Attributes & Methods• Attributes are the characteristics of object

/ class.

• Methods are the operations related to the object / class.

Example

Class Customers

Object/Instance A particular customer

Attribute (Characteristics of the object)

Name, Address, etc.

Methods (Operations related to the objects)

Add, update, delete, validate, etc.

Inheritance

Inheritance is usually identified by the phrase "is a kind of."

Generalization/Specialization

• When we move up in hierarchy of classes and sub classes, it is called Generalization

And

When we move down in hierarchy of classes and subclasses it is called Specialization

Example

• Classification is hierarchical in nature– A vehicle may be classified as truck or car.– A car may further be Sub-classified as

hatchback or sedan or sports or SUV

Generalization/SpecializationMore general

(Classes)

More specialized

(subclasses)

More general

More specialized

(subclasses)

Vehicle

Truck Car

SportsSedan

Example – Inheritance• A real customer such as “ABC Company" is an

object/instance of the class of customers. • If you have different kinds of customers, such

as domestic, commercial and industrial, you can create three new classes of customers that are derived from of the Customer class.

• These derived classes use inheritance to gain access to all of the common customer class attributes and methods.

• Special attributes which are unique to each class can also be defined.

Message-Passing

• Several objects may collaborate to fulfil each system action– For example, “Record CD sale” could involve:

• A CD stock item• A sales transaction • A sales assistant

• These instance communicate by sending each other messages

Encapsulation

• Encapsulation means information hiding

Operation called only via valid operation signature.

Data accessed only by object’s own operations

An object’s data is hidden encapsulated.

Message from another object requests a service.

An outer layer of operation

signatures…

…gives access to middle layer of operations…

…which can access inner core of data

Polymorphism

• The class “employee” has three sub classes.– Full time employee– Part time employee– Temporary employee

• Employee class has a method for computation of pay named as “calculatePay()”

• Each of the subclass will inherit the basic method of computation of pay, however the actual method of computation is unique to each subclass.

“ Polymorphism is the characteristic of being able to assign a different meaning or usage to something in different contexts - specifically, to allow an entity such as a variable, a method, or an object to have more than one form.”

Pay Clerk

1:calculatePay()

:Employee

::Salaried

:Daily Wage earners

:Piece work employees

Pay Clerk

2c: calculatePay()

Fixed monthly amount after deductions depending on grade

Variable amount depends on grade, hours worked and attendance.

Wages computed on basis of pieces produced/packed and approved.

2b: calculatePay()

2a: calculatePay()

What is Business Process Reengineering (BPR)?

• “Reengineering is the fundamental rethinking and redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service and speed.”

(Hammer & Champy, 1993)

• The focus of this technique or method is to smooth the procedures and approaches undertaken by various departments of an organization to achieve their respective objectives.

• The term rethinking refers to the idea of firstly studying and then analyzing all or any of the processes to any extent depending on the need and objective of change.

• The objectives to be achieved according to this definition are– To qualitatively enhance the efficiency of

delivery and production of goods and services.

– To achieve qualitative improvement in the handling of production, procedural and customer related matters.

Another Definition

• “The analysis and design of workflow and processes within and between organizations"

(Davenport and Short, 1990).

• It extends the concept of BPR by studying the links of various procedures used by and between organizations.

• A number of processes undertaken within the organization may have links with external organizations either as input or output.

• For example– Raw material purchases from suppliers is an integral part of planning,

production and sales. Hence making the supplier more efficient to deliver on time becomes critical.

– Industrial customers placing regular huge volume orders in accordance with theirs own plans. You as the supplier need this information to input into your own planning.

• The concept of BPR revolves around three foundations– Organization.– Existing and improved processes.– Technology to be used to accomplish these

processes.

• BPR is an activity that may need to be undertaken on regular basis.

Goals of BPR• BPR has three main goals to achieve

– Competitive Advantage– Effectiveness– Efficiency

Competitive Advantage• One of the main goals of introducing BPR is to

provide a competitive edge to the business and that can only be achieved by providing a better product in a timely fashion to the customers in accordance with their needs.

For Example:A petroleum company might be faced with issues such as:– The product is being tampered with before delivery to

points of sale.– The gasoline is not being delivered on time to the

points of sale.– The issues to be dealt at the dealer-owned-petrol

pumps.• Question: Why should it be worried, if at all?

Competitive Advantage

• The company may after the process review resolve the above stated issues as follows.– Redefining the design of the containers/tanker.– Installing tracking devices on the delivery vehicles– Setting up Company owned points of sale.– Eliminating storage depots and ensuring timely

direct deliveries to POS.

Effectiveness

• How effective is the manner in which the product or service is offered to the customer?

• This may include packaging, advertising, creating customer loyalty, timely availability in the market, understanding customer needs & requirements related to the particular product or service being offered.

Efficiency• The concept relates to

– not only how efficiently a quality product is manufactured, packed, stored and delivered to customers/points of sale

– but also • how quickly are customer complaints responded to, • in what manner are they removed, • what is the cost of not doing so as to be compared to the

cost of not doing so, and• how it can be made more efficient.

• Efficiency is not just about being efficient at the production floor level but the decision making at management level also has to be efficient.

• Customer might not be able to see all of the process but he can see the efficiency coming out of it.

Major steps in BPR• Senior managers may begin the task of process

alignment by a series of BPR steps. • These steps develop a self-reinforcing cycle of

commitment, communication, and culture change.

• The steps are as follows. – Gain commitment to change through the formulation

of the top team. – Develop a shared vision and mission of the business

and of what change is required. – Define the measurable objectives, which must be

agreed by the team, as being the quantifiable indicators of success in terms of the mission.

– Identify the Critical Success Factors (CSF’s) based on the mission of the organization.

Major steps in BPR

– Break down the CSF’s into the key or critical business processes and establish ownership.

– Break down the critical processes into sub-processes, activities and task and form teams to carry out these with responsibility.

– Re-design, monitor and adjust the process-alignment in response to difficulties in the change process.