1 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

Date: 25/09/2015

HND Computing & Systems Development

Unit 39: Computer Games Design & Development

Assignment 1 – Understand Computer Games

Development

By

Adam Neal

2 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3

Different Types of Computer Games and Platforms…………………………………….4

Characteristics of User Interaction………………………………………………………...7

Impact of Computer-based Gaming……………………………………………………...10

References………………………………………………………………………………….14

3 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

Introduction

Gamer Zone operates in Peterborough and sells games for all major platforms. The

managers at Gamer Zone are considering producing new elements to their games.

They would like research to be carried out on computer games development and

have requested a professional report containing appropriate findings. These findings

should include a critical comparison of the different types of computer games and

platforms, an evaluation on the characteristics of user interaction and an impact

assessment of computer based gaming.

Before delving into these topics, the report will first look into the history of computer

games development. The first games created offered little entertainment value, and

their development focus was separate from user experience — in fact, these games

required mainframe computers to play them. OXO (or Noughts and Crosses) for the

EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) computer became one of

the first known video games in 1952. The game was developed by Alexander S.

Douglas who programmed the game as part of his Ph.D. thesis on human-computer

interaction for the University of Cambridge.

The games platform the EDSAC computer was an early British computer based in

Cambridge. This gave Douglas the perfect opportunity to prove his findings by

programming the code for a simple game where a player can compete against the

computer. The actual program for the game was read off of Punched Tape (aka

Input Tape), a strip of paper with numerous holes punched into it. The placement

and number of holes would be read as code by the EDSAC, and translated onto a

oscilloscope's cathode-ray tube readout display as an interactive game. (Wikipedia,

2015)

Douglas' project was a success and became the very first video game and graphical

computer game, but it was also one of the very first (albeit primitive) applications of

true artificial intelligence. The computer's moves in reaction to the player’s moves

was not random or pre-determined, but entirely made at the computer's

discretion. OXO is often overlooked for its accomplishments in artificial intelligence

as the study of AI didn't become a valid science until 1958 when scientist John

McCarthy coined the term. (Cohen, 2015)

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John McCarthy, an American computer scientist pioneer and inventor, was known as

the father of Artificial Intelligence (AI) after playing a seminal role in defining the field

devoted to the development of intelligent machines. The cognitive scientist coined

the term in his 1955 proposal for the 1956 Dartmouth Conference, the first artificial

intelligence conference. The objective was to explore ways to make a machine that

could reason like a human, was capable of abstract thought, problem-solving and

self-improvement. He believed that "every aspect of learning or any other feature of

intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to

simulate it." (Childs, 2011)

In video games, artificial intelligence is used to generate intelligent behaviours

primarily in non-player characters (NPCs), often simulating human-like intelligence.

The techniques used typically draw upon existing methods from the field of artificial

intelligence. However, the term game AI is often used to refer to a broad set

of algorithms that also include techniques from control theory, robotics, computer

graphics and computer science in general. (Wikipedia, 2015)

In 1952, Arthur Samuel of IBM developed a checkers-playing program that took the

novel approach of learning by playing against itself, and the program was able within

just a few days to compete well against strong players. Games like chess and

checkers were a logical choice for early AI experiments, because board games are

usually games of perfect information, meaning that the entire state of the game is

easily accessible to the computer. Also, such games are usually not trivial search

problems with well-defined paths to solutions, since they involve an opponent which

adds an element of uncertainty to the equation. Thus, computer board games

emerged as a natural test bed for new AI algorithms and areas of academic research

and in modern times remain as such. (Middleton, 2002)

Different Types of Computer Games and Platforms

The first part of this report will critically compare different types of computer games

and platforms. An analysis of the key issues of game type, with specific emphasis on

genre, for example action, role-play, adventure and skills based will also be included.

Video game genres are used to categorize video games based on their gameplay

5 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

interaction rather than visual or narrative differences. Video game genres is defined

by a set of gameplay challenges and are classified independent of their setting or

game-world content, unlike other works of fiction such as films or books. For

example, a shooter game is still a shooter game, regardless of whether it takes place

in a fantasy world or in outer space. (Wikipedia, 2015)

A popular game genre in recent times has been action games. An action game

requires players to use quick reflexes, accuracy, and timing to overcome obstacles.

It is perhaps the most basic of gaming genres, and certainly one of the broadest.

