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Figure 2.1a

Atomic number(number of protons)

Mass number(number of

protons plus neutrons)

Element symbol

12

6

C

He

Ne

Se Br

Cl

F

Ar

Kr

Xe

ONCB

SPSiAl

I

Ge AsGa

TeSbSnIn

MnCr

Po At RnPb BiTI

CoFeV CuNi Zn

Tm Yb LuHo ErDy

BeLi

MgNa

K ScCa Ti

MoNb RuTc PdRh AgYSrRb Zr

H

Cd

LaBa TaHf OsRe IrW AuPt HgCs

BhSg MtHs RgDs CnFr AcRa Rf Db

Md No LrEs FmCfAm Cm BkNp PuU

Eu Gd TbPm SmNd

Pa

Pr

Th

Ce

2

Table 2.1 3

Figure 2.8

Electron configuration Structural formula

Hydrogen gas (H2)

Space-filling model

Oxygen gas (O2)

Methane (CH4)

H H

H

O O

H

H HC

Ball-and-stick model

4

Figure 2.7-1

Na

Sodium atom

Cl

Chlorine atom

Na Cl

Figure 2.7-2

Completeouter shells

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Cl–

Chloride ion

Na++++ Cl–

Na

Sodium atom

Cl

Chlorine atom

Na Cl

Na++++

Sodium ion

5

– The polarity of water results in weak electrical

attractions between neighboring water molecules.

• These weak attractions are called hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen Bonds

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

O

H H(slightly ++++) (slightly ++++)

(slightly −)

6

Figure 2.9

Hydrogen bond

Slightlypositivecharge

Slightlynegativecharge

7

Figure 2.17a

OH−

OH−

OH−

OH−

OH−

OH−H++++

H++++

Basic solution

OH−

OH−

OH−OH−

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

OH−

OH−

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

Neutral solution

Acidic solution

8

Figure 3.UN02

Large biologicalmolecules

Functions Components Examples

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic acids

Dietary energy;storage; plantstructure

Long-termenergy storage(fats);hormones(steroids)

Enzymes,structure,storage, contraction,transport, etc.

Informationstorage

Monosaccharides:glucose, fructose;Disaccharides:lactose, sucrose;Polysaccharides:starch, cellulose

Fats (triglycerides);steroids(testosterone,estrogen)

Lactase(an enzyme);hemoglobin(a transport protein)

DNA, RNA

Monosaccharide

Components ofa triglyceride

Amino acid

Nucleotide

Sidegroup

T

9

Figure 3.16Aminogroup

Carboxylgroup

Sidegroup

Hydrophobicside group

Hydrophilicside group

The general structure of an amino acid

Leucine Serine

10

Figure 3.17-2

Dehydration reaction

Carboxyl Amino

Peptide bond

H2O

OH H

11

Figure 3.23

Nitrogenous base(A, G, C, or T)

Thymine (T)

Phosphategroup

Sugar(deoxyribose)

(a) Atomic structure (b) Symbol used in this book

Phosphate

Base

Sugar

T

12

Figure 3.24

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

Space-filling model of DNA

13

Figure 3.25

Sugar-phosphatebackbone

NucleotideBasepair

Hydrogenbond

Bases

(a) DNA strand(polynucleotide)

(b) Double helix(two polynucleotide strands)

T

G

C

T

G

A

T

G

C

A

C

T

A

A

A

T

A T

AT

G

14

Figure 4.12-3

Synthesis of

mRNA in the

nucleus

Nucleus

DNA

mRNA

Cytoplasm

mRNAMovement of

mRNA into

cytoplasm via

nuclear pore

Ribosome

Protein

Synthesis of

protein in the

cytoplasm

1

2

3

15

Figure 4.UN13

Light energy

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chloroplast

Mitochondrion

ATPCELLULAR

RESPIRATION

Chemical

energy

(food)

16


Animation: Energy Concepts

Right click slide / select “Play”

17

Figure 5.1

Climbing

converts kinetic

energy to

potential energy.

Greatest

potential

energy

Diving converts

potential

energy to

kinetic energy.

