjab and what is nowAfghanistan;he also

    drove south, conquering threeMuslim kingdoms:Nizams ofAhmednagar,Adilshahis ofBijapur

    and Qutbshahis of Golconda these new territories were administered by the Mughal Nawabs

    loyal to theMughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

    Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb seated on agolden throne holding aHawk in theDurbar.

    In 1636 while Aurangzeb was the Mughal viceroy of Deccan his forces defeated the NizamShahi's of Ahmednagar during various Cavalry skirmishes and finally annexed their capitol of

    Ahmadnagar.[36]

    In the year 1685 the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb dispatched his son Muhammad Azam Shah

    with a force of nearly 50,000 men to capture Bijapur Fort and defeat Sikandar Adil Shah theruler ofBijapur who refused to be a vassal. The Mughals led by Muhammad Azam Shah could

    not make any advancements upon Bijapur Fort mainly due to the superior usage of cannon

    batteries on both sides. Outraged by the stalemate Aurangzeb himself arrived on September 4,1686 and commanded the Siege of Bijapur after eight days of fighting the Mughals were

    victorious.

    Only one remaining ruler Abul Hasan Qutb Shah the Qutbshahi ruler of Golconda refused to

    surrender, he and his servicemen fortified themselves at Golconda, and fiercely protected the

    Kollur Mine (then, the worlds only diamond mine). In the year 1687 the Mughal Emperor

    Aurangzeb led his grand Mughal army against theDeccanQutbshahi fortress during theSiege of

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    Golconda. Golconda itself was the only diamond producing city in the world at that time. The

    Qutbshahi's had constructed massive fortifications throughout successive generations on a

    granite hill over 400 ft high with an enormous 8mile wall enclosing the city. The main gates ofGolconda had the ability to repulse any War elephant attack. In fact of the 18 most famous

    diamonds in the world 13 came from the Golconda Kollur Mine ruled by the then Qutbshahi

    dynasty the city was also home to the most famous diamond cutters. For the Mughal EmperorAurangzeb the conquest ofQutbshahi ruledGolconda was crucial to the legitimacy of his reignthroughout the realm. Although the Qutbshahi's maintained impregnable efforts defending their

    walls, at night theMughal Emperor Aurangzeb and his infantry usually assembled and erected

    complexscaffolding that allowed them to scale the high walls. During the eight month siege theMughals faced many hardships including the death of their experienced commanderKilich Khan

    Bahadur.But finally the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and forces his managed to penetrate the

    walls by capturing a gate their entry into the fort led Abul Hasan Qutb Shah to surrender

    peacefully and hand over the precious Nur-Ul-Ain Diamond, Great Stone Diamond, KaraDiamond, Darya-e-Nur, The Hope Diamond, the Wittelsbach Diamond and the The Regent

    Diamond making theMughal Emperor Aurangzeb the richest monarch in the world.

    This combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had deeper consequences.

    Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives andtreasure. And, as the empire expanded in size, Aurangzeb's chain of command grew weaker.With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power against his

    rebellious enemies apparently began to wane, and his provincialNawabs grew in authority.

    Foreign Relations

    Franois Bernier, was a French physician and traveler, who for 12 years was the personal

    physician of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. He described his experiences in Travels in theMughal Empire.

    As soon as he becameMughal Emperor,Aurangzeb sent some of the finest ornate gifts such ascarpets,[37]

    lamps,tiles and others to theIslamic shrines atMecca andMedina,immediately after

    his emergence to the throne he also ordered the construction of very large ships in Surat that

    would transport these gifts and even pilgrims to the Hijaz.These annual expeditions organizedby Aurangzeb were led by Mir Aziz Badakhshi who died in Mecca of natural causes but

    managed to deliver more than 45,000 gold and silver coins, Jewels and several thousandKaftans

    of honor.[21][38]

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    Subhan Quli, Balkh's Uzbek ruler was the first to recognize him in 1658 and requested for a

    general alliance, he worked alongside the newMughal Emperor since 1647 when Aurangzeb was

    theSubedar ofBalkh.Aurangzeb warmly received the embassy of Shah Abbas II ofPersia in1660 and returned them with gifts.

