ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF NON- TECHNICAL SKILLS …

Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT).

Maritime Postgraduate Studies Institute (MPI)

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF NON-

TECHNICAL SKILLS COURSES ON MARINE

OFFICERS’ PERFORMANCE

Submitted to

Maritime Post Graduate Studies Institute (MPI)

For the fulfillment the requirements of Doctorate degree.

Maritime Transport Technology

“Maritime Education and Training”

Prepared by

Hesham Mahmoud Ahmed Helal

Supervised by:

Prof. Dr. Saad Mesbah Abdelrahman

College of Maritime Transport and

Technology

Arab Academy for Science, Technology &

Maritime Transport

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Al-Said Abdelkader

College of Maritime Transport and

Technology

Arab Academy for Science, Technology &

Maritime Transport

2020

iii

Declarations

I certify that all the material in this thesis that is not my own work has been

identified, and that no material is included for which a degree has previously been

conferred on me.

The contents of this thesis reflect my own personal views, and are not necessarily

endorsed by the University.

(Signature): ………………………………………………

(Date): ………………………………………………………

1. Name: ……….………………… Signature …………….………

Organization: ……………….…………….……..………………

2. Name: ……….………………… Signature …………….………

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2. Name: ……….……………………. Signature …………….………

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DEDICATIONS

This work is dedicated in gratitude to my father’s soul and to my mother.

To my wife Hala, for her understanding, encouragement, support, and love.

To our son Mohamed and our daughters, Mennat Allah and Merna, for they are our source

of happiness

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I thank God Almighty for providing me with commitment, strength, patience and

good health to complete my study successfully.

I gratefully acknowledge the help and cooperation of many people and organizations without

whom this dissertation could not have been completed. In particular, profound gratitude and

thanks are extended to Prof. Dr. Saad Mesbah and Prof. Dr. Said Abd Elkader for their

invaluable support, encouragement, supervision and constructive suggestions throughout

this research. They have guided me through the research and helped me tremendously during

the writing of my dissertation. Without their continuous support as my advisors, this whole

process would not have come to fruition. I am very grateful for their support.

Great thanks goes to all those at AASTMT, especially at Maritime Postgraduate Studies

Institute, College of Maritime Transport and Technology (Simulator Department) and

Complex Simulator Center for allowing me to work with them and for their support and

help in getting the required data for this research. In addition, I would like to thank the other

faculty members who have helped me through the doctoral process.

vi

ABSTRACT

Modern shipping is an international, multicultural and technological industry with strong

demands on efficiency and economic profitability. This is reflected in ship crews, often

multinational, with a large number of seafarers coming from different countries. Despite

that, it is frequently mentioned that the human factor is the main cause of 80% of all sea

accidents.

Nevertheless, human error theoretical and practical approaches to error analysis and

management have been developed largely in other industries such as nuclear power and

chemical industries. In these industries, the effects of human errors have already led to many

tragic incidents and accidents. This has resulted in a great deal of knowledge on issues such

as the kind of errors made, how and why they occur. As well as how can they be prevented

and averted.

Moreover, the maritime industry has seen an increase in the adoption of team training as

stated in STCW amendments at Manila 2010, such as Bridge Resource Management (BRM)

and Engine-room Resource Management (ERM), to improve teamwork and coordination

among marine officers.

Non-technical skills (NTS) encompasses both social and cognitive skills such as situational

awareness, teamwork, decision-making, leadership, managerial skills, and communication.

In a crisis situation, good NTS allows the marine officers to recognize a problem quickly

and manage the situation and team safely and effectively. As a result, the evaluation and

grading of marine officers’ NTS is necessary to assure safety at sea. Many high-risk

industries such as medicine, nuclear power plants and civil aviation have established

behavioral marker systems that provide a mechanism for monitoring and evaluating NTS of

operators. However, there is no system currently available to assess the NTS of captains and

Deck and Engineer Officer of the Watch (DEOW). In addition, it is anticipated that

continuing research will validate the effectiveness of the behavioral markers.

This thesis used the survey instrument which had been developed through the literature

review, with reference to studies done before. Also, it used a methodology in constructing

the questionnaire and procedures used for data collection. The percentages of respondents

vii

selecting each of the response alternatives for each question in the questionnaire are

provided. Means, standard deviations, and medians are reported for those questions that

required numerical entries. Evaluation of the impact and effectiveness of NTS courses is

necessary so that strengths and weaknesses can be identified and improvements made.

Kirkpatrick’s model stresses evaluation on the levels of reaction, learning, behavior, and

results had been used.

Accordingly, data were analyzed using three statistical tests and the level of significance was

set at 0.05. Paired T-test was used to detect the existence of differences in perceptions of

NTS effectiveness, among the five variables indicated above. Pearson’s correlation was

employed to investigate if significant correlations existed among these variables. In addition,

validation for the results had been carried out by using Importance-Performance Analysis

model. In summary, the findings support the premise that NTS training courses can

positively impact teamwork in maritime safety and provide estimates of the expected effects

of training.

viii

Contents

Declarations .......................................................................................................................... iii

Dedications ............................................................................................................................ iv

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................... v

Abstract ................................................................................................................................. vi

Contents .............................................................................................................................. viii

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... xii

List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... xv

List of Abbreviation .......................................................................................................... xvii

Chapter one: Research Theoretical Framework ............................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................... 6

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives .................................................................................. 7

1.4 Study Variables ........................................................................................................ 8

1.5 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 9

1.6 Research Hypotheses ............................................................................................. 10

1.7 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................. 11

Chapter Two: Literature Review ..................................................................................... 12

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 13

2.2 Causes of Marine Accidents .................................................................................. 14

2.3 Non-Technical Skills ............................................................................................. 16

2.3.1 Cognitive skills ....................................................................................................... 20

2.3.1.1 Situational Awareness ......................................................................................... 20

2.3.1.2 Problem Solving and Decision Making ............................................................... 21

2.3.1.3 Managing Stress (MS) ......................................................................................... 22

2.3.1.4 Deal with fatigue ................................................................................................. 23

2.3.1.5 Vigilance.............................................................................................................. 24

2.3.1.6 Judgment.............................................................................................................. 25

ix

2.3.2 Social skills ............................................................................................................. 27

2.3.2.1 Communication ................................................................................................... 27

2.3.2.2 Eamwork.............................................................................................................. 28

2.3.2.3 Leadership ........................................................................................................... 29

2.3.2.4 Co-operation ........................................................................................................ 30

2.3.2.5 Management skills ............................................................................................... 31

2.3.2.6 Ask management ................................................................................................. 32

2.3.2.7 Workload management ........................................................................................ 33

2.4 Available models to assess NTS courses ............................................................... 34

2.4.1. Kirkpatrick Model ................................................................................................. 35

2.4.2. Hamblen model ..................................................................................................... 36

2.4.3. The Organizational Elements Model (OEM) ........................................................ 36

2.4.4. The KPMT model .................................................................................................. 36

2.5 Chapter summary ................................................................................................... 43

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology ....................................................... 45

3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................ 46

3.2 Questionnaire Design and Development ............................................................... 46

3.3 Population and Sample size ................................................................................... 49

3.4 Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 50

3.5 Methods of Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 51

3.6 Research Hypotheses Testing ................................................................................ 55

3.7 Importance-Performance Analysis ......................................................................... 57

3.8 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................. 60

Chapter Four: Analysis, Results and Discussions ........................................................... 61

4.1 Overview ................................................................................................................ 62

4.2 Demographic statistics ........................................................................................... 62

4.3 Descriptive Analysis .............................................................................................. 66

4.3.1 Effective communication .................................................................................. 67

x

4.3.1.1 Descriptive analysis for trainees’ data ............................................................ 67

4.3.1.2 Descriptive analysis for organizations’ data ................................................... 69

4.3.2 Leadership and cooperation .............................................................................. 71



4.3.3 Situational awareness ......................................................................................... 76



4.3.4 Workload management ........................................................................................... 80

4.3.4.1 Descriptive analysis for trainees’ data ................................................................. 80

4.3.4.2 Descriptive analysis for organizations’ data ........................................................ 82

4.3.5 Decision-making..................................................................................................... 84

4.3.5.1 Descriptive analysis for trainees’ data ................................................................. 84

4.3.5.2 Descriptive analysis for organizations’ data ........................................................ 86

4.3.6 Course Overall satisfaction..................................................................................... 88

4.3.7 Summary of descriptive statistics for the adopted variables in the questionnaire .. 89

4.4 Data Reliability Testing ............................................................................................. 90

4.5 The Hypothesis Testing ............................................................................................. 91

4.5.1 Testing hypotheses associated with trainees responses’ data ................................. 91

4.5.1.1 Correlation analysis between the study variables for trainees ............................. 91

4.5.1.2 Testing the impact of the study variables on trainees satisfaction for NTS courses ................................................................................................................................ 92

4.5.2 Testing hypothesis associated with organization responses’ data .......................... 98

4.5.2.1 Correlation analysis between the study variables for organization ..................... 98

4.5.2.2 Testing the impact of the study variables on organization satisfaction for NTS courses .................................................................................................................... 99

4.5.3 Testing the mean difference between trainees and organizations’ evaluation ..... 105

4.6 Importance-Performance Analysis .......................................................................... 106

4.7 Discussion................................................................................................................ 109

xi

4.8 Chapter summary..................................................................................................... 111

Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations ..................................... 112

5.1 Summary .............................................................................................................. 113

5.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 117

5.3 Research Recommendations ................................................................................ 118

5.4 Future Research ................................................................................................... 119

References ......................................................................................................................... 120

Appendix A: AASTMT’ Course details for BRM and ERM Courses ........................ 134

Appendix B: Different models used for assessment of training courses ..................... 138

Appendix C: Questionnaire ............................................................................................. 145

xii

List of Tables

Table (2-1) Specification of minimum standards of competence for officers in

charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or more.

Function: Navigation at the operational level (Table A-II/1) .............. 17

Table (2-2) Models for training courses’ evaluation .............................................. 35

Table (3-1) Sources of the questionnaire’s statements ........................................... 47

Table (3-2) The range of 5-point Likert scale and its scale evaluation .................. 49

Table (3-3) Strength scale of correlation ................................................................ 54

Table (4-1) Frequency summary of demographic data for trainees ....................... 63

Table (4-2) Respondents according to course type data (Trainees and

corresponding organization) ................................................................ 64

Table (4-3) Trainees’ data according to age classification ..................................... 65

Table (4-4) Trainees’ data according to the experience period .............................. 66

Table (4-5) Mean, Standard Deviation and Frequency for effective

communication statements (Trainee)................................................... 68

Table (4-6) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for effective communcation

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 70

Table (4-7) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for leadership and cooperation

(Trainee) .............................................................................................. 73

Table (4-8) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for leadership and cooperation

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 75

Table (4-9) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for situational awareness

(Trainee) .............................................................................................. 77

Table (4-10) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for situational awareness

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 79

xiii

Table (4-11) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for workload management

(Trainee) .............................................................................................. 81

Table (4-12) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for workload management

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 83

Table (4-13) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for decision making (Trainee) . 85

Table (4-14) Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for decision making

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 87

Table (4-15) Summary statistics of all the independent variables from the two

points of view (trainees and organizations) ......................................... 89

Table (4-16) Reliability Statistics and value of Cronbach’s Alpha .......................... 91

Table (4-17) Correlation between the five main variables (Trainees) ...................... 92

Table (4-18) Simple Regression test for the impact of “effective communication”

(Trainees) ............................................................................................. 93

Table (4-19) Simple Regression test for the impact of “leadership and

cooperation” (Trainees) ....................................................................... 93

Table (4-20) Simple Regression test for the impact of “situational awareness”

(Trainees) ............................................................................................. 94

Table (4-21) Simple Regression test for the impact of “workload management”

(Trainees) ............................................................................................. 95

Table (4-22) Simple Regression test for the impact of “decision-making”

(Trainees) ............................................................................................. 96

Table (4-23) Normality test for variables under study for Trainees ......................... 96

Table (4-24) Multiple regression test for the five variables (Trainees) .................... 97

Table (4-25) Stepwise Regression test for the five variables (Trainees) .................. 98

Table (4-26) Correlation between the five main variables (Organizations) ............. 99

Table (4-27) Simple Regression test for the impact of “effective communication”

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 99

xiv

Table (4-28) Simple Regression test for the impact of “leadership and

cooperation” (Organization) ................................................................ 100

Table (4-29) Simple Regression test for the impact of “situational awareness”

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 101

Table (4-30) Simple Regression test for the impact of “workload management”

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 102

Table (4-31) Simple Regression test for the impact of “decision-making”

(Organization) ...................................................................................... 102

Table (4-32) Normality test for variables under study for Organization .................. 103

Table (4-33) Multiple regression test for the five variables (organizations) ............ 104

Table (4-34) Stepwise Regression test for the five variables (organizations) .......... 104

Table (4-35) The mean difference between trainees and organizations’ satisfaction

............................................................................................................. 105

Table (4-36) Paired Samples Test............................................................................. 105

Table (4-37) Importance-Performance Mean values for abatements ....................... 106

Table (4-38) Importance-Performance Mean values for variables ........................... 108

Table (5-1) Research objectives, questions and methodology ............................... 114

Table (B-1) Different models used for assessment of training courses .................. 138

xv

List of Figures

Figure (1-1) Conceptual framework for dependent and independent variables of

the study .............................................................................................. 8

Figure (2-1) Swiss cheese model describing organizational model of human error 15

Figure (2-2) NTS categorization and its dimensions ............................................... 19

Figure (3-1) Research hypotheses and variables ..................................................... 55

Figure (3-2) Importance-Performance Matrix ......................................................... 58

Figure (4-1) Frequency and percent of respondents according to course type

(BRM and ERM) ................................................................................. 64

Figure (4-2) Trainees’ data according to age classification ..................................... 65

Figure (4-3) Trainees’ data according to years of experience classification ........... 66

Figure (4-4) The frequency percent of the “Effective Communication” for trainees

............................................................................................................. 67

Figure (4-5) The frequency percent of the “Effective Communication” for

organization ......................................................................................... 69

Figure (4-6) Comparison of results for the Effective Communication variable

from trainees and organization point of view ...................................... 71

Figure (4-7) The frequency of the “leadership and cooperation” for trainees ......... 72

Figure (4-8) The frequency of the “Leadership and cooperation” for organization 74

Figure (4-9) Comparison of results for the leadership and cooperation variable

from trainees and organizations pint of view ...................................... 76

xvi

Figure (4-10) The frequency of the situational awareness for trainees ..................... 77

Figure (4-11) The frequency of the “Situational awareness” for organization .......... 78

Figure (4-12) Comparison of results for the “Situational Awareness” variable from

trainees and organizations point of view ............................................. 80

Figure (4-13) The frequency of the workload management for trainees ................... 81

Figure (4-14) The frequency of the workload management for organization ........... 82

Figure (4-15) Comparison of results for the workload management variable from

trainees and organizations point of view ............................................. 84

Figure (4-16) The frequency of the decision making for trainees ............................. 85

Figure (4-17) The frequency of the decision making for organization ...................... 87

Figure (4-18) Comparison of results for the decision making variable from trainees

and organizations point of view .......................................................... 88

Figure (4-19) The frequency of the overall course satisfaction

(Trainee/Organization) ........................................................................ 89

Figure (4-20) Importance-Performance Analysis for statements’ number ................ 107

Figure (4-21) Importance-Performance Analysis for variables ................................. 108

Figure (4-22)

xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAC&U : Association of American Colleges and Universities

AASTMT : Arab Academy for Science, Technology, and Maritime transport

ABS : American Bureau of Shipping

APA : American Psychological Association

BRM : Bridge Resource Management

CMTT : College of Maritime Transport and Technology

CRM : Crew Resource Management

DEOW : Deck and Engineer Officers of the Watch

DM : Decision Making

ERM : Engine-room Resource Management

HROs : High Reliability Organizations

ICTs : Information and Communication Technologies

IMO : International Maritime Organization

KPMT : Kearns, Paul and Miller, Tony

MARPOL : Maritime Pollution

MCS : Maritime Complex Simulator

MLC : Maritime Labor Convention

MONTSQ : Marine Officers’ Non-Technical Skills Questionnaire

MS : Managing Stress

NASA : National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NTS : Non-Technical Skills

P & I : Protection and Indemnity

xviii

QGRCLT : Questionnaire of Group Responsibility and Cooperation in

Learning Teams

SA : Situational Awareness

SMEs : Small and Medium sized Enterprises

SOLAS : Safety Of Life At Sea

SOP : Standard Operating Procedures

SPSS : Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

STCW : Standard of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping

TPOs : Thesis Performance Objectives

TS : Technical Skills

Chapter One

Theoretical Framework

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives

1.4 Study Variables

1.5 Methodology

1.6 Research Hypotheses

1.7 Structure of the Thesis

2

Chapter One: Theoretical Framework

1.1 Introduction

Shipping is one of the world's major global industries and its importance comes from the

fact that more than 90% of world trade is shipped by sea (IMO, 2018). That is because

shipping is the most efficient, safe and environmentally friendly way to transport goods.

Moreover, maritime industry encompasses more than 50 professions such as; shipping,

agencies, ship chandlers, and crewing agencies, to list a few, and it depends mainly on three

elements; ports, ships, and humans.

The maritime industry is organized through a group of international instruments, such as

Conventions, Resolutions, Decrees, and Codes, that give great care for the three maritime

industry elements. Nevertheless, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) proved

statistically that more than 80% of the marine casualties occur because of human errors,

which gives more emphasis to the importance of human element engaged on jobs either at

ports or onboard ships. More recently, there have been general concerns among maritime

stakeholders that human error is the most contributing factor in causing accidents (IMO,

2018).

Reviewing USA, UK, Canada and Australian accident databases clarifies that human error

continues to be the dominant factor in maritime accidents and amounts to some 70% of

recorded incidents. More specifically lack of non-technical skills, such as situational

assessment and awareness are even more dominant (ABS, 2004).

In contrast, shipping losses decreased by 16% in 2017 compared to 2016 (Allianz, 2018).

The preliminary figures for year 2017 have contributed to show a marked improvement in

the average loss in 10 years (29% down). Large shipping losses have also fallen by 50% over

the past decade, driven by the improved regulation and the development of robust safety

culture. Bearing in mind that there are still variations by region and type of vessel, the recent

downturn in the shipping economy could also be a factor in the volume of loss. Statistics

showed that more than a quarter of the losses in 2016 occurred in southern China, India,

China, Indonesia and the Philippines, which has maximum loss for ten years. While losses

3

in this region remain stable on an annualized basis, the total is still twice as high as the next

high loss zone, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Allianz, 2018).

It is also widely acknowledged that human error is a generic term that encompasses a variety

of unsafe acts, neglect, unsafe behavior and circumstances or a combination of these. The

term also refers to the different behavior of individuals’ onboard ships. A quick review of

Protection and Indemnity (P & I) Clubs reports and bulletins show that this generic term

represents more than half of claims and accidents (Safahani, 2015).

There are many reasons contributing to marine accidents, incidents and errors, most of which

result from a variety of factors ranging from pure technical failure to environmental,

systemic, procedural, competitive and behavioral factors. One of the factors that constantly

contribute to almost all accidents, incidents and errors is the human element, i.e. the ability

of people to deal effectively and safely with the complexity, difficulty, stress and workload

of their daily tasks, not only in emergencies but also during routine operations (Human

Element Guidance - Part 2, 2016).

The majority of these accidents, incidents and errors can be avoided if people's

understanding, actions and behavior are improved. This applies not only to seafarers onboard

ships but also to people at all levels and positions within the broader maritime industry in

general, including ship-owners, operators, managers and other maritime and marine industry

leaders.

Although shipping is the safest form of commercial transport, the sea is considered a

dangerous work environment (IMO, 2018). This has been demonstrated by several

researchers. For example, a study of deaths on British registered vessels showed that, the

mortality rate was 13-28 times higher than the UK general labor force mortality rate between

1976 and 2002 (Bhattacharya, 2013).

Captains and DEOW are required to possess two sets of skills: Technical Skills (TS), and

Non-Technical Skills (NTS), or behavioral performance. According to Riem, et al. (2012)

TS have been defined as "the adequacy of actions taken from a technical perspective", and

NTS have been defined as "decision making processes and team interaction used during team

management of the situation." Both skills are essential for maritime safety operations

onboard ships and the preservation of the marine environment.

4

The term "non-technical skills" was discussed initially in the aviation industry in the 1960s

and 1970s as part of the investigation of aircraft accidents and other accidents. In the 1970s,

NTS in air navigation were also considered when National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) conducted interviews to their pilots and gave them specific tasks on

the flight simulator. As a result, it has been proven that NTS combined with technical skills

are an important part of decision-making, communication and teamwork (Nura & Osman,

2012).

Other areas of work associated with increased risk and safety, such as nuclear, and military

industries, continued to explore the value of NTS. In each of these areas of work, it is

important to identify the most valuable NTS for a specific occupation and how to develop

this set of skills during early studies and at all levels of education.

Over the past decades the maritime industry has seen some rewarding results from the

adoption of the Crew Resource Management (CRM) framework and the use of simulators in

training of bridge and engine room officers. However, there is uncertainty among maritime

professionals about the effectiveness of such training in raising the performance and

improving maritime safety (Barnett, et al, 2006). As for the educational aspects, the situation

is more problematic because, among the requirements for the development of technical

skills, there is a need to build up and evaluate the non-technical skills of officers with little

experience in managing the bridge and engine room teams (Bué, et al, 2015). More recently,

there has been a general perception among maritime institutes that the complexity of training

requires a new approach to the development and evaluation of non-technical skills.

Interpretation of NTS in modern maritime treaties required a new approach. It was important

to understand not only the nature of these skills, but also to find out how to develop them.

