At-Large vs. District Elections

Consequences for Representation

Advantages of At-Large Systems Members represent the whole city, not just

their own district. Reduced divisiveness and factions.

Voters can choose from a broader base of candidates.

No battles over how to draw district lines.

Advantages of District Elections Encourages personal campaigning. Encourages attention to neighborhood

concerns. Easier for new candidates to win election. Lower cost of campaigning. Enhances descriptive representation and

shared policy views/ideology.

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 Original goal: eliminating Black disenfranchisement when a group is prohibited or discouraged from

voting.

Later extended to vote dilution of Blacks and language minorities. when the votes of a group are manipulated to count

less than those of another group (Whites).

Reynolds v. Sims (1964) Voting includes “all action necessary to make a

vote effective.”

White v. Regester (1973) Multimember districts are unconstitutional if they

dilute minority votes.

Thornburg v. Gingles (1986)

At-large elections often present an unconstitutional dilution of minority vote strength.

Use of Electoral System by City Size

Small (<25,000 pop.)

Medium (25,000-199,999)

Large (>200,000)

At-large 59% 58% 13%

District 24% 27% 49%

Mixed 17% 18% 38%

Source: National League of Cities, 2003.

How At-Large Systems Dilute

City X 9 seats 2/3 White 1/3 Black

Likely result of at-large elections: 9 White council members

WhiteVoters

BlackVoters

Music for the Prom

10 students gather to choose five songs to feature at the school prom. Six students like top-forty. Four prefer hip-hop.

Under normal circumstances, the group might agree to choose three top-forty and two hip-hop tunes.

However, if they voted using the winner-take-all voting method, all five selections would be Top Forty.

Source: Lani Guinier: The Tyranny of the Majority (1994)

How District Systems Help

City X 9 seats 2/3 White 1/3 Black

Likely result of district elections: 6 White council members, 3 Black

WhiteVoters

BlackVoters

Complications…

If racial and ethnic groups are not residentially segregated, district elections will not result in proportional representation.

Cracking & Packing

The Bottom Line:

While the ability of at-large districts to represent Blacks has improved dramatically in recent decades… …Blacks are most equitably

represented by district elections.

Black Representation All cities:

.82 in at-large systems 1.06 in district systems .77 in mixed systems

Southern cities: .71 in at-large systems .95 in district systems .72 in mixed systems

Source: Susan Welch, “The Impact of At-Large Elections on the Representation of Blacks and Hispanics.” Journal of Politics 52, 4 (Nov. 1990).

Representational parity = 1.0

Latinos are abysmally underrepresented in all systems. District elections do not promote more

equitable representation for Latinos. Latinos have fared quite well in at-large

systems in California.

Latino Representation

Latino Representation All cities:

.47 in at-large systems .38 in district systems .56 in mixed systems

In California: .48 in at-large systems .27 in district systems .17 in mixed systems

Representational parity = 1.0

What Helps Latinos? Latinos do better under district systems

in cities with more residential segregation.

Latinos do better under district systems as their proportion of the population increases (>20%). .65 for at-large systems .71 for district systems

What About Hayward?

Would district elections bring descriptive representation for Hayward Latinos?

Latino Residential Segregation Menlo Park: .75 Oakland: .70 Hayward: .29 Fremont: .18 Alameda: .18 San Leandro: .19

Source: US Census

Guinier’s Critique District elections are a short-term fix

that merely move the effect of racial prejudice from the voting booth to the process of government. Elected minorities are then outvoted by more

numerous White elected officials.

Surrounding districts are made even more white.

What is Representation?

Descriptive Representation vs.

Substantive Representation

Summing Up

District elections are better at providing descriptive representation for blacks, but have a mixed record for Latinos.

District elections may hamper substantive representation and ultimately limit minority political power.