Augmenting the Sense of Security Augmenting the Sense of Security in Different Relational Settings: in Different Relational Settings: 

A Relational Model of Psychological A Relational Model of Psychological ChangeChange

Mario MikulincerMario Mikulincer

Interdisciplinary Center Interdisciplinary Center HerzliyaHerzliya

Talk OverviewGoal: Propose a relational model of Goal: Propose a relational model of psychological change based on attachment psychological change based on attachment theorytheory

Background: Attachment theory and its Background: Attachment theory and its extension to adult relationshipsextension to adult relationships

Review of Review of key findings from attachment key findings from attachment research showing that being involved in a research showing that being involved in a relationship with a sensitive and supportive relationship with a sensitive and supportive – caregivercaregiver

– group leadergroup leader

– team co-workerteam co-worker

has long-term beneficial effects on has long-term beneficial effects on attachment-specific cognitions and feelings attachment-specific cognitions and feelings as well as broader psychological functioningas well as broader psychological functioning

Basic Concepts

Humans are born with an innate Humans are born with an innate psychobiological system (the psychobiological system (the attachment attachment behavioral systembehavioral system) that motivates them to ) that motivates them to seek proximity to protective others seek proximity to protective others ((attachment figuresattachment figures) in times of need) in times of need

Attachment figures accomplish two functions:Attachment figures accomplish two functions:

Provide a “Provide a “ssafe havenafe haven”” in times of need in times of need

Provide a “Provide a “ssecure baseecure base”” for exploration for exploration

Being protected and supported by attachment Being protected and supported by attachment figures creates a sense of figures creates a sense of attachment securityattachment security, , which allows one to function better in a wide which allows one to function better in a wide variety of life domains variety of life domains

Basic Concepts

During infancy, primary caregivers are the During infancy, primary caregivers are the main attachment figuresmain attachment figures

In later childhood, adolescence, and In later childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, a wider variety of relationship adulthood, a wider variety of relationship partners can serve as attachment figures partners can serve as attachment figures (with parents still often being “attachment (with parents still often being “attachment figures in reserve” – R. S. Weiss)figures in reserve” – R. S. Weiss)

There may also be context-specific attachment There may also be context-specific attachment figures — supportive people in particular figures — supportive people in particular milieus, such as therapists in clinical settings milieus, such as therapists in clinical settings or leaders in organizational settings or leaders in organizational settings

Groups, institutions, and symbolic personages Groups, institutions, and symbolic personages (e.g., a team, a workgroup, God) can also (e.g., a team, a workgroup, God) can also provide a safe haven and secure base provide a safe haven and secure base

Basic Concepts

Individual differences in security are shaped by Individual differences in security are shaped by the behaviors of particular attachment figures the behaviors of particular attachment figures

These differences develop over time and These differences develop over time and become aspects of a person’s personalitybecome aspects of a person’s personality

Interactions with attachment figures who are Interactions with attachment figures who are available and supportive promote a sense of available and supportive promote a sense of security and result in positive working models security and result in positive working models of self and othersof self and others

When attachment figures are not supportive, When attachment figures are not supportive, insecurities develop, negative working models insecurities develop, negative working models are formed, and the adaptive and growth-are formed, and the adaptive and growth-promoting benefits of secure attachment are promoting benefits of secure attachment are foregone foregone

Basic Concepts

Attachment insecurities are conceptualized Attachment insecurities are conceptualized in terms of two dimensions:in terms of two dimensions:– The first, The first, anxietyanxiety, concerns the degree to which , concerns the degree to which

a person worries that a partner (attachment a person worries that a partner (attachment figure) will not be available in times of needfigure) will not be available in times of need

– The second, The second, avoidanceavoidance, concerns the extent to , concerns the extent to which a person distrusts others’ sympathy and which a person distrusts others’ sympathy and goodwill and strives to maintain independence goodwill and strives to maintain independence and safe distance (“compulsive self-reliance”) and safe distance (“compulsive self-reliance”)

People who score low on these two People who score low on these two dimensions are said to be dimensions are said to be securesecure or or securely attached, but this can differ securely attached, but this can differ somewhat across relationshipssomewhat across relationships

The same dimensional scheme applies The same dimensional scheme applies across the lifespan, beginning in early across the lifespan, beginning in early infancy.infancy.