These issues are linked to the integration of new knowledge and skills, innovations in the

shipping industry, in the human element, and the achievement of competency training during

studies (Nura & Osman, 2012). It is very important to ever establish a balance between

acquiring knowledge to perform some practical activities and learning to think and evaluate

actual situations.

The acquisition of specific information and the ability to put it into practice is the

fundamental basis for the realization of the modern professional quality of education.

5

However, the way it is done so far, as well as the development of personal self and the use

of self-experience, has not yet been given much attention. Quality assurance for the

acquisition of officers coming in charge of the navigational watch competencies during the

study process can be seen as a targeted system, which necessitates to plan and manage the

study process and, accordingly, to inforce quality control of everything (Žogla, 2001).

Thus, it is likely that the new DEOW may not understand the following concepts: Learning

as a meaningful process of cognition and learning as a process to develop specific knowledge

and skills. If trainees acquire appropriate learning techniques, the study process would affect

not only their mental and emotional development, as well as it helps them learn better social

skills and increase self-esteem. It is true that in some cases, it is important for the DEOW to

learn the details of facts, formulas, or other information. Nevertheless, this cannot become a

dominant course, because it discourages any analytical assessment of the specific

information and the search for causes and consequences. It does not allow analysis,

synthesis, comparison or evaluation to link past experiences to any new information and thus

creating new knowledge. The association of NTS and technical know-how is very positive,

as is the case for the individual's social skills as well as a set of skills in a whole team

compared to his level of technical knowledge and individual skills (Brunckhorst, et al, 2015).

So, it is necessary to compare the ship captain and the DEOW non-technical navigational

skills in order to identify topics that need to be improved.

Furthermore, NTS are a set of cognitive and social human skills that are combined and used

together with technical skills. NTS are shown during routine and non-standard procedures.

Accident and routine analysis helps assess how NTS affect the work environment and

people.

Training programs that focus on NTS, such as leadership or situational awareness, to prevent

human errors and industrial accidents are important to develop these skills. With reference

to the evaluation of training, almost all experts indicated that NTS training could be

evaluated at the four levels of the “Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model”, which can be applied

before, during and after training to demonstrate the value of training to the organization. The

four levels are; (i) Reaction: To what extent participants interact positively with the learning

event, (ii) Learning: To what degree participants acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes

6

that are intended based on their participation in the learning event, (iii) Behaviour: To what

degree do participants apply what they learned during training when they return to work?,

and (iv) Results: The degree to which the targeted outcomes result from the training, support

package and accountability (Schuermann & Gohl, 2016).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Technical improvements in ships’ design and other systems have reduced the chances of

mechanical failures at sea that may be severed enough to cause major accidents. In addition,

the upgrading studies, which are required for all ranks of DEOW, raised their technical skills,

aside with the experience gained during their contracts onboard ships. As a result, the

majority of marine accidents, such as groundings, collisions and others, are attributed to

human errors. Human errors could occur as a result of two sets of skills: both TS – which

DEOW gained them as explained earlier - and NTS, or behavioral performance.

Interpretation of NTS in modern pedagogy requires a new approach. It is important to

understand not only the nature of these skills, but also to find out how to assess them. These

problems are linked to the integration of new knowledge and skills, innovations in education

in the field of humanitarian cooperation and the achievement of competency training during

study.

There is a scarcity of studies that assess the effectiveness of NTS in the maritime education,

especially the courses dealing with Bridge Resource Management (BRM), Engine-room

Resource Management (ERM) and Leadership. Moreover, usually each course may be

delivered by maritime academies and institutes in an inadequate time span that is not enough

to improve the behavioral performance within this short time.

7

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study was inspired from the fact that the training of DEOW has traditionally

focused on the development of individual technical skills rather than on non-technical skills

such as communication, situational awareness, team management, leadership, Decision

Making and management skills that are all crucial for safe operations. Furthermore, in the

draft amendments to part B (page 54) under evaluation of competence, Standard of Training,

Certification and Watch-keeping (STCW) convention states:

“The criteria for evaluating competence (column 4 of table A-II/1) identify, primarily in

outcome terms, the essential aspects of competent performance. They are expressed so that

assessment of a candidate’s performance can be made against them and should be

adequately documented in the training record book”

Moreover, it is noted from STCW amendments Manila 2010 that efficiency in BRM and

ERM may be evidenced through the approval of on-the-job experience. If there is ambiguity

about how competencies are evaluated, these evidence may not be strong. Also, who will

implement the approval? How clear and consistent are they with respect to evaluation

criteria?

Thus, the aim is to assess the trainees’ satisfaction who attended the NTS courses and their

corresponding organizations.

From the aim, it is possible to digress to the objectives as follows:

1. To identify the relevant marine officers NTS linked to the marine accidents

2. To investigate how development of NTS skills could contribute to the effectiveness

of shipping operations and enhancement of safety onboard ships.

3. To provide a framework for evaluating the NTS of DEOW

4. To develop an assessment system, which serves to improve trainees' performance

through training programs using the framework to be developed herein.

5. To enable the marine industry to assess the performance of the deck and engine room

teams and to improve selection, training and promotion processes and procedures for

DEOW.

8

1.4 Study Variables

For the purpose of this study to determine the satisfaction of NTS courses, dependent and

independent variables were considered as per STCW 1978/2010 amendments. Figure (1.1)

illustrates respondents' satisfaction as a dependent variable that is affected by five

independent variables. The adopted independent variables are; effective communication,

leadership and cooperation, situational awareness, workload management and decision

making.

Figure (1-1): Conceptual framework for dependent and independent variables of the study

Effective

communication

Leadership and

cooperation

Situational

awareness

Workload

management

Independent variables

Dependent variable

Decision

making

Sat

isfa

ctio

n o

f re

sponden

ts

9

The formula used for obtaining the relation between dependent and independent variable is

as follows:

S = f (C, L, A, W, D)

Where: S: Respondents' satisfaction

C: Effective Communication

L: Leadership and Cooperation

A: Situational Awareness

W: Workload Management

D: Decision Making

1.5 Methodology

Respondents to the questionnaire are the marine officers who were enrolled in NTS courses

and their associated managers. The marine officers are two groups BRM and ERM.

AASTMT delivered both ERM and BRM courses according to the IMO model course in 5-

days at the Complex Simulator Center (CSC) center for the BRM, while the ERM course at

the College of Maritime Transport and Technology (CMTT). The course are divided to three

days for lectures, and two days for simulator training. Details for both BRM and ERM

courses can be found in appendix A.

All data analysis were computed by the SPSS program and examined for statistical

significance. The analysis of the data involved selected descriptive and inferential statistics’

tools. The paired-samples t-tests were utilized to determine the difference between the means

of the sets of data. Means and standard deviations were computed. T-test and regression

analysis were applied to test the hypotheses. The Importance Performance Analysis (IPA)

model was also applied to assess marine officers’ perceptions of important organization

value proposition attributes.

10

1.6 Research Hypotheses

In connection with the research objectives, ten research hypotheses were constructed (five

of them were directed to the Trainees and another similar five hypothesis to their associated

organizations) as follows:

First Hypothesis (Trainees) H1T: Effective communication has a significant impact on the

satisfaction of trainees for the NTS course.

Second Hypothesis (Trainees) H2T: Leadership and cooperation has a significant impact

on the satisfaction of trainees for the NTS course.

Third Hypothesis (Trainees) H3T: Situational awareness has a significant impact on the


Fourth Hypothesis (Trainees) H4T: Workload management has a significant impact on the


Fifth Hypothesis (Trainees) H5T: Decision-making has a significant impact on the


Other five similar hypotheses were carried out for organization:

First Hypothesis (Organizations) H1O: Effective communication has a significant impact

on the satisfaction of Organizations for the NTS course.

Second Hypothesis (Organization) H2O: Leadership and cooperation has a significant

impact on the satisfaction of Organizations for the NTS course.

Third Hypothesis (Organization) H3O: Situational awareness has a significant impact on

the satisfaction of Organizations for the NTS course.

Fourth Hypothesis (Organization) H4O: Workload management has a significant impact

on the satisfaction of Organizations for the NTS course.

Fifth Hypothesis (Organization) H5O: Decision-making has a significant impact on the

satisfaction of Organizations for the NTS course.

11

1.7 Structure of the thesis

The thesis is an assemblage of five chapters. Chapter one provides a brief background,

motives, aim and objectives of the research. It also furnishes a statement confirming the

problem encountered, accompanied with the hypothesis and a pile of questions to be

answered within the thesis. It ends with the structure of the thesis.

Chapter two reviews the relevant literature on the current field of study. It includes accidents

caused by human error and the importance of NTS in the marine industry and most important

safety industries. A detailed review of NTS key knowledge (awareness of status and

decision-making) and social (leadership and teamwork) is presented that provides the basis

for the current research.

Chapter three summarizes the comprehensive research methodology based on the

questionnaire targeting experienced DEOW to measure the effectiveness of the training

courses and to provide behavioral signs of teamwork, leadership, managerial and decision-

making skills. In addition, evaluation models have been reviewed to identify the suitable

model to be used for this research. A questionnaire has been developed to find out to what

extent the DEOW can benefit from the courses.

Chapter Four provides the data analysis and discusses the results of the research in detail. In

addition, it discusses the statistical tools to achieve the objectives.

Chapter five presents the conclusions and recommendations of the overall research

Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Causes of Marine Accidents

2.3 Non-Technical Skills

2.4 Available Methods to Evaluate NTS Courses

2.5 Chapter Summary

13

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The maritime industry has become safer over the last two decades, as the safety record improved

during this period; however, accidents continue to occur. Analysts and researchers have found

many reasons, such as below-level seafarers' training, technical failure, fatigue, stress and human

error (Akhtar & Utne, 2014). The technical failures and training of seafarers were discussed in

detail in STCW95 and the measures taken positively affected the industry. More recently, IMO

introduced the STCW Manila amendment 2010, part of which focuses on NTS training, in an

attempt to eliminate or minimize the effects of human error (IMO, 2018). The effectiveness and

assessment of NTS training was measured in many studies, especially in aviation and medicine,

and has been found to be mostly effective.

Although there is no unique definition of safety, the American Standards Institute has

identified safety as free from unacceptable risks that is “risks with a very high probability”

(Hollnagel, 2014). Safety is a construct that may be difficult to assess and interpret where

there are different perceptions of safety among maritime stakeholders. The assessment and

measurement of marine accident safety may be difficult as the marine industry consists of

many different types of ships in complex environments (Lu & Tseng, 2012).

The scope of this chapter is to review and analyze literature based on the different types of

studies related to the evaluation of NTS in different industries, to verify the different skills

assessed and the models used. The literature review approach is based on consideration of

the theoretical arguments of the different methods and models used in the evaluation of

training courses. Moreover, previous researches are discussed in terms of research

objectives, methodologies and measures for evaluating the training courses.

This chapter is divided into three sections; the first discussed NTS in the marine industry,

which includes cognitive skills and social skills with an explanation of each to see what is

more important to the safety of ships. The second reviewed the various models used to

evaluate the NTS to see which model is mostly used for evaluation and more suitable for

marine officers. Finally, a review of the studies on the assessment of the efficacy of NTS to

detectability in previous research is presented.

14

2.2 Causes of Marine Accidents

Accidents in the marine industry are not recent as the main factor contributing to most of

these accidents is human error (Safahani, 2015). Analysis showed that human errors account

for about 75% of the value of nearly 15,000 claims of marine liability insurance claims

analyzed over five years, equivalent to more than $ 1.6 billion (Allianz, 2018). Adams (2018)

defined human error as: “an error made by a human”, and he added that it is a possible answer

to the questions: "What caused the accident?" Or "How did a ship collapse?" This does not

mean that the vessel has been broken because of human error. But when a person evaluates

an unfortunate incident from a device or system, it may be because of a human error. It may

also be an incorrect combination of manufacturing defect, or large number of other

possibilities.

In addition, Reason (2013) defined human error as “all those occasions in which a planned

sequence of mental or physical activities fails to achieve its desired goal without the

intervention of some chance agency”. Thus, it could be reckoned as an improper or

undesirable human decision or behavior which reduces or has the ability to reduce

effectiveness, safety or performance of the system.

Moreover, Barnett, et al. (2018) reviewed 150 accident reports from the Australian

Transportation Safety Bureau (ATSB), and classified the causal factors in root cause

groupings, which included a risk group (30 %), a situational awareness group (27.5 %), a

management group (24.5 %), indirect human error group (15 %), and the rest could be

classified as an act of God. Their study concluded that the majority of accidents were not

caused by technical problems but they occurred due to the failure of the officers onboard to

respond appropriately to the situation.

Currently, there has been a growing recognition in human factor literature that part of the

responsibility for human error lies with designers and operators, not just end-users of the

socio-technical system (Johnson, 2011). The socio-technical system includes many levels of

decision-makers involved in safety oversight through laws and regulations, which aim to

educate, guide or restrict labor force behavior through rules and equipment design to

improve their safety performance (Rasmussen, 1997).

15

For instance, the disaster of M/V Herald of Free Enterprise in 1987 represents one of the

recent disasters in which the Captain showed poor awareness skills in the situation when the

ship sailed with open bow doors and overturned just outside the port of Zeebrugge. There

was more of this incident than human error, as reported in the incident investigation report,

such as the vessel’s design vulnerability, shipboard failure to adhere to procedure, disregard

of a prior significant incident and office management failure. All other factors involved in

the accident increased the likelihood and seriousness of the consequences of human error

(Saeed, 2015).

Figure (2-1): Swiss cheese model describing organizational model of human error

Source: Reason (2013)

Based upon research examining failures, Reason (1997) developed an organizational model

of human error commonly described as the ‘Swiss Cheese’ model shown in Figure (2-1).

According to this metaphor in a complex system, hazards are prevented from causing

casualties through a series of barriers. Each barrier has unintended weaknesses, or holes, and

thus similarity with Swiss cheese. These weaknesses are not constant, i.e. the holes open and

close at random. These acts are normally committed by the system operator, e.g., pilot,

maintenance personnel, or DEOW.

16

The underlying conditions are failures or controls that allow or encourage the end user in

some cases to commit the unsafe act that leads to the accident. Potential conditions include

issues such as poor design, oversight failure and lack of training. The underlying conditions

arise from decisions taken by manufacturers, designers and managers that may be existed in

the system for many years before any accidents occur (Reason, 2013).

Apart from engaging in human error in various safety accidents in the maritime industries,

there are other factors, such as safety culture and safety environment involved. The most

effective way to change a workplace safety culture is to change the behavior of people

working in the organization. Culture is signified by "natural behavior", and specifically

means how people usually behave whereas carrying out their duties and responding to the

daily challenges of their work environment.

The nature of the multinational crewing onboard ships nowadays, which means different

languages, cultures and behaviors, could be reflected on the safety management of ships.

Thus, this will need a new approach and subjects of training for seafarers. So, the best safety

intervention, based on a scientific analysis of behaviors that enhance or limit human

performance, is BRM and ERM courses which focus on NTS (Flin, et al. 2017).

2.3 Non-Technical Skills

One of the four pillars of the maritime industry with Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS 74),

Maritime Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), and Maritime Labor Convention (MLC 2006) is

Standard of Training, Certification, and Watch keeping (STCW 78) as amended in 1995, and

Manila 2010. According to the last major amendments in Manila 2010, new requirements

for DEOW to have competence in NTS of resource management, managerial skills, and

leadership have been included.

In the same direction, Deaitt (2015) explained that he conducted a research to determine

whether the broad competence criteria outlined in the STCW amendments will be

consistently interpreted by a group of maritime industry stakeholders in the context of the

behaviors they expect to see and hear or experience in demonstrating standards of

compliance. As per STCW 1978/2010 amendments, Table (2-1) determines the allocation,

assignment and prioritization of resources; effective communication; obtaining and

maintaining awareness of the situation, which is the essence of the knowledge,

17

understanding and skills that every officer must have to maintain the safety of navigation as

clarified in Table (2-1). This means it includes requirements for DEOW to show competence

in the NTS of situational awareness, effective communication, leadership and managerial

skills; such as workload management and decision making.

Table (2-1): Specification of minimum standards of competence for officers in charge

of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or more. Function:

Navigation at the operational level (Table A-II/1).

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

Competence Knowledge,

understanding and

proficiency

Methods for

demonstrating

competence

Criteria for evaluating

competence

Maintain a

safe

navigational

watch

Bridge resource

management

Knowledge of bridge

resource

management

principles, including:

1. allocation,

assignment, and

prioritization of

resources

2. effective

communication

3. assertiveness and

leadership

4. obtaining and

maintaining

situational

awareness

Assessment of

evidence

obtained from one or

more of the

following:

1. approved training

2. approved in-service

experience

3. approved simulator

training

Resources are allocated

and assigned as needed in

correct priority to perform

necessary tasks

Communication is clearly

and unambiguously given

and received

Questionable decisions

and/or actions result in

appropriate challenge and

response

Effective leadership

behaviors are identified

Team member(s) share

accurate understanding of

current and predicted

vessel state, navigation

path, and external

environment

Source: IMO, (2011)

While technical skills and knowledge are important in all high-risk organizations, Long

(2010) identified many other characteristics that are equally important to the success of

DEOW. Long (2010) said that disregard, vigilance, judgment, intuition, and leadership are

attributes of great value to the DEOWs as knowledge and technical skills.

18

These features are examples of what psychologists have described as non-technical skills.

Long (2010) added that NTS are "cognitive and social skills that complement technical skills

and contribute to the performance of safe and effective tasks". These skills are not ambiguous

or new to the maritime society. NTS include skills such as leadership and cooperation, work

load management, effective communication, situational awareness and decision-making.

The best DEOWs already possess these skills or develop them through experience. NTS in

mattress control help to respond to situations in an efficient and timely manner.

Moreover, Flin et al. (2003) in their study considered the NTS; situational awareness,

teamwork, decision making, leadership, management and communication skills as their field

of study. While Saeed et al. (2016) studied resource management, leadership and teamwork

at operational level and leadership and managerial skills at management level to be assessed

in the marine simulator to identify the importance of the NTS for marine safety. Thus, this

study, which included both operational and managerial level considered the five NTS;

effective communication, leadership and cooperation (teamwork), situational awareness,

workload management and decision making to be assessed.

Moreover, Conceição (2017) defined NTS as cognitive, social and interpersonal resource

skills that complement technical skills and contribute to safe and effective board

performance. Also, Oxford Academy adopts the following definition:

“The use and co-ordination of all the skills, knowledge, experience and resources available

to the ships’ team, to accomplish or achieve the established goals of safety and efficiency of

the passage” (Safahani, 2015).

However, there are no suggestive guidelines for classifying the NTS system, because their

association and appearance are strongly associated with the context of work. Thus, the

categorized NTS were in literature as shown in Figure (2-2) (IMO, 2011).

19

Figure (2-2): NTS categorization and its dimensions

Source: IMO, (2011)

Non- Technical Skills (NTS)

Cognitive skills

Situational Awareness

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Managing Stress

Deal with Fatigue

Vigilance

Judgment

Social skills

Communication

Teamwork

Leadership

Co-operation

Management Skills

Task Management

Workload Management

20

2.3.1 Cognitive skills

National Council on Measurement in Education (2018) defined cognitive skills as "the

ability of an individual to perform the various mental activities most closely associated with

learning and problem solving”. Also, it defined cognition as "the mental action or process of

acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It

encompasses many aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as attention,

formation of knowledge, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning

and problem solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language.

Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge; they mainly refer

to things like memory, the ability to learn new information, speech, and understanding of

written material.

The most common dimensions of cognitive skills include; situational awareness, problem

solving, decision making, managing stress, deal with fatigue, vigilance, and judgment.

2.3.1.1 Situational Awareness

Situational Awareness (SA) is the recognition of environmental elements and events with

respect to time or space, understanding its meaning and dropping its position after changing

some variables such as time or a predetermined event. It is also a study area concerned with

understanding the critical environment of decision makers in complex and dynamic areas of

aviation, air traffic control, ship navigation, power station operations, military command and

control, and emergency services such as firefighting and police (Lundberg, 2015).

The definition of SA could be divided into three parts: (i) understanding elements in the

environment, (ii) understanding the situation and (iii) dropping the future situation.

Achieving a complete, accurate and modern SA is essential as the technological and

theoretical complexity of the human decision maker as a source of concern. Consciousness

of the situation has been recognized as a critical but often elusive basis for the success of

decision-making across a wide range of complex and dynamic systems (Flin & O'Connor,

2001).

Cooper, et al. (2014) reviewed direct and indirect measures of situation awareness as part of

a NTS assessment applicable for emergency settings. The study concluded that in simulated

21

studies, situation awareness of emergency situations tends to be suboptimal indicating the

need for improved training techniques to enhance awareness and improve decision-making.

In the same direction, Wright, et al. (2018) concluded that SA's direct measurement can

provide important information on the perceptual and cognitive processes of medical

practitioners.

2.3.1.2 Problem Solving and Decision Making

Decision Making (DM) is the process of reaching a decision based on appropriate provisions.

DM depends on identifying the problem, recognizing solutions and options, evaluating all

solutions and options based on clear criteria, assessing the risks involved, and ultimately

reaching the best decision. It is considered as a cognitive process resulting in a choice of

belief or a course of action among many alternative possibilities. Each decision process

produces a final choice which may or may not induce action. DM can be seen as a problem-

solving activity that is terminated by a solution that is ideal or at least satisfactory. It is

therefore a process that can be more or less rational and can be based on explicit or implicit

knowledge and beliefs (Hall, et al, 2007).

When trying to make a good decision, a person must weigh the pros and cons of each option

and consider all alternatives. In order to make an effective decision, a person must be able

to predict the outcomes of each option as well and based on all these elements, he could

select the most suitable option for that particular situation.

