Assignment 3. Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646 Two ...€¦ · elevated to the status of...

Assignment 3.

Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646 Contents:

● Four pages of notes (for three chapters in WHA, 15th-17th century) ● Two annotations of paintings ● One 500 word analysis ● References for assignment 3

The reflection for this assignment is on the blog: https://westernarthistorybysuzy.wordpress.com/category/assignments/assignment-3/

https://westernarthistorybysuzy.wordpress.com/category/assignments/assignment-3/

Suzy Walker-Toye. Student ID 510646. A World History of Art notes 1 of 4

The Fifteenth - Seventeenth Century in Europe

1 Political, economic or social factors

Giangaleazzo Visconti’s death in 1402 meant that the Florentines could expand towards the coast, transforming from citystate to region state. They embraced their Roman republican history with a Classical revival in art & architecture (rejecting the Northern associated Gothic style). The Humanist movement spread during the 15th c, interest in man, science, nature, antiquity, which had an effect on styles & types of art & architecture.They gazed inwards & outwards but usually not upwards. Humanists favoured ornamental statuettes and medals, Intended to inspire philosophical thought . Mythological stories from the classical era came back into vogue but were often used as allegories for Christian concepts eg Hercules as a Christian knight, a symbol of ‘Renaissance Man’, the mortal who achieves immortality by his own efforts. Dichotomy rather than a conflict in Renaissance

thought between Christianity and humanism. Padua university was one of the main centers for humanist study in Europe. World economies were starting to slowly recover from the major depression of the dark ages. “ merchants

and bankers, who found trade stagnant and agriculture unremunerative, sometimes turned to investment in

culture, which, thanks to the humanists, had acquired prestige value .” p444. Large scale oil paintings became popular because they were often conceived as an inexpensive substitute for tapestries. Italy & Flanders were the two most densely urbanized areas of Europe & two great centres of art. Flemish art was exported to all parts of Europe. This was a period of reform movements for the church, famous religious images were created (much of them as frescos) by Fra Angelico & Paolo Uccello in Florence in the 15th c. In Italian devotional paintings, gold backgrounds gave way to landscapes. There was a hostility towards the conspicuous display of wealth.

In the 16th c, Protestant Reformation called into question teachings & practice of the Catholic Church, the invention of printing allowed the spread of information amongst the masses. Large devotional donations were made for the sake of the soul by wealthy men, as plague was seen as punishment for sin. In Germany, new urban culture developed on the recovery of trade & industry after the Black Death. Protestant art started appearing after the Peasants War,1524-6, (against the landed nobility & higher clergy). Partoniage declined, artists & sculptors were forced to take up other occupations or emigrate, including famously, Hans Holbein the Younger who moved the England to the court of Henry VIII. Across Europe, war, riots & political stress broke out as countries struggled to accept or reject Lutheranism, & later, the Counter Reformation.In Italy, a highly turbulent period spawned the High renaissance, Florence passed from republic to autocratic rule of the Medici and back to republic again, northern Italy was twice invaded by France, the Papacy struggled with extending its power and Rome was sacked in 1527 by German and Spanish Mercenaries. Venice remained richer than any other city in Italy by resisting political & economic domination, trading with Asia, & retaining a republic system of government. Venetian patricians turned to farmers to keep economic independence from the north. Patronage in Venice was by both state & private but not the church. By this time, patrons & art collectors were becoming savvy connoisseurs looking to collect new artworks that demonstrated their artistic knowledge, good taste and religious understanding. Three main artists emerged, but did not form a group, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio 1483-1520). All religious art of the Counter Reformation era was scrutinized in being in strict accordance with the decrees of the Council of Trent to eliminate any imagery which might be misconstrued as profane, pagan or heretical, for example Michelangelo's Last

Judgement was condemned. El Greco was the last great artist of this period.The rapid expanding Spanish empire emerged as the leading power of the latter part of the 16th c, strong supporters of the Counter Reformation.

The most momentous event of 17th c history was the rise of Dutch republic (where there was freedom of speculation), which coincided with the decline of Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, & the end of 30 Yrs’ war which devastated Germany. Calvinism was overriding religion but others were tolerated. New prosperity was founded on free enterprise & worldwide maritime trade rather than agriculture. The aristocracy was replaced by upper classes consisting of bankers/merchants/manufacturers, all with a desire to own art so easel painting contributed to Dutch economy. In England too, where the new parliamentary government was being accepted. The century heralded in great advances in science, philosophy & mathematics, techniques based on scepticism and trial & error (eg the time of Newton). Rome recovered from protestant reformation and was once again a centre for the arts. The first art academy was founded Florence in 1563 and in the 1580s. Carracci organised meetings of artists to free them from the craft guilds. Jean-Baptiste Colbert reformed the Parisian Academy of arts and crafts.