Least

potential

energy

18

Figure 5.4

Triphosphate Diphosphate

Adenosine Adenosine

Energy

ATP ADP

P P P P P P

Phosphate

(transferred

to another

molecule)

19

Figure 5.6

Cellular respiration:

chemical energy

harvested from

fuel molecules

Energy for

cellular work

ATP

ADP P

20

Figure 5.UN01

Energy for cellular work

Adenosine

Adenosine

diphosphateEnergy from

organic fuel

Phosphate

(can be transferred

to another molecule)

ATP

cycle

ATP ADP

P P P P P PAdenosine

Adenosine

triphosphate

21

Figure 5.9-1

Active site

Enzyme

(sucrase)

Ready for

substrate

1

22

Figure 5.9-2

Active site

Enzyme

(sucrase)

Ready for

substrate

Substrate (sucrose)

Substrate

binding

1

2

23

Figure 5.9-3

Active site

Enzyme

(sucrase)

Ready for

substrate

Substrate (sucrose)

Substrate

binding

Catalysis

H2O

1

2

3

24

Figure 5.9-4

Active site

Enzyme

(sucrase)

Ready for

substrate

Substrate (sucrose)

Substrate

binding

Catalysis

H2O

Fructose

Glucose

Product

released

4

1

2

3

25

Figure 6.2

Sunlight energyenters ecosystem

Photosynthesis

Cellular respiration

C6H12O6 CO2

drives cellular work

Heat energy exits ecosystem

ATP

O2 H2O

26

Figure 6.UN01

C6H12O6 CO2 ATPO2 H2O

Glucose Oxygen Carbon

dioxide

Water Energy

6 66

27

Figure 6.6

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

Animal cell Plant cell

Mitochondrion

Mitochondrion

High-energyelectronsvia carriermolecules

CitricAcidCycle

ElectronTransport

Glycolysis

Glucose

2Pyruvic

acid

ATP ATP ATP

28

Figure 6.7a

2 Pyruvic acid

Glucose

INPUT OUTPUT

29

Figure 6.7b-3

Energy investment phase

2 ATP2 ADP

Energy harvest phase

NADH

NADH

NAD++++

NAD++++ 2 ATP

2 ATP

2 ADP

2 ADP

P

PP

P

PP

P

– –

– –

2

2

3

3

1

P

30

Figure 6.9

(from glycolysis)

(to citric acid cycle)

Oxidation of the fuelgenerates NADH

Pyruvic acidloses a carbon

as CO2

Acetic acidattaches tocoenzyme APyruvic acid

Acetic acid Acetyl CoA

Coenzyme A

CoA

CO2

NAD++++ NADH

INPUT OUTPUT2

31

– –

31

Figure 6.10

3 NAD++++

ADP ++++ P

3 NADH

FADH2FAD

Aceticacid

Citricacid

Acceptormolecule

CitricAcidCycle

ATP

2 CO2

INPUT OUTPUT

3

12

4

5

– –

– –

6

32

Figure 6.11

Space betweenmembranes

Innermitochondrialmembrane

Electroncarrier

Proteincomplex

Electronflow

Matrix Electron transport chain ATP synthase

NADH NAD++++

FADH2 FAD

ATPADP

H2OO21

2

H++++

2

P

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++ H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++

H++++1

2

4

6

53

– –

– –

33

Figure 6.16

Glucose

2 ATP

2 NADH 2 NAD++++

2

++++ 2 P

2 Pyruvicacid

2 Ethyl alcohol

Glycolysis

INPUT OUTPUT

2 CO2 released

2 ADP

H++++++++

2 NADH2 NAD++++

– –– –

34

Figure 6.12a

Citric

AcidCycle

Electron

Transport

Glycolysis

Glucose2

Pyruvic

acid

2ATP

2ATP

2Acetyl

CoA

About28 ATP

by direct

synthesis

by direct

synthesisby ATP

synthase

35

Figure 7.2-3

Interior cell

LM

StromaGranum

Thylakoidspace

ChloroplastInner and outermembranes

Co

lori

zed

TE

MLeaf cross section

Stomata

Vein

CO2O2

Photosyntheticcells

36

Carbon

dioxide

6 O26 CO2 6 H2O C6H12O6

Water GlucosePhoto-

synthesis Oxygen gas

Light energy

The Simplified Equation for Photosynthesis 37

Figure 7.3-1

Light

H2O

O2

Chloroplast

Lightreactions

NADPH

ATP

– –

38

Figure 7.3-2

Calvincycle

CO2

NADP+

ADPP

Sugar

Light

H2O

O2

Chloroplast

Lightreactions

NADPH

ATP

++++

– –

39

Figure 7-UN02

Light reactions

CO2

O2

H2O

NADPH

Light

Sugar

ATP

ADP

P

NADP++++

Calvin cycle

– –

+

40

Figure 7-UN03

Light reactions

CO2

O2

H2O

NADPH

Light

Sugar

ATP

ADPP

NADP++++

Calvin cycle

– –

+

41

Figure 7.10-3

Primaryelectronacceptor

Water-splittingphotosystem

Light

H2O

2 H++++ O2++++

Energyto make ATP

Primaryelectronacceptor

2e–

Light

NADPH-producingphotosystem

Reaction-centerchlorophyll

2e–

NADPH

NADP++++

1

2

2e–

2e–

1

2

3

– –

Reaction-centerchlorophyll

42

Figure 7-UN07

NADPH

Calvincycle

ADP P

NADP++++

P

ATP

G3P

CO2

Glucose andother compounds(such as celluloseand starch)