Attachment Patterns or Styles: Not Types, But Regions in a Continuous

Two-Dimensional Space

Attachment Patterns or Styles: Not Types, But Regions in a Continuous

Two-Dimensional Space

HIGH ANXIETY

LOW AVOIDANCE

DISMISSING AVOIDANT FEARFUL AVOIDANT

PREOCCUPIEDSECURE

LOW ANXIETY

HIGH AVOIDANCE

Adapted from Bartholomew & Horowitz (1991) and Fraley & Shaver (2000)

Self-Report Adult Attachment Measure(ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998)Self-Report Adult Attachment Measure(ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998)

Avoidance (18 items, > .90)

1. I prefer not to show a partner how I feel deep down.

2. I try to avoid getting too close to my partner.

3. I feel comfortable depending on relationship partners. (reverse-scored)

Anxiety (18 items, > .90)

1. I need a lot of reassurance that I am loved.

2. I get frustrated if people are not available when I need them.

3. I do not often worry about being abandoned. (reverse-scored)

The usual correlation between the scales is near zero

Basic ConceptsA person’s location in the 2-D space is fairly stable A person’s location in the 2-D space is fairly stable over time, beginning with assessments during over time, beginning with assessments during childhood (correlations across several years = .40 childhood (correlations across several years = .40 to .70)to .70)

But relationships at any point in life can move a But relationships at any point in life can move a person from one region or sub-region of the space to person from one region or sub-region of the space to another another

In fact, a person’s attachment style can change, In fact, a person’s attachment style can change, subtly or dramatically, depending on context, subtly or dramatically, depending on context, priming, and recent experiences; no major priming, and recent experiences; no major relationship change is required relationship change is required

In experiments, the “prime” can be as simple as In experiments, the “prime” can be as simple as thinking about actual secure or insecure experiences, thinking about actual secure or insecure experiences, seeing pictures of secure or insecure relationships, seeing pictures of secure or insecure relationships, being subliminally exposed to attachment-related being subliminally exposed to attachment-related words or to the names of one’s kind or unkind words or to the names of one’s kind or unkind attachment figuresattachment figures

Since 1987 . . .Since 1987 . . .Since 1987 . . .Since 1987 . . .

Hundreds of Hundreds of experimental and experimental and survey studies of survey studies of adult attachment adult attachment have been conductedhave been conducted

The findings are The findings are coherent and can be coherent and can be summarized in a summarized in a three-part model three-part model (Shaver & Mikulincer, (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002; Mikulincer & 2002; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003, 2007)Shaver, 2003, 2007)

Hundreds of Hundreds of experimental and experimental and survey studies of survey studies of adult attachment adult attachment have been conductedhave been conducted

The findings are The findings are coherent and can be coherent and can be summarized in a summarized in a three-part model three-part model (Shaver & Mikulincer, (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002; Mikulincer & 2002; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003, 2007)Shaver, 2003, 2007)

Signs of threat?

Attachment-system activation

Is attachment figure available?

Insecurity, distress compounding

Is proximity seeking a viable

option?

Hyperactivating strategies

Yes

No

Yes

attachment security, distress alleviation

Security-based strategies

Activation of other behavioral

systems

Yes

No

+

+

Deactivating strategiesNo

-

-

Attachment System Functioning: The Attachment System Functioning: The Model Model

Viewed in Terms of If-Then Viewed in Terms of If-Then PropositionsPropositions

If threatened, seek proximity and protection If threatened, seek proximity and protection from an attachment figure (or some stronger, from an attachment figure (or some stronger, wiser, and supportive force, such as one’s wiser, and supportive force, such as one’s group or God)group or God)

If an attachment figure is available and If an attachment figure is available and supportive, relax and experience the sense of supportive, relax and experience the sense of being loved and comforted, and confidently being loved and comforted, and confidently return to other activities return to other activities

If an attachment figure is unavailable, either If an attachment figure is unavailable, either intensify efforts to achieve proximity and intensify efforts to achieve proximity and comfort (anxious hyperactivation) or comfort (anxious hyperactivation) or deactivate the attachment system (avoidant deactivate the attachment system (avoidant deactivation)deactivation)