2 Changes to status or training of artists

Renaissance attitudes draw a distinction between architect & builder, artist & craftsmen. Although only in Italy were artists worthy enough to appear in collections of writings about famous men (the inventors of oil painting in Flanders were never recorded). Dutchman Jan van Eyck made it into writings from the court of the king of Naples. Albert Dürer was obsessed with status but still ranked with other mere craftsmen in Germany. The shift in attention from the value of materials to the skill of the artists coincide with a shortage of precious metals (used in gilding). Prominent goldsmiths turned to painting eg Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Verrocchio, Botticelli & even Dürer. “ Ironically, their work as painters has been preserved partly

because painting materials had little intrinsic value. ” p444 Most goldsmiths work would have been melted down by now. Patrons commissioned arts for aesthetic reasons. Public art competitions funded by the guilds promoted art & culture. Donatello Badi (c1386-1466) started off as Ghiberti’s assistant for the first bronze doors on the


Baptistery, establishing himself as an independent artist who revitalized every form of sculpture. His pupil Bertoldo di Giovanni (c1420-91) later became master of Michelangelo. Architect,Filippo Brunelleschi was the 1st of a new type, had not served apprenticeship at a masonic lodge & created a ‘master’ piece.

In the 16th C, for the first time artists took their place among the great minds of the age . Top regarded Artists were Italian (except Dürer), their art & career details spread by printed accounts across Europe. They were highly sort after by Kings & Popes. This change is status is also as a result of Alberti’s treatise on architecture, painting & sculpture, meaning that visual arts could be liberal arts & artists weren't just artists anymore, their other accomplishments were taken into account. Leonardo da Vinci, a scientist & daring experimental thinker, Michelangelo a poet, & Raphael an architect. Only Venetian artist Titian (1490-1576) seem to have no other notable claims to fame. Da Vinci’s thoughts on great minds (see below) “ presuppose that ‘art’ is

much more than ‘craft’ and lead directly to the notion of a great artist as ‘a genius ’” p466. Michelangelo’s Sistine Ceiling was a commission which demonstrates the rising status of the artist through the idea of artistic license (the pope let him do what he wanted). In Germany, the woodcarvers gained recognition of craft and belonged to the middle ranking of society, were members of guilds, with 1, T Riemenschneider, becoming mayor of Wurzburg. Titian maintained his independence turning down offers from Popes & Kings and made himself the most sort after artists in Europe, so much so he could work largely for who he wished and on what he wished. “ The contrast between his career and that of the constantly thwarted and disappointed Michelangelo is poignot ” p490

The 17th C saw art collecting & dealing grow with the growth of the academies, and popularity of easel painting as it was easily transportable. Also, the subject of the paintings in demand from the various patrons differed, eg middle class households wanted landscapes & simple still lifes (genre ) whereas Kings wanted portraits as propaganda pieces & the Counter Reformists wanted glorious Baroque epics. Artists under the patronage of the monarchy rose in prominence in society eg Rubens & Anthony van Dyck, & reflected this in their works eg Las Meninas by Velázquez. Both Dutch & Spanish artists worked towards getting their work to be elevated to the status of liberal art & away from the craft guilds for the status in society it provided, eg could be admitted to the ranks of nobility, they would be exempt from tax & military service etc. Rembrandt used 250 or more etchings to spread his fame across Europe, (including the famed hundred-guilder print ).

3 Development of materials and processes The 15th C saw a blend or the arts & sciences. Artists fascinated with mathematics/geometry such as

Uccello & Piero della Francesca. Interested in the ‘golden section’, supposedly would provide the key to the harmony of the heavens. New interest in light & optics, and colour harmonies. Brunelleschi is credited with the invention of linear perspective producing a scientific method of working out how to render relative distances. The key to his system is the idea of a central vanishing point on a series of orthogonal lines and that any objects along these lines would be subject to the laws of geometry. This concept “raised the art of painting to a science”

and imposed a rational order on the visible world. Taken up by Masaccio, who also revitalized the human figure, he created convincing illusions of mass in his frescos in Brancacci Chapel. The Flemish discovered linear perspective by trial & error. Oil painting was developed to obtain a an effect more bright & luminous than tempera. Those using oil could build up a picture of shimmering tones slowly, allowing for more precise detail than before. Religious works also benefited from new processes so that art could reach the masses, cheaper materials such as glazed terracotta (previously used for plates etc) were used by Florentine sculptures to keep up with the demand for reliefs of Virgin & Child. Painters of V&C were called, madonnieri . The Ghent altarpiece by Hubert & Jan van Eyck was painted in Oils & “ succeeded in translating abstruse theological discourse into a

pellucid visual language .” p427. Watercolour on paper technique developed before 16th pigments mixed with gum that dissolved in water, required the same quick dexterity as fresco (but on a smaller scale). Demand for wooden marriage cassoni effectively started a new artform of carved & painted wood. The revolutionary art of printing developed mid-15th c in Venice, started with woodcut printing techniques, then engravings in metal.

