Audio - Shure Microphone Techniques for Music Studio Recording

MICROPHONETECHNIQUES FOR MUSIC

$10.95

RECORDINGSTUDIO

3

IN

DE

XMICROPHONETECHNIQUES FOR MUSIC

STUDIO

RECORDING

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

MICROPHONE TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

MICROPHONE PLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

MICROPHONE CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

ACOUSTIC CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

MICROPHONE SELECTION GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4

Introduction

The selection and placement of microphones canhave a major influence on the sound of an acousticrecording. It is a common view in the recordingindustry that the music played by a skilled musi-cian with a quality instrument properly miked canbe sent directly to the recorder with little or nomodification. This simple approach can oftensound better than an instrument that has beenreshaped by a multitude of signal processing gear.

In this guide, Shure Application Engineersdescribe particular microphone techniques andplacement: techniques to pick up a natural tonalbalance, techniques to help reject unwantedsounds, and even techniques to create specialeffects.

Following this, some fundamentals of micro-phones, instruments, and acoustics are presented.

SECTION ONE

Microphone Techniques

Here is a very basic, general procedure to keepin mind when miking something that makessound:

1) Use a microphone with a frequencyresponse that is suited to the frequencyrange of the sound, if possible, or filter outfrequencies above and/or below the highestand lowest frequencies of the sound.

2) Place the microphone at various distancesand positions until you find a spot whereyou hear from the studio monitors thedesired tonal balance and the desiredamount of room acoustics. If you don’t like it, try another position, try anothermicrophone, try isolating the instrumentfurther, or change the sound of the instru-ment itself. For example, replacing wornout strings will change the sound of a guitar.

3) Often you will encounter poor roomacoustics, or pickup of unwanted sounds.In these cases, place the microphone veryclose to the loudest part of the instrumentor isolate the instrument. Again, experi-ment with microphone choice, placementand isolation, to minimize the undesirable and accentuate the desirable direct andambient acoustics.

Microphone technique is largely a matter ofpersonal taste. Whatever method sounds rightfor the particular sound, instrument, musician,and song is right. There is no one ideal way toplace a microphone. There is also no one idealmicrophone to use on any particular instru-ment. Choose and place the microphone to getthe sound you want. We recommend experi-menting with all sorts of microphones andpositions until you create your desired sound.However, the desired sound can often beachieved more quickly by understanding basicmicrophone characteristics, sound-radiationproperties of musical instruments, and basicroom acoustics.

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE

TECHNIQUES FOR MUSIC

STUDIO

RECORDING

5

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Vocal Microphone Techniques

Individual Vocals Microphones with various polar patterns can beused in vocal recording techniques. Considerrecording a choral group or vocal ensemble.Having the vocalists circle around an omnidi-rectional mic allows well trained singers to perform as they would live: creating a blend of voices by changing their individual singinglevels and timbres. Two cardioid mics, posi-tioned back to back could be used for this sameapplication.

An omnidirectional mic may be used for a single vocalist as well. If the singer is in a roomwith ambience and reverb that add to the desiredeffect, the omnidirectional mic will capture theroom sound as well as the singer’s direct voice.By changing the distance of the vocalist to themicrophone, you can adjust the balance of thedirect voice to the ambience. The closer thevocalist is to the mic, the more direct sound ispicked up relative to the ambience.

The standard vocal recording environment usuallycaptures the voice only. This typically requiresisolation and the use of a unidirectional mic.Isolation can be achieved with baffles surroundingthe vocalist like a “shell” or some other method of reducing reflected sound from the room.Remember even a music stand can cause reflec-tions back to the mic.

The axis of the microphone should usually bepointed somewhere between the nose andmouth to pick up the complete sound of thevoice. Though the mic is usually directly infront of the singer’s mouth, a slightly off-axisplacement may help to avoid explosive soundsfrom breath blast or certain consonant soundssuch as “p”, “b”, “d”, or “t”. Placing the miceven further off-axis, or the use of an accessorypop filter, may be necessary to fully eliminatethis problem.

While many vocals are recorded professionally in an isolation booth with a cardioid condensermicrophone, other methods of vocal recordingare practiced. For instance, a rock band’s singersmay be uncomfortable in the isolated environ-ment described earlier. They may be used tosinging in a loud environment with a monitorloudspeaker as the reference. This is a typicalperformance situation and forces them to singlouder and push their voices in order to hearthemselves. This is a difficult situation to recre-ate with headphones.

A technique that has been used successfully inthis situation is to bring the singers into thecontrol room to perform. This would be espe-cially convenient for project studios that exist inonly one room. Once in that environment, asupercardioid dynamic microphone could beused in conjunction with the studio monitors.The singer faces the monitors to hear a mix ofmusic and voice together. The supercardioidmic rejects a large amount of the sound project-ed from the speakers if the rear axis of themicrophone is aimed between the speakers andthe speakers are aimed at the null angle of themic (about 65 degrees on either side of its rearaxis). Just as in live sound, you are using thepolar pattern of the mic to improve gain-before-feedback and create an environment that isfamiliar and encouraging to the vocalists. Nowthe vocalist can scream into the late hours ofthe night until that vocal track is right.

Ensemble Vocals A condenser is the type of microphone most oftenused for choir applications. They are generallymore capable of flat, wide-range frequencyresponse. The most appropriate directional typeis a unidirectional, usually a cardioid. A super-cardioid or a hypercardioid microphone may beused for a slightly greater reach or for moreambient sound rejection. Balanced low-impedance output is used exclusively, andthe sensitivity of a condenser microphone isdesirable because of the greater distance betweenthe sound source and the microphone.

6

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Application of choir microphones falls into thecategory known as “area” coverage. Ratherthan one microphone per sound source, theobject is to pick up multiple sound sources (ora “large” sound source) with one (or more)microphone(s). Obviously, this introduces thepossibility of interference effects unless certainbasic principles (such as the “3-to-1 rule”) arefollowed, as discussed below.

For one microphone picking up a typical choir,the suggested placement is a few feet in frontof, and a few feet above, the heads of the firstrow. It should be centered in front of the choirand aimed at the last row. In this configuration,a cardioid microphone can “cover” up to 15-20voices, arranged in a rectangular or wedge-shaped section.

For larger or unusually shaped choirs, it may benecessary to use more than one microphone.Since the pickup angle of a microphone is a function of its directionality (approximately 130degrees for a cardioid), broader coveragerequires more distant placement.

In order to determine the placement of multiplemicrophones for choir pickup, remember the following rules: observe the 3-to-1 rule (see glos-sary); avoid picking up the same sound sourcewith more than one microphone; and finally,use the minimum number of microphones.

For multiplemicro-phones, theobjective isto divide thechoir intosections thatcan each becovered by asinglemicrophone.If the choirhas anyexistingphysicaldivisions(aisles orboxes), use these to define basic sections. If the choir is grouped according to vocal range(soprano, alto, tenor, bass), these may serve assections.

If the choir is a single, large entity, and it becomesnecessary to choose sections based solely on thecoverage of the individual microphones, use the following spacing: one microphone for each lateralsection of approximately 6 to 9 feet. If the choir isunusually deep (more than 6 or 8 rows), it may bedivided into two vertical sections of several rowseach, with aiming angles adjusted accordingly. In any case, it is better to use too few micro-phones than too many.

Microphone positions - side view

0.6 - 1m(2 - 3 ft)

1.8 - 3m(6 - 9 ft)

0.6 - 1m(2 - 3 ft)

0.6 - 1m(2 - 3 ft)

Choir microphone positions - top view

Above Front

Acoustic String and FrettedInstruments

Experimentation with mic placement provides the ability to achieve accurate and pleasingsound reproduction on these complex soundsources. It is also an opportunity for exploringsound manipulation, giving the studio engineermany paths to the final mix. Whether you areinvolved in a music studio, a commercial stu-dio, or a project studio, you should continue toexplore different methods of achieving thedesired results. The possibilities are limitedonly by time and curiosity.

Acoustic Guitar (Also Dobro, Dulcimer,Mandolin, Ukelele)When recording an acoustic guitar, try placingone mic three to six inches away, directly infront of the sound hole. Then put anothermicrophone, of the same type, four feet away.

This will allow you to hear the instrument andan element of room ambience. Record bothmics dry and flat (no effects or EQ), each to itsown track. These two tracks will sound vastlydifferent. Combining them may provide anopen sound with the addition of the distantmic. Giving the effect of two completely dif-ferent instruments or one in a stereo hallwaymay be achieved by enhancing each signalwith EQ and effects unique to the sound youwant to hear.

Try the previously mentioned mic technique onany acoustic instrument. Attempt to position themic in different areas over the instruments, listen-ing for changes in timbre. You will find differentareas offer different tonal characteristics. Soonyou should develop “an ear” for finding instru-ments’ sweet spots. In addition, the artist andstyle of music should blend with your experiencesand knowledge to generate the desired effect.

7

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

3 2

1

4

Various microphone positions for acoustic guitar

6”

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

8

Bassy

Very bassy, boomy,muddy, full

Woody, warm,mellow. Mid-bassy, lacks detail

Natural, well-balanced,slightly bright

Natural, well-balanced

Bassy, less string noise

Bassy, thumpy

Bright

Natural

Natural

Well-defined

Bright

Good starting placement when leakage is aproblem. Roll off bass for a more natural sound (more for a uni than an omni).