– –

43

Figure 8.4

Duplicated chromosomes(sister chromatids)

TE

M

Tight helical fiber

Thick supercoil

TE

M

Centromere

Nucleosome

“Beads on a string”

Histones

DNA double helix

44

Figure 8.6

Cytokinesis

(division of

cytoplasm)Mitosis

(division

of nucleus)

Mitotic

(M) phase:

cell division

(10% of time)

Interphase: metabolism and

growth (90% of time)

S phase

(DNA synthesis; chromosome duplication)

G1 G2

45

Figure 8.7a

Nuclear

envelopePlasma

membrane

Chromosome

(two sister chromatids)Spindle microtubules

Fragments of

nuclear envelopeCentrosome

Centromere

Early mitotic

spindleCentrosomes

(with centriole

pairs) Chromatin

PROPHASEINTERPHASE46

Figure 8.7b

ANAPHASEMETAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Spindle Daughterchromosomes

Cleavagefurrow

Nuclearenvelopeforming

47

Figure 8.12

Multicellulardiploid adults(2n ==== 46)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

MITOSIS

2n

and development Key

Sperm celln

n

Diploidzygote(2n ==== 46)

Diploid (2n)

Haploid (n)

Egg cell

Haploid gametes (n ==== 23) 48

Figure 8.13-3

MEIOSIS I

Sister chromatidsseparate.

MEIOSIS II

Homologouschromosomesseparate.

INTERPHASE BEFORE MEIOSIS

Sisterchromatids

Duplicated pair of homologouschromosomes

Chromosomesduplicate.

Pair of homologouschromosomes in diploid parent cell

1 2 3

49

Figure 8.14a

MEIOSIS I: HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES SEPARATE

Sister chromatids

remain attached

Pair ofhomologous

chromosomes

INTERPHASE

Sister

chromatids

Homologouschromosomespair up andexchangesegments.

Chromosomesduplicate.

Pairs of homologouschromosomesline up.

Pairs of homologouschromosomessplit up.

Nuclear

envelopeChromatin Centromere

Microtubulesattached to chromosome

Sites of crossing over

Spindle

Centrosomes

(with centriole pairs)

PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

50

Figure 8.14b

TELOPHASE IIAND

CYTOKINESIS

Sister chromatidsseparate

ANAPHASE II

Cleavage

furrow

TELOPHASE I AND

CYTOKINESIS

Two haploidcells form;chromosomesare still doubled.

MEIOSIS II: SISTER CHROMATIDS SEPARATE

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II

Haploid daughtercells forming

During another round of cell division, the sisterchromatids finally separate; four haploiddaughter cells result, containing single

chromosomes.

51

Figure 8.15

Duplicated chromosome

MITOSIS

Prophase

Chromosomes

align.

Metaphase


Anaphase

Telophase

2n

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS I

Site of crossing over

Homologous pairs align.

Homologous chromosomes separate.


Haploid

n ==== 2

MEIOSIS II

Parent cell

n

MEIOSIS I

2n

n n n

52

Figure 8.18

Prophase I of meiosis Duplicated pair of homologouschromosomes

Chiasma, site ofcrossing over

Spindlemicrotubule

Homologouschromatids exchangecorrespondingsegments.

Metaphase I

Metaphase II

Sister chromatidsremain joined at theircentromeres.

Gametes

Recombinantchromosomes combinegenetic informationfrom different parents. Recombinant chromosomes

53

• A character is a heritable feature that varies

among individuals.

• A trait is a variant of a character.

• Each of the characters Mendel studied occurred in

two distinct traits.

In an Abbey Garden


54

Figure 9.4

WhitePurple

RecessiveDominant

Green Yellow

Terminal Axial

Wrinkled Round

Green Yellow

Seed

shape

Seed color

Flower

position

Flower

color

Pod color

RecessiveDominant

Pod

shape

Stem length

Inflated Constricted

Tall Dwarf

55

2. For each inherited character, an organism inherits two

alleles, one from each parent.

– An organism is homozygous for that gene if both alleles are

identical.

– An organism is heterozygous for that gene if the alleles are different.