    In the year 1688 the desperate Ottoman Sultan Suleiman II urgently requested for assistanceagainst the rapidly advancing Austrians, during the OttomanHabsburg War however the

    Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and his forces were heavily engaged in the Deccan Warsto commit

    any formal assistance to their desperate Ottoman allies.[39]

    In 1686 English East India Company which had unsuccessfully tried to obtain a firman, an

    imperial directive that would grant England regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal

    empire, initiated so-calledChild's War with the empire which ended in disaster for the English.In 1690 the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb's camp to plead for a pardon. The company's

    envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better

    behavior in the future.

    In September 1695, English pirate Henry Every perpetrated one of the most profitable pirate

    raids in history with his capture of a Grand Mughal convoy nearSurat.The Indian ships hadbeen returning home from their annual pilgrimage toMecca when the pirates struck, capturing

    theGanj-i-Sawai,reportedly the greatest ship in the Muslim fleet, and its escorts in the process.

    When news of the piracy reached the mainland, a livid Aurangzeb nearly ordered an armedattack against the English city ofBombay,though he finally agreed to compromise after the East

    India Company promised to pay financial reparations, estimated at 600,000 by the Mughal

    authorities.[40]

    Meanwhile, Aurangzeb shut down four of the East India Company's factories,

    imprisoned the workers and captains (who were nearly lynched by a rioting mob), and threatenedto put an end to all English trading in India until Every was captured.

    [40]The Privy Council and

    East India Company offered a massive bounty for Every's apprehension, leading to the firstworldwide manhunt in recorded history.[41]

    However, Every successfully eluded capture.

    Revenue administration

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    In the year 1690 all the rebellions in the Mughal Empire had been briefly reverted, and

    Aurangzeb was acknowledged as: "The Mughal Emperor whose realm spanned from Kabul to

    Cape Comorin".[42]

    Emperor Aurangzeb's exchequer raised a record 100 million in annual revenue through varioussources like taxes, customs and land revenue, et al.from 24 provinces.

    [43]A pound sterling was

    exchanged at 10 rupees then.

    No. Province Land Revenue (1697) Notes

    - Total 38,624,680

    1 Bijapur 5,000,000

    2 Golconda 5,000,000

    3 Bengal 4,000,000

    4 Gujarat 2,339,500

    5 Lahore 2,330,500

    6 Agra 2,220,355

    7 Ajmere 2,190,000

    8 Ujjain 2,000,000

    9 Deccan 1,620,47510 Berar 1,580,750

    11 Delhi 1,255,000

    12 Behar 1,215,000

    13 Khandesh 1,110,500

    14 Rajmahal 1,005,000

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    15 Malwa 990,625

    16 Allahabad 773,800

    17 Nande (Nandair) 720,000

    18 Baglana 688,500

    19 Thatta (Sindh) 600,20020 Orissa 570,750

    21 Multan 502,500

    22 Kashmir 350,500

    23 Kabul 320,725

    24 Sukkur 240,000

    Coins Gallery

    Half rupee

    Rupee coin showing full name

    Rupee with square area

    A copper dam of Aurangazeb

    Aurangzeb felt that verses from the Quran should not be stamped on coins, as done in former

    times, because they were constantly touched by the hands and feets of people.[11]

    His coins hadthe name of the mint city and the year of issue on one face, and, the following couplet on other

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    King Aurangzeb Alamgir

    Stamped coins , in the world , like thebright full moon.

    [11]

    Mir Abdul Baqi Suhbai

    Rebellions

    Since Aurangzeb's reign is marked by numerous rebellions in the distant provinces of the

    Mughal Empire, many historians believe that Mughal Nawabs were incapable of bridging the

    gap between the rulers and the people; therefore many new identities emerged along with itarmed rebellion.