Nura and Osman (2012), in their research on decision-making measurement strategies and

tools, exposed organizations to different techniques of measuring decisions. Meta-analysis

was used on how to measure effective decisions in organizations, from quantitative

perspectives (scientific application) and theory (social sciences). They summed up that the

majority of decisions taken from the 18th to the 19th century were neither programmed nor

measured while most decisions were measured in the latter part of the 20th century until the

21st century. They also found that although decisions are measured based on the uniqueness

of an organization (especially culture and goal), organizations are not limited to adopting

any measurement strategy of their choice, as there is no better way to measure decisions.

2.3.1.3 Managing Stress (MS)

22

Stress management is a wide range of psychological techniques and remedies aimed at

controlling the level of stress in a person especially chronic stress and is usually for the

purpose of improving daily performance (Bower & Segerstrom, 2004). Stress occurs when

one realizes that the demands imposed on him - like work, school, or relationships - go

beyond his ability to cope. Some stress may be useful at times which leads to enhanced

motivation and energy to help people overcome situations like tests or deadlines (APA,

2018).

However, by finding positive and healthy ways to manage stress when it occurs, many of the

negative health effects can be reduced. Everyone is different, according to the ways they

choose to manage their stress. Some people prefer to practice hobbies such as gardening,

playing music and creating art, while others find comfort in more solitary activities:

meditation, yoga and walking. Here are five healthy methods that psychological research has

proven to help reduce stress in the short and long term:

1. Take a break from stress. It may seem difficult to get away from a big business

project, a crying child, or a growing credit card bill.

2. Exercise. It is beneficial to the mind just like the body. Walking for 20 minutes,

running, or swimming in the midst of a difficult time can give an immediate effect

that can last for several hours.

3. Smile and laugh. Our brains are connected to our emotions and facial expressions.

When people are stressed, they often carry a lot of stress in their faces. So laughter or

smiles can help relieve some of this tension and improve the situation.

4. Access to social support. Contact a friend, or send an email. When one shares his

fears or feelings with someone else, it helps relieve stress.

5. Meditation. Meditation and conscious prayer help the mind and body relax and

concentrate.

On the other hand, effective stress management helps one breaks stress in his life, so that he

is happier, healthier and more productive. But stress management is not one fit for everyone.

So, it is important to experience and know what is best for every individual.

Moreover, stress affects our ability to do our jobs effectively and affects how we work with

others. This can have a serious impact on our professional lives, our overall welfare and our

relationships (Bower, 2004).

23

2.3.1.4 Deal with fatigue

Fatigue does not have a clear scientific definition, but it generally feels tired and unable to

function effectively. Specifically, a fatigued person will be less alert, less able to handle

information and will have slower and less labor-intensive reaction times than a person who

does not suffer from exhaustion. P & I Club has had to deal with many cases over the years

that were either directly linked to crew fatigue or played an important role. These ranged

from minor personal injuries to major fires, collisions and foundations.

Fatigue has a severe effect on the human body which can lead to long term physical and

mental problems. It is also a question of whether the ship's working environment is good

enough to entice crew members to return after departure time. The industry still faces a major

challenge in maintaining an experienced crew and making the job a long-term, attractive

career choice. The experienced seafarers are invaluable to the safe operation of ships and the

lucrative mission in which they participate (Jackson, et al, 2013).

Impaired perception of fatigue affects individuals regardless of occupation. However, some

professions are associated with unique factors that can disrupt or reduce sleep and thus cause

fatigue. The marine environment is unique in the ways observed because most seafarers live

on ships where they work and work with fixed timetables and disturbances for periods of

rest are not uncommon. In addition, many seafarers, especially engineers and deck workers

require in-depth knowledge over time to see system performance, ship navigation, and

determine the effects of changes in the state of the sea and wind on the performance of ships.

Among many other mission requirements, will be Fatigue.

Seafarers also tend to maintain unique work schedules, some of which operate for six hours

at work, referred to as the "watch clock", from midnight to 0600, or from 0600 to noon, then

6 hours from noon to 1800 or 1800 to mid-night. The schedule is known as six, six or six on

six off, for six hours on duty and six hours of service. During times of observation, while

ships are docked, seafarers may participate in other work-related activities as well. Under

the best conditions, in such a schedule, seafarers' sleep will be interrupted by eight hours of

continuous sleep that is ideal for less than six hours after one, two or more changes after the

other. Other seafarers maintain schedules of four hours, usually from midnight to 0400, from

0400 to 0800, or from 0800 to noon, and again after 12 hours for four hours. This table,

24

referred to as four and eight people, requires four hours in service, followed by eight hours

of observation, but also in service. At each time scheduled, seafarers will work at the same

time of day followed by the observation period and work at night between these time periods.

The schedule will be kept as long as the ship is serving at sea, a time frame that can last for

several weeks or months.

Therefore, to investigate the role that fatigue may have played in an accident, investigators

must first prove that the navigator was tired at the time. Research on the causes of fatigue

mainly refers to the presence of four non-medical causes of exhaustion, and insufficient sleep

in the hours immediately preceding an event, resulting in severe stress and loss of sleep in

the days or nights preceding the accident leading to chronic fatigue and longtime awake on

the task that leads to tiredness from the effects of prolonged waking and task requirements

over time, shifting work or changing the time zone that leads to rapid daily sleep disturbance

(Strauch, 2015).

The majority of labors are reluctant to express their feeling of fatigue, which is unmeasured

problem. Also, there are many instruments for fatigue measurement, because of the

widespread effects of fatigue on human skills, definitional difficulties of fatigue, and

multiple causes of fatigue. However, as a first step to manage fatigue in workplace, so fatigue

and their causes should be measured in the industrial settings. Thus, the organization must

decide which instrument to measure fatigue will be used (Haghighi & Yazdi, 2015).

2.3.1.5 Vigilance

Vigilance can be defined as “sustained concentration" and also it could be defined as the

ability to maintain a concentration for long intervals (Helton et al., 2007). Within this time,

the individual tries to discover the appearance of a particular motive. The individual

monitors the signal stimulus that may occur at an unknown time. The study of vigilance has

expanded since the 1940s, mainly because people interact more with machineries for

applications that include monitoring and detecting rare events and weak signals. These

applications include air traffic control, inspection, quality control, automatic navigation,

military and border surveillance, and rescue operations (Sternberg, 2009).

Vigilance research conducted with subjects across a range of age conflicts about the ability

to maintain vigilance and constant attention with age. In 1991, Parasuraman and Giambra

25

reported a trend towards reduced detection rates and increased false alarms with age when

comparing groups between 19 to 27, 40 to 55, and 70 to 80 years. In 1993, Deaton and

Parasuraman reported that after the age of 40, a trend towards lower detection rates and

higher false alarm rates in both cognitive tasks and sensory functions occurred, with higher

and lower mental workloads respectively. Berardi (2001) reported no differences in overall

vigilance levels and the ability to draw attention over time when comparing people aged

(above 40) and younger. Age-dependent differences in cognitive tasks may vary depending

on the type of task and workload, and some differences in detection and false alarms may be

due to reduced sensitivity of sensory organs (Berardi, 2001).

Clark et al. (2019) identified a set of personal and objective measures of individual

differences in personality, performance on short vigilance skills, and attitudes toward a

mission that can predict performance in realistic tasks to detect combat threat.

Also, they found to confirm previous findings suggesting that personality traits are, at best,

no more than modest predictions of vigilance. However, modern research had shown that

some personality factors have the ability to predict and overcome stress during wakefulness

which may contribute to their usefulness in the context of performing a long and continuous

monitoring task.

2.3.1.6 Judgment

Good judgment can be beneficial for almost any job. But in some cases, it can be their

business responsibility to sink or survive, or even a matter of life or death. For example, the

seafarer relies on good governance for proper judgment, and quick decisions. The ability to

use good judgment in making decisions is one of the most important skills a person can

possess. On a daily basis, s/he may be angry by mundane decisions that may change his/her

life. Good decisions are made on many aspects of his/her life, including work, health,

education, family, and personal relationships. Using good judgment requires a sound

mindset, a desire to think through issues and confidence in themselves (Zeigler, 2015).

Analyzing the elements of the decision, persons may face in their minds to think about their

goals, their preferences, the potential consequences of their decision, and any potential

swaps. Assess the uncertainty and any risks that come with their decision in a logical and

coherent process. This process should help clarify the decision and guide the way to the right

26

choice, this could include potential pros and cons. People can improve their ability to good

judgment early by investigating the choices they made in the education stage in the

University, their successes as well as their mistakes. Good judgment is often subjective and

difficult to be defined. It's hard to know where judgment comes from, however critical

thinking and analytical skill are basic sets of good judgment (Wilkens, 2018).

Captains and other responsible titles must exercise good judgment in all their decisions, as

the effective decision-making plays an important role in developing good judgment skills.

Originally, they may need to carefully select a list of key points to become a base of

judgment. The development of good judgment is based on the ability of them to look at all

aspects of the problem or issue and to evaluate all options before making a final decision.

Good judgments are usually:

Fact-Based

The facts form the basis of all sound judgments, while it may be self-evident, it is very easy

to put judgments on personal opinions, assumptions and biases. Before making a judgment,

they must take the time to solidify the truth and eliminate any opinions, assumptions or

biases, where possible, and all facts should be fully documented.

Objective

Good judgment is based on an objective evaluation of the facts, also they must be careful to

ensure that their emotions, assumptions, expectations, opinions and personal bias do not

affect their objectivity. Wherever possible, they should get out of the immediate situation to

see the facts from the perspective of the other person and gain objective insights into possible

solutions.

Fair and Balanced

Good judgment requires that all parties and views have to be carefully weighed and

considered by them. One mistake in making good decisions is to consider only one aspect of

the issue and thus to limit objectivity with personal opinions, assumptions or biases. When

this happens, the decision is deliberately narrowed toward one side of the problem without

fully considering other views and ideas. When they focus on moral judgments, they must

examine all aspects of the issue and make sure that the inputs they think are balanced. When

27

objective facts and views are evaluated objectively, the manager can reach a fair judgment

(Zeigler, 2015).

2.3.2 Social skills

Social skills are the skills that facilitate interaction and communication with others verbally

and non-verbally where rules and social relationships are created, through gestures, body

language and our personal appearance. Personal skills are necessary to communicate with

each other (Dowd, 2017).

2.3.2.1 Communication

Communication is the act of conveying the intended meanings of an entity or group to

another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules.

The communication channel can be visible, audio, tangible (as in Braille) and haptic, or

olfactory, or electromagnetic, or biochemical. Human communication is unique for its

intensive use of abstract language. The development of civilization has been closely linked

to progress in communications (Ferguson et al., 2014).

Elizabeth et al. (2006) recognized the importance of interpersonal and communication skills

in the practice of medicine, and explained that medical organizations now require

competence and efficient communication skills. To develop and apply a standardized model

for assessment of communication skills, authors described a process model for the

development and institutionalization of communication skills assessment. Consensus was

built on communication skills competencies by working with course leaders and examination

managers. A unified framework of competencies was selected to teach and evaluate

communication skills.

Furthermore, the authors adapted an assessment framework based on the Bayer–Fetzer

Kalamazoo Consensus Statement, which adapted the patient and an additional tool and

satisfaction to present the patient's views in the assessment of learners. A model of education

leaders and others involved in the assessment design is presented in communication skills.

By offering an implementation approach, authors hope to provide guidance for the successful

integration of communication skills assessment.

28

2.3.2.2 Teamwork

Teamwork in its simplest form is an activity in which members of the organization work

towards a common goal or set of goals. Teamwork in the workplace today can happen

personally or (increasingly) online. It is worth mentioning that today's teams are much

different than in the past.

For example, today's teams are more diverse and dynamic, and have unique skill sets that

bring new challenges and opportunities. As a result, each project that requires teamwork can

serve as an opportunity for personal growth and professional development. The acquisition

of digital knowledge or the ability to use Information and Communication Technologies

(ICTs) has become increasingly important in team settings where technology dominates the

workplace (Zimmer, 2018).

Coordination and teamwork depend on team support and an open and effective

communication. These are actually the skills of dealing with others. The leader must provide

an atmosphere conducive to collective communication (Flin et al, 2008).

The study conducted by Britton (2015) aimed at developing a sustainable tool for assessing

individual teamwork skills with the aim of refining and measuring these skills over time.

Survey conducted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U)

found that 71% of employers indicated the importance of "teamwork” skills and the ability

to collaborate with others in a variety of settings. The study concluded that the initial

evidence suggested that teamwork improves over time when it is taught and initiated

anonymously.

Moreover, Otmar & Esther (2018) discussed the issue raised regarding the popular teamwork

assessments which have been strongly criticized on the grounds of poor psychometric

properties and their disconnection with conceptual models of teamwork. Authors used the

meta-analysis to reach the result of the study indicated that the resulting measure exhibits

adequate internal-factor structure and appropriate psychometrics across raters.

2.3.2.3 Leadership

The quality of leadership depends on strong will, trust and emphasis. It also requires

planning and coordination as positive skills. A successful manager must be able to manage

29

time and maintain standards. The appropriate leader must be able to resolve disputes

efficiently and successfully. Leadership is a field of research and practical skill that includes

the ability of an individual or organization to "lead" or guide individuals, teams or

organizations as a whole. The specialized literature discusses different views, different from

the Eastern and Western approaches to leadership and also (within the West) the United

States in contrast to European attitudes.

The American academic community defines leadership as "a process of social influence that

one can use to help others and support them in accomplishing a common mission."

Leadership taken from a European and non-academic perspective includes a vision of a

leader that cannot be moved only through common goals, but also through the search for

personal power. Leadership can be derived from a combination of several factors (Scouller,

2011).

In 2012, Barry reviewed and analyzed the psychological characteristics of a global sample

of students (n = 77,387) to investigate the reliability and health of student leadership

inventory. There are modest internal reliability coefficients across a number of different

dimensions. Predictability of the tool is supported, although the tool is able to distinguish

between effective and ineffective leaders using self-data. Some significant differences were

found on the basis of gender, race, nationality, or institutional level of respondent (secondary

vs college).

In another context, Alice and Garee, (2009) considered the lack of research to evaluate the

outcomes of leadership development programs and the lack of an appropriate assessment

tool. Thus, they represented the first attempt to provide a comprehensive way to evaluate

and measure leadership development programs at the post-program level. The program

includes short elements and open-ended items, which are three common metrics for

measuring individual, organizational and community outcomes, respectively. The scale was

developed to measure the results of the leadership program after participants left the

program. Participants are asked to evaluate the results of their leadership experience on a

Likert scale. This is important because the analysis indicated that the effects of the program

were not limited to a certain group of individuals who were older, younger, male or female

or from a particular region.

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2.3.2.4 Co-operation

Persons can be trying to manage a cooperative work without members who have cooperative

skills such as trying to drive a car without driving lessons, with the added complications that

many of them are trying to drive at once. Collaborative skills can be described as

understanding how to work effectively with others on an equal basis with common goals and

objectives (Brown, 2013). Collaborative skills are the set of skills that one need to be able

to collaborate effectively; working with others in a joint, non-hierarchical organizational

structure that runs democratically. It has been suggested that emotional intelligence is a

necessary basis for the development of cooperative skills. In addition, if someone assumes

that what is meant by this is self-knowledge, self-awareness, thinking, empathy and social

awareness, common sense suggests such qualities are indeed necessary (COOP, 2012).

Cooperation in the workplace is a combination of many skills to achieve collective

achievement. Even in teams where some members are competitors in nature, there are simple

things which can inspire real collaboration. The following four tips are necessary for

building team cooperation:

a) Focus on team goals: maintain the team goals, explain how each person contributes

to the team's mission, and encourage team members to be more cooperative as

individuals to be more competitive as a team.

b) Team members focus on doing their best: Make sure that the members know they are

put on the team not to show what they can do personally, but to help make the team

successful. Identify each person's strengths from the point of view of how these strengths

will be combined with others to help the team achieve the desired results.

c) Team reward: Through the distribution of cooperative rewards rather than

competition. Also celebrate as a group when the team defeats its "opponent" (such as

solving a major problem) and recognize individual contributions to this victory.

d) Do not restrict cooperation: Apply the team concept beyond the same team, and

encourage team members to find ways to collaborate with other departments and

external entities to uncover new ideas and new ways of doing things (CRM, 2018).

Cooperative learning as an example of the skill of cooperation to be measured in the

university classrooms, in order to promote teamwork among students, improve performance,

develop personal competencies, and influence their position in work after completion of the

31

study (Benito, et al, 2018). They proposed to create a Questionnaire of Group Responsibility

and Cooperation in Learning Teams (QGRCLT) consisting of 375 students. They found high

significant correlations between the Learning Team Potency Questionnaire and the total

score and the factors of the QGRCLT. This tool will evaluate cooperative skills and offer

faculty information in order to prepare students for teamwork.

2.3.2.5 Management skills

Management skills can be almost anything a person can manage others effectively, while other

skills may vary depending on the industry. There are many skills that are comprehensive in

almost every business. Management skills are significant for many different levels of the

organization’s positions, from senior leadership to middle supervisors (Career Builder, 2017).

Most management skills are related to five basic, fundamental functions: planning, organizing,

coordinating, directing, and oversight (Doyle, 2018).

a) Planning: Individual managers may or may not participate in the formulation of

company policy and strategy, but both groups still need planning. In both cases, a

manager needs to understand what his resources are, develop schedules, budgets and

assign tasks and areas of responsibility.

b) Organizing: It generally means creating structures to support or complete a plan.

This may involve creating a new system of reporting to, building a strategy and

planning on how to move through a project, how to move towards deadlines and how

to measure parameters.

c) Coordinating: Managers should know what is happening, what should happen, and

what is available to accomplish the assigned tasks. If someone is wrong, or if

someone needs help, or if the problem or lack of exploitation of a resource is

overlooked, the manager should notice and correct the problem.

d) Directing: It is the part where a person takes responsibility and tells people what to

do, which is known as delegation, issuing orders, and making decisions.

e) Oversight: It means tracking what is going on and identifying anything that is right

out of place. It may include anything from reviewing business models and checking

inefficiency to verify that the project is on time and on budget. It is the maintenance

phase of management.

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In 2015, James conducted a survey of nearly 2,500 Small and Medium sized Enterprises

(SMEs) in England to examine the correlation between leadership and management skills,

the application of best management practices, and how these factors correlate with business

performance and employment growth. The study found that changes in leadership and

management skills are related to changes in SME performance. Either directly or indirectly

by increasing the tendency to adopt best management practices.

2.3.2.6 Ask management

Task management is the ability to rank and focus on one task at a time and accomplish it.

Task management means managing a task through its life cycle that is planning, testing,

tracking and reporting (Tran, 2015). In addition, it helps individuals achieve their goals and

groups to collaborate and achieve collective aims. Those tasks may be characterized by

complexity (from the lowest to the highest), different priorities (from the lowest to the

highest) and different urgencies (from the lowest to the highest). Task management means

to choose the most important tasks for the day and make sure to accomplish. This way one

can focus on the tasks that bring him the greatest value. The first aspect of a task manager is

to describe his tasks in detail, so he can evaluate them by simply looking at their own

parameters (Mayer, 2017).

Moreover, task management may be the first item people think of when they think of a

project manager. It is very important because they can improve productivity and reduce

project costs if they do so effectively. If one thing is very important to be successful as a

project manager, it is the ability to plan and manage tasks. Despite, most people cannot do

multitasking well, as multitasking has more negative than positive effects. Switching

between tasks prevents people from accessing the "zone" or "flow" which facilitates

productivity and creativity. Instead, people who do a lot of tasks are easily distracted and

nervous because they cannot finish any of the tasks. Effective task manager means that they

must complete only one task at a time and then go to the next (Tran, 2015). Having a good

task management system means having a high productivity rate.

2.3.2.7 Workload management

Stress is a fact of life in the workplace, and there is a direct relationship between time and

workload management. So, it could be said that the greater the workload and the shorter the

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time frame to deal with, the greater the stress. The ability to handle stress is directly related

to the time efficiency and workload management, rather than work or time itself. Training

on workload management revolves around how to prioritize effectively, negotiate realistic

workloads and manage expectations. Equipped with these skills and an understanding of

how to take "time out", even on a busy day, you will be able to accomplish the task and

remain sensible (Plough, 2017).

Nowadays in highly stress workplaces, there is much to be gained by developing knowledge,

skills and confidence with regard to time and workload management. Improving life style

could be fulfilled by developing basic skills such as personal organization, balance of

life/work and workload management. Few people are trained in workload management.

However, each job in the world requires balancing a series of "tasks" related to time.

Experience shows that very few people have a realistic plan for each day, while most of the

plans are long lists of unstructured tasks, more than a wish checklist of a plan. (IIDM, 2018)

Furthermore, according to IIDM (2018), time and work management could be explained in

four principles:

a) Too much work is too much work: The main basic principle of time and workload

management is that trying to do more than a person reasonably can, will make all tasks

unproductive. This is summarized in the words "Intelligent work is better than hard

work". When people have too much work, it makes sense to use common sense in

strategic planning for ways to finish it rather than rushing to work faster or harder.

b) Managing energy as well as time: When dealing with stress, it is important to

maintain long-term energy levels. Many long-term tasks start with high observation,

but fade before completion because energy was not kept high. Lack of energy kills

motivation and destroys self-esteem. This is why it is important to separate the

stimulation levels over the length of the work.

c) Skills not qualities: It is wrong to assume that people who are more efficient at the

right time and manage the workload are born with these qualities. Rather, these skills

could be gained over time with specific practices.

d) Investing time to save time: The fourth principle is lack of planning. It is important

to devote productive time to thinking, planning, analyzing and strategizing. This is

the means to enable control of the work.