The Second Component of the Model

An affirmative answer to the question “Is an An affirmative answer to the question “Is an attachment figure available?” enhances attachment figure available?” enhances security and fosters what we (following security and fosters what we (following Barbara Fredrickson) call a Barbara Fredrickson) call a “broaden and “broaden and build”build” cycle of attachment security, which cycle of attachment security, which

increases resilienceincreases resilience

broadens one’s perspectivebroadens one’s perspective

increases coping flexibilityincreases coping flexibility

and encourages the expansion of one’s capacities and encourages the expansion of one’s capacities (“self-actualization”)(“self-actualization”)

A negative answer to the question constricts A negative answer to the question constricts one’s perspective and coping efforts and one’s perspective and coping efforts and interferes with optimal self-developmentinterferes with optimal self-development

The Second Component of the ModelThe broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security is The broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security is renewed every time a person notices that an actual or renewed every time a person notices that an actual or imaginary caring and loving attachment figure is imaginary caring and loving attachment figure is available in times of stress. available in times of stress.

In our experimental studies, for example, we have In our experimental studies, for example, we have consistently found that priming thoughts of an consistently found that priming thoughts of an available and supportive attachment figure has available and supportive attachment figure has positive effects on mood, mental health, positive effects on mood, mental health, compassionate and pro-social feelings and behaviors, compassionate and pro-social feelings and behaviors, and tolerance toward outgroup members.and tolerance toward outgroup members.

Similar positive effects of the priming of security-Similar positive effects of the priming of security-related mental representations have been found in related mental representations have been found in self-concept, appraisals of romantic partners, and self-concept, appraisals of romantic partners, and openness to new information regardless of openness to new information regardless of dispositional attachment style.dispositional attachment style.

The Second Component of the ModelBased on these laboratory findings, we suspect that the Based on these laboratory findings, we suspect that the positive effects of attachment-figure availability might be positive effects of attachment-figure availability might be even stronger, more pervasive, and more resistant to even stronger, more pervasive, and more resistant to change within relational contexts in which an actual change within relational contexts in which an actual relationship partner’s supportive behaviors are clear cut, relationship partner’s supportive behaviors are clear cut, personally significant, and repeated over time and personally significant, and repeated over time and situations. situations.

Such behavior on the part of a relationship partner, Such behavior on the part of a relationship partner, therapist, or leader may counteract insecure people’s therapist, or leader may counteract insecure people’s dispositional tendencies to doubt the availability and dispositional tendencies to doubt the availability and responsiveness of their social interaction partners, and responsiveness of their social interaction partners, and therefore set in motion a broaden-and-build cycle of therefore set in motion a broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security. attachment security.

In other words, a relationship partner who acts as a reliable In other words, a relationship partner who acts as a reliable secure base can help an insecure person function more secure base can help an insecure person function more securely, both temporarily and chronically. securely, both temporarily and chronically.

Romantic Relationships – Lavi’s (2007) Study

Lavi conducted a prospective longitudinal study of 100 young couples who had been dating for less than 4 months and followed them up 4 and 8 months later

The main question was whether one partner’s availability, sensitivity, and supportiveness, assessed at the beginning of the study, were capable of reducing the other partner’s insecurities within the relationship as well as his or her global attachment insecurities

Lavi randomly selected one partner in each couple (half men, half women) to be the “participant” and the other to be viewed as the “attachment figure”

The two partners completed self-report scales, performed some computerized tasks, and were videotaped during a series of dyadic interactions

Lavi’s Study ContinuedLavi’s Study ContinuedFrom the “participants,” Lavi collected self-reports of relationship satisfaction, global attachment anxiety and avoidance in close relationships, and attachment insecurities within this particular couple relationshipFrom the other couple member (the “attachment figure”), she collected information about his/her sensitivity and supportiveness Measures of sensitivity included (a) self-reports of dispositional empathy, (b) accuracy in decoding emotional facial expressions, and (b) accuracy in decoding emotions that participants displayed in a non-verbal communication taskMeasures of supportiveness included (a) self-reports of support provision within the current relationship and (b) supportive behavior, coded by independent judges, during a videotaped dyadic interaction in which participants disclosed a personal problem to the “attachment figure”

Following 4 and 8 months, participants who were still dating the same partner (73%) reported on relationship satisfaction and global and within-relationship attachment insecurities

Within-relationship attachment anxiety and avoidance gradually decreased over the 8 months, implying that maintaining a relationship contributed, on average, to a decrease in relationship-specific attachment insecurities