The 16th c saw new techniques of pictorial representation, invented/perfected by da Vinci. Chiaroscuro (effect of light and dark to create effect of relief or modelling), sfumato (misty, soft blending of colours), hazy atmospheric effects, indicating distance by grading tones and muting of colours. He was the first to draw anatomically correct figures (from dissecting corpses)! The Contrapposto principle was also developed to convey even more natural poses which contribute to overall rhythm of compositions. eg Fra Bartolommeo, Carondelet Altarpiece. The idea of Harmonious unity developed which inspired architects as well as painters. Raphael’s frescoes in the Vatican use contrasting colours to create an animating pattern but the great innovation in them is the relationship of the figures to their architectural context (conceived after the arrangement of the figures). He invented the relaxed ¾ length & ¾ face pose for portraits (developed by Titian). Michelangelo innovatively solved the problems with painting curved surfaces in the Sistine Chapel. He also started the process of making full sized models mostly carved by assistants, added finishing touches himself, a process used for next 4 centuries. Giorgione (1476-1510) was the first artist to explore luminous effect of oil painting on canvas as opposed to wood but it was Titian who really exploited the possibilities it presented for the 1st time using vigorous brush strokes on the rough texture of the canvas. Titian had a new attitude to painting displayed in new techniques of bold, heavily loaded brush strokes and smudges, finishing paintings with highlights and smudging to tone down contrasts.


Venetian Renaissance Architects solved the problem of adding a Classical temple into a church with Andrea Palladio’s design for S Georgio Maggiore. He also designed mathematical harmoniously proportioned private villas. Contrapposto was developed further by 16th century sculptors. In the 17th C, the use of colour & light was heavily developed, the chiaroscuro technique was developed with expressions and contrapposto poses. Rubens made sketches from life but his final works were built from colour & light rather than line, allowing him to offload a lot of his commissions onto his assistants adding only the final touches. Claude Gellée/Lorraine spent many solitary hours with his sketchbooks observing different effects of natural light on the landscape. Jan Vermeer created extraordinary luminosity in his paintings by techniques based on optical experiments and meticulous observation of reflected colours, eg unique capture of sparkle light in minute pearl-like dots. In sculpture, Bernini’s use of colour in St Peter’s was unprecedented and he also developed a technique of carving portrait busts so the presence of the whole body was felt. Borromini’s innovative intersecting equilateral circles and triangles for S Ivo della Sapienza resulted in spatial unity without intervening elements or loss of variety or movement.

4 Styles and movements

The Italian Renaissance in architecture began in Florence, the first Renaissance building is usually cited as the Foundling Hospital (designed by Brunelleschi in 1419). The Pazzi Chapel, 1440, is also ascribed to Brunelleschi. Main features are geometric forms & purity of mathematical proportions rejecting fanciful Gothic design & embracing the Roman column, the round arch & the rectangular window. Some thought Renaissance churches were unspiritual, “No mysterious depths or soaring heights, no sense of the beyond.” p417. The local style in Padua remained mostly Gothic despite being a center for humanist thought. “No previous movement in

Western art had been so self-conscious” p416. In painting, the new style was all about naturalism & realistic 3D illusion. Van Eyck was 1 of the 1st great descriptive painters of portraits & Rogier van der Weyden with less attention to detail. Flemish artists preferred the 3/4 view which introduces a sense of movement as the sitter has

to turn, advancing from the pictorial spaces and establishing a rapport with the viewer. p429 Italians of the same period favoured pure profiles, reminiscent of heads on antique coins & dissociating the sitter from the viewer. “The Flemish were preoccupied largely with natura naturata (the created world), the Italians with natura naturans (the creative force behind it).” p430 this mainly affected painting. Flemish paintings were full of spiritual significance & symbols even though they were of contemporary landscapes. Everyday household items meant something specific, eg roses, lilies & a candlestick can all symbolise the Virgin. Botticelli painted mythological scenes (eg :La Primavera ) which were painted on a scale previously reserved for religious works. Venetian synthesis was its own style, Bellini blended Flemish and Florentine realism with softness & uniquely narrative style of his own, the ‘eye-witness style’ was much imitated. Sculpture in Venice was primarily classical. Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) developed northern style of Renaissance art.