Very good isolation. Bass roll-off needed for a natural sound.

Reduces pick and string noise.

Less pickup of ambiance and leakage than 3feet from sound hole.

Good isolation. Allows freedom of movement.

Reduces leakage. Test positions to find eachguitar’s sweet spot.

Limits leakage. Roll off bass for naturalsound.

Limits leakage.

Limits leakage. Allows freedom of movement.

Well-balanced sound.

Well-balanced sound, but little isolation.

Minimizes feedback and leakage. Allowsfreedom of movement.

8 inches from sound hole

3 inches from sound hole

4 to 8 inches from bridge

6 inches above the side, overthe bridge, and even with thefront soundboard

Miniature microphone clipped outside of sound hole

Miniature microphone clippedinside sound hole

Banjo:

3 inches from center of head

3 inches from edge of head

Miniature microphone clipped totailpiece aiming at bridge

Violin (Fiddle):

A few inches from side

Cello:

1 foot from bridge

All String Instruments:

Miniature microphone attached tostrings between bridge and tailpiece

Acoustic Guitar:

1

2

3

4

Microphone Placement Tonal Balance Comments

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Well-defined

Full

Full, “tight”

Natural

Somewhat constricted

Natural sound.

Roll off bass if sound is too boomy.

Minimizes feedback and leakage.

See “Stereo Microphone Techniques”section for other possibilities.


Acoustic Bass: (Upright Bass, String Bass, Bass Violin)

6 inches to 1 foot out front, just abovebridge

A few inches from f-hole

Wrap microphone in foam padding(except for grille) and put behind bridgeor between tailpiece and body

Harp:

Aiming toward player at part of soundboard, about 2 feet away

Tape miniature microphone to soundboard

Hammers

6”-12”


9

8

8

1 4

7 2

AcousticPianos

10

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING


Natural, well-balanced,slightly bright

Thin, dull, hard,constricted

Muddy, boomy,dull, lacks attack

Bassy, full

Bassy, dull, full

Less pickup of ambience and leakagethan 3 feet out front. Move micro-phone(s) farther from hammers toreduce attack and mechanical noises.Good coincident-stereo placement. See“Stereo Microphone Techniques” section.

Place one microphone over bass stringsand one over treble strings for stereo.Phase cancellations may occur if therecording is heard in mono.

Very good isolation. Sometimes soundsgood for rock music. Boost mid-bassand treble for more natural sound.

Improves isolation. Bass roll-off andsome treble boost required for morenatural sound.

Unobtrusive placement.

Unobtrusive placement.

12 inches above middle strings, 8inches horizontally from hammerswith lid off or at full stick

8 inches above treble strings, asabove

Aiming into sound holes

6 inches over middle strings, 8 inches from hammers, with lid on short stick

Next to the underside of raised lid,centered on lid

Underneath the piano, aiming up at the soundboard

Bright, well-balanced

Bright, well-balanced, strongattack

Full, natural

Excellent isolation. Experiment withlid height and microphone placementon piano lid for desired sounds.

Excellent isolation. Moving “low” mic away from keyboard six inchesprovides truer reproduction of the bassstrings while reducing damper noise.By splaying these two mics outwardslightly, the overlap in the middle registers can be minimized.

Excellent isolation. Minimizes hammer and damper noise. Best if used in conjunction with two surface-mount microphones mountedto closed lid, as above.

Surface-mount microphone mountedon underside of lid over lower treblestrings, horizontally, close to ham-mers for brighter sound, further fromhammers for more mellow sound

Two surface-mount microphonespositioned on the closed lid, underthe edge at its keyboard edge,approximately 2/3 of the distancefrom middle A to each end of thekeyboard

Surface-mount microphone placedvertically on the inside of the frame,or rim, of the piano, at or near theapex of the piano’s curved wall

1

2

3

4

5

6

Grand Piano:


7

8

9

11

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Natural (but lacksdeep bass), picksup hammer attack

Slightly full ortubby, picks uphammer attack

Natural, picks uphammer attack

Full, slightlytubby, no hammer attack

Thin, constricted,no hammer attack

Natural, goodpresence

Bright, picks uphammer attack

Good placement when only one microphone is used.

Mike bass and treble strings for stereo.

Minimizes feedback and leakage. Use two microphones for stereo.

Use this placement with the followingplacement for stereo.

Use this placement with the precedingplacement for stereo.

Minimize pickup of floor vibrations bymounting microphone in low-profileshock-mounted microphone stand.

Mike bass and treble strings for stereo.

Just over open top, above treblestrings

Just over open top, above bassstrings

Inside top near the bass and treblestings

8 inches from bass side of sound-board

8 inches from treble side of sound-board

1 foot from center of soundboard onhard floor or one-foot-square plateon carpeted floor, aiming at piano(soundboard should face into room)

Aiming at hammers from front, sev-eral inches away (remove front panel)

1

2

3

4

5

6

Upright Piano:


Open

4 5

32

Mic31

Mic Mics6

1 2Open

Open

12

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Flute:

The sound energy from a flute is projected both by the embouchure and by the first open fingerhole.For good pickup, place the mic as close as possible to the instrument. However, if the mic is too closeto the mouth, breath noise will be apparent. Use a windscreen on the mic to overcome this difficulty.

With the saxophone, the sound is fairly well distributed between the finger holes and the bell. Mikingclose to the finger holes will result in key noise. The soprano sax must be considered separately becauseits bell does not curve upward. This means that, unlike all other saxophones, placing a microphonetoward the middle of the instrument will not pick-up the sound from the key holes and the bell simulta-neously. The saxophone has sound characteristics similar to the human voice. Thus, a shaped responsemicrophone designed for voice works well.

Woodwinds

Bright

Warm, full

Natural

Bright, punchy


Picks up fingering noise.

Good recording technique.

Maximum isolation, up-front sound.

Afew inches from and aiming into bell

A few inches from sound holes

A few inches above bell and aiming atsound holes

Miniature microphone mounted on bell

Natural, breathy

Natural

Pop filter or windscreen may be required on microphone.

Reduces breath noise.

A few inches from area betweenmouthpiece and first set of finger holes

A few inches behind player’s head,aiming at finger holes

Natural

Bright

Provides well-balanced sound.


Oboe, Bassoon, Etc.:

About 1 foot from sound holes

A few inches from bell

Saxophone:


13

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Brass

The sound from most brass instruments is very directional. Placing the mic off axis with the bell of theinstrument will result in less pickup of high frequencies.

On-axis to bellsounds bright; toone side soundsnatural or mellow

Bright

Natural

Close miking sounds “tight” and minimizes feedback and leakage.More distant placement gives fuller,more dramatic sound.

Maximum isolation.

Watch out for extreme fluctuations on VU meter.

Trumpet, Cornet Trombone, Tuba:

1 to 2 feet from bell (a couple of instru-ments can play into one microphone)

Miniature microphone mounted on bell

French Horn:

Microphone aiming toward bell


Woodwinds (continued)

Saxophone:


Harmonica

Full, brightVery close to instrument

Accordian

Full range, natural sound

Emphasizesmidrange

Use two microphones for stereo or topick up bass and treble sides separately.

Minimizes leakage. Allows freedom of movement.

One or two feet in front of instrument,centered

Miniature microphone mountedinternally

Minimizes feedback and leakage.Microphone may be cupped in hands.

14

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Amplified Instruments

Another “instrument” with a wide range of charac-teristics is the loudspeaker. Anytime you are record-ing a guitar or bass cabinet, you are confronted withthe acoustic nature of loudspeakers. Asingle loud-speaker is directional and displays different frequen-cy characteristics at different angles and distances.On-axis at the center of a speaker tends to producethe most “bite”, while off-axis or edge placement ofthe microphone produces a more “mellow” sound.Acabinet with multiple loudspeakers has an evenmore complex output, especially if it has differentspeakers for bass and treble.

As with most acoustic instruments, the desiredsound develops at some distance away from thespeaker. The most common approach is to close-mic an individual speaker. This is a habit peopledevelop from viewing or doing live sound. In thelive sound environment, most audio sources areclose-miked to achieve the highest direct to ambi-ent pickup ratios. Using unidirectional mics forclose miking maximizes off-axis sound rejection aswell. These elements lead to reduction of potentialfeedback opportunities. In the recording environ-ment, the loudspeaker cabinet can be isolated and

distant-mic techniques can be used to capture amore representative sound.

Often, by using both a close and a distant (morethan a few feet) mic placement at the same time, itis possible to record a sound which has a control-lable balance between “presence” and “ambience”.

Placement of loudspeaker cabinets can also havea significant effect on their sound. Putting cabi-nets on carpets can reduce brightness, while rais-ing them off the floor can reduce low end. Open-back cabinets can be miked from behind as wellas from the front. The distance from the cabinetto walls or other objects can also vary the sound.Again, move the instrument and the mic(s)around until you achieve something that you like!

Natural, well-bal-anced

Bassy

Dull or mellow

Thin, reduced bass

Emphasizedmidrange

Depends on position

Small microphone desk stand may be used if loudspeaker is close to floor.