However, the changes depended on the partner’s sensitivity and supportiveness, assessed by behavioral measures (not self-reports) at the beginning of the study

Partners who were more accurate in decoding facial and other nonverbal expressions of negative emotions and who were coded by judges as more supportive caused a steeper decline in within-relationship attachment anxiety and avoidance

These long-term changes in within-relationship attachment insecurities were not explained by baseline reports of satisfaction or global attachment insecurities

Behavioral indicators of a partner’s sensitivity and Behavioral indicators of a partner’s sensitivity and responsiveness at the beginning of the study responsiveness at the beginning of the study predicted a significant decrease in global attachment predicted a significant decrease in global attachment anxietyanxiety over the 8-month period, but not in global over the 8-month period, but not in global avoidanceavoidance

Changes in relationship-specific anxiety were Changes in relationship-specific anxiety were associated with changes in global anxiety, but there associated with changes in global anxiety, but there was no similar association between the slopes of was no similar association between the slopes of change in relationship-specific and global avoidancechange in relationship-specific and global avoidance

The findings highlight the importance of a sensitive The findings highlight the importance of a sensitive and responsive romantic partner as a transformative and responsive romantic partner as a transformative agent who enhances a person’s security in a specific agent who enhances a person’s security in a specific relationship and reduces global worries about relationship and reduces global worries about rejection and unlovability, but it’s not easy to change rejection and unlovability, but it’s not easy to change global avoidance, even when a person has a global avoidance, even when a person has a responsive partnerresponsive partner

The Therapist as a Secure Base

Psychotherapy is another relational context capable of supporting a broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security

According to Bowlby (1988), a therapist who functions as a safe haven and secure base allows a client to muster the courage for self-exploration, to develop greater self-understanding, revise working models of self and others, and get back on the path to personal growth

Clients typically enter therapy in a state of psychic pain, frustration, anxiety, or demoralization, which naturally activates their attachment system and causes them to yearn for support, comfort, and guidance

Therapists occupy the dominant and caregiving role in the relationship and can easily become the primary target of the client’s unmet needs for a safe haven and a secure base

Gur’s (2006) StudyGur conducted a prospective study examining Gur conducted a prospective study examining the course of emotional and behavioral problems the course of emotional and behavioral problems of 131 Israeli high-risk adolescents during their of 131 Israeli high-risk adolescents during their first year in residential treatment centersfirst year in residential treatment centers

Four meetings were held with each participant, 1 Four meetings were held with each participant, 1 week after beginning treatment and 3, 6, and 12 week after beginning treatment and 3, 6, and 12 months later months later

At Time 1, participants completed the ECR scale At Time 1, participants completed the ECR scale and measures of emotional and behavioral and measures of emotional and behavioral adjustmentadjustment

In the three subsequent waves of measurement, In the three subsequent waves of measurement, participants completed the adjustment scales participants completed the adjustment scales and rated the extent to which targeted staff and rated the extent to which targeted staff members functioned as a secure base (the members functioned as a secure base (the extent to which they were available, sensitive, extent to which they were available, sensitive, responsive, and supportive)responsive, and supportive)

In the second, third, and fourth waves of In the second, third, and fourth waves of measurement the targeted staff members also measurement the targeted staff members also rated participants’ adjustment and their own rated participants’ adjustment and their own functioning as a secure basefunctioning as a secure base

In the fourth wave of measurement, adolescents In the fourth wave of measurement, adolescents again completed the ECR so Gur could examine again completed the ECR so Gur could examine changes in their attachment insecurities changes in their attachment insecurities

Findings: Staff members serving as a secure base Findings: Staff members serving as a secure base contributed to positive changes in emotional and contributed to positive changes in emotional and behavioral adjustment across the four waves of behavioral adjustment across the four waves of measurement and weakened the detrimental effects measurement and weakened the detrimental effects of adolescents’ baseline attachment insecuritiesof adolescents’ baseline attachment insecurities

Adolescents who formed more secure attachment Adolescents who formed more secure attachment bonds with staff members had lower rates of anger, bonds with staff members had lower rates of anger, depression, and behavioral problems as well as depression, and behavioral problems as well as higher rates of positive feelings across the study higher rates of positive feelings across the study periodperiod

Staff members functioning as a secure base was also associated with positive changes in the adolescents’ attachment representations