In the 16th Century the Italian Renaissance spread north & was gradually accepted in Northern Europe but co-existed with Gothic in early in the century (e.g. Tomb of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey). Gothic styles, Perpendicular , in England and Flamboyant style in France, persisted until mid to late 16th century. In the Netherlands Jan van Eyck's legacy lived on, although Hieronymous Bosch (Jeroen van Aken 1450-1516) had a unique style with disturbing visions. In protestant countries art reflected Lutheran ideas, & there was demand for portraits of the reformers, provided by artists such as Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder & Dürer. Albrecht Altdorfer painted the earliest landscapes, devoid of figures of narrative content, they were a new kind of religious picture. In Italy, High Renaissance came into being from turmoil with art of serene and elevated

conception, of great but controlled energy and above all classical balance . p466. Style is characterised by the work of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo & Raphael. In sculpture, Michelangelo’s David was the first nude to be sculpted such a large scale since antiquity (not in an entirely Classical style). In Architecture, da Vinci experimented with designs for a free standing church, centrally planned with a hemispherical dome, which was realised by Bramante in the Tempietto, Rome. In this amazing period, the Mona Lisa (Leonardo), the Stanza della Segnatura (Raphael) & the Sistine chapel (Michelangelo) were all painted. In Venice, a contemporary of Raphael, Giorgione’s work emphasised the mystery & magic of the Renaissance style but lacked the rationality of it. Another rising Venetian star of the period was Titian. Later, the Mannerist style, associated with generation of artists after the fab three, it has been defined as the antithesis of naturalism, art historians have interpreted this style as an intentional deviation from the previous generation. Notable artists associated with this style are Tintoretto, Correggio and Parmigianino.

Two artists breathed new life into Rome with new styles in 17th C, Annibale Carracci (idealism), and Caravaggio (naturalism). Caravaggism spread to Italy, Spain, France, & Netherlands with illuminated figures against plain/dark backgrounds & naturalism that replaced symbolism. Only superficial differences define the distinction between Baroque & other 17th c styles such as those of the Naturalists , and the Classicists . High Baroque art usually has a set program that you can ‘read’, a dynamic and dramatic tension between naturalism & classicism, between light & dark, between illusion & reality and always movement. Some of the greatest European artists came from this period, Rubens, Poussin, Bernini, van Dyck, Velázquez & Rembrandt. Louis XIV style, was Baroque style on steroids, flamboyant & rich to excess. Classical landscape developed by Claude Gellée/Lorraine into one of highest art forms & an independent genre (outside of the netherlands) representing a


pastoral world of a Classical Golden Age. In the Dutch republic, easel painting, driven by the demand for art dealing, promoted the development of many independent genres we know today, landscapes, seascapes, portraits, low-life scenes, still life etc. Rachel Ruysch was the first female artist to gain a major international reputation with her specialism in flower pieces.

5 Inside and outside influences

The Ancient Romans influenced many artists of the Renaissance, for example medals and portrait busts appeared again in the 15th century, Pisanello made them an art form and Desiderio da Settignano is 1 of the 1st to have carved portrait busts since the Romans. Brunelleschi & Lorenzo Ghiberti’s design for the dome of the Florence Cathedral was perhaps inspired by the great domes of mosques in Persia but Brunelleschi visited Rome to study the ancient monuments and buildings (perhaps the first since ancient times). He was also influenced by Tuscan Romanesque architecture. Flemish & Italian artists influenced each other during 15th and 16th century. For example the Domenico Ghirlandaio decoration & frescos in the Sassetti Chapel, Florence, where the altarpiece is an oil painting (a Flemish technique at the time) & 2 figures derive from a Flemish artist Hugo van der Goes. St Sebastian was an influence at a time of plague and sickness being patron saint of the sick.

In the 16th Century, German painter Grünewald, Mathis Gothardt Neithardt (d 1528), painted a very violent, tortured crucifixion, the Isenheim Altarpiece, inspired by the mystical writings St Bridget of Sweden, but also perhaps inspired by the inhabitants of the monastery's hospital for skin diseases. Humanism continues to influence artists across Europe, additionally Lutheranism. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael influenced each other and everyone else. Michelangelo was influenced by Neoplatonism. Titian was influenced by literary texts such as Ovid for his works for Philip II. Two young Venetians, Tintoretto and Veronese were influenced by the colouring of Titian and the drawing of Michelangelo in the 1550s.