Monohybrid Crosses


56

– Geneticists distinguish between an organism’s

physical appearance and its genetic makeup.

• An organism’s physical appearance is its phenotype.

• An organism’s genetic makeup is its genotype.

Monohybrid Crosses


57

Figure 9.6P Generation Genetic makeup (alleles)

Alleles carried by parents

Gametes

Purple flowersPP

White flowerspp

All P All p

pP

F1 Generation(hybrids)

F2 Generation(hybrids)

Allelessegregate

Gametes

Purple flowersAll Pp

21

21

Sperm fromF1 plant

Eggs fromF1 plant

Phenotypic ratio3 purple : 1 white

Genotypic ratio1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp

p

p

P

PPP Pp

Pp pp

58

Figure 9.7

Homologouschromosomes

P

Genotype:

Gene loci

P

a

aa

b

B

Dominantallele

Recessive

alleleBbPP

Homozygous

for the

dominant allele

Homozygous

for the

recessive allele

Heterozygous

with one dominant

and one recessiveallele

a

59

Figure 9.24

F1 Generation

P Generation

Gametes

Round-yellowseeds

(RRYY)

Wrinkled-greenseeds(rryy)

MEIOSIS

FERTILIZATION

MEIOSIS

All round-yellowseeds(RrYy)

Law of Segregation: Follow the longchromosomes (carrying R and r) takingeither the left or right branch.

The R and r alleles segregate inanaphase I of meiosis.

Only one longchromosome endsup in each gamete.

Gametes

Fertilization recombines the rand R alleles at random.

F2 Generation9 : 3 : 3 : 1

FERTILIZATION AMONG THE F1 PLANTS Fertilization results in the 9:3:3:1phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation.

They sort independently,giving four gamete types.

They are arranged in either oftwo equally likely ways atmetaphase I.

Law of Independent Assortment:Follow both the long and the shortchromosomes.

Metaphase I(alternative

arrangements)

Metaphase

II

Y

Y

Y

R R

R

y

y

y

r

r

r

r

r r

rr

r r r r

y

y y

yy

yy y y

RRRR

R R

R R

R

Y

Y Y

YY

Y Y Y Y

RY ry rY Ry4

1

4

1

4

1

4

1

60

Figure 9.26

Crossing overPair ofhomologouschromosomes

A

Recombinant gametes

B

A B

a b

a b

Parental gametes

A Bab

61

Figure 9.UN01

Meiosis

Haploid gametes

(allele pairs separate)

Diploid cell

(contains paired

alleles, alternateforms of a gene)

Diploid zygote

(contains

paired alleles)

Gamete

from other

parent

Alleles

Fertilization

62

DNA and RNA Structure

– DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.

• They consist of chemical units called nucleotides.

• A nucleotide polymer is a polynucleotide.

• Nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds between the

sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next,

forming a sugar-phosphate backbone.


63

Figure 10.1

Sugar-phosphatebackbone

Phosphate

group Nitrogenous base

DNA nucleotide

DNAnucleotide Thymine (T)

Sugar

Polynucleotide

DNAdoublehelix

Sugar

(deoxyribose)

Phosphategroup

Nitrogenous base(can be A, G, C, or T)

64

Figure 10.5

(c) Computer model(b) Atomic model(a) Ribbon model

Hydrogen bond

65

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

– Central dogma of molecular biology

• Formulated by Francis Crick

• Genetic information is transferred within biological system

in 3 distinct processes

– Replication

– Transcription

– Translation


66

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

– Replication

• creating an exact copy. Using nucleotide sequence in DNA to produce

another double stranded DNA molecule with the exact same

sequences

– Transcription

• Same language and essentially the same words but in a slightly

different format. Uses nucleotide sequence in DNA to produce an

equivalent nucleotide sequence in an RNA molecule

– Translation

• Converting words from one language into different words in a different

language. Using nucleotide sequence in RNA to produce a sequence of amino

acids in a polypeptide according to specific translation rules. In essence going

from the language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids.