Adolescents who formed more secure attachment bonds with staff members had lower scores on the ECR anxiety and avoidance scales after their first year of residential treatment

Leader-Follower RelationshipsOrganizational leadership is another example of one person acting as a security provider for others

A leader’s availability, sensitivity, and responsiveness should contribute to followers’ broaden-and-build security cycles, improving their psychological functioning and promoting their personal growth

Leaders can occupy the role of “stronger and wiser” caregiver and provide a safe haven and secure base for their followers

Effective leaders are available, sensitive, and responsive to their followers’ needs; provide advice, guidance, and emotional and instrumental support; enhance followers’ autonomy, initiative, and creativity; build their sense of mastery; and bolster their motivation to take on new challenges and acquire new skills

Leader-Follower Relationships

Like a parent who provides a secure base for exploration, a leader can provide a secure base for initiating and sustaining adaptive changes in personal and social behavior

A leader’s inability or unwillingness to respond sensitively and supportively to followers’ needs can magnify followers’ anxieties and feelings of demoralization

An unavailable, insensitive, or selfish leader can fuel followers’ attachment insecurities and hence either increase childish, anxious dependence or compulsively self-reliant dismissal of the leader’s ideas and suggestions

Davidovitz, Mikulincer, Shaver, Ijzak, & Popper (JPSP, 2007)

In two studies, we focused on leaders’ attachment insecurities and the ways they impaired the leaders’ functioning as security-enhancing attachment figures and contributed adversely to followers’ performance and mental health

In Study 1, 549 Israeli soldiers in regular military service, from 60 different military units participating in a leadership workshop, rated their instrumental and socio-emotional functioning within their unitSoldiers also rated (a) the extent to which their direct officer empowered them and respected their rights and feelings (socialized style of leadership), and (b) the extent to which their direct officer was an effective provider of instrumental and emotional support in demanding and challenging situations

The 60 direct officers each completed ratings of his performance as a socialized leader and effective provider of support to his followers

They also completed the Experience in Close Relationships (ECR) scale, rating their own attachment anxiety and avoidance

The data indicated that more avoidant officers scored lower on socialized leadership and were less able to deal effectively with their soldiers’ emotional needs

More attachment-anxious officers were less able to provide effective instrumental support

Both insecurely attached officers and their soldiers noticed the same problematic patterns of leadership, suggesting that the problems were objectively observable

There were also negative influences of an officer’s avoidant attachment style on his soldiers’ socio-emotional functioning in their unit

These negative effects were mediated by avoidant officers’ lack of a socialized leadership style and lack of efficacy in dealing with soldiers’ emotional needs

An officer’s attachment anxiety had a negative effect on soldiers’ instrumental functioning, an association that was mediated by anxious officers’ lack of ability to provide instrumental support to followers

However, there was an unexpected positive effect of officer’s attachment anxiety on soldiers’ socio-emotional functioning

In a second study, we approached 541 Israeli military recruits and their 72 direct officers at the beginning of a 4-month period of intensive combat training and asked them to report on their attachment styles (using Hazan & Shaver’s, 1987, three prototypes: anxious, avoidant, and secure).

At the same time, soldiers completed a self-report scale measuring their baseline mental heath

After 2 months, soldiers reported on their mental health again and provided appraisals of their officer as a security provider (i.e., the officer’s willingness to be available in times of need and to accept and care for his soldiers rather than rejecting or criticizing them)

Two months later (4 months after combat training began) soldiers once again evaluated their mental health

Findings: The more avoidant an officer was, the less his soldiers viewed him as sensitive and available, and the more they felt rejected and criticized by him

More important, an officer’s avoidant attachment style and his lack of sensitivity and availability seemed to bring about undesirable changes in soldiers’ mental health during combat training

At the beginning of training, baseline mental health was exclusively associated with soldiers’ own attachment anxiety

However, officers’ avoidance produced significant changes in soldiers’ mental health over the weeks of training (taking the baseline assessment into account)

The higher the officer’s avoidance score, the more his soldiers’ mental health deteriorated over 2 and 4 months of combat training

Soldiers’ attachment orientations moderated the effects of their officers’ avoidance on changes in mental health

Officers’ avoidance caused a significant deterioration in soldiers’ mental health during the initial 2 months of combat training, but mainly among insecure soldiers