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So, to manage the workload on a daily basis, a person should not be afraid to start doing

something when he has only a limited time period. Instead of spending those hours that he

usually spends waiting at a doctor's office, during your commute or before a club meeting

or exercise, he can spend those times doing some of his workloads. This way, when he sits

to focus only on his work, much is done for him already.

2.4 Available models to assess NTS courses

Long (2010) described the organizations that may be adversely affected by failures in

complex human technology systems as high-risk industries. The common factor of High

Reliability Organizations (HROs) is that although reliability failures involve the possibility

of death, loss or damage to environmental assets or disasters, they have developed unique

characteristics that enable them to adapt to unforeseen events. That is required to develop a

model for increasing the understanding of the human operators, in our case DEOW, by

identifying the nontechnical skills that are important to safe and effective operation.

Many organizations are not convinced that their methods of assessing the training are

effective enough, despite the fact that there is a model for evaluation of the training that has

been common for decades, namely the Kirkpatrick’s model of the fourth level. From the

participants' direct reactions to the training experience to the regulatory impact, either by the

trainees themselves or by the organizations (Blanchard et al., 2000). Part of this discussion

is how institutions and organizations can assess the impact of training and development.

In this review, a critical overview of the various models of assessing training courses. Also,

review some research evidence on the training evaluation that highlights issues related to

evaluation at different levels were reviewed. First, four different models have been

investigated hereafter Table (2-2) to determine which model is more convenient to be used

for training courses’ evaluation in the current study.

Table (2-2): Models for training courses’ evaluation

Author (s) Year No. of

levels

Levels’ names Name of the

model

Kirkpatrick 1954 4 Reaction, Learning, Behavior,

and Result

Kirkpatrick model

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Hamplin 1974 5 Reaction, Learning, Job

Behavior, functioning

Organization, and Ultimate

value

Hamblen model

Kaufman, Keller

and Watkins

1995 6 Input, Process, Micro

(acquisition), Micro

(performance), Macro (relates to

the results level and examines),

and Mega

The

Organizational

Elements Model

(OEM)

Kearns, P. and

Miller, T.

1997 4 Reaction, Learning, behavior,

and Bottom line added value

The KPMT model

2.4.1. Kirkpatrick Model: Donald Kirkpatrick established a model in 1954, and over the

past 65 years, this model has served the field of training and development in assessing and

evaluating the effectiveness of training. The model was originally designed to measure the

effectiveness of training initiated by companies and proposes a linear adjustment model for

training effectiveness. The Kirkpatrick model can be applied before, during and after training

to demonstrate the value of the training to the organization. There are four sequential levels

in the model; (i) reaction, (ii) learning, (iii) behavior, and (iv) results. That is, the highest

level (level 4) can only be achieved if the lower levels are met (Joo, 2017). In addition, it

provides a useful framework for assessing the impact of training intervention on an

organization by considering training evaluation at multiple levels.

2.4.2. Hamblen model: In 1974, Hamblen established his training model, and identified the

process of evaluation of training and development as "any attempt to obtain information

(feedback) on the effects of the training program and to assess the value of the training in the

light of that information” (Ahmad, 2009). Moreover, Rae (2002) explained that for the Hamblen

model to be effective, any assessment plan should be tailored to the needs of training users and

should include validation of the training. These methods are possible for external training as well

as training in the company. Hamplen model consists of five levels; (i) reaction, (ii) learning, (iii)

Job behavior, (iv) functioning, and (v) ultimate value.

2.4.3. The Organizational Elements Model (OEM): In 1995, Kaufman, Keller and

Watkins explained that the training model should include societal input as a criterion for

evaluation in the assessment process. They claimed that industrial organizations in particular

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are increasingly connected to the interpretation of social consequences such as pollution and

safety (Hannum & Kaufman, 2019).

Their model included the following six levels: The levels included in this model are: (i)

input, (ii) process, (iii) micro (acquisition), (iv) micro (performance), (v) macro (relates to

the results level and examines), and (vi) mega (an additional level which looks at societal

Outcomes). The model emphasizes that evaluation at all levels should be planned and

designed before any intervention is implemented.

2.4.4. The KPMT model: Kearns, P. and Miller, T. (1997) argued that clear objectives are

an essential element of the training evaluation model. They differ in their goal of providing

a "toolkit" to help residents work through the process of setting baseline targets through

interrogation techniques, evaluating existing training and using process maps to determine

the value added of organizations. They also argued that training can only bring added value

to organizations if businesses do not perform effectively or there is a market opportunity that

can be exploited. To determine the minimum benefits, pre-training measurements should be

in place; only when the training is to bring someone to the level of the job (Carless, 2001).

The KPMT model contains four levels, starting at the beginning of the training cycle by

identifying business needs rather than training needs, which focus on clarifying objectives

from a business perspective rather than from the trainees’ perspective. The four levels are;

(i) Reaction, (ii) Learning, (iii) behavior, and (iv) Bottom line added value, measured in

relation to the base level measures taken.

It is seen from the previous review that all the reviewed models are based on Kirkpatrick’s

model which indicates that this model is the most convenient model to be used to evaluate

the NTS training courses for marine officers. Also, the review showed that although there

are a surplus of models designed to improve the Kirkpatrick’s model, there are similarities

in many of the models’ details. For instance, many of the modifications to Kirkpatrick model

levels differ slightly from meanings or interpretation. For example, KPMT model may have

more accurately described the behavior of learning transfer, other useful additions include

further details on the various tools and techniques to be used at each level and areas of

analysis, as well as the need to work more closely with managers within the organization

and provide feedback on evaluation results (Tamkin, et al, 2002).

37

In addition, some models clearly indicate that there is a need to identify the reasons for the

assessment and that the tools and techniques used will change depending on why the

evaluation is taking place and who it is for. Other models suggest that there is a need to focus

more clearly on the different types of results that the training and development activity seeks,

and to design this technology with the organization to ensure that the approach is appropriate

for culture and values.

Moreover, all models are implicitly based on the assumption that there are a series of

influences from the development process to individual learning, changing behavior and the

resulting organizational or social impact. However, they rarely provide an explicit model, so

they are all open to criticism that they ignore some of the key variables affecting this series

of events which showed limitations for all these studies. Indeed, the current study has also

concerns about assessing the four levels and had dealt with the third and fourth levels of

Kirkpatrick’s model only which are more important to the study. In addition, the review

showed that most of the researchers who dealt with the assessment of training courses used

the Kirkpatrick’s model as shown in appendix B.

There are numerous studies which attempted to determine how to assess the efficiency of

NTS courses. Therefore, the following literature review concerned with the development

occurred through the associated papers and research:

O'Connor (2002) studied how the training courses of Crew Resources Management (CRM)

were evaluated in 48 published studies on aviation and other industries and the reported

results. Training evaluation techniques were rated in terms of feedback, learning, attitudes,

behavior and organizational effects. The Kirkpatrick hierarchy was adopted to evaluate

training and to examine the impact of CRM training interventions on four different levels:

interaction, learning, behavior, and organizational influences. Using the paper questionnaire

method, it was found that in general, CRM training was received well that led to a positive

change in CRM trainee attitudes and had the desired impact on their behavior. In the forty

eight studies covered by the review, it was found that the techniques used to evaluate CRM

training in these industries tended to be modifications to the methods previously used in

aviation.

38

Salas (2006) provided the state of CRM training evaluations and extended it to areas beyond

aviation cockpits. Also some critical evaluation needs in CRM training were covered. He

reviewed 28 CRM training publications using the Kirkpatrick, 1976 framework for

evaluating training to determine its effectiveness in aviation, medicine, oil production,

marine maintenance, maritime/shipping and nuclear power domains.

Findings indicated that CRM training has produced generally positive feedback from

trainees; however, the impact of training on learning and behavioral changes indicated mixed

results across and within domains. Moreover, the study could ensure that CRM has had an

impact on the minimum institution requirement of safety.

Learning was measured in terms of the desired change in trainees' attitudes towards CRM.

The next level, behavior, evaluated whether the knowledge acquired during training is

transferred to actual behavior at work or in simulation. The highest level of Kirkpatrick

rating, impact of training on the organization was evaluated to determine whether the

training has an impact on the organization's goals.

Experimental studies of O'Connor, (2008) on the effectiveness of CRM training were

subjected to meta-analysis. Sixteen CRM evaluation studies were conducted to meet pre-

criteria for inclusion in meta-analysis. The CRM training metrics analyzed were:

interactions, attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors, and trained participants from CRM

responded positively to CRM (an average of four on a five-point Likert scale). The

Kirkpatrick hierarchy was used as a popular framework to guide training assessment and

data was collected using a paper-based questionnaire.

The meta-analysis results were encouraging with respect to the effectiveness of CRM

training. The feedback on CRM training was positive; significant effects of CRM training

were found for attitudes and behaviors, and the average impact size of knowledge was found

identical to other reviews. To include a meta-analysis study, at least one of the first three

levels of the Kirkpatrick hierarchy should be reported that is interaction learning (attitude

and knowledge) or behavior.

Sharon, (2010) identified many different reasons for the use of organizations to assess the

performance of their employees as part of their operations. Organizations are likely to vary

considerably in the reasons for their use but must have a clear understanding of their purpose

39

so that they can gather the necessary information in an appropriate manner. It is necessary

to consider some practical issues that may affect how evaluations are designed and

implemented. Organizations may need to take a broader look at things that seem difficult to

measure by thinking about how to measure them in more innovative ways. Examples may

include a program that looks at less realistic areas such as communication skills. The most

commonly used method of collecting data is to ask participants to complete the evaluation

forms at the end of the session.

From a set of papers identified by researchers, it is important to link learning to the overall

strategies and business objectives of organizations, especially when people are one of their

sources of competitive advantage. This means that those responsible for learning,

development and evaluation must have a good understanding of strategy and objectives and

discuss key issues with a range of stakeholders. It was clear from that review that evaluation

must be integrated into the design process to ensure that it covers the most appropriate and

realistic areas.

O'Connor (2010) discussed the development of CRM training in US Naval aviation and how

this training is managed in a large organization with many different airframes. He also

discussed evaluating the effectiveness of CRM training and suggested considerations for

improving the program. As was the case with CRM in the field of commercial aviation, an

assessment of the effectiveness of US Navy's CRM training was reported in scientific

publications. Again the Kirkpatrick hierarchy seems to provide a useful framework for

assessing the effects of training intervention on an organization by considering training

assessments at different levels.

Overall, O'Connor concluded that there appears to be a positive impact on the training of

Navy’s CRM at each level of the Kirkpatrick evaluation hierarchy. Moreover, the robust and

scientifically guided CRM training program was believed to represent an important

mechanism for addressing the human element in aviation accidents in the US Navy.

However, these new programs must be evaluated to ensure that they meet the aeronautical

operational requirements.

Salas (2008) used Kirkpatrick's assessment of training as a framework for assessing the

effectiveness of CRM training programs in aviation. Specifically, the review was organized

40

by the type of evidence collected after training (i.e., interaction, learning, behavior, and / or

organizational effectiveness). The review resulted in the identification of 58 studies that

emerged to assess the effectiveness of aeronautical CRM training programs. He then

described the status of the CRM assessment efforts in relation to each level of assessment

identified by Kirkpatrick. Specifically, studies that evaluated training at only one level will

be reviewed first, starting with those that collect interaction data and end with organizational

result/effectiveness data collection. There will then be a briefing review of studies that

evaluated training at multiple levels as argued by Kirkpatrick. Although some have argued

in the past that there was no evidence that CRM was effective, this review concluded that

some evidence existed. The image that emerged after reviewing the evidence in the current

frame indicated that CRM training was effective. CRM training programs seemed to produce

positive feedback for participants, learning, and applying behavior gained through

simulations or online/on-the-job. The review showed that although there were still some

rough points in terms of evaluating CRM training programs that have been implemented,

trends seemed to suggest that CRM training had an impact on multiple aspects of individuals

and program completion teams.

Chang (2010) examined the Kirkpatrick training assessment model by evaluating the sales

training program that was taking place in an institution in the hospitality industry. Also, he

addressed these issues by examining the impact of the Kirkpatrick’s assessment model, with

a special assessment of the relationships between the four levels. He attempted to examine

training intervention based on performance data before and after the comparative

intervention. There were, however, extensive and multiple data for evaluating different

variables such as knowledge, skills, functionality, and organizational influence.

Relationships between variables were demonstrated. Moreover, he supported his ideas by

implementing all four levels of evaluation as fully as possible in the Organization.

Implementation at levels 1 and 2 will not only be a valid indicator for levels 3 and 4. The

implementation of the upper levels only will not verify learner interaction (level 1) or

learning (level 2). Results indicated that learning occurred (level 2) in training, improved

functionality (level 3), and organizational results were achieved (level 4). The first recurring

assumption in the literature is that the levels are arranged in ascending order and that the

model has a hierarchical character. Therefore, higher levels are more valuable and important

than lower levels.

41

Rouse (2011) provided concrete tips that health information management instructors can

apply in the process of evaluating the effectiveness of their courses and programs. The study

used the Kirkpatrick evaluation model to provide a framework that health management

instructors can use to improve the standard course evaluation form.

Röttger (2015) assessed the effectiveness of classroom–based Bridge Resource Management

(BRM) training for junior naval officers, where general principles of human behavior and

performance in teams and under pressure were transferred to them. For the 117 study

participants, assessment criteria were evaluated at all levels as determined by Kirkpatrick

that is assessment of personal training, knowledge, attitudes, behavior, and performance

while commanding a vessel during real practice in the world.

BRM participants gave a better assessment of personal training and more knowledge of

BRM than controls. The training did not result in differences between groups in relation to

BRM-related attitudes, or the presentation of non-technical skills or overall success in

practice. In the design of both BRM and CRM training courses, the effective application of

general principles in a particular context must be determined and application must be

emphasized during training.

The USCG (2015) Training Division provided guidelines for the conduct of standardized

evaluations of performance-based resident courses and other performance interventions

administered in the Coast Guard training system. Assessment data was used to help make

critical training decisions and future design decisions. For the purpose of the Standard

Operating Procedures (SOP), the Kirkpatrick model is used as a model for Coast Guard

assessments. Formative assessment is an ongoing process of data collection to improve the

program, product or instruction during the design and development phase. Formative

evaluation has been applied to both educational products and educational process.

There was a strong correlation between Level 1 and 2 evaluations. There is a strong

correlation between the assessment of Level 3 and 4. If the learner is able to perform the new

skill in the job, it is likely to have a positive impact on the organization. Evaluating high

quality is a waste of time. However, it guarantees the application while working and ensures

that subsequent results are maximized.

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Schuermann & Gohl (2016) sought to determine the current status of CRM in aviation and

other industries by providing detailed information on training programs and to clarify what

works well in training and what does not. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to

answer the research questions. All interviews were conducted by the interviewer and lasted

25 minutes to 1 hour. Interviews were recorded to protect all information. He focused on

cross-industry findings by presenting results based on expert interviews. With reference to

the evaluation of training, almost all experts indicated that it was not possible to evaluate

CRM training at the four levels of the Kirkpatrick assessment model. This finding

corresponds to the meta-analysis of Salas et al. (2008) who have hardly found studies that

evaluated CRM training at all four levels. Qualitative interviews, he perceives, are a valuable

tool to find comprehensive information.

Louise (2017) evaluated training to see if managers at the health care establishment feel that

the training they received was sufficient to implement performance management initiatives.

A single method of qualitative interviews was used to facilitate a more accurate analysis of

managers' views and perceptions in order to achieve the research goals and objectives of the

study.

Training reduces organizational risk, promotes organizational change, builds teams,

promotes communication and distributes information and knowledge during skills

development. Training empowers individuals through a systematic approach that expands

and influences their knowledge, attitudes and skills that enhance individual, collective and

organizational effectiveness. Reaction assessment considers the multiple reactions of

different participants. Evaluate the results of assessing whether the goals are achieved at

immediate, intermediate, and ultimately levels. The Kirkpatrick’s Training Assessment

Model assesses effectiveness by looking at participants' reactions, attitudes and behavior

after training.

2.5 Chapter summary

This chapter focused on reviewing the causes of marine accidents, and it indicated that the

NTS and not the TS are the main causes of such accidents (ABS, 2004). Thus, a review of

the different NTS has been presented, including both cognitive and social skills.

43

Moreover, to carry out the assessment of the effectiveness of NTS training courses, different

models of assessment had been reviewed. However, it was found that Kirkpatrick’s

evaluation model is the most efficient and widely acknowledged one. The Kirkpatrick model

emphasizes assessment of reaction, learning, behavior, and outcome levels. Although the

Kirkpatrick’s model was never intended to describe exactly what to assess and how to do, it

provides an overview of how to proceed. The model is still serving as the most widely used.

Also, it provides bases and standards that other techniques are used and compared. Assessing

the impact and effectiveness of courses is essential so that strengths, weaknesses and

improvements can be identified. The Kirkpatrick assessment framework, proposed and

developed over 65 years, has been used as a key model for identifying and targeting training

interventions in business, military and industry alike.

Also, the review clarified that the other models stem from Kirkpatrick’s model. The literature

suggested that the model is very useful in identifying the different points at which

measurement can occur. The review has also highlighted some interrelated skills that affect

the effectiveness of training and the transfer of learning. However, the reviewed studies

mostly concentrate on the evaluation process to level one and two only, and neglect the upper

levels three and four. For the marine industry, however, the upper levels are more important

to make sure that the effectiveness of such courses will reflect onboard ships, thus increasing

safety of operation.

Finally, the review clearly indicated that there is a need to clearly identify the reasons for the

assessment because the tools and techniques used will be changed depending on the reasons

for the evaluation and who is the person concerned. In addition, Kirkpatrick’s evaluation

model is a composite model, which is used only after the implementation of the training

program. The model is used to assess the merits and values of the training program and to

provide a summary report of the training results. Thus, contributing to its continuation and/or

improvement. It is evident from the literature review that marine safety development is

needed for accountability in marine officers’ development and resulted impact will continue

to grow. One of the greatest challenges is the creation, development and use of evaluation

models.

Chapter Three

Research Design and Methodology

3.1 Overview

3.2 Questionnaire Design and Development

3.3 Population and Sample Size

3.4 Data Collection

3.5 Methods of Data Analysis

3.6 Research Hypothesis

3.7 Importance Performance Analysis

3.8 Chapter Summary

45

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology

3.1 Overview

A meta-analysis of trainees’ data was conducted to examine the relationship between

specified NTS courses and the effectiveness of training in organizations. Kirkpatrick’s

model was utilized as the framework with its four levels as an evaluation criteria. This

chapter also discussed the methodological rationale and data collected and different methods

of analysis.

3.2 Questionnaire Design and Development

A questionnaire based on Kirkpatrick’s modal technique was designed as an effective tool

to collect data and assess the satisfaction of NTS training provided by AASTMT.

Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model Level 3, is rarely used as the sole instrument for making

decisions about training interventions, so including stakeholders should be considered as

additional evaluation for Level 4 “triangulate” or augment Level 3 data. Thus, the

questionnaire should be circulated for both trainees and shore staff to measure the

satisfaction of both levels behavior and results.

A detailed review of the previous studies in the same field had been viewed to verify each

statement of the questionnaire as given in Table (3-1). The sources for each statement used

in the designed questionnaire are provided in Table (3-1).

46

Table (3-1): Sources of the questionnaire’s statements

No. Statements Source

1 Trainee has the ability to communicate well for technical

proficiency and safety.

Saqip, (2018), Wealth Foundations,

(2018)

2 Trainee personal problems cannot adversely affect his

performance.


(2018)

3 Trainee feels obligated to mention psychological stress or

physical problems to other personnel before or during a duty.

O’Connor, (2012)

4 It is from trainees’ responsibilities towards the crew to identify

emergencies during the pre-sailing brief.

O’Connor, (2012), Saqip, (2018),

Wealth Foundations, (2018)

5 When the trainee is in charge, he must explain the plans and

procedures and must be sure that the information is understood

by others and can be implemented.

O’Connor, (2012)

6 Trainee helps new staff get up to speed quickly, gives people

challenging job assignments, and monitors performance.

O’Connor, (2012), The JARTEL group,

(2012)

7 Trainee provides people with assignments to develop their skills,

gives timely coaching, acts as a role model for development.

The JARTEL group, (2012)

8 Trainee must be aware of, and sensitive to, the personal problems

of other team members.

O’Connor, (2012)

9 Trainee could be able to consider the personal work styles for

effective team coordination.


10 Trainee is aware of the extent of the change in behavior,

knowledge and skill level.


11 Trainee is able to explain the contribution that learning and

development makes to his/her team.


12 Trainee feels he/she fits better for the job. O’Connor, (2012)

13 In critical situations, trainee relies on his superiors to tell him

what to do.

O’Connor, (2012)

14 Trainee is less effective when stressed or fatigued. O’Connor, (2012)

15 Many improvements have been made to our organization

interventions as a result of learning and development evaluation

information.

The JARTEL group, (2012), Saqip,

(2018), Wealth Foundations, (2018)

16 Trainee is able to apply what he/she learned in the course on the

job during emergency situations (drills).

O’Connor, (2012)

17 Trainee should alert others to their actual, or potential, work

overload.

Priority Matrix, (2018), Queensland

Teacher’s union, (2018)

18 Trainee will inform other team members when the workload

becomes (or is about to become) excessive.

Priority Matrix, (2018)

Queensland Teacher’s union, (2018)

19 Trainee and managers take joint ownership for learning and

development.



20 Senior management reviews the contribution of learning and

development activities in achieving the company's goals and

objectives as a result of attending the course.



21 Trainee's ability to make good decisions in emergencies has

become as it is in routine situations.