Action games tend to have gameplay with emphasis on combat. Action games take

place in either 2D or 3D from a variety of perspectives. 2D action games typically

use a side view or top-down view. The screen frequently scrolls as the player

explores the level, although many games scroll through the level automatically to

push the player forward. In 3D action games, the perspective is usually tied to the

avatar from a first-person or third-person perspective. However, some 3D games

offer a context-sensitive perspective that is controlled by an artificial

intelligence camera. Most of what the player needs to know is contained within a

single screen, although action games frequently make use of a heads-up display that

display important information such as health or ammunition. Action games

sometimes make use of maps which can be accessed during lulls in action, or a

mini-map that is always visible. (Wikipedia, 2015)

Action games are very popular amongst children, however some of these action

games can be considered to be violent. Most of the bad effects of video games are

blamed on the violence they contain. Children who play more violent video games

are more likely to have increased aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, and

decreased prosocial helping, according to a scientific study (Anderson & Bushman,

2001). The effect of video game violence in children is worsened by the games’

interactive nature. In many games, the user is rewarded for being more violent. The

act of violence is done repeatedly. The user is in control of the violence and

experiences the violence through their own eyes (killings, kicking, stabbing and

shooting). This active participation, repetition and reward are effective tools for

learning behaviour. Indeed, many studies seem to indicate that violent video games

6 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

may be related to aggressive behaviour (such as Anderson & Dill, 2000; Gentile,

Lynch & Walsh, 2004). (Raise Smart Kid, 2015)

The content of certain video games can encourage kids to read and to research.

Strategy type video games such as Age of Mythology, Civilization, and Age of

Empires may spark a child's interest in world history, geography, ancient cultures

and international relations, especially if parents are alert to opportunities. To quote

researchers David Shaffer and James Gee, "When children have parents who help

turn Age of Mythology into an island of expertise, tying it to books, Internet sites,

museums, and media about mythology, cultures and geography, the children pick up

a wide range of complex language, content and connections that serve as

preparation for future learning of a highly complex and deep sort." What's more,

these games often allow children to design and exchange maps or other custom

content, helping them acquire creative and technical skills while having fun. (Olson,

2015)

Various gaming platforms can be used to play different game genres. A gaming

platform refers to a system that’s used to play games on. You could class most

computers as gaming platforms as well as gaming computers. Xbox 360’s, Ps3’s and

Wii’s are also classed as a gaming platform. A PC is likely to be the strongest out of

any platform, because of the intense graphics it offers but it is however the most

expensive to replace and to upgrade. Video game consoles like the PlayStation and

the Xbox are all-in-one entertainment machines, but their most important part is their

ability to play games. Although many gamers will say that computers have the best

graphics, new gaming technology is birthed on consoles. Also, some of gaming’s

biggest franchises are only available on consoles. Finally, consoles tend to be future-

ready devices, as manufacturers know that you’ll be using them for at least six years.

This means that over the next few years, new peripherals and technologies will

supplement the consoles. (Tennant, 2015)

The computer was once a dominant platform for kids who wanted to play video

games. But those days seem to be evaporating. Smartphones and tablets are now

the most popular devices used for gaming among children in the age range of 2 to

17, according to a report released recently by the NPD Group. The report, titled "Kids

and Gaming 2015," found that 63 percent of kids said they play games on a mobile

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device. The family computer was once the device people predominantly used to surf

the Web, play games and find information. But PC sales and demand have been on

a downturn the past few years as smartphones and tablets have become go-to

devices. Gaming console sales remain strong, based on NPD's data. But the time

spent by kids actually playing on consoles is flat as more of them pick up a mobile

device to get their gaming fix. (Whitney, 2015)

One of the reasons for the emergence of video games on smartphones and tablet

devices is their ability to allow users to easily and efficiently play online and integrate

with social media. As two of the most well-known social successes, Facebook

currently boasts over 750 million daily active users and Twitter has more than 100

million. What’s interesting is the rate at which games are fast catching up. Candy

Crush is probably the best example with nearly 100 million daily active users and still

growing. It’s hardly surprising. Games are an inherently social media and, with the

relatively new power of mobile devices accommodating better and better games, it is

likely that we will see this trend continue. (Game Sparks Technologies, 2015)

Characteristics of User Interaction

The second part of this report will critically evaluate the features, advantages and

disadvantages of user control. Physical interaction methods and immersive

technology promise to challenge game user interface design, allowing for a stronger

connection between the avatar and character as both engage in similar actions at

the same time. Technology provides an opportunity for deeper levels of interaction

with the addition of audio and haptic elements. Game user interface has a key

advantage (or disadvantage from some perspectives) in that players are often

engaged with the narrative and/or game mechanic enough for them to learn new

interaction patterns, or forgive bad ones. This is likely the reason so many games

have bad user interface, as testing needs to encompass the core game mechanic

while user interface is seen as secondary. (Stonehouse, 2010)

When playing games on devices that use touchscreen the user can touch the stylus

to the screen as input. Touching a point on the screen and then immediately

removing the stylus from the screen is known as tapping the screen. This technique