In the 17th Century artists continued to influence each other and finding inspiration from Antiquity, High renaissance artists and Venetian artists such a Titian. Flemish artists such as Rubans were influenced by Italian artists. Artists also took inspiration from Nature like never before. Caravaggio influenced artists such as Artemisia Gentileschi. The design of Versaille in France almost certainly influenced Sir Christopher Wren’s redesign for Hampton Court Palace. In France, the academy was very formally Classical but towards the end of the century voices raised in dissent admirers of Rubans contested the supremacy of Poussin, p606, and Dutch and Flemish work started to influence the path of french artists.

6 Critics, thinkers and historians

Many of the great thinkers & historians of the 15th & 16th C were Humanist scholars. Leonardo Bruni

(c 1370-1444), humanist & historian, reflected on Florence. Bartolommeo Fazio, humanist employed in the court of King Alfonso V of Aragon (Naples), wrote a book of famous men in 1456, including Jan van Eyck (praising his technical and scientific accomplishment, ascribing their origin to Pliny, the “ leading painter of our time” ), also Rogier van der Weyden. The only other painters discussed were Gentile da Fabriano and Pisanello. Carlo

Marsuppini, was a classical scholar who 1st translated Homer into Italian. Georgio Vasari, Italian painter, architect & historian (his treatise Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects, 1550, is considered the foundation of art-history) wrote of Venetian Mantegna that his idealisation of faith and style was deeply indebted to antiquity. Lorenzo Ghiberti’s commentaries define the idea of Renaissance & include a history of art from mid-15th C. Piero della Francesca published many works, eg treatise on geometrical bodies & perspective & abacus for merchants. Gianozzo Manetti ( 1396-1459), declared, the truths of the Christian

religion are as self evident as the laws of mathematics . P418. Antonio Filarete (1400-49), architect & theorist, blessed Brunelleschi for reviving in Florence the ancient style of building in such a way that today in churches &

private buildings no other style is used. Leon Battista Alberti wrote treaty of painting, architecture & sculpture. Notable humanist Desiderius Erasmus is said to have ‘ laid the egg that Luther hatched’ p.458.

Leonardo da Vinci, had thousands of unpublished pages of illustrated notes on artistic theory, human anatomy, natural history & many other topics. “ Great minds often produce more by working less” p466 He was the 1st thinker to be independent of classical & medieval thought. Imitation of Christ possibly by Thomas a Kempis was a work of anti-worldly & anti-intellectual piety, translated & printed in 4 languages is said to have had almost as much influence as the contemporary vernacular translations of bible. Architect & writer, Palladio, published his own book writing about Bramante’s work in Rome & the initiation of new phase of Renaissance architecture. Luca Landucci’s journal on art was 1 of the most influential of its time.

In the 17th Century there was a revolt against established thought, starting with Francis Bacon. René

Descartes, philosopher, mathematician & scientist wrote his Discourse on Method in 1637, “ I think therefore I

am ”. Karel van Mander , painter & writer, wrote of Caravaggio works in Rome. Annibale Carracci’s work (1560-1609) provided basis for all academic teaching for next 2 centuries substituting for the Neoplatonic metaphysical ‘Idea’. Giovanni Pietro Bellori was an influential art theorist & biographer of Carracci, claimed he rescued art from the Mannerists & criticised Caravaggio. Charles-Alphonse Dufresnoy , Charles Lebrun & André Félibien all supplemented Bellori’s lectures on ‘ Lives of Modern Painters, Sculptors and Architects ’. Francisco Pacheco (1564-1654) was an inspector of art for the Inquisition & important spanish art writer of the time. Constantijn Huygens was a Dutch Calvinist. Samuel van Hoogstraten was a Dutch painter & art theorist.

Fidessa

The oil paint has been carefully blended to make the soft, seamless shadows to model the scene with such accuracy. He has used translucent glazes applied in layers to generate the rich colours of the different fabrics and showing the other different surfaces and textures such as the translucent beads, the wood and the peoples skin.

The little dog, the edge of the dress and shoes at the bottom appears closest to us due to their vertical placement in the composition. Dog is a symbol of faithfulness in marriage but this detail must have been painted from life.

Diagonal lines of perspective of the bed and window conflict with the V shape that their arms make.

Vertical Lines: The man and woman are standing vertical in the composition either side of the mirror on the back wall. The man’s vertical hand stops your eye on its travel to the right and the woman’s vertical fur sleeve lining stops your eye on its travel left so you don’t end up going out of the picture. The hanging bit on the front of the bed is also effective at stopping your eye before you reach the edge at the left and the vertical sections of the window stop you on the right. These help frame the couple. The man’s tabard is also a strong vertical within his clothes The highlights on the chandelier make it virtually point at the mirror beneath it. The rug between them, and the lines of the floorboards are vertical perspective lines which leads from the couple back into the room. The few horizontal lines are mainly at the back of the room and the line of the floorboard and chest where the oranges are sitting but they are not really dominant.