67

Replication Transcription Translation

Template DNA DNA RNA

Polymer synthesized

DNA RNA Polypeptide

Monomernucleotide (deoxyribose)

nucleotide (ribose)

Amino acid

Polymerizing enzyme

DNA polymerase RNA polymerase ribosome

initiation site origin of replication promoterstart site (start codon)

termination site none terminator1 of 3 stop codons

68

Figure 10.8-3

DNA

Cytoplasm

NucleusRNA

Protein

TRANSCRIPTION

TRANSLATION

69

Figure 10.10

Amino acid

RNA

TRANSCRIPTION

DNA strand

Polypeptide

Codon

Gene 1

Gene 3

Gene 2DNA molecule

TRANSLATION

70

Figure 10.16a

tRNA binding sites

Ribosome

(a) A simplified diagram of a ribosome

Large

subunit

Smallsubunit

P site

mRNA

binding

site

A site

71

Figure 10.16b

Next amino acidto be added to polypeptide

Growing

polypeptide

tRNA

mRNA

(b) The “players” of translation

Codons

72

Figure 10.16

Next amino acidto be added to polypeptide

Growing

polypeptide

tRNA

mRNA

tRNA

binding sites

Codons

Ribosome

(b) The “players” of translation

(a) A simplified diagram

of a ribosome

Large

subunit

Small

subunit

P site

mRNA

binding

site

A site

73

Figure 10.19

Amino acid

Anticodon

A site

Codons

mRNA

P site

Polypeptide

Codon recognition

Peptide bond formation

Translocation

Stop codon

New peptidebond

mRNAmovement

2

1

3

ELONGATION

74

HOW AND WHY GENES ARE REGULATED

– Every somatic cell in an organism contains

identical genetic instructions.

• They all share the same genome.

• So what makes cells different from one another?


75

– In cellular differentiation, cells become

specialized in

• structure and

• function.

– Certain genes are turned on and off in the

process of gene regulation.

HOW AND WHY GENES ARE REGULATED


76

Patterns of Gene Expression in Differentiated Cells

– In gene expression,

• a gene is turned on and transcribed into RNA and

• information flows from

– genes to proteins and

– genotype to phenotype.

– Information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.

– The great differences among cells in an

organism must result from the selective

expression of genes.


77

Figure 11.1

Gene for a glycolysis enzyme

Hemoglobin gene

Antibody gene

Insulin gene

White blood cellPancreas cell Nerve cell

Co

lori

zed

TE

M

Co

lori

zed

TE

M

Co

lori

zed

SE

M

78

Gene Regulation in Bacteria

– Natural selection has favored bacteria that

express

• only certain genes

• only at specific times when the products are needed

by the cell.

– So how do bacteria selectively turn their genes

on and off?


79

Figure 11.2

Operon turned on (lactose inactivates repressor)

Lactose

Protein

mRNA

DNA

Protein

mRNA

DNA

Operon turned off (lactose absent)

80

Genes That Cause Cancer

– As early as 1911, certain viruses were known to

cause cancer.

– Oncogenes are

• genes that cause cancer and

• found in viruses.


81

Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes

– Proto-oncogenes are

• normal genes with the potential to become oncogenes,

• found in many animals, and

• often genes that code for growth factors, proteins that

stimulate cell division…

• …or tumor supressor genes which code for proteins that

inhibit cell growth and division


82

Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes

– A cell can acquire an oncogene

• from a virus or

• from the mutation of one of its own proto-oncogenes.


83

Figure 11.17

New promoter

Normal growth-stimulating

protein in excess

Hyperactive

growth-stimulatingprotein

Gene in

new position,

under new controls

Multiple copies

of gene

DNA

Mutation withingene

Proto-oncogene

Oncogene

84

Figure 11.UN09Proto-oncogene

(normal) Oncogene

Mutation

Normal protein

Mutant protein

Defective protein

Mutation

Normal regulationof cell cycle

Normal growth-inhibitingprotein

Out-of-controlgrowth (leadingto cancer)

Mutatedtumor-suppressor

gene

Tumor-suppressorgene (normal)

85

Homeostasis

– Homeostasis is the body’s ability to stay relatively

unchanged even when the world around it

changes.

– The internal environment of vertebrates includes

the interstitial fluid that

• fills the spaces between cells and

• exchanges nutrients and wastes with microscopic

blood vessels.


86

Figure 21.12

Externalenvironment

Large external changes

HOMEOSTATICMECHANISMS

Small internal changes

Animal’s internalenvironment

87

Negative and Positive Feedback

– Most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on a

principle called negative feedback,

• in which the results of a process inhibit that same

process,

• such as a thermostat that turns off a heater when room

temperature rises to the set point.


88

Figure 21.13

Thermostat(control center)turns heater off

Thermostat(control center)turns heater on

Set point:Room temperature20°C (68°F)

Roomtemperaturedrops

Roomtemperaturerises

Response:Heatingstops

Response:Heatingstarts

Stimulus:Room temperatureis above set point

Stimulus:Room temperatureis below set point

89

– Less common is positive feedback,

• in which the results of a process intensify that same

process,

• such as uterine contractions during childbirth.

Negative and Positive Feedback


90

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