Microphone closer to edge of speakercone results in duller sound. Reducesamplifier hiss noise.

Picks up more room ambiance and leakage.

Easy setup, minimizes leakage.

Can be combined with mic in front of cabi-net, but be careful of phase cancellation.

4 inches from grille cloth at centerof speaker cone

1 inch from grille cloth at centerof speaker cone

Off-center with respect to speakercone

3 feet from center of speaker cone

Miniature microphone draped overamp in front of speaker

Microphone placed behind open backcabinet

The electric guitar has sound characteristics similar to the human voice. Thus, a shaped responsemicrophone designed for voice works well.

Top Side

Electric Guitar:


1

2

3

4

213 4

4

1 2

15

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Bass Guitar:If the cabinet has only one speaker a single micro-phone should pick up a suitable sound with a littleexperimentation. If the cabinet has multiplespeakers of the same type it is typically easiest toplace the microphone to pick up just one speaker.

Placing the microphone between speakers canresult in strong phase effects though this may bedesirable to achieve a particular tone. However, ifthe cabinet is stereo or has separate bass and treblespeakers multiple microphones may be required.

Depends on brand of piano

Natural, lacksdeep bass



Roll off bass for clarity, roll off highfrequencies to reduce hiss.

Good one-microphone pickup.

Excellent overall sound.

Stereo effect.

Aim microphone at speaker asdescribed in Electric Guitar Amplifier section

Leslie Organ Speaker:

Aim one microphone into top louvers 3 inches to 1 foot away

Mike top louvers and bottom bassspeaker 3 inches to 1 foot away

Mike top louvers with two micro-phones, one close to each side;pan to left and right; mike bottom bass speaker 3 inches to 1 foot awayand pan its signal to center

Drums and Percussion

Drum Kit Miking – The drum kit is one of themost complicated sound sources to record.Although there are many different methods, somecommon techniques and principles should beunderstood. Since the different parts of the drumkit have widely varying sound they should be con-sidered as individual instruments, or at least a smallgroup of instrument types: Kick, Snare, Toms,Cymbals, and Percussion. Certain mic character-istics are extremely critical for drum usage.

Dynamic Range - A drum can produce very highSound Pressure Levels (SPLs). The microphonemust be able to handle these levels. A dynamicmicrophone will usually handle high SPLs betterthan a condenser. Check the Maximum SPL incondenser microphone specifications. It shouldbe at least 130 dB for closeup drum use.

Directionality - Because we want to consider eachpart of the kit an individual instrument; each drummay have its own mic. Interference effects mayoccur due to the close proximity of the mics toeach other and to the various drums. Choosingmics that can reject sound at certain angles andplacing them properly can be pivotal in achievingan overall drum mix with minimal phase problems.

Proximity Effect - Unidirectional mics may haveexcessive low frequency response when placed veryclose to the drums. A low frequency roll-off eitheron the microphone or at the mixer will help cure a“muddied” sound. However, proximity effect mayalso enhance low frequency response if desired. Itcan also be used to effectively reduce pickup of dis-tant low frequency sources by the amount of low-rolloff used to control the closeup source.Typically, drums are isolated in their own roomto prevent bleed through to microphones on

Electric Keyboard Amp:


16

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG

other instruments. In professional studios it iscommon for the drums to be raised above thefloor. This helps reduce low frequency transmis-sion through the floor.

Here is a basic individual drum miking technique:

Bass (Kick) Drums – This drum’s purposein most music is to provide transient, low-fre-quency energy bursts that help establish the pri-mary rhythmic pattern of a song. The kickdrums’ energy is primarily focused in two areas:very low-end timbre and “attack”. Although thisvaries by individual drum, the attack tends to bein the 2.5-5kHz range.

A microphone for this use should have good lowfrequency response and possibly a boost in theattack range, although this can be done easilywith EQ. The mic should be placed in the drum,in close proximity (1 - 6 inches), facing the beat-er head. (position D)

Snare Drum – This is the most piercingdrum in the kit and almost always establishestempo. In modern music it usually indicateswhen to clap your hands! This is an extremelytransient drum with little or no sustain to it. Itsattack energy is focused in the 4 - 6kHz range.

Typically, the drum is miked on the top head atthe edge of the drum with a cardioid or supercar-dioid microphone. (position C)

Hi-Hats – These cymbals are primarily short,high frequency bursts used for time keeping,although the cymbals can be opened for a moreloose sound. Many times the overhead mics will provide enough response to the high hat toeliminate the need for a separate hi-hat micro-phone. If necessary, a mic placed away from thepuff of air that happens when hi-hats close andwithin four inches to the cymbals should be agood starting point. (position G)

Simpler methods of drum miking are used forjazz and any application where open, natural kitsounds are desired. Using fewer mics over sec-tions of the drums is common. Also, one highquality mic placed at a distance facing the whole

kit may capture the sounds of kit and roomacoustics in an enjoyable balance. Additionalmics may be added to reinforce certain parts ofthe kit that are used more frequently.

Tom Toms – While the kick and snareestablish the low and high rhythmic functions,the toms are multiple drums that will be tunedfrom high to low between the snare and kick.They are primarily used for fills, but may alsobe consistent parts of the rhythmic structure.The attack range is similar to the snare drum,but often with more sustain.

An individual directional mic on the top headnear the edge can be used on each drum andpanned to create some spatial imaging. A sim-pler setup is to place one mic slightly above anddirectly between two toms. (position E )

Overheads – The cymbals perform a varietyof sonic duties from sibilant transient exclama-tion points to high frequency time keeping. Inany case, the energy is mostly of a high-fre-quency content. Flat frequency response con-denser microphones will give accurate repro-duction of thesesounds. Havingmicrophones withlow frequency roll-off will helpto reject some ofthe sound of therest of the kitwhich may otherwise causephase problemswhen the drumchannels arebeing mixed. The commonapproach to capturing thearray of cymbalsthat a drummermay use is anoverhead stereopair of micro-phones. (posi-tions A and B) Top view

Front view

1

2

3

4

5

17


STUDIO

RECORDING

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG

When there are limited microphones available to record a drum kit use the following guidelines:

One microphone aiming down betweenpair of drums, just above top heads

Tambourine:

One microphone placed 6 to 12 inchesfrom instrument

Natural

Natural

Provides full sound with good attack.

Experiment with distance and angles ifsound is too bright.

Steel Drums:

Tenor Pan, Second Pan, Guitar PanOne microphone placed 4 inchesabove each pan

Microphone placed underneath pan

Cello Pan, Bass PanOne microphone placed 4 - 6 inch-es above each pan

Xylophone, Marimba, Vibraphone:

Two microphones aiming downtoward instrument, about 1 1/2 feetabove it, spaced 2 feet apart, or angled1350 apart with grilles touching

Glockenspiel:

One microphone placed 4 - 6 inchesabove bars

Bright, with plen-ty of attack

Natural

Natural

Bright, with lotsof attack.

Allow clearance for movement of pan.

Decent if used for tenor or second pans.Too boomy with lower voiced pans.

Can double up pans to a single microphone.

Pan two microphones to left and rightfor stereo. See “Stereo MicrophoneTechniques” section.

For less attack, use rubber malletsinstead of metal mallets. Plastic mallets will give a medium attack.

Timbales, Congas, Bongos:


Number of microphones Positioning Alternative (Positioning reference)

OneTwoThreeFourFive

Use as “overhead” ( )Kick drum and overhead ( and )Kick drum, snare, and overhead or kick drum ( , , and )Kick drum, snare, high hat, and overhead ( , , , and )Kick drum, snare, high hat, tom-toms, and overhead ( , , , , and )

5

1 5

1 2 5

1 2 3 5

1 2 3 4 5

18

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Stereo

Stereo Microphone Techniques – One of themost popular specialized microphone techniquesis stereo miking. This use of two or more micro-phones to create a stereo image will often givedepth and spatial placement to an instrument oroverall recording. There are a number of differ-ent methods for stereo. Three of the most popu-lar are the spaced pair (A/B), the coincident ornear-coincident pair (X-Y configuration), and theMid-Side (M-S) technique.

The spaced pair(A/B) techniqueuses two cardioidor omni direc-tional micro-phones spaced 3 -10 feet apartfrom each otherpanned inleft/right configu-ration to capturethe stereo imageof an ensemble orinstrument.Effective stereoseparation is verywide. The distance between the two micro-phones is dependent on the physical size of thesound source. For instance, if two mics areplaced ten feet apart to record an acoustic guitar;the guitar will appear in the center of the stereoimage. This is probably too much spacing forsuch a small sound source. A closer, narrowermic placement should be used in this situation.

The drawback to A/B stereo is the potential forundesirable phase cancellation of the signals fromthe microphones. Due to the relatively large dis-tance between the microphones and the resultingdifference of sound arrival times at the micro-phones, phase cancellations and summing may beoccurring. A mono reference source can be usedto check for phase problems. When the programis switched to mono and frequencies jump out or

fall out of the sound, you can assume that there is phase problem. This may be a serious problem if your recording is going to beheard in mono as is typical inbroadcast orsoundtrack playback.