O’Connor, (2012), The JARTEL group,

(2012), Wealth Foundations, (2018)

22 A regular debriefing of procedures and decisions after any task

is an important part of developing and maintaining effective

team co-ordination.

O’Connor, (2012)

23 Trainee became less likely to make personnel judgment errors in

an emergency.


(2018)

24 There is noticeable and measurable change in the activity and

performance of the trainee when back in his/her role.


25 The change in behavior and the new knowledge level of the

trainee is sustained.


(2018)

26 Overall, I am satisfied with this course. O’Connor, (2012)

47

A cover page was attached to the questionnaire to explain mainly the purpose of this

questionnaire and give instructions on how the user will fill the questionnaire in brief.

The questionnaire was constructed to have two main sections:

1. The first section asks for demographics data to classify the respondents according to

their company name, nationality, type of the training course and field, current maritime

rank, age and years of experience.

This part of the questionnaire was designed to provide a thorough demographic

characteristics of the marine officers’ and their company managers (the respondents) at the

same time to provide initial information that are extremely helpful during the interpretation

of the results and hypotheses testing.

2. The second section was designed to achieve the research objectives through 26

statements that was developed for the Marine Officers’ NTS Questionnaire (MONTSQ).

The statements were refined number of times and the questionnaire was reviewed for

clarity of instructions, completeness of alternatives, and the use of appropriate language

and terms.

The questionnaire was shortened somehow by modifying and reducing some statements

related to the number and type of skills to decrease the response time according to a pilot

study recommendations. The final version of the questionnaire contained 26 statements

covering five variables. The 26 statements include: 5 statements dealing with effective

communication, 6 statements dealing with leadership and cooperation, 5 statements dealing

with situational awareness, 4 statements dealing with workload management, 5 statements

dealing with decision-making, and 1 overall satisfaction statement.

A complete final copy of the constructed questionnaire is given in Appendix (B). The

questionnaire statements scale used 5-point Likert scale from 1 to 5, to indicate the level of

agreement or disagreement using the following scales: 1=strongly disagree, 2=Disagree,

3=Neutral, 4=Agree, 5 =strongly agree.

The questionnaires used the 5-point Likert scale to determine the length of each scale

(minimum and maximum value) as shown in Table (3.2). The range is calculated by (5− 1 =

48

4) then divided by 5 (4 ÷ 5 = 0.80). Then, this number is added to scale to determine the

range of each scale and its evaluation.

Table (3-2): The range of 5-point Likert scale and its scale evaluation

Ranking Level of

agreement The range

Scale evaluation

1 strongly disagree 1 – 1.80 Very Poor

2 Disagree 1.81 – 2.60 Poor

3 Neutral 2.61 – 3.40 Acceptable

4 Agree 3.41 – 4.20 Good

5 strongly agree 4.21 – 5 Very Good

Procedure. The MONTSQ was distributed to the marine officers who attended the BRM

and ERM training courses at AASTMT during the period from (October 2012) to (October

2017). This period covers the period from the beginning of such courses’ delivery at

AASTMT to the time of executing the adopted questionnaire. The trainees’ shipping

companies were contacted by the researcher to assign a contact person to distribute the

MONTSQ questionnaire for all the trainees (Marine Officers either onboard ships or in

leave) and the other set for the responsible shore staff for evaluating the gained results from

attending the course.

3.3 Population and Sample size

The population for this study was all marine officers who attended the BRM and ERM

courses at AASTMT, either in the CSC or the simulator in the CMTT. The total enrolled

trainees population was 314 trainees up to the start time of this study and they present two

groups, marine officers who got their courses at their own expense and do not belong to a

specific shipping company, while the second group is the marine officers who are belonging

to a specific shipping company.

The sample of this study was limited to the marine officers who are holding a job in a specific

company. Therefore, the number of marine officers who are employed in specific company

was 187 trainees.

49

Sample Size

Depending on the type of research involved, some experts considered the sample size of 30

is a minimum guideline for correlational, causal-comparative, and true experimental

research (Gay, 1996; Gay & Airasian, 2002). For regression types of analytic work, a good

rule of thumb is 15 participants per variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) which means at

least 75 participants if we consider five variables.

As there were 187 participants in this study as the sample size, the statistical power

requirements have been met.

3.4 Data Collection

The data were retrieved from the trainees of CMTT and also from the CMC. A survey was

performed on 187 marine officers to collect information in regard with their training

activities and their attitudes about NTS courses. The percentage of the returned questionnaire

response rate was 67.4% since there were 126 respondents who only answered from the total

sample (187 marine officers).

Questionnaires were mailed to the corresponding companies that sent their Marine Officers

to attend NTS courses at AASTMT. The responses data were collected after four to six

months from the time of course completion. During 45 days from the time of mailing the

questionnaires, the responses from either the company or the trainees were received

electronically via email. Most of the questionnaires were filled, scanned and re-sent while

others were filled electronically. All the questionnaires were sent through the contacted

companies except only one company where their participants responded personally.

All returned questionnaires were reviewed for stray marks and other damages. Response

files were created by entering data into an EXCEL sheet, then transferred for further

advanced statistical analysis package.

Questionnaires were sent by e-mail and only 252 (126 marine officers + 126 associated shore

staff managers) were returned. Undeliverable questionnaires were because of the move of

few marine officers who left their addresses or/the mail forwarding timeout period had

expired. There was no error found in the received questionnaires from both trainees and

50

shore staff of the company. This represents the actual percentage rate of the received

responses as 67.4% (252/374).

3.5 Methods of Data Analysis

First, data from MONTSQ were entered into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 24

(SPSS) to perform the relevant analyses. But before entering the data into SPSS, names and

codes were assigned to each variable because all data in SPSS should be entered as numbers.

The analysis was maintained by SPSS program. Statistical measures such as means and

standard deviations were computed as well as frequencies, tabulation, correlation, regression

and t-test analysis.

The data used in this study were first checked for its validity and reliability, thus, analyzed

to test the ten hypotheses that guided this study. The analysis of the entered data included

descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive statistics mainly introduced the mean

and the standard deviation. For inferential statistics, the paired-samples t-tests were utilized

to determine the difference between the means of the two data sets (trainees and

organizations) after testing the hypotheses.

This rigorous approach used a statistical power analysis by identifying appropriate sample

size, the level of statistical significance (alpha), the amount of power desired in a study, and

the effect size involved in statistical inference (Cohen, 1992; Creswell, 2005). A significance

level is a probability level that reflects the maximum risk to take that any observed

differences are due to chance (Creswell, 2005). It is usually set at .05 (Cohen, 1992;

Creswell, 2005; Newman, 1994). Two-tailed test of significance was utilized as the research

adopted a non-directional hypotheses.

Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics always arrange and summarize data thus providing useful information

in the form of well the known statistical measures, graphs and tables. There are two main

statistical measures, its central tendency and dispersion. There are many ways to find the

typical values of central tendency measures and the most used are the arithmetic mean,

median and mode. The most common measures of dispersion width are range, the standard

51

deviation and the variance. The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance,

so getting one of them means researcher got the other one (Newman, 1994).

For the analysis of the questionnaire’s items, the response scale ranged from 1 to 5. For each

item of response, the following measures will be calculated: mean, minimum, maximum and

standard deviation. Then, the standard deviation is used for determining how disperse the

agreement on certain item was among the respondents. If the value of standard deviation is

small that indicates a firmly agreement but if it is large that means data are more dispersive

around its mean.

The frequencies of the questionnaire categorical data were demonstrated in tables or graphs

to describe the following:

• Number of organizations/trainees involved in this study.

• Number of marine officers who attended the NTS training courses.

• Age classification of respondents

• Current rank of respondents

• Years of experience of respondents

These information provided an initial overview of the demographic data.

Questionnaire validity and reliability testing

Validity is defined as the extent to which data collected accurately measure what they were

intended to measure (Saunders and Thornhill, 2003). To fulfill the validity procedures, the

content validity check was performed; the questionnaire was validated by a panel of experts

(pilot study) consisting of three academic staff members and seven senior trainees (captains

and chief engineers). Based on expert suggestions, changes were made to improve the

content and the clarity of the questionnaire. After collecting pilot study data, statistical

analysis was employed to ensure the validity of the questionnaires by calculating Pearson’s

correlation coefficient (r) between each statement and the total statements of the

questionnaire and between the total of each dimension and the total statements of the whole

questionnaire.

Reliability is a concept used to evaluate the quality of the research. It indicates how well a

method, technique or test measures something. It is important to consider reliability when

52

researchers are creating their own research design, planning their methods and writing up

their results.

Reliability test is important as it refers to the consistency across the parts of a measuring

instrument (Huck, 2007). A scale is said to have high internal consistency reliability if the

item of a scale “hang together” and measure the same common measure on internal

consistency ”reliability”.

Cronbach’s alpha simply provides an overall reliability coefficient for a set of questions.

Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient normally ranges between 0 and 1. The closer

coefficient is to 1.0, the greater is the internal consistency of the items in the scale. It is

viewed as the most appropriate measure of reliability when making use of Likert

scale/multiple Likert questions in a survey/questionnaire that form a scale and to determine

if the scale is reliable.

According to Ueno and George (2003), Cronbach’s alpha coefficient less than 0.6 is

considered poor while coefficient 0.7 and more is considered acceptable. However, the most

agreed value on a minimum internal consistency is coefficient of 0.7 (Nick, 2007).

Correlation analysis

Pearson’s correlations coefficient represents the relationship between pairs of data sets. The

correlation coefficient provides the direction and strength of the relationship between two

selected variables. The correlation coefficient is denoted by “r”. To find r, the following

formula could be used:

Where: N: Quantity of Information

Σx: Total of the First Variable Value

Σy: Total of the Second Variable Value

Σxy: Sum of the Product of & Second Value

Σx2: Sum of the Squares of the First Value

53

Σy2: Sum of the Squares of the Second Value

Direction means the two variables either directly or inversely proportional. Its numerical

value ranged between (0.0 to 1.0). It is a useful tool to know the nature of the relationship

between the variables under study.

Turning to the questionnaire, first it is needed to find out the correlation coefficient between

each two interval variables from the following five variables:

1- Effective communication;

2- Leadership and cooperation;

3- Situational awareness,

4- Workload management, and

5- Decision-making

Looking at these five variables, the correlation analysis will show how each one of them

could affect the effectiveness of the course on DEOW.

The correlation illustrates the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

A negative correlation leads to inverse relationship: high scores on one variable are linked

with low scores on another.

Followed to this data test, it’s required to determine whether or not the correlation is statistically

significant (unlikely to have occurred by chance). A value approaching zero indicates the

absence of any linear relationship between the two considered variables. Table (3-3) shows the

strength scale of the correlation coefficient according to the value of r:

Table (3-3): Strength scale of correlation

Strength of relationship Value of r

Very weak 0 ≤ r < 0.3

Weak 0.3 ≤ r < 0.5

Moderate 0.5 ≤ r < 0.7

Strong 0.7≤ r < 0.9

Very strong 0.9 ≤ r < 1

Source: Newman, I., & Newman, C. (1994)

54

3.6 Research Hypotheses Testing

Hypothesis testing is a form of statistical inference that uses data from a sample to draw

conclusions about a population parameter. Hypothesis is mainly a tentative assumption about

a parameter. To formulate the assumptions two hypotheses are always defined; the first one

called “null hypothesis” and is noted by H0, while the second called “”alternative

hypothesis” and is noted by H1.

Figure (3-1): Research hypotheses and variables

The hypothesis testing procedure involves using sample data to determine whether to accept

or reject H0. If H0 is rejected then alternative hypothesis H1 should be accepted. In conducting

the hypothesis testing, level of significance for the test called (α) should be specified and

commonly α = 0.05 or α = 0.01. While there is another concept known as “P-value” is often

called the observed level of the significance of the test. If the P-value is less than α, then H0

can be rejected and then, accept H1. Hypotheses testing are useful to examine if the variables

affect each other and whether it is statistically significant or not.

Sat

isfa

ctio

n O

rgan

izat

ions

Sat

isfa

ctio

n T

rain

ees

Trainees

Organization

55

Regression Analysis

In statistical modeling, regression analysis is a set of statistical process for estimating the

relationship among variables. Regression analysis is used to understand the relationship

between the independent variables and the dependent variable, and to explore the forms of

these relationships.

Regression analysis is a reliable method of identifying which variable has more impact on a

topic of interest. The process of performing a regression allows to determine confidently

which factors matter most, which factors can be ignored, and how these factors influence

each other. It is used when researcher wants to predict a continuous dependent variable from

a number of independent variables. If the dependent variable is dichotomous, then logistic

regression should be used.

The multiple linear regression equation is as follows:

,

where is the predicted or expected value of the dependent variable, X1 through Xp are p

distinct independent or predictor variables, b0 is the value of Y when all of the independent

variables (X1 through Xp) are equal to zero, and b1 through bp are the estimated regression

coefficients. Each regression coefficient represents the change in Y relative to a one unit

change in the respective independent variable. In the multiple regression situation, b1, for

example, is the change in Y relative to a one unit change in X1, holding all other independent

variables constant

Multiple regression explains the relationship between multiple independent (predictor)

variables and one dependent. A dependent variable is modeled as a function of several

independent variables with corresponding coefficients, along with the constant term.

Multiple regression requires two or more predictor variables, and this is why it is called

multiple regression. There are several types of multiple regression analysis (e.g. standard,

hierarchical, set wise and stepwise) only stepwise will be used in this study.

Stepwise regression focuses on the best combination of independent variables that would

predict the dependent variable. In stepwise regression, predictor variables are entered into

56

the regression equation one at a time based upon statistical criteria. At each step in the

analysis, the predictor variable that relatively contributes the most to the prediction equation

in terms of increasing the multiple correlations.

Few assumptions should be checked for multiple regression such as normality and

collinearity, stepwise regression always resolves multi-collinearity. It inspects the predictors

and chooses the ones that really contribute to predicting our dependent variable and excludes

those who don’t.

3.7 Importance-Performance Analysis

Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) procedure is a practical and useful method that can

help policymakers to improve the performance. A study by Tsoukatos (2008) demonstrated

the potential of IPA as a decision-making tool for service management. The study concluded

that service managers, regardless of industry, should use IPA as an aid in making their

decisions to allocate quality efforts and resources. In addition, IPA can be used to evaluate

the effectiveness of allocating service quality resources according to customer requirements.

Moreover, IPA can produce valuable recommendations for optimal resource deployment to

improve service performance in areas of high customer interest.

In this study the average value of each variable attributes was considered by direct evaluation

by trainees and organizations, followed by calculation in the specified coordinate system,

where the horizontal axis represents performance, and the vertical axis represents importance

(Martilla & James, 1977), and the results are presented in a four-quadrant grid Figure (3-2)

known as IPA procedure.

The ''Performance'' was considered by the evaluation of organizations’ perception of the

quality of NTS courses delivered by the marine institutions, while the ''importance'' refers to

the assessment of those NTS courses importance by trainees.

IPA is an easy methodology that can help the organization that selects experts focus their

resources or reallocate them according to the features that fall under each category. IPA may

allow extension professionals to identify the characteristics of an issue, or a resource that

should receive the most attention (Warner, et al., 2016).

57

Additionally, the benefit of the IPA is that it generates a clear view of how important certain

elements are in comparison with how satisfied they are to the organization (Martilla &

James, 1977). Since this method was presented by Martilla & James (1977) and due to its

simplicity and stress-free application, it is a widely accepted method for measuring service

quality. They added that IPA model is a useful tool to assess competitive rank and enable

ordering of available strategies to enrich client satisfaction.

Concentrate Here

(high importance and low

satisfaction with performance)

Keep Up The Good Work

(high importance and high


Low Priority

(low importance and low


Possible Overkill

(low importance and high


Figure (3-2): Importance-Performance Matrix

Source: Martilla & James (1977)

IPA is considered a simple and practical method. It has been used in various industries for

more than 40 years such as; tourism (Hudson, Hudson, & Miller, 2004; Oh, 2001; Wade &

Eagles, 2003), education (Nale, Rauch, Wathen, & Barr, 2000), medical service (Piñeiro,

Boubeta, & Mallou, 2006; Yavas & Shemwell, 2001), production (Matzler, Bailom,

Hinterhuber, Renzl, & Pichler, 2004), traffic and transportation (Tam & Lam, 2004),

services (Joseph, Allbright, Stone, Sekhon, & Tinson, 2005), and others. Although the

original IPA is a very useful and valuable method, over the years, it has been subject of

numerous modifications and criticism by many researchers (Abalo, Varela, & Manzano,

2007; Bacon, 2003; Deng, Kuo, & Chen, 2008; Feng M. et al., 2014; Johns, 2001; Kuo,

Chen, & Deng, 2012; Lin, Chan, & Tsai, 2009; Matzler et al., 2004).

PERFORMANCE

IMP

OR

TA

NC

E

58

As a result of applying IPA, a matrix is the output of this method, which is created by plotting

individual attributes' importance’s mean values and satisfaction’s mean values, both will be

paired and used as coordinates for the plotting on a two-dimensional graph having four

quadrants (Hugo & Lacher, 2014). Each quadrant is divided by the performance of attribute

from high to low (in horizontal axis) and the importance of attribute from high to low (in

vertical axis). According to Martilla & James (1977), the four quadrants are illustrated in

Figure (3-2) as;

Quadrant (1) Keep up the Good Work, this quadrant has high importance and high

performance that indicates all attributes located in it means that the clients value such

attribute as relevant to the service presented. Moreover, clients also are satisfied with the

service, and must maintain such attribute to achieve maximum benefits, and it is important

to sustain ideal level of possessions to suit its maximum benefits.

Quadrant (2) Concentrate Here, includes the attributes with high importance and low

performance, which indicates the critical performance deficits whereby the importance

attribute fails to satisfy the clients. In this quadrant such attribute should become a priority

to be attained first, and immediate actions should be taken otherwise it may become a major

weakness that affect negatively in the clients satisfaction.

Quadrant (3) Low Priority, includes the attributes with low importance and low

performance, which demonstrates that the attribute underachieving and doesn’t require any

further actions, as it does nothing to the improvement of the services in the eyes of clients

who used it.

Quadrant (4) Possible Overkill, includes the attributes with low importance and high

performance, which shows that the attributes were successfully achieved but suitably

deemed inappropriate by the clients. Hence, it is important to redefine the need to assign

more resources to such attribute, and to shorten these resources allocation and divert the

efforts to the other attribute that needs immediate action.

In this thesis, descriptive statistics to the questionnaire revealed the mean and standard

deviations related to respondents' reply for each statement. Thus, the mean values of the

importance and performance scores of the attributes were plotted on the four quadrants plot.

The median values then, are used as a measure of central tendency to divide the x-and y-axis

59

into four quadrants on a scatter plot and create the origin. Martilla and James (1977)

explained that the median is considered a better measure of central tendency especially when

the dividing scales are five-point scales.

By conducting the questionnaire, and consulting existing literature on the topic, the

researcher identified the 25 statements, and the mean ratings derived from their descriptive

statistics are depicted in chapter four. The mean ratings from the descriptive statistics for

trainees and organizations were plotted as the mean importance placement of the vertical

axis, while the mean ratings for organization were plotted as the mean performance

placement of the horizontal axis on the IPA grid in Figure (3-1).

3.8 Chapter Summary

Various ways were considered to describe the data from the questionnaire. In addition, it

was seen that categorical data described using frequencies, and that interval data may be

described using central tendency, and dispersion measures. When data is extremely skewed

to one end of the scale, the median may be a more reliable measure of central tendency than

the mean. It is not unusual to find out that both mean and median are cited to demonstrate

the reliability of the mean – or otherwise.

This chapter discussed and reviewed the methodological literature of the study, population

and sample, training/intervention program, data collected, and methods of data analysis

including correlations, stepwise, multiple regression and IPA. Next, the detailed of the data

analysis results are presented in Chapter 4.

Chapter Four

Analysis, Results and Discussions

4.1 Overview

4.2 Descriptive Statistics

4.3 Descriptive Analysis

4.4 Data Reliability Testing

4.5 The Hypothesis Testing

4.6 Importance – Performance Analysis

4.7 Discussion

4.8 Chapter Summary

61

Chapter Four: Analysis, Results and Discussions

4.1 Overview

This chapter begins by presenting the descriptive statistics for the demographics data

followed by frequencies of the response data. Other statistical data analysis was employed

by examining the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, and testing the hypotheses

followed by correlation and regression analysis. At the end, importance-performance

analysis was applied and discussed.

4.2 Demographic statistics

The demographic statistics of the trainees were classified as shown in the following tables

which describe respondents’ number, profession (course type), age, and experience.

Table (4-1) presented the demographic data collected from the respondents of the survey.

The classification of Marine Officers (Trainees) in both BRM and ERM is represented in

numbers with a total of 126 respondents. The average age was around 40 years, with about

15 years of experience on the average.

62

Table (4-1): Frequency summary of demographic data for trainees

Demographic data

Course Name BRM Frequency ERM Frequency Frequency

Current Rank

Master 16 Ch. Eng. 12 28

Ch. Mate 18 2nd Eng. 15 33

2nd Mate 20 3rd Eng. 13 33

3rd Mate 19 4th Eng. 13 32

Total 73 Total 53 126

Age

From 20 to less than 30 years 38



More than 50 years 22

Total 126

Experience

Less than 5 years 25




More than 20 years 23

Total 126

a) Number of respondents

It’s worth mentioning that the number of respondents from the trainees is equal to number

from the respondents of the organizations because the organization evaluation was done only

to their marine officers who actually responded to the questionnaire. Therefore, a total of

252 questionnaires have been received from trainees (126) and their corresponding

organizations (126) giving a total number of respondents of 252.

b) Course type

Table (4-2) and Figure (4-1) showed that the BRM course graduates and their companies

were 146 (73x2) respondents representing 57.9% (146/252) of the sample. While ERM

course graduates and their companies were representing 42.1% of the sample. This means

that there are 73 trainees who were enrolled in BRM and responded to the questionnaires

63

while 53 trainees were enrolled in ERM courses. Each trainee was assessed by his own

company by answering the questionnaire.