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is used for a variety of reasons including selecting from a menu, exploring an

environment, or using items and abilities. This type of interaction has become

increasingly popular with the emergence of game playing on mobile phones and

tablet devices. An advantage is the touchscreen enables the user to interact directly

with what is displayed, rather than using a mouse, touchpad, or any other

intermediate device. Users must be able though to accurately select targets on

touchscreens, and avoid accidental selection of adjacent targets, to effectively use a

touchscreen input device. This could be challenging for someone with maybe a lack

of hand co-ordination. The designs of touchscreen interfaces must reflect both

technical capabilities of the system, ergonomics, cognitive psychology and human

physiology. (Wikipedia, 2015)

Another popular user control tool amongst modern day gamers is headsets. Gamers

can now connect online and play with or against people from around the world whilst

communicating simultaneously through interactive headsets. Users can actually use

voice recognition software to help them control their video games also. For example

a gamer can say a command by voice and different mouse and keyboard actions are

then executed. A recent gamer due to repetitive stress injury wanted to limit his use

of keyboards and mice and was able to do this using games which are based solely

(or almost entirely) on speech recognition. “I use VoiceAttack and it has literally

changed how I use and think about computers. It's changed my gaming, it's changed

my work, and it's changed my general habits. When I'm playing Mass Effect I can

command people to move and do specific things where I'm looking, when I'm playing

Divinity I can say "focus" and the camera snaps to wherever I am. A quick "save" in

any game is way faster than finding F5.”

People have used a mouse to control their computers ever since the machines

became mainstream enough to invade the home. But now there is a new batch of

hands-free technology that claims to be more intuitive, accurate than fun than the

handy hardware, which was invented around 70 years ago. A start-up called Thalmic

Labs, based in Waterloo, Ontario in Canada, is about to release a smart armband

that lets people control their computers by using hand gestures. The Myo band can

do this because it contains sensors that measure the motion and electrical activity in

the wearer’s arm muscles. From this information, it can interpret certain hand

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gestures as well as movements to execute the relevant instructions on a computer

screen. This is different to some competing controllers, such as Microsoft’s Kinect,

which relies on a camera to monitor someone’s movements. (Griffiths, 2014)

Improvements in accessible gaming for disabled people haven’t always kept pace

with those technological strides and while for the non-disabled player the world of

gaming is their oyster, it's not so easy for disabled gamers to experience virtual

reality. According to computer game accessibility specialist Ian Hamilton, more than

20 per cent of gamers say they have a disability. These are significant figures

considering that 15 per cent of the UK population has a disability. But it makes sense

when you consider that people with disabilities have just the same reasons as

anyone else to want to play games, plus sometimes additional ones such as therapy,

pain relief, or a reduced number of recreation options. Disabled gamer Stacey Riley,

whose impairment makes it difficult for her to move her legs and right arm easily,

says that gaming can be intensely frustrating because of her slow reaction times.

“Broken Sword was my favourite game but one of the updated sequences required

quick movements and a lot of running. I just couldn’t do it so I had to ask a friend to

complete it for me, save the level and send me the file back just so I could reach the

next stage. Where’s the fun in playing a game if you have to hand over control to

someone else?" The solution to making gaming more accessible while preserving

the element of challenge lies in removing the unnecessary barriers from the game

rather than removing all barriers. Enabling subtitles, slow-moving text and easy-

reach controls are just some of Ian’s recommendations. (Makoff, 2012)

There is no intrinsic quality of the video game that attaches it to a particular gender,

age, language or culture. The entire medium is on the brink of achieving mainstream

status. However, if games continue to be designed without proper consideration for

all types of user, the market will never be able to fully grow beyond the confines of

the avid gamer: those few who are willing to endure any and all of the unreasonable

demands today's games might impose. As humans, it's in our nature to play games.

The only problem is, when video games are concerned there's a necessary

additional interface that comes between the game and the player. While the function

of this extra layer of interface is to enable interaction in the first place, its overall

haphazard implementation has resulted in the alienation and intimidation of potential

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players. Even among avid game players, emotions like confusion, frustration or

anger are frequent experiences. The very idea that video games can cause such

feelings in the player is an absurd one. Only when game designers are prepared to

treat the interaction between human and video game as a formal discipline will this

medium be able to develop into an activity that everyone can truly enjoy. (Shirinian,

2012)

Impact of Computer-based Gaming

The final part of this report will analyse the impact of gaming on society as a whole

whilst evaluating the psychological factors involved. Most people are fairly one-sided

on video game’s effects, choosing them to either be positive or negative. However

video games have a wide range of effects on society, and most of these effects can

be considered good and bad. Video games as a whole effect society in many

different ways. With so many people having such different, radical opinions on video

games, it’s difficult to find a common ground. However, it’s undeniable that these

games have had an impact on society and will continue to for many years.

(Mandawewala, 2010)

For most young people, playing games on a computer, video game console, or

handheld device is just a regular part of their day. Most are able to juggle the

multiple demands of school, sports, work and family life. Gaming becomes an

addiction when it starts to interfere with a person's relationships or their pursuit of

other goals, such as good grades or being a contributing member of a sports team.