The X-Y technique uses two cardioid micro-phones of the same type and manufacture withthe two mic capsules placed either as close aspossible (coincident) or within 12 inches ofeach other (near-coincident) and facing eachother at an angle ranging from 90 - 135degrees, depending on the size of the soundsource and the particular sound desired. Thepair is placed with the center of the two micsfacing directly at the sound source and pannedleft and right.

Due to the small distance between the micro-phones, sound arrives at the mics at nearly thesame time, reducing (near coincident) or elimi-nating (coincident) the possible phase problemsof the A/B techniques. The stereo separation ofthis technique is good but may be limited if thesound source is extremely wide. Mono com-patibility is fair (near-coincident) to excellent(coincident).

The M-S or Mid-Side stereo techniqueinvolves a cardioid mic element and a bi-direc-tional mic element, usually housed in a singlecase, mounted in a coincident arrangement.The cardioid (mid) faces directly at the sourceand picks up primarily on-axis sound while thebi-directional (side) faces left and right andpicks up off-axis sound. The two signals arecombined via the M-S matrix to give a vari-able controlled stereo image. By adjusting thelevel of mid versus side signals, a narrower orwider image can be created without movingthe microphone. This technique is completelymono-compatible and is widely used in broad-cast and film applications.

X-Y top view

A/B top view

soundsource

19

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG

20

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG

Introduction

The world of studio recording is much differentfrom that of live sound reinforcement, but the fun-damental characteristics of the microphones andsound are the same. It is the ability to isolateindividual instruments that gives a greater ele-ment of control and freedom for creativity in thestudio. Since there are no live loudspeakers, feed-back is not an issue. The natural sound of theinstrument may be the desired effect, or the soundsource can be manipulated into a sound neverheard in the natural acoustic world.

In order to achieve the desired result it is useful tounderstand some of the important characteristicsof microphones, musical instruments, andacoustics.

SECTION TWO

Microphone Characteristics

There are three main considerations when choos-ing a microphone for recording applications:operating principle, frequency response, anddirectionality.

Operating Principle - A microphone is anexample of a “transducer,” a device whichchanges energy from one form into another, inthis case from acoustic into electrical. The typeof transducer is defined by the operating princi-ple. In the current era of recording, the two pri-mary operating principles used in microphonedesign are the dynamic and the condenser.

Dynamic microphone elements are made up of adiaphragm, voice coil, and magnet which form asound-driven electrical generator. Sound wavesmove the diaphragm/voice coil in a magnetic fieldto generate the electrical equivalent of the acousticsound wave. The signal from the dynamic elementcan be used directly, without the need for additionalcircuitry. This design is extremely rugged, hasgood sensitivity and can handle the loudest possiblesound pressure levels without distortion. Thedynamic has some limitations at extreme high andlow frequencies. To compensate, small resonantchambers are often used to extend the frequencyrange of dynamic microphones.

Condenser microphone elements use a con-ductive diaphragm and an electrically chargedbackplate to form a sound-sensitive “condenser”(capacitor). Sound waves move the diaphragmin an electric field to create the electrical signal.In order to use this signal from the element, allcondensers have active electronic circuitry, eitherbuilt into the microphone or in a separate pack.This means that condenser microphones requirephantom power or a battery to operate. (For adetailed explanation of “phantom power”, seethe appendix.) However, the condenser designallows for smaller mic elements, higher sensitivi-ty and is inherently capable of smooth responseacross a very wide frequency range.

The main limitations of a condenser microphonerelate to its electronics. These circuits can handle aspecified maximum signal level from the condenserelement, so a condenser mic has a maximum soundlevel before its output starts to be distorted. Somecondensers have switchable pads or attenuators

21

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG

between the element and the electronics to allowthem to handle higher sound levels. If you heardistortion when using a condenser microphoneclose to a very loud sound source, first make surethat the mixer input itself is not being overloaded.If not, switch in the attenuator in the mic (ifequipped), move the mic farther away, or use a micthat can handle a higher level. In any case, themicrophone will not be damaged by excess level.

A second side effect of the condenser/electronicsdesign is that it generates a certain amount ofelectrical noise (self-noise) which may be heardas “hiss” when recording very quiet sources athigh gain settings. Higher quality condensermics have very low self-noise, a desirable char-acteristic for this type of recording application.

Frequency response -The variation in outputlevel or sensitivity of a microphone over its use-able range from lowest to highest frequency.

Virtually all microphone manufacturers will listthe frequency response of their microphones as a range, for example 20 - 20,000Hz. This isusually illustrated with a graph that indicates relative amplitude at each frequency. The graphhas the frequency in Hz on the x-axis and rela-tive response in decibels on the y-axis.

A microphone whose response is equal at all frequencies is said to have a “flat” frequencyresponse. These microphones typically have awide frequency range. Flat response microphonestend to be used to reproduce sound sources withoutcoloring the original source. This is usually desiredin reproducing instruments such as acoustic guitarsor pianos. It is also common for stereo mikingtechniques and distant miking techniques.

flat frequency response drawing

A microphone whose response has peaks or dipsin certain frequency areas is said to have a“shaped” response. This response is designed toenhance a frequency range that is specific to agiven sound source. For instance, a microphonemay have a peak in the 2-10Khz range to enhancethe intelligibility or presence of vocals. This shapeis said to have a “presence peak”. Amicrophone’sresponse may also be reduced at other frequencies.One example of this is a low frequency roll-off toreduce unwanted “boominess”.

shaped frequency response drawing

Although dynamic microphones and condensermicrophones may have similar published frequen-cy response specifications their sound qualities canbe quite different. A primary aspect of this differ-ence is in their transient response. See theappendix for an explanation of this characteristic.

Directionality - The sensitivity to sound relative tothe direction or angle of arrival at the microphone.

Directionality is usually plotted on a graphreferred to as a polar pattern. The polar patternshows the variation in sensitivity 360 degreesaround the microphone, assuming that the micro-phone is in the center and 0 degrees represents thefront or on-axis direction of the microphone.

There are a number of different directional pat-terns designed into microphones. The threebasic patterns are omnidirectional, unidirection-al, and bidirectional.

The omnidirectional microphone has equalresponse at all angles. Its “coverage” or pickupangle is a full 360 degrees. This type of micro-phone can be used if more room ambience isdesired. For example, when using an “omni”, the

22

balance of direct and ambient sound depends onthe distance of the microphone from the instru-ment, and can be adjusted to the desired effect.

omnidirectional

The unidirectional microphone is most sensitive tosound arriving from one particular direction and isless sensitive at other directions. The most commontype is a cardioid (heart-shaped) response. This hasfull sensitivity at 0 degrees (on-axis) and is leastsensitive at 180 degrees (off-axis). Unidirectionalmicrophones are used to isolate the desired on-axissound from unwanted off-axis sound. In addition,the cardioid mic picks up only about one-third asmuch ambient sound as an omni.

For example, the use of a cardioid microphonefor a guitar amplifier, which is in the same roomas the drum set, is one way to reduce the bleed-through of drums on to the recorded guitar track.The mic is aimed toward the amplifier and awayfrom the drums. If the undesired sound source isextremely loud (as drums often are), other isola-tion techniques may be necessary.

Unidirectional microphones are available withseveral variations of the cardioid pattern. Two ofthese are the supercardioid and hypercardioid.

Both patterns offer narrower front pickup anglesthan the cardioid (115 degrees for the supercardioidand 105 degrees for the hypercardioid) and alsogreater rejection of ambient sound. While the cardioid is least sensitive at the rear (180 degreesoff-axis), the least sensitive direction is at 125degrees for the supercardioid and 110 degrees forthe hypercardioid. When placed properly they canprovide more “focused” pickup and less roomambience than the cardioid pattern, but they haveless rejection at the rear: -12 dB for the supercar-dioid and only -6 dB for the hypercardioid.

The bidirectional microphone has full responseat both 0 degrees (front) and at 180 degrees(back). It has its least response at the sides. The coverage or pickup angle is only about 90degrees at the front (or the rear). It has the sameamount of ambient pickup as the cardioid. Thismic could be used for picking up two soundsources such as two vocalists facing each other.It is also used in certain stereo techniques.

Microphone polar patterns compared

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

∞

cardioid (unidirectional)

supercardioid

23

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Other directional-related microphone characteristics:

Ambient sound sensitivity - Since unidirectionalmicrophones are less sensitive to off-axis soundthan omnidirectional types, they pick up lessoverall ambient or room sound. Unidirectionalmics should be used to control ambient noisepickup to get a “cleaner” recording.

Distance factor - Since directional microphoneshave more rejection of off-axis sound than omni-directional types, they may be used at greaterdistances from a sound source and still achievethe same balance between the direct sound andbackground or ambient sound. An omnidirec-tional microphone will pick up more room(ambient) sound than a unidirectional micro-phone at the same distance. An omni should beplaced closer to the sound source than a “uni”–about half the distance – to pick up the same bal-ance between direct sound and room sound.

Off-axis coloration - A microphone’s frequencyresponse may not be uniform at all angles.Typically, high frequencies are most affected,which may result in an unnatural sound for off-axis instruments or room ambience.