The man is seemingly painted with almost photographic accuracy, high cheekbones, long lean face, prominent nose & a slightly cleft chin. His greyish eyes are deep-set with a cold stare. Its “accuracy” appears truthful. He wears stylish & expensive dark colour clothes (as per the fashion at court sported by Duke Philip to whom van Eyck was court painter).

Lines important compositionally to represent depth and lead the eye: Diagonal perspective lines draws you in to point at the signature and the mirror at the vanishing point. Lines of rug, floorboards, window, blinds, bed & bed canopy, and chandelier reinforce this depth.

The room feels 3 dimensional because we glimpse the furniture behind them (overlapping), the representation of depth is also strengthened by diminishing scale, her shoes in the background are much smaller than those in the foreground. Atmospheric perspective also used, the distorted perspective in the mirror has the room reflected and two hazy figures in it. The modelling of the various textures in the room, especially all the folds in her dress make the illusion realistic.

Colours: A narrow colour palate makes it feel simple, orderly & uncluttered but the simple colour scheme does seem artificial because its balanced by the more natural beiges and dark colours. Contrasting colours of red and green of her dress and the furnishings make sure appear prominent in the picture, his dark clothes make him seem to recede in comparison. The slightly warm palate makes the place seem inviting and homely, she is in green with a quite peaceful if not exactly happy expression, the red and green contrast add tension to her. The woman is painted in bright colours and the man in dark, this also draws your eye to her first. Use of contrasting colour values pick out areas of interest, the man’s clothes & hat are dark against the pale skin of his hand and face making his portrait stand out. The woman’s features stand out less because there is less of a contrast with her light headdress there. The mirror & chandelier have highlights picking them out as points of interest and the women’s white fur trim stands out too. Contrasting colour values are also used to model three-dimensional forms of the folds of the giant dress and lush fabrics on the furniture. The distribution of the colour values helps pull your eye around the composition, from mirror to headdress/face of the women, the lines lead you to the man’s face and hand then down his clothes to the bright area where his clogs are, back past the dog to the woman’s dress and up again.

The woman‘s face is more idealistic. Her face is tilted down modestly, her face oval and slightly plump with a tiny dimple in her chin, her skin is very smooth and creamy. There are highlights from the reflection of the white headdress under her jaw. Something is not quite right with the proportions, her forehead looks massive and her eyebrows are too high (and too thin but this could have been the fashion to over-pluck). “In his Ghent altarpiece, the faces of the angels have the same characteristic high eyebrows, puffy skin below them, the long straight nose and rosebud month“, eg the angel of Annunciation. “Vision of idealised holy beauty.” (Hicks, 2012)

Assignment 3. Annotation 1

Suzy Walker-Toye (510646)

Portrait of Giovanni(?) Arnolfini and his Wife, 1434 Jan van Eyck, active 1422; died 1441 Oil on oak, 82.2 x 60 cm Bought, 1842 © The National Gallery, London

The brighter colour of oranges loose on the sideboard draw attention to them. These were a luxury item showing off their wealth. Other luxury items were the mirror, their choice of dyed fabrics on the bed, the bed, the type of fur and materials on their clothes and the colour

Fertility is a vital quality in a wife. She may or may not be pregnant, van Eyck has given other women who are not pregnant the same stance. eg. naked Eve & Cumaean Sibyl in Ghent Altarpiece. St Catherine in the Dresden triptych has the long loose hair of virginity, and a protruding stomach. Her dress is very out of fashion, only her shoes in vogue. Genteel French author Christine de Pisa wrote an etiquette manual for women in early 15th c, warning the bourgeois wives not to go too far dressing like young noblewomen, wearing extravagant & ultra-fashionable clothes would show them to be vain & frivolous.

Diamond shape of interest in the composition. On its points are the couples faces, their joined hands and the chandelier. Inside, it encompasses the mirror and the artists inscription on the wall. Clearly this is the focal point of the image and the clue to whatever meaning needs to be unlocked.

Jan van Eyck became court painter to Philip ‘the Good’, Duke of Burgundy in 1425. He was trusted with diplomatic ‘secret’ missions abroad and got to travel widely a see many things to add to his inspiration. Van Eyck was totally at the Dukes disposal and paid handsomely for it but allowed to take other commissions too. He painted many religious paintings too, including the Ghent Altarpiece and a series of celebrated naughty pictures (none of which have survived).