Anyone who has experienced it knows all too well – video game addiction is real.

There is increasing evidence that people of all ages, especially teens and pre-teens,

are facing very real, sometimes severe consequences associated with compulsive

use of video and computer games. (Video Game Addiction, 2015)

In 2009, an Ohio court sentenced 17 year-old Daniel Petric to 23 years in prison for

the fatal shooting of his mother. Petric had shot both his parents after they took away

his copy of Halo 3. During his trial, the court was told that Petric had become

addicted to the game after being left housebound following a jetski injury. In 2011,

Rebecca Colleen Christie was sentenced to 25 years in prison by a New Mexico

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court for allowing her 3½ year-old daughter to die of malnutrition while she spent

hours playing World of Warcraft. Researchers have linked excessive gaming to

different personality factors such as impulsiveness, higher acceptance of violence

and lower social skills, gamers having trouble coping with their lives in general can

be vulnerable as well. Not only are people dealing with excessive stress and general

unhappiness in their lives more likely to become addicted to video games, but

gaming addicts are also more likely to be diagnosed with other disorders. These

related diagnoses can include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),

depression and anxiety.

But what other risk factors are associated with gaming addiction? Though

researchers have looked at amount of time spent online as a risk for addiction,

type of video game may be important as well. Not only are role-playing gamers more

vulnerable to addiction but so are shooter and strategy gamers. The motivation for

playing also seems to be a factor in addiction. People who game for fun or

socializing are less likely to become addicted than people who are caught up in the

need for status or simply to escape from the problems in their lives. If you’re dealing

with real-life failure, escaping from that stress by playing games that give you a

sense of victory or control over your life can be a helpful way of coping. (Vitelli, 2013)

Negative impacts are joined by a number of positive impacts. Simulation games can

improve our hand-eye coordination and are used to train people to use high-tech

machines. Strategy games can improve our ability to make decisions in real life and

brain training games are used so people can learn whilst having fun. Shooting

games for example require the player to keep track of the position of the character,

where the character is heading, their speed, where the gun is aiming, if the gunfire is

hitting the enemy, and so on. All these factors need to be taken into account, and

then the player must then coordinate the brain’s interpretation and reaction with the

movement in his hands and fingertips. This process requires a great deal of eye-

hand coordination and visual-spatial ability to be successful. Research suggests that

people can learn iconic, spatial, and visual attention skills from video games. There

have been studies with adults showing that experience with video games is related

to better surgical skills. Also, a reason given by experts as to why fighter pilots of

12 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

today are more skilful is that this generation’s pilots are being weaned on video

games.

According to researchers at the University of Rochester, led by Daphne Bavelier, a

cognitive scientist, games simulating stressful events such as those found in battle or

action games could be a training tool for real-world situations. The study suggests

that playing action video games primes the brain to make quick decisions. Video

games can be used to train soldiers and surgeons, according to the study.

Importantly, decisions made by action-packed video game players are no less

accurate. According to Bavelier, “Action game players make more correct decisions

per unit time. James Paul Gee, professor of education at the University of

Wisconsin-Madison, says that playing a video game is similar to working through a

science problem. Like a student in a laboratory, the gamer must come up with a

hypothesis. For example, the gamer must constantly try out combinations of

weapons and powers to use to defeat an enemy. If one does not work, he or she

changes hypothesis and will try the next one. Video games are goal-driven

experiences, says Gee, which are fundamental to learning. (Raise Smart Kid, 2015)

Throughout time, humans have used games as a way to escape from the stresses of

real life. Primitive games involving dice were used as ways to think of other things as

well as to entertain. In today’s digital age, games have evolved from simply using

dice to games with highly advanced graphics as seen online or on platforms. Games

have become even more popular than ever before in culture, and as a result have

become one of the main sources of entertainment and fun for many people around

the world. However, games have become more than just entertainment in today’s

world. Games can be a whole new world, a culture within cultures. Video games are

changing the world, little by little, and are making life very different than what it was

centuries ago. Today, some games help to train pilots, others help children learn

new languages, and some even make people learn to be more social. But many still

believe that video games are detrimental to human lifestyle and culture, not

beneficial. Despite the negative stereotypes, gaming has been shown to have a

significant positive impact on society, as evidenced by case studies in the following

four areas: increasing the brain’s ability to learn as well as processing speed,

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socialization and teamwork, second language acquisition, and development of

dexterity and coordination. (Rglong, 2010)

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References

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25/09/2015)

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(Accessed 25/09/2015)

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(Accessed 25/09/2015)

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(Accessed 25/09/2015)

Childs, M. (2011), John McCarthy: Computer scientist known as the father of AI

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15 Understand Computer Games Development by Adam Neal

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