Proximity effect - For most unidirectional types,bass response increases as the microphone is movedcloser to the sound source. When miking close withunidirectional microphones (less than 1 foot), beaware of proximity effect: it may help to roll off thebass until you obtain a more natural sound. You can(1) roll off low frequencies at the mixer, (2) use amicrophone designed to minimize proximity effect,(3) use a microphone with a bass roll-off switch, or(4) use an omnidirectional microphone (which doesnot exhibit proximity effect).

Understanding and choosing the frequencyresponse and directionality of microphones areselective factors which can improve pickup ofdesired sound and reduce pickup of unwantedsound. This can greatly assist in achieving bothnatural sounding recordings and unique soundsfor special applications.

Instrument Characteristics

First, let’s present a bit of background informationabout how instruments radiate sound. The soundfrom a musical instrument has a frequency outputwhich is the range of frequencies produced andtheir relative amplitudes. The fundamental fre-quencies establish the basic pitch, while the har-monic frequencies produce the timbre or charac-teristic tone of the instrument. Here are frequencyranges for some commonly known instruments:

chart of instrument frequency ranges

Also, an instrument radiates different frequenciesat different levels in every direction, and eachpart of an instrument produces a different timbre.This is the directional output of an instrument.You can partly control the recorded tonal bal-ance of an instrument by adjusting the micro-phone position relative to it. The fact that lowfrequencies tend to be omnidirectional whilehigher frequencies tend to be more directional isa basic audio principle to keep in mind.

Most acoustic instruments are designed to soundbest at a distance (say, two or more feet away). Thesounds of the various parts of the instrument com-bine into a complete audio picture at some distancefrom the instrument. So, a microphone placed atthat distance will pick up a “natural” or well-bal-anced tone quality. On the other hand, a micro-phone placed close to the instrument emphasizes thepart of the instrument that the microphone is near.The sound picked up very close may or may not bethe sound you wish to capture in the recording.

one cycle or one period

peak-to-peak

peakrms

24

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Acoustic Characteristics

Since room acoustics have been mentionedrepeatedly, here is a brief introduction to somebasic factors involved in acoustics.

Sound Waves – Sound waves consist of pressurevariations traveling through the air. When thesound wave travels, it compresses air moleculestogether at one point. This is called the high pres-sure zone or positive component(+). After thecompression, an expansion of molecules occurs.This is the low pressure zone or negative compo-nent(-). This process continues along the path ofthe sound wave until its energy becomes too weakto hear. If you could view the sound wave of apure tone traveling through air, it would appear asa smooth, regular variation of pressure that couldbe drawn as a sine wave. The diagram shows therelationship of the air molecules and a sine wave.

Frequency, Wavelength, and the Speed ofSound – The frequency of a sound wave indi-cates the rate of pressure variations or cycles.One cycle is a change from high pressure to lowpressure and back to high pressure. The number of cycles per second is called Hertz, abbreviated “Hz.” So, a 1,000Hztone has 1,000 cyclesper second.

The wavelength of a sound is the physical distancefrom the start of one cycle to the start of the nextcycle. Wavelength is related to frequency by thespeed of sound. The speed of sound in air is 1130feet per second or 344 meters/second. The speed ofsound is constant no matter what the frequency. Youcan determine the wavelength of a sound wave ofany frequency if you understand these relationships:

Loudness –The fluctuation ofair pressure creat-ed by sound is achange above andbelow normalatmospheric pres-sure. This is whatthe human earresponds to. Thevarying amount ofpressure of the airmolecules com-pressing andexpanding is relat-ed to the apparentloudness at the human ear. The greater the pres-sure change, the louder the sound. Under idealconditions the human ear can sense a pressurechange as small as .0002 microbar. One microbaris equal to one millionth of atmospheric pressure.The threshold of pain is about 200 microbar.Obviously, the human ear responds to a widerange of amplitude of sound. This amplituderange is more commonly referred to in decibels.Sound Pressure Level (dB SPL), relative to .0002microbar (0dB SPL). 0 dB SPL is the threshold ofhearing and 120 dB SPL is the threshold of pain.1 dB is about the smallest change in SPL that canbe heard. A 3 dB change is generally noticeable,while a 6 dB change is very noticeable. A 10 dBSPL increase is perceived to be twice as loud!

Approximate wavelengths of common frequencies:

100 Hz: about 10 feet1000 Hz: about 1 foot10,000 Hz: about 1 inch

The Wave Equation: c = f • lspeed of sound = frequency • wavelength

or

wavelength = speed of sound frequency

for a 500Hz sound wave:

wavelength = 1,130 feet per second 500Hz

wavelength = 4.4 feet

ambient sounds

140130120110100

908070605040302010

0

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

........

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

rarefaction rarefactioncompression compression

wave motion

25

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

Sound Transmission – It is important to remem-ber that sound transmission does not normallyhappen in a completely controlled environment.In a recording studio, though, it is possible toseparate or isolate the sounds being recorded.The best way to do this is to put the differentsound sources in different rooms. This providesalmost complete isolation and control of thesound from the voice or instrument.Unfortunately, multiple rooms are not always anoption in studios, and even one sound source in aroom by itself is subject to the effects of thewalls, floor, ceiling and various isolation barriers.All of these effects can alter the sound before itactually arrives at the microphone.

In the study of acoustics there are three basic waysin which sound is altered by its environment:

1. Reflection - A sound wave can be reflected by asurface or other object if the object is physically aslarge or larger than the wavelength of the sound.Because low-frequency sounds have long wave-lengths, they can only be reflected by large objects.Higher frequencies can be reflected by smallerobjects and surfaces. The reflected sound will havea different frequency characteristic than the directsound if all sounds are not reflected equally.Reflection is also the source of echo, reverb, andstanding waves:Echo occurs when an indirect sound is delayedlong enough (by a distant reflective surface) tobe heard by the listener as a distinct repetition ofthe direct sound.Reverberation consists of many reflections of asound, maintaining the sound in a room for atime even after the direct sound has stopped.Standing waves in a room occur for certain fre-quencies related to the distance between parallelwalls. The original sound and the reflectedsound will begin to reinforce each other whenthe wavelength is equal to the distance betweentwo walls. Typically, this happens at low fre-quencies due to their longer wavelengths and thedifficulty of absorbing them.

2. Refraction - The bending of a sound waveas it passes through some change in the densityof the transmission environment. This changemay be due to physical objects, such as blankets

hung for isolation or thin gobos, or it may be dueto atmospheric effects such as wind or tempera-ture gradients. These effects are not noticeablein a studio environment.

3. Diffraction - Asound wave will typically bendaround obstacles in its path which are smaller thanits wavelength. Because a low frequency soundwave is much longer than a high frequency wave,low frequencies will bend around objects that highfrequencies cannot. The effect is that high frequen-cies are more easily blocked or absorbed while lowfrequencies are essentially omnidirectional. Whenisolating two instruments in one room with a goboas an acoustic barrier, it is possible to notice the individual instruments are “muddy” in the low endresponse. This may be due to diffraction of low frequencies around the acoustic barrier.

APPLICATIONS TIP: Absorption (beware of carpets!)

When building a project studio or small commercialstudio, it is usually necessary to do some sound treat-ment to the walls and possibly build some isolatinggobos for recording purposes. Many small studiosassume they can save money and achieve the desiredabsorption effect by using inexpensive carpet. This is abad assumption.

Absorption is the changing of sound energy into heatas it tries to pass through some material. Differentmaterials have different absorption effects at multiplefrequencies. Each material is measured with anabsorption coefficient ranging between 0-1 (sabins).This can be thought ofas the percentage ofsound that will beabsorbed.

For instance: a materialmay have an absorp-tion coefficient of .67at 1,000 Hz. Thiswould mean the mater-ial absorbs 67% of the1,000 Hz frequenciesapplied to it.

Here is a chart showing the advan-tages of acoustic foam over bare walls or carpeting.

26

Direct vs. Ambient Sound – A very importantproperty of direct sound is that it becomes weak-er as it travels away from the sound source, at arate controlled by the inverse-square law. Whenthe distance from a sound source doubles, thesound level decreases by 6dB. This is a notice-able audible decrease. For example, if the soundfrom a guitar amplifier is 100 dB SPL at 1 ft.from the cabinet it will be 94 dB at 2 ft., 88 dB at4 ft., 82 dB at 8 ft., etc. When the distance is cutin half the sound level increases by 6dB: It willbe 106 dB at 6 inches and 112 dB at 3 inches.

On the other hand, the ambient sound in a roomis at nearly the same level throughout the room.This is because the ambient sound has beenreflected many times within the room until it isessentially non-directional. Reverberation is anexample of non-directional sound.

This is why the ambient sound of the room willbecome increasingly apparent as a microphone isplaced further away from the direct soundsource. The amount of direct sound relative toambient sound can be controlled by the distanceof the microphone to the sound source and to alesser degree by the polar pattern of the mic.

However, if the microphone is placed beyond acertain distance from the sound source, the ambi-ent sound will begin to dominate the recordingand the desired balance may not be possible toachieve, no matter what type of mic is used.This is called the “critical distance” andbecomes shorter as the ambient noise and rever-beration increase, forcing closer placement of themicrophone to the source.