    In 1669, the Jat peasants of Bharatpur around Mathura revolted and created Bharatpurstate, fomenting a fierce rebellion around theMughal capital.

    In 1670, Shivaji, assassinated the Adil Shahi commander Afzal Khan and later, nearly

    killed the MughalViceroyShaista Khan,while waging war against Aurangzeb. Shivaji

    and his forces ravaged the Deccan, Janjira and Surat and tried to gain control of vast

    territories. However by 1689 Aurangzeb's armies had captured Shivaji's, son Sambhajialive and executed him after he had sackedBurhanpur.

    [44]

    In 1672, theSatnami,a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership ofBhirbhan and some Satnami, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were

    eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb's personal intervention with very few escaping

    alive.[45][46]

    In 1671, the Battle of Saraighat was fought in the easternmost regions of the Mughal

    Empire against theAhom Kingdom.The Mughals led byMir Jumla II andShaista Khanwere forced to retreat after the respectedMughalAdmiralMunnawar Khan was killed in

    action.

    Deccan Wars

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    Aurangzeb spent more than 20years of his life fighting major and minor rebellions throughouttheMughal Empire.

    Territorial conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Deccan Sultanates caused muchinstability in the region including a powerful urge for the Deccan Sultanates to conscript a new

    infantry, which consisted ofMarathas.One of the earliest Maratha who rose to prominence in theDeccan Sultanates was Shahaji, in 1635 he set up a Nizam Shahi boy prince named Murtaza

    Shah III as a subject to his authority and as the nominalSultan ofAhmadnagar.[47]

    Together theyoccupied and defeated the territories of the vassals of the Mughal Empire. When the Mughal

    Emperor Shah Jahan's Mughal Army led by Prince Aurangzeb, captured Ahmadnagar and

    overthrew Murtaza Shah III in the year 1637, the fleeingShahaji entered the service of theSultanofBijapur and was a major figure in their campaign in theCarnatic.

    Shahaji's son Shivaji was raised in Puna but unlike his other brothers he refused to enter theservice of theSultan ofBijapurbut instead gathered his own following of Marathas. By the age

    of eighteen Shivaji seized his fathers estate and began to expand his territories and initiated the

    capture of hill fortresses,[48] in a region that was known to be associated with fugitive Rajputsand evenThugees.

    [49] In the year 1657 the new Sultan of Bijapur,Ali Adil Shahi sent his most

    prestigious commander Afzal Khan with an elite army of 10,000.[48]

    Shivaji and his Marathas

    were decisively defeated in the prelimanry battles, but he decided to lure the powerful AfzalKhan to a private conference and then murdered him with his dagger.

    [50]The leaderless troops of

    Bijapur were thenceforth consequently routed by Shivaji's soldiers.

    In the year 1659, Shivaji began to annex territories of the Mughal Empire, in the year thatfollowed theMughal Emperor Aurangzeb, dispatched his maternal uncleShaista Khan to subdue

    the Maratha threat.Shaista Khan and his Mughal forces quickly occupied Puna and after four

    months of siege they capturedChakan and theMughalcavalry routed the remaining Marathas in

    the countryside. In the night of April 5, 1663, the Marathas led by Shivaji attacked ShaistaKhan's encampment at Puna, and although the viceroy escaped, his son was killed, he was then

    recalled by theMughal Emperor Aurangzeb.[51]

    In January 1664, Shivaji led 4,000 Maratha soldiers to sack the city Surat, the most important

    Mughal imperial port, home to over 200,000 people. The Mughal faujdar Inayat Khan and the

    5000 soldiers in his command deserted the city and fled to the safety of the fort.[52]

    the Marathasthen sacked the city, and looted the wealth from trading centers and houses belonging to rich

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