Relatively secure soldiers were able to maintain a stably high level of mental health despite being under the command of an avoidant officer

This buffering effect of soldiers’ security occurred mainly for the first two months, however

After 4 months of combat training, an officer’s avoidance had negative effects on soldiers’ mental health regardless of the soldiers’ attachment security or specific attachment style

Davidovitz et al. (2007) Summarized

These new studies reveal the important These new studies reveal the important impact that leaders’ attachment impact that leaders’ attachment orientations and abilities to serve as orientations and abilities to serve as security providers can have on followers’ security providers can have on followers’ performance, feelings, health, and performance, feelings, health, and adjustmentadjustment

They suggest that leaders’ sensitivity and They suggest that leaders’ sensitivity and supportiveness – their ability and supportiveness – their ability and willingness to provide a sense of security willingness to provide a sense of security – can affect the followers’ performance – can affect the followers’ performance and well-being under societally significant and well-being under societally significant and highly demanding circumstancesand highly demanding circumstances

Groups as Security Providers

Emotional connections with a group or a network of group members can also be viewed as attachment bonds

A group can serve attachment functions by providing a sense of support and security; and people can use a group as a symbolic source of comfort and safety in times of need and as a secure base for exploration, learning, and personal development

Groups as Security Providers

From an attachment perspective, group-cohesion refers to the extent to which a group is appraised by its members as a security provider

Hence, cohesive groups can increase even chronically insecure group members’ secure group attachments, which contributes to their broaden-and-build cycles and provides a solid foundation for taking productive risks and responding to challenges

Rom and Mikulincer’s (JPSP, 2003) Studies

Two naturalistic studies were conducted with new Israeli recruits, whose performance in combat units was evaluated in a 2-day screening sessionOn the first day, participants completed the ECR as a measure of global attachment anxiety and avoidance in close relationshipsOn the second day, the recruits were randomly divided into small groups of 5-8 members, and they performed three group missionsFollowing each mission, they rated their socio-emotional and instrumental functioning during the mission and the cohesiveness of their groupExternal observers also provided ratings of each participant’s socioemotional and instrumental functioningAt the end of the missions, participants rated their anxiety and avoidance with respect to their group

Greater global attachment anxiety was associated with poorer instrumental performance and higher group-specific attachment anxiety

Global avoidant attachment was associated with lower levels of both instrumental and socioemotional functioning and higher group-specific attachment anxiety and avoidance

Group cohesion improved socioemotional and instrumental functioning of group members and reduced the detrimental effects of global attachment anxiety on instrumental functioning during group missions

Group cohesion attenuated group-specific attachment insecurities, whether anxious or avoidant, and weakened the projection of global attachment anxiety onto the group

Although group cohesion had an overall positive effect on performance and on group-specific attachment security, it failed to improve the functioning of avoidant military recruits

Some of the findings even suggested that a cohesive group exacerbated avoidant people’s poor instrumental functioning

Overall, the findings provide preliminary Overall, the findings provide preliminary evidence that cohesive group interactions, evidence that cohesive group interactions, characterized by support, cooperation, respect, characterized by support, cooperation, respect, and acceptance between group members, can and acceptance between group members, can foster a group-specific sense of attachment foster a group-specific sense of attachment security, improve group functioning, and have security, improve group functioning, and have a healing, ameliorative effect on attachment-a healing, ameliorative effect on attachment-anxious peopleanxious people

Overall Conclusions

Our priming studies (not discussed much here) show that short-term security inductions, whether administered consciously or subliminally, have beneficial effects on creativity, compassion, intergroup tolerance, and humane values

Developmental psychologists have shown that security-enhancing relationships with parents during infancy and childhood have extensive and long-lasting beneficial effects on personality development

Here, we have focused on similar processes that occur naturally, and sometimes deliberately, in romantic relationships, leader-follower relations, groups, and dyadic and community psychotherapy

Overall Conclusions

Once again, research findings indicate that security-enhancing romantic partners, leaders, and therapists as well as cohesive groups play an important role in the functioning and well-being of both individuals and groups

Psychologists have had a difficult time bringing their findings about personality, social contexts, development, and therapeutic processes together

Attachment theory provides a useful starting point for creating a truly integrative understanding of the interactions of personal and social factors that bring about positive changes in individuals and societies

The EndThanks!