Phase relationships and interference effects –The phase of a single frequency sound wave isalways described relative to the starting point of

the wave or 0degrees. The pressurechange is also zero atthis point. The peakof the high pressurezone is at 90 degrees,and the pressurechange falls to zeroagain at 180 degrees.

The peak of the low pressure zone is at 270degrees, and the pressure change rises to zero at360 degrees for the start of the next cycle.

Two identical sound waves starting at the same point in time are called “in-phase” and willsum together creating a single wave with doublethe amplitude but otherwise identical to the originalwaves. Twoidenticalsound waveswith onewave’s startingpoint occur-ring at the180-degreepoint of theother wave aresaid to be “outof phase”, andthe two waveswill canceleach othercompletely.When twosound wavesof the samesingle frequen-cy but differ-ent starting points are combined, the resultingwave as said to have “phase shift” or an apparentstarting point somewhere between the originalstarting points. This new wave will have thesame frequency as the original waves but willhave increased or decreased amplitude dependingon the degree of phase difference. Phase shift, inthis case, indicates that the 0 degree points of twoidentical waves are not the same.

Most soundwaves are not a single frequency butare made up of many frequencies. When identicalmultiple-frequency soundwaves combine, thereare three possibilities for the resulting wave: adoubling of amplitude at all frequencies if thewaves are “in phase”, a complete cancellation atall frequencies if the waves are 180 degrees “outof phase”, or partial cancellation and partial rein-forcement at various frequencies if the waveshave intermediate phase relationship.

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

phase relationships

sound pressure wave

▲

▲one cycle or one period

90000 1800 2700 3600

+

+1

0

-1

+1

0

-1a

=

+2

0

-2

+

+1

0

-1

+1

0

-1b

= 0

+

+1

0

-1

+1

0

-1c

=“phase shifts”

“in-phase”

”1800 outof phase”

+2

+1

0

-1

-2

27

ST

UD

IO

R

EC

OR

DI

NG


STUDIO

RECORDING

The last case is the most likely, and the audibleresult is a degraded frequency response called“comb filtering.” The pattern of peaks and dipsresembles the teeth of a comb and the depth andlocation of these notches depend on the degreeof phase shift.

With microphones this effect can occur in twoways. The first is when two (or more) mics pick upthe same sound source at different distances.Because it takes longer for the sound to arrive at themore distant microphone, there is effectively aphase difference between the signals from the micswhen they are combined (electrically) in the mixer.The resulting comb filtering depends on the soundarrival time difference between the microphones: alarge time difference (long distance) causes combfiltering to begin at low frequencies, while a smalltime difference (short distance) moves the comb fil-tering to higher frequencies.

The second wayfor this effect tooccur is when asingle micro-phone picks up adirect sound andalso a delayedversion of thesame sound. Thedelay may be dueto an acoustic

reflection of the original sound or to multiplesources of the original sound. Aguitar cabinet withmore than one speaker or multiple cabinets for thesame instrument would be an example. Thedelayed sound travels a longer distance (longer

time) to the micand thus has aphase differencerelative to thedirect sound.When thesesounds combine(acoustically) atthe microphone,comb filteringresults. This timethe effect of thecomb filtering

depends on the distance between the microphoneand the source of the reflection or the distancebetween the multiple sources.

The goal here is to create an awareness of thesources of these potential influences on recordedsound and to provide insight into controllingthem. When an effect of this sort is heard, and isundesirable, it is usually possible to move thesound source, use a microphone with a differentdirectional characteristic, or physically isolatethe sound source further to improve the situation.

APPLICATIONS TIP: Microphone phase

One of the strangest effects that can happen in therecording process is apparent when two micro-phones are placed in close proximity to the samesound source. Many times this is due to the phaserelationship of the sounds arriving at the micro-phones. If two microphones are picking up thesame sound source from different locations, somephase cancellation or summing may be occurring.Phase cancellation happens when two micro-phones are receiving the same soundwave butwith opposite pressure zones (that is, more than180 degrees out of phase). This is usually notdesired. A mic with a different polar pattern mayreduce the pickup of unwanted sound and reducethe effect, or physical isolation can be used. Witha drum kit, physical isolation of the individualdrums is not possible. In this situation yourchoice of microphones may be more dependenton the off-axis rejection of the mic.

Another possibility is phase reversal. If there iscancellation occurring, a 180 degree phase flip willcreate phase summing of the same frequencies. A common approach to the snare drum is to placeone mic on the top head and one on the bottomhead. Because the mics are picking up relativelysimilar sound sources at different points in thesound wave, you are probably experiencing somephase cancellations. Inverting the phase of onemic will sum any frequencies being canceled.This may sometimes achieve a “fatter” snare drumsound. This effect will change dependent on miclocations. The phase inversion can be done withan in-line phase reverse adapter or by a phaseinvert switch found on many mixer inputs.

multi-mic comb filtering

reflection comb filtering

28

SH

UR

E

MI

CR

OP

HO

NE

S

EL

EC

TI

ON

G

UI

DE V O C A L S

PERFORMANCEVOCAL (dynamic)

PERFORMANCEVOCAL (condenser)

HEADWORN VOCAL

STUDIOVOCAL

ENSEMBLEVOCAL2

GUITAR AMPLIFIER

BASSAMPLIFIER

KICKDRUM

SNAREDRUM

TOMSRACK & FLOOR

OVERHEAD CYMBALSHIGH HAT2

CONGA MALLETINSTRUMENTS2

MARIMBA & OTHERPERCUSSION2

PIANO2

STRINGS ACOUSTIC BASS

BRASSINSTRUMENTS

WOODWINDS SAXOPHONE

ACOUSTIC GUITAR

HARMONICA LESLIESPEAKER

ORCHESTRA2 LIVE RECORDING ORSTEREO PICKUP/

AMBIENCE

SAMPLING KARAOKEThis guide is an aid in selecting microphones for various applications. Microphone soundquality and appearance are subject to specific acoustic environments, application technique,and personal taste. 1 With A98MK drum mount kit.2 For single point stereo miking, use VP88 M-S stereo microphone.3 Bell-mounted with A98KCS clamp.4 With RK279 mounting kit for instrument applications.

I N S T R U M E N T S

BETA 58ASM58

BETA 57ASM57BG3.1BG2.1BG1.1

BETA 87SM87ABG5.1

WCM16WH10XLR

SM10ASM12A

512

SM81SM7

BETA 87SM87ABG5.1

SM81SM94BG4.1

SM81SM94BG4.1

SM98ABETA 56

BETA 57ASM57

SM81SM94BG4.1

SM81BETA 57A

SM57

SM81SM91ABG4.1

SM81SM94BG4.1SM114

SM98A1

BETA 52SM81SM94BG4.1

SM98A3

BETA 56BETA 57A

SM57

SM81SM98ABG4.1

SM98A3

SM7BETA 56

BETA 57ASM57

SM81SM94BG4.1

BETA 57ASM57SM114

520DX “Green Bullet”SM57SM58

BETA 57ABETA 56

SM57BG3.1SM91A

SM81SM94BG4.1

SM81 (pair)SM94 (pair)BG4.1 (pair)

VP88

SM81SM94BG4.1

SM58S565

BG3.1BG2.1

BG1.1K12A

BETA 56BETA 57A

SM57BG6.1BG3.1BG2.1

BETA 52SM7

BETA 57ABETA 56

SM57

BETA 52SM91A

BETA 57ASM57BG6.1

BETA 57ABETA 56

SM57BG6.1

SM98A1

BETA 57ABETA 56

SM57BG6.1

29

GL

OS

SA

RY


STUDIO

RECORDING

3-to-1 Rule - When using multiple microphones,the distance between microphones should be atleast 3 times the distance from each microphoneto its intended sound source.

Absorption - The dissipation of sound energy bylosses due to sound absorbent materials.

Active Circuitry - Electrical circuitry whichrequires power to operate, such as transistors andvacuum tubes.

Ambience - Room acoustics or natural reverberation.

Amplitude - The strength or level of sound pressure or voltage.

Audio Chain - The series of interconnected audioequipment used for recording or PA.

Backplate - The solid conductive disk that formsthe fixed half of a condenser element.

Balanced - A circuit that carries information bymeans of two equal but opposite polarity signals,on two conductors.

Bidirectional Microphone - A microphone thatpicks up equally from two opposite directions.The angle of best rejection is 90 degrees from thefront (or rear) of the microphone, that is, directlyat the sides.

Boundary/Surface Microphone - A microphonedesigned to be mounted on an acoustically reflec-tive surface.

Cardioid Microphone - A unidirectional micro-phone with moderately wide front pickup (131degrees). Angle of best rejection is 180 degreesfrom the front of the microphone, that is, directlyat the rear.

Cartridge (Transducer) - The element in a microphone that converts acoustical energy(sound) into electrical energy (the signal).

Clipping Level - The maximum electrical outputsignal level (dBV or dBu) that the microphonecan produce before the output becomes distorted.

Close Pickup - Microphone placement within 2feet of a sound source.

Comb Filtering - An interference effect in whichthe frequency response exhibits regular deepnotches.