Table (4-2): Respondents according to course type data (Trainees and corresponding

organization)

Frequency

Trainees

Frequency

Organization Percent

BRM 73 73 57.9

ERM 53 53 42.1

Total 126 126 100.0

Figure (4-1): Frequency and percent of respondents according to course type (BRM

and ERM)

C) Trainees’ Age

Table (4-3) and Figure (4-2) showed age categories of trainees. The age distribution percent

demonstrated that most of the trainees’ age ranked between 30 to more than 50 representing

69.8% of the total. The maximum class percentage of trainees’ age is (32.5%) and lies

between 30 to less than 40 years, while the minimum class percentage of trainees’ age

(17.5%) for ages more than 50 years.

BRM73

57.9%

ERM53

42.1%

COURSE TYPE

64

Table (4-3): Trainees’ data according to age classification

Frequency Percent

From 20 to less than 30 years 38 30.2



More than 50 years 22 17.5

Total 126 100.0

Figure (4-2): Trainees’ data according to age classification

D) Years of Experience

Table (4-4) and Figure (4-3) showed that the trainees who had years of experience between10

to 15 years represents 23.8% as the maximum percentage class of experience. While the

minimum class percentage is 15.1% (from 15 to less than 20 years) of the total number of

trainees. Most of the trainees have experience in their work mostly more than 10 years of

experience with percentage ratio 57.2%.

30.2%32.5%

19.8%17.5%

FROM 20 TO LESS THAN 30 YEARS



MORE THAN 50 YEARS

AGE

Percent

65

Table (4-4): Trainees’ data according to the experience period

Frequency Percent

Less than 5 years 25 19.8




More than 20 years 23 18.3

Total 126 100.0

Figure (4-3): Trainees’ data according to years of experience classification

4.3 Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive analysis was done for each variable of the five adopted variables considering

firstly the analysis of trainees and their organizations. The five adopted variables in this study

are: effective communication, leadership and cooperation, situational awareness, workload

management and decision making that proposed to affect satisfaction of NTS courses. The

analysis includes the frequencies distribution, mean and standard deviation for each

statement and for each variable.

19.8%

23%

23.8%

15.1%

18.3%

Experience

Less than 5 years From 5 to less than 10 years From 10 to less than 15 years

From 15 to less than 20 years More than 20 years

66

4.3.1 Effective communication

4.3.1.1 Descriptive analysis for trainees’ data

Figure (4-4) showed that 99.2% of the trainees responded “agree” (this agreement is split as;

74.6% for strongly agree, and 24.6% for agree), i.e. trainees have the ability to communicate

well for technical proficiency and safety. 88.1 % of the trainee respondents approved that

after attending the course, trainee personal problems cannot adversely affect his

performance. While 78.3% feel obligated to mention psychological stress or physical

problems to other personnel before or during a duty.

In addition, 90.5% from the trainee respondents believe that it is from their responsibilities

towards the crew to identify emergencies during the pre-sailing brief. 94.4% when in charge,

they must explain the plans and procedures and be sure that the information are understood

by others and can be implemented as shown in Figure (4-4).

From these results, it can be stated that about 91.9% of the trainees’ respondents decided

that “effective communication” is considered as an influencing variable in the efficiency of

the NTS training course.

Figure (4-4): The frequency percent of the “Effective Communication” for trainees

74

.6

48

.4

45

.2 49

.2 52

.3

24

.6

39

.7

42

.1

41

.3

42

.1

0.8

7.1 9

.5

9.5

5.6

0

4.8

3.2

0 00 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (TRAINEE)

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

67

Furthermore, it is clear from Table (4-5) that the trainee respondents considered that the first

St. is the most important followed by the fifth St. The value of the mean response per

statement clarifies that the communication during emergency situations is the most important

for the respondents either in the safety briefing before sailing or the safety information to be

clearly delivered by the trainer and well understood by the crew. The overall mean for the

5-statements (4.56) indicates the importance of “effective communication” on the ships’

safety.

Table (4-5): Mean, Standard Deviation and Frequency for effective communication

statements (Trainee)

Statement Mean Std.

Deviation

Frequency

Strongly

agree Agree Neutral Disagree

Strongly

disagree

Trainee has the ability to

communicate well for

technical proficiency and

safety.

4.74 .758 94 31 1 0 0

After attending the course,

trainee personal problems

cannot adversely affect his

performance.

4.35 .968 61 50 9 6 0

Trainee feels obligated to

mention psychological stress

or physical problems to other

personnel before or during a

duty.

4.29 .893 57 53 12 4 0

It is from trainees’

responsibilities towards the

crew to identify emergencies

during the pre-sailing brief.

4.40 .864 62 52 12 0 0

When the trainee is in charge,

he must explain the plans and

procedures and must be sure

that the information is

understood by others and can

be implemented.

4.50 .826 66 53 7 0 0

Total 4.56 .862 340 239 41 10 0

68

4.3.1.2 Descriptive analysis for organizations’ data

Figure (4-5) indicated that 73.8 % of the organization respondents “agree” (this agreement

is split as; 50% for strongly agree, and 23.8% for agree) that the trainee has the ability to

communicate well for technical proficiency and safety. 77.7 % of the organizations

respondents approved that after attending the course, trainee personal problems cannot

adversely affect his performance. While 76.2 % feel obligated to mention psychological

stress or physical problems to other personnel before or during a duty.

76.9 % from the organization respondents believe that it is from trainees’ responsibilities

towards the crew to identify emergencies during the pre-sailing brief. While 76.1 % when in

charge, they must explain the plans and procedures and be sure that the information are

understood by others and can be implemented.

Figure (4-5): The frequency percent of the “Effective Communication” for

organization

From these results, it can be stated that about 76.1 % of the organization respondents agreed

that “effective communication” is considered as an influencing variable in the efficiency of

the NTS training course.

Furthermore, it is clear from the Table (4-6) that the organization respondents considered

that the first St. is the most important followed by the second St. According to the mean

value of each statement, the communication during emergency situations revealed as the

50

40

.4

39

.7

39

.6 42

.8

23

.8

37

.3

36

.5

37

.3

33

.3

24

.6

18

.3 21

.4

20

.7

21

.5

1.6 4 2.4

2.4

2.4

0 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

(ORGANIZATION)


69

most important for the organization respondents either in the safety briefing before sailing

or the safety information to be clearly delivered by the trainer and well understood by the

crew. The overall mean for the 5-statements (4.17) indicates the importance of “effective

communication” on the ships’ safety.

Table (4-6): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for effective communcation

(Organization)

Statement Mean Std.

Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee has the ability to

communicate well for

technical proficiency and

safety.

4.22 1.089 63 30 31 2 0

After attending the

course, trainee personal

problems cannot

adversely affect his

performance.

4.14 1.011 51 47 23 5 0

Trainee feels obligated to

mention psychological

stress or physical

problems to other

personnel before or

during a duty.

4.16 .973 50 46 27 3 0

It is from trainees’

responsibilities towards

the crew to identify

emergencies during the

pre-sailing brief.

4.14 .935 50 47 26 3 0

When the trainee is in

charge, he must explain

the plans and procedures

and must be sure that the

information is understood

by others and can be

implemented.

4.17 .961 54 42 27 3 0

Total 4.17 .994 268 212 134 16 0

70

Figure (4-6): Comparison of results for the Effective Communication variable from

trainees and organization point of view

Figure (4-6) shows that the percentage of trainees that strongly agree and agree is higher

than the corresponding percentage for the organization except for St. 3. While for neutral,

disagree and strongly disagree, the percentage of trainees is smaller than the organization for

all statements. Which means that trainee feels obligated to mention psychological stress or

physical problems to other personnel before or during a duty.

4.3.2 Leadership and cooperation


Figure (4-7) showed that 96.8% of the trainees responded “agree” (this agreement is split as;

60.3% for strongly agree, and 36.5% for agree), i.e. trainee helps new staff get up to speed

quickly, gives people challenging job assignments, and monitors performance. 91.3 % of the

trainee respondents approved that trainee provides people with assignments to develop their

skills, gives timely coaching, acts as a role model for development. While 88.1% aware of,

and sensitive to, the personal problems of other team members.

In addition, 89.7% from the trainee respondents believe that trainee could be able to consider

the personal work styles for effective team coordination. 88.1% trainee is aware of the extent

50

40

.4

39

.7

39

.6

42

.8

74

.6

48

.4

27

.8

49

.2

52

.3

23

.8

37

.3

36

.5

37

.3

33

.3

24

.6

39

.7

42

.1

41

.3

42

.1

24

.6

18

.3

21

.4

20

.7

21

.5

0.8 7

.1 9.5

9.5

5.6

1.6 4 2.4

2.4

2.4

0

4.8

3.2

0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

(TRAINEE/ORGANIZATION)

Strongly Agree Org. Strongly Agree Trainee Agree Org.

Agree Trainee Neutral Org. Neutral Trainee

Disagree Org. Disagree Trainee Strongly Disagree Org.

Strongly Disagree Trainee

71

of the change in behavior, knowledge and skill level. Also, 91.3% decided that trainees are

able to explain the contribution that learning and development makes to their teams.

Figure (4-7): The frequency of the “leadership and cooperation” for trainees

It is clear from Table (4-7) that the trainee respondents considered that the first St. is the

most important followed by the second St. The value of the mean response per statement

clarifies that trainee helps new staff get up to speed quickly, gives people challenging job

assignments, and monitors performance, hand in hand with developing their skills are most

important for the safety. While the sensitivity to the personal problems of other team

members is most less important. The overall mean for the 6-statements (4.46) indicates the

importance of “leadership and cooperation”.

60

.3

61

.9

50

.8

51

.6

46

56

.4

36

.5

29

.4

37

.3

38

.1 42

.1

34

.9

3.2

8.7 1

1.9

10

.3

11

.9

8.7

0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5 S T . 6

LEADERSHIP AND COOPERATION (TRAINEE)Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

72

Table (4-7): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for leadership and cooperation

(Trainee)

Statement Mean Std.

Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee helps new staff get up

to speed quickly, gives people

challenging job assignments,

and monitors performance.

4.57 .771 76 46 4 0 0

Trainee provides people with

assignments to develop their

skills, gives timely coaching,

acts as a role model for

development.

4.50 .859 78 37 11 0 0

Trainee must be aware of, and

sensitive to, the personal

problems of other team

members.

4.39 .900 64 47 15 0 0

Trainee could be able to

consider the personal work

styles for effective team

coordination.

4.44 .854 65 48 13 0 0

Trainee is aware of the extent

of the change in behavior,

knowledge and skill level.

4.38 .845 58 53 15 0 0

Trainee is able to explain the

contribution that learning and

development makes to his/her

team.

4.48 .821 71 44 11 0 0

Total 4.46 .842 412 275 69 0 0


Figure (4-8) indicated that 75.4% of the organizations responded “agree” (this agreement is

split as; 47.6% for strongly agree, and 27.8% for agree), i.e. the trainee helps new staff get

up to speed quickly, gives people challenging job assignments, and monitors performance.

80.1 % of the organization respondents approved that trainee provides people with

assignments to develop their skills, gives timely coaching, acts as a role model for

development. While 73% aware of, and sensitive to, the personal problems of other team

members.

73

74.6% from the organization respondents believe that trainee could be able to consider the

personal work styles for effective team coordination, and 69% trainee is aware of the extent

of the change in behavior, knowledge and skill level. While, 77% approved that trainee is

able to explain the contribution that learning and development makes to his team.

Figure (4-8): The frequency of the “Leadership and cooperation” for organization

From these results it can be stated that about 74.87 % of the organization respondents agreed

that “Leadership and Cooperation” is considered as an influencing variable in the efficiency

of the training course.

Furthermore, it is clear from Table (4-8) that the organization respondents considered that

the first St. is the most important followed by the second St. According to the mean value of

each statement, the communication during emergency situations revealed as the most

important for the respondents either in the safety briefing before sailing or the safety

information to be clearly delivered by the trainer and well understood by the crew. The

overall mean of the 6-statements (4.14) indicates the importance of “leadership and

cooperation” on the ships’ safety.

47

.6

37

.2 39

.7

31

.7

33

.3

43

.6

27

.8

42

.9

33

.3

42

.9

35

.7

33

.4

21

.4

18

.3 23 23

.8 29

.4

19

.8

3.2

1.6 4

1.6

1.6 3.2

0 0 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5 S T . 6

LEADERSHIP AND COPERATION

(ORGANIZATION)


74

Table (4-8): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for leadership and cooperation

(Organization)

Statement Mean Std.

Deviation

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee helps new staff

get up to speed quickly,

gives people challenging

job assignments, and

monitors performance.

4.23 1.031 60 35 27 4 0

Trainee provides people

with assignments to

develop their skills, gives

timely coaching, acts as a

role model for

development.

4.17 .962 47 54 23 2 0

Trainee must be aware

of, and sensitive to, the

personal problems of

other team members.

4.12 1.082 50 42 29 5 0

Trainee could be able to

consider the personal

work styles for effective

team coordination.

4.07 .944 40 54 30 2 0

Trainee is aware of the

extent of the change in

behavior, knowledge and

skill level.

4.11 .915 42 45 37 2 0

Trainee is able to explain

the contribution that

learning and

development makes to

his/her team.

4.16 .981 55 42 25 4 0

Total 4.14 .989 294 272 171 19 0

75

Figure (4-9): Comparison of results for the leadership and cooperation variable from

trainees and organizations pint of view


than the corresponding percentage for the organization except for St. 2&4. While for neutral,


all statements.

4.3.3 Situational awareness


Figure (4-10) showed that 92.1% of the trainees responded “agree” (this agreement is split

as; 54.8% for strongly agree, and 37.3% for agree), i.e. they fit better for the job. 82.5 % of

the trainee respondents approved that in critical situations, trainee relies on his superiors to

tell him what to do. While 88.1% are less effective when stressed or fatigued.

In addition, 93.6% from the respondents believe that many improvements have been made

to their organization interventions as a result of learning and development evaluation

information. While, 92.1% are able to apply what he learned in the course on the job during

emergency situations.

47

.6

37

.2 39

.7

31

.7

33

.3

43

.6

60

.3

61

.9

50

.8

51

.6

46

56

.4

27

.8

42

.9

33

.3

42

.9

35

.7

33

.436

.5

29

.4

37

.3

38

.1 42

.1

34

.9

21

.4

18

.3 23 23

.8 29

.4

19

.8

3.2

8.7 1

1.9

10

.3

11

.9

8.7

3.2

1.6 4 1.6

1.6 3.2

0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5 S T . 6

LEADRESHIP AND COOPERATION






76

Figure (4-10): The frequency of the situational awareness for trainees

Table (4-9): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for situational awareness (Trainee)

Statements Mean Std.

Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee feels he/she fits

better for the job.

4.45 .850 69 47 9 1 0

In critical situations,

trainee relies on his

superiors to tell him

what to do.

4.27 1.082 65 39 14 7 1

Trainee is less effective

when stressed or

fatigued.

4.37 .969 68 43 9 5 1

Many improvements

have been made to our

organization

interventions as a result

of learning and

development evaluation

information.

4.38 .787 56 62 8 0 0

Trainee is able to apply

what he/she learned in

the course on the job

during emergency

situations (drills).

4.35 .837 54 62 10 0 0

Total 4.36 .905 312 253 50 13 2

54

.8

51

.6 54

44

.4

42

.9

37

.3

30

.9 34

.1

49

.2

49

.2

7.1 1

1.1

7.1

6.4 7.9

0.8

5.6

4

0 00 0.8

0.8

0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

SITUITIONAL AWARENESS (TRAINEE)


77

Furthermore, it is clear from Table (4-9) that the trainee respondents considered that the first

St. is the most important followed by the third St. The value of the mean response per

statement clarifies that the trainees are feeling better for the job after attending the course.

The overall mean of the 5-statements (4.36) indicates the importance of “leadership and

cooperation”.


Figure (4-11) indicated that 81.7% of the organizations responded “agree” (this agreement

is split as; 50.7% for strongly agree, and 31% for agree), i.e. the trainee feels he fits better

for the job. 69.8 % of the organization respondents approved that in critical situations, trainee

relies on his superiors to tell him what to do. While 70.6% is less effective when stressed or

fatigued.

74.6% from the organization respondents believe that many improvements have been made

to their organization interventions as a result of learning and development evaluation

information. While 75.4% are able to apply what he learned in the course on the job during

emergency situations (drills).

Figure (4-11): The frequency of the “Situational awareness” for organization

50

.7

43

.6

30

.1

30

.9

28

.631

26

.2

40

.5 43

.7 46

.8

15

.9

23

.8

20

.6

21

.4 23

.8

2.4 4

.8

8.8

4

0.8

0 1.6

0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

SITUITIONAL AWARENESS (ORGANIZATION)


78


the first St. is the most important followed by the second St. The value of the mean response

per statement clarifies that the trainees are feeling better for the job after attending the course.

The overall mean of the 5-statements (4.07) indicates the importance of “leadership and

cooperation”.

Table (4-10): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for situational awareness

(Organization)


Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee feels he/she fits better

for the job.

4.32 .966 64 39 20 3 0

In critical situations, trainee

relies on his superiors to tell

him what to do.

4.06 1.132 55 33 30 6 2

Trainee is less effective when

stressed or fatigued.

3.92 1.062 38 51 26 11 0

Many improvements have been

made to our organization

interventions as a result of

learning and development

evaluation information.

4.02 .935 39 55 27 5 0

Trainee is able to apply what

he/she learned in the course on

the job during emergency

situations (drills).

4.03 .849 36 59 30 1 0

Total 4.07 .989 232 237 133 26 2

79

Figure (4-12): Comparison of results for the “Situational Awareness” variable from

trainees and organizations point of view




all statements.

4.3.4 Workload management



as; 47.6% for strongly agree, and 40.5% for agree), i.e. they should alert others to their actual,

or potential, work overload. 81.8% of the respondents approved that they will inform other

team members when the workload becomes (or is about to become) excessive. While 84.9%

will take joint ownership for learning and development. Also, 76.2% from the respondents

believe that senior management reviews the contribution of learning and development

activities in achieving the company's goals and objectives as a result of attending the course.

50

.7

43

.6

30

.1

30

.9

28

.6

54

.8

51

.6

54

44

.4

42

.9

31

26

.2

40

.5 43

.7 46

.8

37

.3

30

.9 34

.1

49

.2

49

.2

15

.9

23

.8

20

.6

21

.4

23

.8

7.1 1

1.1

7.1

6.4 7.9

2.4 4

.8 8.8

4

0.8

0.8 5

.6

4

0 00 1.6

0 0 00 0.8

0.8

0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

SITUETIUONAL AWARENESS






80

Figure (4-13): The frequency of the workload management for trainees

Furthermore, it is clear from Table (4-11) that the respondents considered that the first St. is the

most important followed by the second St. The value of the mean response per statement reflects

the benefit from the course in achieving the goal and objectives of the company regarding the

safety measures as a result of attending the training course. The overall mean for the 4-statements

(4.41) indicates the importance of workload management”.

Table (4-11): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for workload management

(Trainee)


Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee should alert others to their

actual, or potential, work overload.

4.52 .715 71 51 3 1 0

Trainee will inform other team

members when the workload

becomes (or is about to become)

excessive.

4.44 .786 67 48 11 0 0

Trainee and managers take joint

ownership for learning and

development.

4.37 .744 55 62 9 0 0

Senior management reviews the

contribution of learning and

development activities in achieving

the company's goals and objectives as

a result of attending the course.

4.32 .854 54 58 14 0 0

Total 4.41 .775 247 219 37 1 0

47

.6

43

.7

35

.7

30

.2

40

.5

38

.1

49

.2

46

2.4

8.7

7.1 1

1.1

0.8

0 0 00 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT (TRAINEE)


81



is split as; 43.7% for strongly agree, and 31.7% for agree), i.e. they should alert others to

their actual, or potential, work overload. 76.2% of the respondents approved that they will

inform other team members when the workload becomes (or is about to become) excessive.

While 75.4% will take joint ownership for learning and development.

In addition, 76.2% from the organization respondents believe that senior management

reviews the contribution of learning and development activities in achieving the

organizations’ goals and objectives as a result of attending the course.

Figure (4-14): The frequency of the workload management for organization


the first St. is the most important followed by the second St. According to the mean value

per each statement, the benefit from the course in achieving the goal and objectives of the

company regarding the safety measures as a result of attending the training course. The

overall mean for the 4-statements (4.15) indicates the importance of “workload

management”.

43

.7

41

.3

39

.6

35

.7

31

.7 34

.9

35

.8 40

.5

23

.8

23

23

21

.4

0.8

0.8 1.6 2.4

0 0 0 0S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

(ORGANIZATION)


82

Table (4-12): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for workload management

(Organization)


Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee should

alert others to their

actual, or potential,

work overload.

4.18 .999 55 40 30 1 0

Trainee will

inform other team

members when the

workload becomes

(or is about to

become) excessive.

4.17 .938 52 44 29 1 0

Trainee and

managers take

joint ownership for

learning and

development.

4.13 .943 50 45 29 2 0

Senior

management

reviews the

contribution of

learning and

development

activities in

achieving the

company's goals

and objectives as a

result of attending

the course.

4.10 .854 45 51 27 3 0

Total 4.15 .934 202 180 115 7 0

83

Figure (4-15): Comparison of results for the workload management variable from

trainees and organizations point of view


than the corresponding percentage for the organization. While for neutral, disagree and

strongly disagree, the percentage of trainees is smaller than the organization for all

statements.