The Arnolfini Portrait is shrouded in mystery as scholars continue to argue over its meaning and symbolism, it’s even uncertain who the portrait is actually depicting, current assumption is one of the handful Arnolfini couples around at the time. Is it a Marriage ceremony as argued by Panofsky (unlikely), is it a birth announcement, or a betrothal ceremony? Is it a painting depicting the granting of legal authority from husband to wife? Is it a memorial from Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini to his deceased wife, Costanza Trenta? Who added an Ovid verse to its frame to make it a satire, where the couples are deceiving each other?

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Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646 Analysis page 1 of 3

Assignment 3: Analysis of stylistic differences between Vermeer and Caravaggio

(Fig.1) Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571 - 1610) - The Supper at Emmaus , 1601 Oil and tempera on canvas, 141 x 196.2 cm. NG172. © The National Gallery

The 16th Century painter Caravaggio and

17th Century painter Vermeer are both famed for

their use of intense naturalism in oil paint. Light is

the overriding force in both their works but used

very differently. Caravaggio’s use of chiaroscuro

creates deep shadows and dramatic lighting from an

undisclosed source, divine light (fig 1). Vermeer

floods the canvas with daylight, usually showing

the window that it comes through. The shadows are

there but they are daylight shadows with no loss of

details, you see everything in the picture, e.g. the

details of the tiles in the corners of the painting

under the window in fig 2. Vermeer's paintings are

physically much smaller and less imposing, as

though you were viewing a photograph of the scene.

(Fig. 2) Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) Lady at the Virginals with a Gentleman , early 1660s. Oil on canvas. 74.1 x 64.6 cm RCIN 405346. Royal Collection Trust / © HM Queen Elizabeth II 2016


Characteristic of the Counter Reformation’s notion of persuasion, Caravaggio’s

life-sized religious characters invite you to join them in their dramatic scenes (using clever

use of perspective e.g. pilgrims foreshortened outstretched arms and overhanging fruit basket

in fig 1). By contrast Vermeer’s figures are set back, they are often in their own little world,

also using of perspective, Vermeer puts objects in the way, separating the viewer and figures

(e.g. furniture in front of the figures in both fig 2 & 3). Caravaggio’s images are immediate

and emotional, even the non-religious ones (e.g. fig 4), Vermeer's are calm and reserved,

could this be a reflection of the personalities of the two men? From contemporary documents,

we know Vermeer was art dealer, inn keeper and a family man, so one would presume quite

genial, Caravaggio was tempestuous, unmarried, always getting into trouble with the law.

Typical of the Dutch Golden age Vermeer's paintings are not overtly religious like

Caravaggio's, he revisits the theme of love and music often but they are often perceived to

have moral undertones. For example, mirrors were seen to be associated with vanity in the

17th century, so are the mirrors in Vermeer's paintings clever devices to show alternative view

points of the figures and the rooms, or are they a moral judgment on the figures in the scene,

or perhaps both (fig 2)?

(Fig. 3) Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) A Young Woman standing at a Virginal, about 1670-2 Oil on canvas 51.7 x 45.2 cm. NG1383.© The National Gallery

(Fig.4) Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571 - 1610) Boy bitten by a Lizard , about 1594-5 Oil on canvas, 66 x 49.5 cm. NG172. © The National Gallery


Both artists were ‘forgotten’ for a period after their death, 'rediscovered' much later,

Vermeer mid-19th century and Caravaggio 20 th century. Neither artist left preparatory

sketches or letters so we only have the works themselves and second hand accounts to take

into account. Technologies such as high magnification and infrared have revealed some

'secrets' such as the type of hogs hair brushes Vermeer used, what pigments and what

alterations were. This analysis indicates that he was using equipment of originally high

quality but kept a long time, with a limited pigments, this supports the economic history later

in his career when he had to sell his paintings to feed his children. Both artists are thought to

have used an optical device (like a camera obscura) to aid them, theories by Prof. Steadman

& David Hockney posit that they both actually used such devices to 'cheat', giving their

paintings their distinctive looks, eg the high realism, chiaroscuro and dots of light

respectively, supported by lack of any underdrawings.

Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646 References

References: BBC news. (2010) Church bones 'belong to Caravaggio', researchers say At: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10333158 (Accessed on 18 Aug 16)

Biblegateway. (2016) Judges 16 - Samson and Delilah At: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Judges%2016 (Accessed on 5 Oct 16)

BibleHub. (2016) Luke 24 At: http://biblehub.com/esv/luke/24.htm (Accessed on 14 August 16)

Billinge, R., Campbell, L. (1995) 'The Infra-red Reflectograms of Jan van Eyck's Portrait of Giovanni(?) Arnolfini and his Wife Giovanna Cenami(?)'. National Gallery Technical Bulletin Vol 16, pp 47–60. At: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/technical-bulletin/billinge_campbell1995 (Accessed on 13 July 16)

Blankert, A; Montias, J M & Aillaud, G. (2007) Vermeer. Overlook Press/ Duckworth

Caravaggio.org. (2009) The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, 1603 by Caravaggio At: http://www.caravaggio.org/the-incredulity-of-saint-thomas.jsp (Accessed on 14 August 16)

Carroll, M. (1993) '"In the Name of God and Profit": Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait' In: Representations, University of California Press No. 44, pp. 96-132 [online] At: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2928641 (Accessed on 7 October 16)

De Rynck, P. (2009) Understanding Paintings: Bible Stories and Classical Myths in

Art. Thames & Hudson

Hicks, C. (2012) Girl in a Green Gown: The history and Mystery of the Arnolfini

Portrait. Vintage

Honour, H & Fleming, J. (2009) A World History of Art. (7th Ed), London, Laurence King Publishing

Jones, J. (2002) 'Boy Bitten by a Lizard, Caravaggio (1595-1600)' In: The Guardian [online] At: https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jan/05/art (Accessed on 14 August 16)


Kimbell Art Museum. (2016) The Cardsharps At: https://www.kimbellart.org/collection/search/view/496?text=Michelangelo%20Merisi (Accessed on 17 Aug 16)

Koster. (2003) "The Arnolfini Double Portrait: A Simple Solution," in Apollo (Sept.

2003): 3-14. At: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Arnolfini+double+portrait%3A+a+simple+solution.-a0109131988 (Accessed on 7 October 16)

Krakora. (2001) Vermeer: Master of Light At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DEior-0inxU (Accessed on 28 Aug 16)

Lloyd, C. (2004) Enchanting the Eye, Dutch paintings of the Golden Age. Royal Collection Publications

National Gallery. (2016) Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio At: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio (Accessed on 14 August 16)

National Gallery. (2016) Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio - The Supper at

Emmaus At: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio-the-supper-at-emmaus (Accessed on 14 August 16)

National Gallery. (2016) Johannes Vermeer - A Young Woman seated at a Virginal At: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/johannes-vermeer-a-young-woman-seated-at-a-virginal (Accessed on 13 Sep 16)

National Gallery. (2016) Johannes Vermeer - A Young Woman standing at a

Virginal At: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/johannes-vermeer-a-young-woman-standing-at-a-virginal (Accessed on 13 Sep 16)


National Gallery. (2016) Vermeer's palette At: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/research/meaning-of-making/vermeer-and-technique/vermeers-palette (Accessed on 13 Sep 16)

National Gallery. (2016) Peter Paul Rubens - Samson and Delilah At: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/peter-paul-rubens-samson-and-delilah (Accessed on 5 Oct 16)

National Gallery. (2016) Jan van Eyck - The Arnolfini Portrait At: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/jan-van-eyck-the-arnolfini-portrait (Accessed on 13 July 16)

National Gallery - Glossary. (2016) Pendant At: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/glossary/pendant (Accessed on 13 Sep 16)

National Gallery, YouTube. (2016) Caravaggio | You choose | The National Gallery,

London At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KcdgFxmnb4 (Accessed on 18 Aug 16)

Open University. (2016) Making sense of art history At: http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/making-sense-art-history/content-section-0 (Accessed on 15 Aug 16)

Plesters, J. '"Samson and Delilah": Rubens and the Art and Craft of Painting on Panel'. National Gallery Technical Bulletin Vol 7, pp 30–49. At: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/technical-bulletin/plesters1983 (Accessed on 5 Oct 16)

Pointon. (1997) History of Art: A Students’ Handbook. (4th Ed), London, Routledge.

Royal Collection Trust. (2016) Johannes Vermeer - Lady at the Virginals with a

Gentleman At: https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/405346/lady-at-the-virginals-with-a-gentleman (Accessed on 28 Aug 16)

Seidel, L. (1993) Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait: Stories of an icon. Cambridge University Press


The Guardian. (2009) Was Caravaggio the first photographer? At: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/mar/11/caravaggio-art-studio-photography-first (Accessed on 18 Aug 16)

The Guardian. (2010) The mystery of Caravaggio's death solved at last – painting

killed him At: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/jun/16/caravaggio-italy-remains-ravenna-art (Accessed on 18 Aug 16)

The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. (2001) Luke 24. Good News Publishers.

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At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFfmc4e7KgM (Accessed on 28 Aug 16)

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