Condenser Microphone - A microphone that generates an electrical signal when sound wavesvary the spacing between two charged surfaces:the diaphragm and the backplate.

Critical Distance - In acoustics, the distance froma sound source in a room at which the directsound level is equal to the reverberant soundlevel.

Current - Charge flowing in an electrical circuit.Analogous to the amount of a fluid flowing in apipe.

Decibel (dB) - A number used to express relativeoutput sensitivity. It is a logarithmic ratio.

Diaphragm - The thin membrane in a micro-phone which moves in response to sound waves.

Diffraction - The bending of sound waves aroundan object which is physically smaller than thewavelength of the sound.

Direct Sound - Sound which travels by a straightpath from a sound source to a microphone or listener.

Distance Factor - The equivalent operating distance of a directional microphone compared to an omnidirectional microphone to achieve thesame ratio of direct to reverberant sound.

Distant Pickup - Microphone placement fartherthan 2 feet from the sound source.

30

GL

OS

SA

RY MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Dynamic Microphone - A microphone that generates an electrical signal when sound wavescause a conductor to vibrate in a magnetic field.In a moving-coil microphone, the conductor is acoil of wire attached to the diaphragm.

Dynamic Range - The range of amplitude of asound source. Also, the range of sound level thata microphone can successfully pick up.

Echo - Reflection of sound that is delayed longenough (more than about 50 msec.) to be heard as a distinct repetition of the original sound.

Electret - A material (such as Teflon) that canretain a permanent electric charge.

EQ - Equalization or tone control to shape frequency response in some desired way.

Feedback - In a PA system consisting of a microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker, feedbackis the ringing or howling sound caused by ampli-fied sound from the loudspeaker entering themicrophone and being re-amplified.

Flat Response - A frequency response that is uniform and equal at all frequencies.

Frequency - The rate of repetition of a cyclic phenomenon such as a sound wave.

Frequency Response Tailoring Switch - Aswitch on a microphone that affects the tone qual-ity reproduced by the microphone by means of anequalization circuit. (Similar to a bass or treblecontrol on a hi-fi receiver.)

Frequency Response - A graph showing how amicrophone responds to various sound frequen-cies. It is a plot of electrical output (in decibels)vs. frequency (in Hertz).

Fundamental - The lowest frequency componentof a complex waveform such as musical note. Itestablishes the basic pitch of the note.

Gain - Amplification of sound level or voltage.

Gain-Before-Feedback - The amount of gainthat can be achieved in a sound system before feedback or ringing occurs.

Gobos - Movable panels used to reduce reflectedsound in the recording environment.

Harmonic - Frequency components above the fundamental of a complex waveform. They aregenerally multiples of the fundamental whichestablish the timbre or tone of the note.

Hypercardioid - A unidirectional microphone with tighter front pickup (105 degrees) than a supercardioid, but with more rear pickup. Angleof best rejection is about 110 degrees from thefront of the microphone.

Impedance - In an electrical circuit, opposition tothe flow of alternating current, measured in ohms.A high-impedance microphone has an impedanceof 10,000 ohms or more. A low-impedance microphone has an impedance of 50 to 600 ohms.

Interference - Destructive combining of soundwaves or electrical signals due to phase differences.

Inverse Square Law - States that direct sound levels increase (or decrease) by an amount pro-portional to the square of the change in distance.

Isolation - Freedom from leakage; the ability toreject unwanted sounds.

Leakage - Pickup of an instrument by a micro-phone intended to pick up another instrument.Creative leakage is artistically favorable leakagethat adds a “loose” or “live” feel to a recording.

Maximum Sound Pressure Level - The maximum acoustic input signal level (dB SPL)that the microphone can accept before clippingoccurs.

31

GL

OS

SA

RY


STUDIO

RECORDING

Microphone Sensitivity - A rating given in dBVto express how “hot” the microphone is by expos-ing the microphone to a specified sound field level(typically either 94 dB SPL or 74 dB SPL). Thisspecification can be confusing because manufac-turers designate the sound level different ways.Here is an easy reference guide: 94 dB SPL = 1Pascal = 10 microbars. To compare a microphonethat has been measured at 74 dB SPL with onethat has been measured at 94 dB SPL, simply add20 to the dBV rating.

NAG - Needed Acoustic Gain is the amount ofgain that a sound system must provide for a distant listener to hear as if he or she was close tothe unamplified sound source.

Noise - Unwanted electrical or acoustic interference.

Noise Cancelling - A microphone that rejects ambient or distant sound.

NOM - Number of open microphones in a soundsystem. Decreases gain-before-feedback by 3dBeverytime NOM doubles.

Omnidirectional Microphone - Amicrophonethat picks up sound equally well from all directions.

Output Noise (Self-Noise) - The amount of resid-ual noise (dB SPL) generated by the electronics ofa condenser microphone.

Overload - Exceeding the signal level capabilityof a microphone or electrical circuit.

PAG - Potential Acoustic Gain is the calculatedgain that a sound system can achieve at or justbelow the point of feedback.

Phantom Power - A method of providing powerto the electronics of a condenser microphonethrough the microphone cable.

Phase - The “time” relationship between cycles ofdifferent waves.

Pickup Angle/Coverage Angle - The effectivearc of coverage of a microphone, usually taken tobe within the 3dB down points in its directionalresponse.

Pitch - The fundamental or basic frequency of amusical note.

Polar Pattern (Directional Pattern, PolarResponse) - A graph showing how the sensitivi-ty of a microphone varies with the angle of thesound source, at a particular frequency.Examples of polar patterns are unidirectionaland omnidirectional.

Polarization - The charge or voltage on a condenser microphone element.

Pop Filter - An acoustically transparent shieldaround a microphone cartridge that reduces popping sounds. Often a ball-shaped grille, foamcover or fabric barrier.

Pop - A thump of explosive breath sound pro-duced when a puff of air from the mouth strikesthe microphone diaphragm. Occurs most oftenwith “p”, “t”, and “b” sounds.

Presence Peak - An increase in microphone out-put in the “presence” frequency range of 2,000 Hzto 10,000 Hz. A presence peak increases clarity,articulation, apparent closeness, and “punch.”

Proximity Effect - The increase in bass occurringwith most unidirectional microphones when theyare placed close to an instrument or vocalist (within 1 foot). Does not occur with omnidirec-tional microphones.

Rear Lobe - A region of pickup at the rear of asupercardioid or hypercardioid microphone polarpattern. A bidirectional microphone has a rearlobe equal to its front pickup.

Reflection - The bouncing of sound waves backfrom an object or surface which is physically larger than the wavelength of the sound.

32

GL

OS

SA

RY MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Refraction - The bending of sound waves by achange in the density of the transmission medium,such as temperature gradients in air due to wind.

Resistance - The opposition to the flow of currentin an electrical circuit. It is analogous to the friction of fluid flowing in a pipe.

Reverberation - The reflection of a sound a sufficient number of times that it becomes non-directional and persists for some time after thesource has stopped. The amount of reverberationdepends on the relative amount of sound reflec-tion and absorption in the room.

Rolloff - A gradual decrease in response below orabove some specified frequency.

Sensitivity - The electrical output that a micro-phone produces for a given sound pressure level.

Shaped Response - A frequency response thatexhibits significant variation from flat withinits range. It is usually designed to enhance thesound for a particular application.

Signal to Noise Ratio - The amount of signal(dBV) above the noise floor when a specifiedsound pressure level is applied to the micro-phone (usually 94 dB SPL).

Sound Chain - The series of interconnectedaudio equipment used for recording or PA.

Sound Reinforcement - Amplification of livesound sources.

Speed of Sound - The speed of sound waves,about 1130 feet per second in air.

SPL - Sound Pressure Level is the loudness ofsound relative to a reference level of 0.0002 microbars.

Standing Wave - A stationary sound wave that isreinforced by reflection between two parallel surfaces that are spaced a wavelength apart.

Supercardioid Microphone - A unidirectionalmicrophone with tighter front pickup angle (115 degrees) than a cardioid, but with some rear pickup. Angle of best rejection is 126degrees from the front of the microphone, that is,54 degrees from the rear.

3-to-1 Rule - (See top of page 29.)

Timbre - The characteristic tone of a voice orinstrument; a function of harmonics.

Transducer - A device that converts one form ofenergy to another. A microphone transducer (car-tridge) converts acoustical energy (sound) into electrical energy (the audio signal).

Transient Response - The ability of a device torespond to a rapidly changing input.

Unbalanced - A circuit that carries informationby means of one signal on a single conductor.

Unidirectional Microphone - A microphone thatis most sensitive to sound coming from a singledirection-in front of the microphone. Cardioid,supercardioid, and hypercardioid microphones areexamples of unidirectional microphones.

Voice Coil - Small coil of wire attached to thediaphragm of a dynamic microphone.

Voltage - The potential difference in an electric circuit. Analogous to the pressure on fluid flow-ing in a pipe.

Wavelength - The physical distance between thestart and end of one cycle of a soundwave.