4.3.5 Decision-making



as; 66.7% for strongly agree, and 31.7% for agree), i.e. they are able to make good decisions

in emergencies as it is in routine situations. 95.2 % of the respondents approved that a regular

debriefing of procedures and decisions after any task is an important part of developing and

maintaining effective team co-ordination. While 96% is less likely to make personnel

judgment errors in an emergency. In addition, 91.3% from the trainee respondents believe

that there is noticeable and measurable change in the activity and performance of the trainee

when back in his role. While, 92.1% is able to change in behavior and the new knowledge

level of the trainee is sustained.

43

.7

41

.3

39

.6

35

.7

56

.3

53

.2

43

.7

42

.9

31

.7

34

.9

35

.8 40

.5

40

.5

38

.1 49

.2

46

23

.8

23

23

21

.4

2.4 8

.7

7.1 1

1.1

0.8

0.8 1.6 2.4

0.8

0 0 00 0 0 00 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT






84

Figure (4-16): The frequency of the decision making for trainees

Table (4-13): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for decision making (Trainee)


Deviation

Frequency

Strongly


Strongly

disagree

Trainee's ability to make

good decisions in

emergencies has become

as it is in routine

situations.

4.65 .712 84 40 2 0 0

A regular debriefing of

procedures and decisions

after any task is an

important part of

developing and

maintaining effective

team co-ordination.

4.57 .814 78 42 6 0 0

Trainee became less

likely to make personnel

judgment errors in an

emergency.

4.52 .820 70 51 5 0 0

There is noticeable and

measurable change in

the activity and

performance of the

trainee when back in

his/her role.

4.47 .894 70 45 11 0 0

The change in behavior

and the new knowledge

level of the trainee is

sustained.

4.52 .896 75 41 10 0 0

Total 4.55 .827 377 219 34 0 0

66

.7

61

.9

55

.5

55

.5

59

.5

31

.7

33

.3 40

.5

35

.8

32

.6

1.6 4.8

4

8.7

7.9

0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

DECISION MAKING (TRAINEE)


85

Furthermore, it is clear from Table (4-13) that the trainee respondents considered that the

first St. is the most important followed by the second St. the value of the mean response per

statement indicates the response from the marine officers who attend the training course

became more effective in emergency situations as they respond in the routine work. Also,

indicate that their behavior in the activity and performance of the trainee when back in their

role is changed. The overall mean for the 5-statements (4.55) indicates the importance of

“decision making”.



is split as; 50% for strongly agree, and 23.8% for agree), i.e. their ability to make good

decisions in emergencies has become as it is in routine situations. 77.7 % of the respondents

approved that a regular debriefing of procedures and decisions after any task is an important

part of developing and maintaining effective team co-ordination. While 76.2% are less likely

to make personnel judgment errors in an emergency.

In addition, 76.9% from the organization respondents believe that there is noticeable and

measurable change in the activity and performance of the trainee when back in his role.

76.1% is able to change in behavior and the new knowledge level of the trainee is sustained.


the second St. is the most important followed by the first St. According to the mean value of

each statement, the response from the marine officers who attend the training course became

more effective in emergency situations as they respond in the routine work. Also, indicate

that their behavior in the activity and performance of the trainee when return to their role is

changed. The overall mean for the 5-statements (4.20) indicates the importance of “decision

making”.

86

Figure (4-17): The frequency of the decision making for organization

Table (4-14): Mean, Std. Deviation and Frequency for decision making (Organization)

Statements Mea

n

Std.

Deviatio

n

Frequency

Strongl

y agree

Agre

e

Neutr

al

Disagr

ee

Strong

ly

disagre

e

Trainee's ability to make good

decisions in emergencies has

become as it is in routine

situations.

4.25 1.009 63 33 28 2 0

A regular debriefing of procedures

and decisions after any task is an

important part of developing and

maintaining effective team co-

ordination.

4.21 1.090 58 37 30 1 0

Trainee became less likely to

make personnel judgment errors

in an emergency.

4.17 1.037 46 49 29 2 0

There is noticeable and

measurable change in the activity

and performance of the trainee

when back in his/her role.

4.20 .907 50 58 16 2 0

The change in behavior and the

new knowledge level of the

trainee is sustained.

4.17 1.001 57 36 31 2 0

Total 4.20 1.009 274 213 134 9 0

50

40

.4

39

.7

39

.6 42

.8

23

.8

37

.3

36

.5

37

.3

33

.3

24

.6

18

.3 21

.4

20

.7

21

.5

1.6 4 2.4

2.4

2.4

0 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

DECISION MAKING (ORGANIZATION)


87

Figure (4-18): Comparison of results for the decision making variable from trainees

and organizations point of view




all statements.

4.3.6 Course Overall satisfaction

The statistics shown in Figure (4-19) of the “satisfaction Statement”, “Overall, I am satisfied

with this course”, indicated the overall opinion of the respondents about the benefits gained

from attending the course and the impact of the course on the performance of the marine

officers when they were back to their jobs. Majority of the trainees 96% agreed (this

agreement is the sum of 63.5 % for strongly agree, and 32.5% for agree), i.e. the course is

valuable and it is useful for the marine officers to attend it. While 85.7% of the respondents

from the organizations (shipping companies) agreed (this agreement is the sum of 59.5 %

for strong agree, and 26.2% for agree) to the benefit and the value of the course. In addition,

it is clear from Figure (4-19) that the average of both trainees and organizations evaluations

was almost strongly agree on the satisfaction of the course.

50

46

36

.5

39

.7

45

.2

66

.7

61

.9

55

.5

55

.5

59

.5

26

.2

29

.4 38

.9 46

28

.6

31

.7

33

.3 40

.5

35

.8

32

.6

22

.2

23

.8

23

12

.7 24

.6

1.6 4.8

4 8.7

7.9

1.6

0.8 1.6

1.6

1.6

0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

S T . 1 S T . 2 S T . 3 S T . 4 S T . 5

DECISION MAKING


Strongly Agree Org. Strongly Agree Trainee Agree Org. Agree Trainee

Neutral Org. Neutral Trainee Disagree Org. Disagree Trainee

Strongly Disagree Org. Strongly Disagree Trainee

88

Figure (4-19): The frequency of the overall course satisfaction (Trainee/Organization)

4.3.7 Summary of descriptive statistics for the adopted variables in the

questionnaire

Table (4-15): Summary statistics of all the independent variables from the two points

of view (trainees and organizations)

Variable

Trainees’ responses Organizations’ responses

Mean St. dev. Coff. of

variation Rank Mean St. dev.

Coff. of

variation Rank

Effective

Communication 4.56 0.862 0.19 1 4.17 0.994 0.24 2

Leadership and

Cooperation 4.46 0.842 0.19 3 4.14 0.989 0.24 4

Situational

Awareness 4.36 0.905 0.21 5 4.07 0.989 0.24 5

Workload

Management 4.41 0.775 0.18 4 4.15 0.934 0.23 3

Decision Making 4.55 0.827 0.18 2 4.20 1.009 0.24 1

Table (4-15) illustrates the importance of the variables from both trainees’ and

organizations’ perspective. Effective communication was ranked as the first variable in

importance for the trainees and decision making comes as the second variable in importance.

On the other hand, it’s vice versa for the organizations where effective communication

comes in the second importance and decision making is ranking as the first in importance.

59.50% 63.50%

26.20%32.50%

14.30%4% 0% 0% 0% 0%

O R G . T R A I N E E O R G . T R A I N E E O R G . T R A I N E E O R G . T R A I N E E O R G . T R A I N E E

S T R O N G L Y A G R E E A G R E E N E U T R A L D I S A G R E E S T R O N G L Y D I S A G R E E

OVERALL STATEMENT

89

Leadership and cooperation was ranked as the third variable in importance while workload

management was ranked as the fourth variable in importance for trainees. But, for

organizations, leadership and cooperation was ranked as the fourth variable, while workload

management came as the third variable in evaluating the performance.

Coefficient of variation had been used in this study to standardize the heterogeneity measure

to improve comparability. The values of the coefficient of variation that measure dispersion

of data as well as the standard deviations gave nearly the same values showing very slight

variability between both trainees and organization. Both trainees and organizations are

strongly satisfied with the course and have established that situational awareness is the least

important variable.

The mean of the satisfaction of trainees was 4.60 that is higher than the mean of

organizations 4.45, which indicates that the trainees were more confident by the course and

are more satisfied than organizations. This result coincides with the logic that the trainees

attended the course for the first time and discovered the positive points in the course, while

the organization’s expectations of the course’s benefits was very high than the results they

evaluated.

4.4 Data Reliability Testing

Reliability of data was carried out by using Cronbach’s Alpha. Table (4-16) showed that all

the variables have a reliability (> 0.70). It was also found that the overall questionnaire

reliability was 0.978 confirming the high reliability of the questionnaire, i.e. the internal

consistency among the statements and the studied variables of the questionnaire has high

reliability.

90

Table (4-16): Reliability Statistics and value of Cronbach’s Alpha

Variable Cronbach’s

alpha

Effective communication 0.843

Leadership and cooperation 0.867

Situational awareness 0.794

Workload management 0.798

Decision-making 0.883

Overall Satisfaction 0.895

The questionnaire 0.957

4.5 The Hypothesis Testing

Statistical tools such as correlation analysis, regression analysis and pair-wise T-test using

the SPSS program V24 were used to figure out which research hypotheses could be accepted

for trainees or organizations responses’ data. This procedure was carried out twice to

investigate the satisfaction levels, one for the trainees and the other for the organization point

of view. The analysis tested the five hypotheses representing the 5-adopted variables for

each category (Trainees/Organization) as described in chapter three.

4.5.1 Testing hypotheses associated with trainees responses’ data

The correlation analysis, as well as simple and multiple regression analysis were employed

to test the relationship between the five adopted variables; effective communication,

leadership and cooperation, situational awareness, workload management and decision

making from one side and also their impact on satisfaction on NTS training courses.

4.5.1.1 Correlation analysis between the study variables for trainees

The correlation between the five main variables is shown in Table (4-17). All correlation

Coefficients between each two variable are significant, positive and varied from 0.590

moderate correlation between workload management and situational awareness to a strong

correlation 0.811 between effective communication from one side, leadership and

cooperation and also, effective communication with decision making.

91

Table (4-17): Correlation between the five main variables (Trainees)

Variable Effective

Communication

Leadership

and

Cooperation

Situational

Awareness

Workload

Management

Decision

Making

Overall

course

satisfaction

Effective

Communication 1

Leadership and

Cooperation 0.811 1

Situational

Awareness 0.695 0.660 1

Workload

Management 0.746 0.723 0.590 1

Decision

Making 0.811 0.720 0.690 0.728 1

Overall course

satisfaction 0.677 0.716 0.593 0.733 0.809 1

4.5.1.2 Testing the impact of the study variables on trainees satisfaction for NTS

courses

Simple, multiple and stepwise regression analysis were carried out for the trainees responses

to test the study hypotheses.

First Hypothesis (Trainees) H1T:

The first hypothesis H1T was formulated as:

H1T: Effective communication has a significant impact on the satisfaction of trainees for

the NTS course.

This hypothesis was tested by using simple regression test, and Table (4-18) shows the

following results.

92

Table (4-18): Simple Regression test for the impact of “effective communication”

(Trainees)

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t r R2

P-value

Sig. B

Std.

Error Beta

1

(Constant) 2.791 0.403 6.918

0.677 0.459 0.000 Effective

Communication 0.401 0.089 0.376 4.521

The impact of “effective communication” on trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is

given in Table (4-18) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 45.9%. This means

that 45.9% of the variance in trainees’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent

variable “effective communication”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The

observed significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “effective communication” has

a positive significant impact on trainees’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Second Hypothesis (Trainees) H2T:

The second hypothesis H2T was formulated as:

H2T: Leadership and cooperation has a significant impact on the satisfaction of trainees for

the NTS course.


following results:

Table (4-19): Simple Regression test for the impact of “leadership and cooperation”

(Trainees)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardize

d

Coefficients T0 r R2

P-

value

Sig. B Std. Error Beta

1

(Constant) 2.350 0.378 6.214

0.716 0.512 0.000 Leadership and

Cooperation 0.499 0.083 0.474 6.001

93

The impact of “leadership and cooperation” on trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is


that 51.2% of the variance in trainees’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent

variable “leadership and cooperation”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The

observed significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “leadership and cooperation” has

a positive significant impact on trainees’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Third Hypothesis (Trainees) H3T:

The third hypothesis H3T was formulated as:

H3T: Situational awareness has a significant impact on the satisfaction of trainees for the

NTS course.


following results:

Table (4-20): Simple Regression test for the impact of “situational awareness”

(Trainees)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t r R2

P-

value


1 (Constant) 2.705 0.381 7.094

0.593 0.352 0.000 Situational Awareness 0.428 0.085 0.411 5.014

The impact of “situational awareness” on trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given

in Table (4-20) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 35.2%. This means that

35.2% of the variance in trainees’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent variable

“situational awareness”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The observed

significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “situational awareness” has a positive

significant impact on trainees’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Fourth Hypothesis (Trainees) H4T:

The fourth hypothesis H4T was formulated as:

94

H4T: Workload management has a significant impact on the satisfaction of trainees for the

NTS course.


following results:

Table (4-21): Simple Regression test for the impact of “workload management”

(Trainees)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t r R2 P-value


1

(Constant) 3.391 0.449 7.550

0.733 0.537 0.000 Workload

Management 0.274 0.101 0.237 2.716

The impact of “workload management” on trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given



“workload management”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The observed

significance P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “workload management” has a positive

significant impact on trainees’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Fifth Hypothesis (Trainees) H5T:

The fifth hypothesis H5T was formulated as:

H5T: Decision-making has a significant impact on the satisfaction of trainees for the NTS

course.


following results:

95

Table (4-22): Simple Regression test for the impact of “decision-making” (Trainees)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized



1

(Constant) 1.680 0.341 4.925

0.809 0.654 0.000 Decision

Making 0.640 0.074 0.613 8.633

The impact of “decision-making” on trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given in

Table (4-22) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 65.4%. This means that


“decision-making”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The observed significancy

P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “decision-making” has a positive significant impact on

trainees’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Testing Normality

A data set should be normal or well-modeled by a normal distribution. A normality test is

used to determine if a data set is normal and to compute how likely it is for a random variable

underlying the data set to be normally distributed. An assessment of the normality of data is

a prerequisite for many statistical tests because normal data is an underlying assumption in

parametric testing and it is proved by Normality Test of Kolmogorov, as p -values > 0.05.

Table (4.23): Normality test for variables under study for Trainees

Variable p-value

Effective Communication 0.158

Leadership and Cooperation 0.944

Situational Awareness 0.741

Workload Management 0.904

Decision Making 0.937

From Table (4-23), the variables data of the trainees proved to be normally distributed as

long as p-value is larger than 0.05.

96

Table (4-24) shows the multiple regression analysis for the impact of all the 5-variables

under study together on trainees’ satisfaction. It was found out that decision making has the

most significant positive impact on trainees’ satisfaction followed by workload management

and leadership and cooperation in the presence of other variables (P-value < 0.05). While

both effective communication and situational awareness have insignificant positive impact

on trainees’ satisfaction in the presence of other variables (P-value < 0.05).

Table (4-24): Multiple regression test for the five variables (Trainees)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1

(Constant) .994 .281 3.539 .001

Effective Communication .090 .083 .101 1.075 .284

Leadership and Cooperation .150 .087 .161 1.715 .021

Situational Awareness .054 .080 .054 .674 .501

Workload Management .174 .094 .172 1.855 .006

Decision Making .354 .087 .387 4.073 .000

By comparing the results of the multiple regression with the ranking from the summary

statistics of all the independent variables (Table 4-15), it was noted that despite the decision

making is the most significant positive impact from multiple regression analysis, it got the

second ranking. While the effective communication was second less effective variable, it

was the first ranking according to the mean value. Situational awareness was the last ranking

and in the mean time it was also the last less effective variable.

Stepwise regression analysis method was employed to filter out the insignificant variables

that aren’t affecting satisfaction of trainees. Table (4-25) shows the results after applying

stepwise regression analysis, where it was found that the variables; Decision Making,

Workload Management and Leadership and Cooperation are having significant positive

impact on trainees’ satisfaction as P-values are less than 0.05. The other two variables;

effective communication and situational awareness were filtered out due to their

insignificance.

Table (4-25): Stepwise Regression test for the five variables (Trainees)

97

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t r R2

P-

value


1

(Constant) 0.784 0.220 .001

Decision Making 0.466 0.071 0.844 0.712 0.844 0.712 .000

Workload Management 0.231 0.079 0.835 0.698 0.835 0.698 .004

Leadership and

Cooperation 0.174 0.073

0.809 0.654 0.809 0.654 .019

According to the Stepwise Regression test, the impact of “leadership and cooperation” on

Trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given in Table (4-25) where the coefficient of

determination (R2) equals 71.2%. This means that 71.2% of the variance in Trainees’

satisfaction can be explained by the independent variable “leadership and cooperation”.

While the impact of “Workload Management” on Trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course

is given in Table (4-25) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 69.8%. This

means that 69.8% of the variance in Trainees’ satisfaction can be explained by the

independent variable “leadership and cooperation”. Also, the impact of “Decision Making”

on Trainees’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given in Table (4-25) where the coefficient

of determination (R2) equals 65.4%. This means that 65.4% of the variance in Trainees’

satisfaction can be explained by the independent variable “Decision Making”.

4.5.2 Testing hypothesis associated with organization responses’ data

Similar procedure as carried out for the trainees’ data were done for organizations data.

4.5.2.1 Correlation analysis between the study variables for organization

The correlation between the five main variables is shown in Table (4-26). All correlation

Coefficient between each two variables are significant, positive and varied from 0.549

moderate correlation between leadership and cooperation and situational awareness to a

strong correlation 0.789 between workload management and decision making.

Table (4-26): Correlation between the five main variables (Organizations)

Variable Effective

Communication

Leadership

and

Cooperation

Situational

Awareness

Workload

Management

Decision

Making

Overall

course

satisfaction

98

Effective

Communicatio

n

1

Leadership and

Cooperation 0.737 1

Situational

Awareness 0.595 0.549 1

Workload

Management 0.687 0.699 0.593 1

Decision

Making 0.683 0.686 0.662 0.789 1

Overall course

satisfaction 0.641 0.660 0.567 0.672 0.740 1

4.5.2.2 Testing the impact of the study variables on organization satisfaction for NTS

courses

First Hypothesis (Organizations) H1O:

The first hypothesis H1O was formulated as:

H1O: Effective communication has a significant impact on the satisfaction of Organizations

for the NTS course.


following results.

Table (4-27): Simple Regression test for the impact of “effective communication”

(Organization)

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t r R2

P-value

Sig. B

Std.

Error Beta

1

(Constant) 1.996 0.244 8.163

0.641 0.411 0.000 Effective

Communication 0.585 0.057 0.677 10.252

The impact of “effective communication” on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS course

is given in Table (4-27) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 41.1%. This

means that 41.1% of the variance in Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the

99

independent variable “effective communication”. R2 is also known as the explained variance.

The observed significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “effective communication”

has a positive significant impact on Organizations’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Second Hypothesis (Organization) H2O:

The second hypothesis H2O was formulated as:

H2O: Leadership and cooperation has a significant impact on the satisfaction of

Organizations for the NTS course.


following results:

Table (4-28): Simple Regression test for the impact of “leadership and cooperation”

(Organization)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients T0 r R2 P- value


1

(Constant) 2.350 0.378 6.214

0.660 0.436 0.000 Leadership and

Cooperation 0.499 0.083 0.474 6.001

The impact of “leadership and cooperation” on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS

course is given in Table (4-28) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 43.6%.

This means that 43.6% of the variance in Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the

independent variable “leadership and cooperation”. R2 is also known as the explained

variance. The observed significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “leadership and

cooperation” has a positive significant impact on Organizations’ satisfaction at 95%

confidence level.

100

Third Hypothesis (Organization) H3O:

The third hypothesis H3O was formulated as:

H3O: Situational awareness has a significant impact on the satisfaction of Organizations for

the NTS course.


following results:

Table (4-29): Simple Regression test for the impact of “situational awareness”

(Organization)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t r R2

P-

value


1

(Constant) 2.705 0.381 7.094

0.567 0.321 0.000 Situational

Awareness 0.428 0.085 0.411 5.014

The impact of “situational awareness” on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS course is


that 32.1% of the variance in Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent

variable “situational awareness”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The observed

significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “situational awareness” has a positive

significant impact on Organizations’ satisfaction at 95% confidence level.

Fourth Hypothesis (Organization) H4O:

The fourth hypothesis H4O was formulated as:

H4O: Workload management has a significant impact on the satisfaction of Organizations

for the NTS course.


following results:

101

Table (4-30): Simple Regression test for the impact of “workload management”

(Organization)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized



1

(Constant) 3.391 0.449 7.550

0.672 0.452 0.000 Workload

Management 0.274 0.101 0.237 2.716

The impact of “workload management” on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS course is


that 45.2% of the variance in Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent

variable “workload management”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The observed

significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “workload management” has a positive


Fifth Hypothesis (Organization) H5O:

The fifth hypothesis H5O was formulated as:

H5O: Decision-making has a significant impact on the satisfaction of Organizations for the

NTS course.


following results:

Table (4-31): Simple Regression test for the impact of “decision-making”

(Organization)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized



1 (Constant) 1.680 0.341 4.925

0.740 0.548 0.000 Decision Making 0.640 0.074 0.613 8.633

The impact of “decision-making” on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given


54.8% of the variance in Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent

102

variable “decision-making”. R2 is also known as the explained variance. The observed

significancy P-value is (0.000 < 0.05) that means “decision-making” has a positive


Testing Normality

An assessment of the normality of data is a prerequisite for many statistical tests because

normal data is an underlying assumption in parametric testing and it is proved by Normality

Test of Kolmogorov, as p -values > 0.05.