33

AP

PE

ND

IX

A


STUDIO

RECORDING

Appendix A: The Decibel

The decibel (dB) is an expression often used inelectrical and acoustic measurements. The deci-bel is a number that represents a ratio of two val-ues of a quantity such as voltage. It is actually alogarithmic ratio whose main purpose is to scalea large measurement range down to a muchsmaller and more useable range. The form ofthe decibel relationship for voltage is:

dB = 20 x log(V1/V2)

where 20 is a constant, V1 is one voltage, V2 isa reference voltage, and log is logarithm base 10.

Examples:

What is the relationship in decibelsbetween 100 volts and 1 volt? (dbV)

dB = 20 x log(100/1)dB = 20 x log(100)dB = 20 x 2 (the log of 100 is 2)dB = 40

That is, 100 volts is 40dB greater than 1 volt.

What is the relationship in decibelsbetween .0001 volt and 1 volt? (dbV)

dB = 20 x log(.001/1)dB = 20 x log(.001)dB = 20 x (-3) (the log of .001 is -3)dB = -60

That is, .001 volt is 60dB less than 1 volt.

Similarly:

If one voltage is equal to the other, theyare 0dB different.

If one voltage is twice the other, they are6dB different.

If one voltage is ten times the other, theyare 20dB different.

Since the decibel is a ratio of two values, theremust be an explicit or implicit reference valuefor any measurement given in dB. This is usu-ally indicated by a suffix on the dB. Somedevices are measured in dBV (reference to 1Volt = 0 dBV), while others may be specifiedin dBu or dBm (reference to .775V =0dBu/dBm). Here is a chart that makes conver-sion for comparison easy:

Audio equipment signal levels are generallybroken into 3 main categories: Mic, Line, orSpeaker Level. Aux level resides within thelower half of line level. The chart also showsat what voltages these categories exist.

One reason that the decibel is so useful in certain audio measurements is that this scalingfunction closely approximates the behavior of human hearing sensitivity. For example, a change of 1dB SPL is about the smallest difference in loudness that can be perceivedwhile a 3dB SPL change is generally notice-able. A 6dB SPL change is quite noticeableand finally, a 10dB SPL change is perceived as “twice as loud.”

34

AP

PE

ND

IX

B MICROPHONE


STUDIO

RECORDING

Appendix B: Transient Response

The ability of a microphone to respond to a rapidly changing sound wave.

A good way to understand why dynamic andcondenser mics sound different is to understandthe differences in their transient response.

In order for a microphone to convert sound ener-gy into electrical energy, the sound wave mustphysically move the diaphragm of the micro-phone. The speed of this movement depends onthe weight or mass of the diaphragm. Forinstance, the diaphragm and voice coil assemblyof a dynamic microphone may have up to 1000times the mass of the diaphragm of a condensermicrophone. The lightweight condenserdiaphragm starts moving much more quicklythan the dynamic’s diaphragm. It also takeslonger for the dynamic’s diaphragm to stop mov-ing in comparison to the condenser’s diaphragm.Thus, the dynamic’s transient response is not asgood as the condenser’s transient response. Thisis similar to two vehicles in traffic: a truck and asports car. They may have engines of equalpower, but the truck weighs much more than thecar. As traffic flow changes, the sports car canaccelerate and brake very quickly, while the semiaccelerates and brakes very slowly due to itsgreater weight. Both vehicles follow the overalltraffic flow but the sports car responds better tosudden changes.

The picture below is of two studio microphonesresponding to the sound impulse produced by anelectric spark: condenser mic on top, dynamicmic on bottom. It is evident that it takes almosttwice as long for the dynamic microphone torespond to the sound. It also takes longer for thedynamic to stop moving after the impulse haspassed (notice the ripple on the second half of thegraph). Since condenser microphones generallyhave better transient response then dynamics, theyare better suited for instruments that have verysharp attacks or extended high frequency outputsuch as cymbals. It is this transient response difference that causes condenser mics to have amore crisp, detailed sound and dynamic mics tohave a more mellow, rounded sound.

condenser/dynamic scope photo

JOHN BOUDREAU John, a lifelongChicago native, has had extensive experience as amusician, a recording engineer, and a composer. Hisdesire to better combine the artistic and technicalaspects of music led him to a career in the audio field.

Having received a BS degree in MusicBusiness from Elmhurst College, John performedand composed for both a Jazz and a Rock bandprior to joining Shure Brothers in 1994 as an associ-ate in the Applications Engineering group. While atShure, John led many audio product training semi-nars and clinics, with an eye to helping musiciansand others affiliated with the field use technology tobetter fulfill their artistic interpretations.

No longer a Shure associate, John continues topursue his interests as a live and recorded soundengineer for local bands and venues, as well aswriting and recording for his own band.

RICK FRANK Over his career, Rick hasbeen involved in a wide variety of music andrecording activities including composing, teaching,performing, and producing popular music, jazz andcommercial jingles. He has spent his life in Illinoiswhere he received his BS in English and his MBAfrom the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.While in downstate Illinois he also operated a successful retail musical instrument business andteaching program that coincided with working as aprofessional guitarist and electric bassist.

Rick’s work at Shure began as MarketingSpecialist for Music and Sound Reinforcement wherehe was responsible for researching and analyzingnew product concepts and introducing new wired andwireless products to the global market. He has pre-sented training seminars to audiences and writteninstructional materials on a variety of audio subjectsincluding Understanding Sound Reinforcement usingthe Potential Acoustic Gain Equation.

He is currently Marketing Manager for WiredMicrophones at Shure where he is responsible forMusic industry products including microphones andother products for recording and he continues to perform music professionally.

TIM VEAR Tim is a native of Chicago who has come to the audio field as a way of com-bining a lifelong interest in both entertainment andscience. He has worked as an engineer in livesound, recording and broadcast, has operated hisown recording studio and sound company, and hasplayed music professionally since high school.

At the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Tim earned a BS in Aeronautical andAstronautical Engineering with a minor inElectrical Engineering. During this time he alsoworked as chief technician for both the Speech andHearing Science and Linguistics departments.

In his tenure at Shure Brothers, Tim has servedin a technical support role for the sales and market-ing departments, providing product and applications training for Shure customers, dealers, installers, and company staff. He has presented seminars for a variety of domestic and international audiences,including the National Systems ContractorsAssociation, the Audio Engineering Society and the Society of Broadcast Engineers. Tim hasauthored several publications for Shure Brothersand his articles have appeared in RecordingEngineer/Producer, Live Sound Engineering,Creator, and other publications.

RICK WALLER Now residing in theChicago area, Rick grew up near Peoria, Illinois.An interest in the technical and musical aspects ofaudio has led him to pursue a career as both engi-neer and musician. He received a BS degree inElectrical Engineering from the University ofIllinois at Urbana/Champaign, where he specializedin acoustics, audio synthesis and radio frequencytheory. Rick is an avid keyboardist, drummer andhome theater hobbyist and has also worked as asound engineer and disc jockey. Currently he is anassociate in the Applications Engineering Group atShure Brothers. In this capacity Rick providestechnical support to domestic and international customers, writing and conducting seminars onwired and wireless microphones, mixers and otheraudio topics.

35

AB

OU

T

TH

E

AU

TH

OR

SMICROPHONETECHNIQUES FOR MUSIC

STUDIO

RECORDING

Shure Brothers Incorporated222 Hartrey Avenue, Evanston, Illinois U.S.A. 60202-3696

Phone: 800-25-SHURE Fax: 847-866-2279In Europe, Phone 49-7131-72140 Fax: 49-7131-721414

Outside of U.S. and Europe, Phone: 847-866-2200 Fax: 847-866-2585www.shure.com

Printed in the U.S.A. 1/98 10K AL1265

THE SOUND OF PROFESSIONALS... WORLDWIDE®

A D D I T I O N A L

S H U R E P U B L I C A T I O N S

A V A I L A B L E :

• Introduction to Wireless Systems (AL1204)

• Shure’s Selection and Operation of Wireless Microphone Systems (AL1247)

• The Shure Guide to Better Audio (for video production) (AL969D)

• Shure’s Microphone Selection and Application for Church Sound Systems (AL1116C)

• Shure’s Microphone Techniques for Music—Sound Reinforcement (AL1266)

These publications, as well as product brochures on all Shure products, may be obtained by contacting Shure at one of the phonenumbers listed below.

O T H E R S O U R C E S

O F I N F O R M A T I O N :

There are books and courses written about acoustics and how to mathematically determine their effects. Here are a few:

• FUNDAMENTALS OF MUSICAL ACOUSTICS by Arthur H. Benade

• ACOUSTICS SOURCE BOOK by Sybil P. Parker

• MODERN RECORDING TECHNIQUES by Huber & Runstein

• THE MASTER HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICS by F. Alton Everest

• SYNERGETIC AUDIO CONCEPTSwww.synaudcom.com

O U R D E D I C A T I O N

T O Q U A L I T Y P R O D U C T S

Shure offers a complete line of microphones and wireless microphone systems for everyone from first-time users to professionalsin the music industry–for nearly every possible application.

For over seven decades, the Shure name has been synonymous withquality audio. All Shure products are designed to provide consistent,high-quality performance under the most extreme real-life operatingconditions.

Audio - Shure Microphone Techniques for Music Studio Recording

Documents

Transcript of Audio - Shure Microphone Techniques for Music Studio Recording