Table (4-32): Normality test for variables under study for Organization

Variable p-value

Effective Communication 0.086

Leadership and Cooperation 0.971

Situational Awareness 0.478

Workload Management 0.245

Decision Making 0.909

From Table (4-32), the variables data of the organization proved to be normally distributed

as long as p-value is larger than 0.05.

Table (4-33) shows the multiple regression analysis for the impact of all the 5-variables

under study together on organizations’ satisfaction. It was found out that decision making

has the most significant positive impact followed by leadership and cooperation and

workload management in the presence of other variables (P-value < 0.05). While both

effective communication and situational awareness got the less effective variables for the

course.

By comparing the results of the multiple regression with the ranking from the summary

statistics of all the independent variables (Table 4-15), it’s noted that decision making was

the most significant positive impact, and in the same time it got first ranking. While the

effective communication was second less effective variable, it was the second ranking for

the mean value. Situational awareness was the last ranking and in the mean time it was also

the last less effective variable.

103

Table (4-33): Multiple regression test for the five variables (organizations)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1

(Constant) 0.994 0.281 3.539 0.000

Effective Communication 0.090 .083 0.101 1.075 0.342

Leadership and Cooperation 0.150 0.087 0.161 1.715 0.009

Situational Awareness 0.054 0.080 0.054 0.674 0.544

Workload Management 0.174 0.094 0.172 1.855 0.016

Decision Making 0.354 0.087 0.387 4.073 0.000

Stepwise regression analysis method was employed to differ out the insignificant variables

that aren’t affecting satisfaction of organizations. Table (4-34) shows the results after

applying stepwise regression analysis, where it was found that the variables; Decision

Making, Workload Management and Leadership and Cooperation are having significant

impact on trainees’ satisfaction as P-values are less than 0.05.

Table (4-34): Stepwise Regression test for the five variables (organizations)

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized



3

(Constant) 1.083 0.267 4.061 .000

Decision Making 0.397 0.080 0.434 4.961 0.755 0.570 .000

Leadership and

Cooperation 0.193 0.080 0.207 2.401

0.743 0.552 .008

Workload Management 0.208 0.090 0.205 2.299 0.710 0.504 .013

According to the Stepwise Regression test, the impact of “Workload Management” on

Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given in Table (4-34) where the coefficient

of determination (R2) equals 57%. This means that 57% of the variance in Organizations’

satisfaction can be explained by the independent variable “Workload Management”. While

the impact of “Leadership and Cooperation” on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS

course is given in Table (4-34) where the coefficient of determination (R2) equals 55.2%.

This means that 55.2% of the variance in Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the

104

independent variable “Leadership and Cooperation”. Also, the impact of “Decision Making”

on Organizations’ satisfaction on the NTS course is given in Table (4-34) where the

coefficient of determination (R2) equals 50.4%. This means that 50.4% of the variance in

Organizations’ satisfaction can be explained by the independent variable “Decision

Making”.

4.5.3 Testing the mean difference between trainees and organizations’

evaluation

Table (4-35): The mean difference between trainees and organizations’ satisfaction

Mean Range

Trainees 4.49 0.24

Organizations 4.20 0.38

Table (4-35) showed that the trainees’ satisfaction of the course is very good according to

the scale evaluation Table (3-2). While, for the organizations the satisfaction is good

according to the scale evaluation Table (3-2). The range showed the trainees’ satisfaction for

all variables are closer than the organizations’ satisfaction.

Paired T-test for the difference:

Table (4-36): Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences

t df Sig. (2-

tailed) Mean Std.

Dev.

Std. Error

Mean

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Pair Trainees -

Organization 0.30480 0.08963 0.01793 0.26780 0.34180 17.002 24 0.000

From Table (4-36), the paired sample test was < 0.05 that means that there is a significant

difference (0.3048) between the mean data of trainees and organization.

105

4.6 Importance-Performance Analysis

As discussed earlier in chapter 3, IPA was used to help staff providing NTS training services

at AASTMT to improve their performance. The importance and performance were

considered from the mean value of each statement in the questionnaire as the evaluation of

trainers and organization respectively.

Table (4-37) represented the five variables for this study with their associated mean for each

statement for the corresponding variable. The importance mean for trainees’ evaluation and

performance mean for organizations’ evaluation for each statement were given in Table (4-

37).

Table (4-37): Importance-Performance Mean values for abatements

Variable Statements Perf. Mean (X) Imp. Mean (Y)

Effective

Communication

St. 1 4.22 4.74

St. 2 4.14 4.35

St. 3 4.16 4.29

St. 4 4.14 4.4

St. 5 4.17 4.5

Leadership and

Cooperation

St. 6 4.23 4.57

St. 7 4.16 4.5

St. 8 4.12 4.39

St. 9 4.07 4.44

St. 10 4.11 4.38

St. 11 4.17 4.48

Situational

Awareness

St. 12 4.32 4.45

St. 13 4.06 4.27

St. 14 3.92 4.37

St. 15 4.02 4.38

St. 16 4.03 4.35

Workload

Management

St. 17 4.18 4.52

St. 18 4.17 4.44

St. 19 4.13 4.37

St. 20 4.1 4.32

Decision

Making

St. 21 4.25 4.65

St. 22 4.21 4.57

St. 23 4.17 4.52

St. 24 4.2 4.47

St. 25 4.17 4.52

106

Performanc

e

The trainees were asked to express their views and evaluate the course importance after

training, while the study considered the organization evaluation represented the performance

of the trainees after receiving their training.

The median values were used as a measure of central tendency to divide the x-and y-axis

into four quadrants on a scatter plot as indicated in Figure (4-20), which demonstrates the

median values of the questionnaire mean statements where they intersected at the point (4.16,

4.44).

Figure (4-20): Importance-Performance Analysis for statements’ number

The distribution of the twenty five statements on the importance-performance grid is

depicted as in Figure (4-20), and shows that eleven statements lied in quadrant I, “Keep up

the good work” and ten statements lied in quadrant III, “Low priority”. While, the remaining

four statements lied on the axis. In addition, no statements lied in both quadrant II

“Concentrate Here” and quadrant IV “Possible Overkill”.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1112

13

14 1516

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Im

po

rtan

ce

IIII

mpo

rtan

c

e

107

Performance

Table (4-38): Importance-Performance Mean values for variables

Variables Perf. Mean

(X)

Imp. Mean

(Y)

Effective Communication 4.17 4.46

Leadership and Cooperation 4.14 4.46

Situational Awareness 4.07 4.36

Workload Management 4.15 4.41

Decision Making 4.20 4.55

Table (4-38) represents the five NTS as variables for this study, and the importance mean

and performance mean for each variable extracted from the questionnaire.

The median values that are used as a measure of central tendency are intersected at the point

(4.15, 4.46), that divided the x-and y-axis into four quadrants on a scatter plot to be used for

plotting the attributed for the five variables as indicated in Figure (4-27).

The distribution of the five variables on the importance-performance grid is depicted as in

Figure (4-21), and shows that Decision Making variables lied in quadrant I, “Keep up the

good work” and the variable Situational awareness lied in quadrant III, “Low priority”.

While, Leadership and cooperation, Effective Communication and Workload Management

variables lied on the axis. No variables lied in both quadrants II “Concentrate Here” and IX

“Possible Overkill”

Figure (4-21): Importance-Performance Analysis for variables

Effectve Communication

Leadership and Cooperation

Situitional Awareness

Workload Management

Decision Making

4.35

4.4

4.45

4.5

4.55

4.6

4.05 4.1 4.15 4.2 4.25

Keep up the Good Concentreate

Possible

Low

Im

po

rtan

ce

IIII

mpo

rtan

c

e

108

4.7 Discussion

Data had been received, as explained earlier, from 252 respondents used to be categorized

as 126 from trainees, and the other 126 returned questionnaire from the shipping companies,

which the research named them organizations. The statistics of age and years of experience

of trainees showed that around 69.8 % of the respondents’ age is more than 30 years, with

median experience of about 15 years. This gave the researcher a confidence that the trainees

have quite suitable years of experience to evaluate a training course efficiently. The five

variables frequencies and the overall course satisfaction were examined to investigate the

level of satisfaction received from the trainees and organization.

For the first variable (Effective Communication), the total percentage of the agreement by

trainees is 91.9%, while the total percentage of agreement by organization is 76.2%.

While for the second variable (Leadership and cooperation), the total percentage of the

agreement by trainees is 90.9%, while the total percentage of the agreement by organization

is 74.9%.

In addition, the third variable (Situational awareness), the total percentage of the agreement

by trainees is 89.7%, while the total percentage of the agreement by organization is 74.4%.

Also, for the fourth variable (Workload management), the total percentage of the agreement

by trainees is 92.5%, while the total percentage of the agreement by organization is 75.8%.

Moreover, the fifth variable (Decision-making), the total percentage of the agreement by

trainees is 94.6%, while the total percentage of the agreement by organization is 77.3%.

From the author point of view, trainees attended the course for their first time, thus they

found new knowledge for them, so they feel the value of knowledge and when they are back

to their jobs they felt that they benefit from the knowledge gained from the course. They

implemented this knowledge and they felt by the change in behavior in their performance

onboard ships. However, the managers in the organizations, who did not attend the course,

gave the results they felt that trainees gained from the course. The author believed that the

lower rates by the organizations are due to their expectation for higher performance from the

marine officers, this may explain the slight difference in rates between both results.

109

Furthermore, for analysis of observations, attention had been paid to extreme opinion that

show a greater contrast between importance and performance because they are key indicators

of customer dissatisfaction (Martilla and James, 1977, p. 79). The scatter plot given in Figure

(4-20) gave the results of the analysis, where most of the points lied in quadrant I (keep up

the good work) and quadrant III (low priority), while nothing lied in both quadrant II

(concentrate here) and quadrant IV (possible overkill).

Within the “keep up with good work” quadrant of the grid, were the attributes of decision

making were represented. This quadrant showed attributes that were of high importance to

delegates and which also performed well. It represents the strong side and competitive

advantages of organizations, whose task is to continue to maintain the quality of those

variables contained therein. Moreover, in the quadrant ‘keep up the good work’ the variable

decision making, was represented by highly ranked factors on the scale of performance

grades. Trainees experience this variable of the NTS courses as very important when

attending the courses.

From figure (4-21), there are obviously many attributes in the "keep up with good work"

category, which is good news for organizations in general. The figure indicated that NTS

courses are on the right track and are effective in meeting important variables for marine

officers and organizations. There are also the variable “effective communication, leadership

and cooperation and Workload Management” close to the axis and Maritime Institutions

must work to move them to the 'keep up the good work' quadrant.

The third quadrant is called ‘low priority’ because the factors in this area were considered

relatively less important, although the actual performance is below the mean score of all the

other attributes’ performances (Lin et al., 2009). The "Low Priority" quadrant was

represented as the attribute of situational awareness. The attribute within this quadrant was

of low importance to delegates and organizations who were also unhappy with the

performance of the trainees. This element does not pose any threat to the organization, but

the manager can think of an option to give more knowledge and information to the situational

awareness part from the course.

4.8 Chapter summary

110

The questionnaire reliability was analyzed by Cronbach's Alpha using SPSS version 24.

Additionally, simple, multiple and stepwise regressions was used to test the hypotheses.

Correlations analysis was used to find out the strength and type of the linear relationship

between each two variables.

The IPA was a practical and useful method that contributed to identify the service elements

that resource allocation can contribute to increasing organizational satisfaction.

To assess the impact of each variable on the satisfaction of the respondents about the courses,

hypotheses testing were performed which reflects the extent of utilization from the training

courses in their behavior when the trainees are back at their jobs. The results from the

analysis mostly support the hypotheses in this study, and the difference between the opinion

of the organization and trainees has been illustrated in the evaluation of the importance of

the course.

The hypotheses measured the effectiveness of each variable (NTS) on the satisfaction of the

courses from all respondents. The analysis of the results of the hypotheses from 1 to 5 were

found significant, which means the responders were satisfied on the courses. This reflects

the effect of courses on the improvement of the trainees’ skills after completing the course

and going back to their jobs onboard ships. Some skills tend to be more important than

others.

The variables were ranked according to importance, both when analysis had been taken by

SPSS, and also when IPA had been used as:

1) Decision-making

2) Workload management

3) Leadership and cooperation

4) Effective communication

5) Situational awareness

A significant relationship was found between all the variables.

Chapter Five

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Summary

5.2 Conclusion

5.3 Research Recommendations

5.4 Future Research

112

Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter presented the main findings and conclusion of the current research, followed

by recommendations to marine institutes and shipping companies as well as to researchers

for future work in the same field. It begins by addressing the aim and objectives of the

research. Then, it reveals the importance of research and contribution to theory and practice.

Finally, study limitations are identified, upon which areas for further research are

recommended.

5.1 Summary

Human error is considered as one of the main causes of accidents, which can never be eliminated

but can be reduced through appropriate education and training measures. Efforts in NTS training

implementation and evaluation have been strongly recognized by other critical industries.

However, to improve shipping safety and marine officers’ performance; training and assessing

feedback on NTS are always required to ensure that marine officers have appropriate skills to

minimize, detect and mitigate errors before they run to an accident. Moreover, NTS implications

for shipping companies, employing marine officers; their expectations for incoming staff are

critical to ship safety management. Therefore, improving the NTS workforce in the marine

industry will help ensure success in reducing marine accidents.

In addition, due to this reason IMO has enforced BRM and ERM courses, and also emphasized

the importance of seafarers' NTS for safety in the marine environment. However, no much

research has been done in this area. An important aspect of any skills training programs, such as

BRM and ERM, is the need to create skills transfer to the workplace. However, an effective NTS

programs can increase productivity and help maintain safe conditions in complex and stressful

environments. The consequences of neglecting NTS such as; effective communication,

leadership and cooperation, situational awareness, workload management, and decision making,

can be catastrophic. Consequently, marine industries are reluctant to spend resources on training

officers on the basis of NTS.

Finally, the development of NTS has implications for marine officers themselves. Improving

these skills may have a personal and professional impact, such as being able to become more

proficient in understanding the social, psychological and political factors that provide the

113

contextual context in which the maritime industry is developed and updated. Thus, this study

is related to future studies assessing the satisfaction of NTS training on TS performance, and

whether NTS is a general and transformable between crises requiring different TS services.

Achievement of Research Aims and Objectives

Chapter one indicated the aim of this research, which was to find out a method to assess the

efficiency of NTS for DEOW. To achieve this aim five research objectives have been

formulated and, correspondingly, five research questions were raised. To achieve these

objectives, the research methodology outlined has been adopted. Chapter two presented the

literature review, previous models and studies. Moreover, Chapter Three presented data

collection and methodology.

Table (5-1): Research objectives, questions and methodology

Objectives Methodology Chapter

1- To identify the relevant NTS seafarers should

have.

2- To investigate how NTS could be better

evaluated and thus more efficiently

contributing to the effectiveness of shipping

operations and to the development of safety

levels onboard ships.

Analytical descriptive

analysis through critical

literature review

2

3- To provide a framework for evaluating the

NTS of DEOW.

A comparative study of

available assessment models

that have been performed,

and Kirkpatrick’s evaluation

model was chosen

3

4- To develop a system to assess trainees'

performance through training programs using

the framework developed in this thesis.

5- To enable the marine industry to assess the

performance of the deck and engine room

teams and to improve selection, training and

promotion processes and procedures for

DEOW.

- Data collection:

Questionnaire

- Statistical analysis: SPSS

version 24 software

- Analysis of results

(Description analysis,

correlation, simple, multiple

regression to test

hypothesis, stepwise to

model the result & IPA)

4

114

Table 5.1 summarized the research objectives and indicated which part of the research is

concerned with achieving each objective, as well as the methodology used.

Chapter Two achieved the first and second objectives of this research: “To identify the

relevant NTS seafarers should have, and To investigate how NTS could be better evaluated

and thus more efficiently contributing to the effectiveness of shipping operations and the

development of safety levels onboard ships”

The literature review clearly indicated that the development of evaluation models helps to

define a comprehensive model of the description and ultimately train NTS on marine

officers. This, in turn, is based on earlier research that helps build a bridge between current

literature and practice. However, given that BRM and ERM training is one of the factors that

may affect the exercise and effectiveness of DEOW behaviours, it can be argued that the

current evidence on the trainees’ and organizations’ satisfaction of BRM & ERM training

programs is impressive, albeit imperfect. Specifically, what can be said is that BRM & ERM

(generally) produce positive reactions, promote learning, and change desirable behaviour in

the workplace?

Nevertheless, what cannot be answered with certainty is whether the training of BRM &

ERM has little effect on safety. At this point, the study believes that the tools necessary to

determine it exist; what is required is the mandate, access to trainees, resources to achieve

it, and of course, study additional safety measures behind accident rates. Also, the review

indicated that there was a need to identify the reasons for the evaluation and that the tools

and techniques used would change depending on the reasons for the assessment.

In addition, the Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model is a composite model, which occurs only

after the implementation of the training program to assess the merits and value of the training

program. It provides a summary report of the training results to consider its continuation

and/or improvement. It is clear in the literature that the development of maritime safety

requires accountability in the development of marine officers and that the results continue to

grow. One of the greatest challenges is the creation, development and use of evaluation

models.

115

Moreover, the review revealed a gap in previous studies, as the study found that the main

training courses developed by IMO in Manila 2010 were not specifically evaluated in the

maritime industry, even though they are rarely evaluated in aviation and anaesthesia.

Chapter Three details the methodology and techniques that are designed to contribute to the

development and evaluation of NTS required by marine officers. Also, this chapter explained

the reason behind why the researcher used the questionnaire rather than the other methods

for collecting data, and identified the method used for the development of it, the 26

statements questionnaire was developed for this study called the MONTSQ.

Each statement was answered by the participants' approval of the 5-point Likert scale. In

addition, the questionnaire is divided to two parts; first including the demographic data

(respondents, course type, age, and experience), while the second part included the

statements for each variable as indicated in STCW amendments Manila 2010.

Moreover, data collection methods, the sample size and mailing procedure were

demonstrated. It also explained various methods of data analysis by using SPSS version 24

software, where demographic data had been analysed by descriptive analysis. To test the

Hypothesis a regression test had been taken. The regression test is used to determine whether

there is a significant impact of each variable on the satisfaction level.

Furthermore, chapter three achieved the third objective of this research: “To provide a

framework for evaluating the NTS of DEOW” by identifying the different models used in

assessment of the training courses to get the best model to be used, Kirkpatrick’s evaluation

model found that it is the suitable model to be used.

Chapter Four achieved the fourth and fifth research objectives: “To develop a system to

assess trainees' performance through training programs using the framework developed in

this thesis” and “ To enable the marine industry to assess the performance of the deck and

engine room teams and to improve selection, training and promotion processes and

procedures for DEOW”.

SPSS version 24 was used to analyse the data collected from the MONTSQ from the trainees

and shipping companies, both for the demographic data and variables statements to

116

determine the usefulness of the method used to assess the effectiveness of the courses on

their satisfaction on the course, which will be reflected on the safety of ships.

The research findings demonstrated that the data analysis revealed that there are strong

correlation between Effective communication and Leadership and cooperation, and also with

Decision-making. That indicates that the effective communication affect the cooperation

among the marine officers, and also it supports them in taking a decision positively, which

will be reflected in the safety measures onboard ships.

5.2 Conclusion

Although, NTS training courses have become essential for ship safety to reduce marine

accident rates in accordance with the requirements of IMO Manila 2010 amendments of

STCW, the appropriate method of evaluating the satisfaction of these courses is yet to be

developed. The literature review revealed that the Kirkpatrick evaluation approach is a

suitable model to apply to the evaluation of BRM and ERM courses. Therefore, the most

important contribution of the current research is the assessment of NTS training courses

using the third and fourth levels of the Kirkpatrick model (behavior and results), as the other

studies in maritime education and training, which is very rare, considered only the first and

second levels (reaction and learning).

Another major contribution of this research is the participation of shipping companies in the

evaluation process through the questionnaire to find out the results of the feedback to the

trainees after attending the training courses, and back to the job onboard ships.

In addition, the implementation of this study contributes to the set of knowledge by:

providing an understanding of NTS courses; providing insight into the importance and

performance of NTS features. Moreover, it provides insight into the organizational

satisfaction of course delegates regarding the component of NTS courses which indicates

the benefit of IPA in measuring and developing organizational satisfaction in this courses.

These contributions enable the researcher to bridge the knowledge gap and add information

about NTS courses. The results of this study were presented through orientation and

discussion of features that fall within each of the four quadrants as identified in the theory

of importance performance by Martila and James (1977).

117

Significance of Study

The primary significance of the study is to be a valuable contribution to the much needed pool

of researches on NTS, locally, regionally and worldwide. This study provides a framework for

evaluating the NTS of captains and DEOW as a crucial factor for enhancing safety.

Moreover, NTS are cognitive skills, social and personal resources that complement technical

skills and contribute to the performance of safe and effective tasks. Many high-risk industries

such as medicine, nuclear power plants and civil aviation have established behavioral marker

systems that provide a mechanism for monitoring and evaluating NTS of operators.

However, there is no system currently available to assess the NTS of captains and DEOW.

In addition, it is anticipated that continuing research will validate the effectiveness of the

behavioral markers.

Scope and Limitations of study

This thesis focuses exclusively on NTS, which affect the performance of DEOW during

routine and emergency situations onboard ships. The method used to identify NTS focuses

on the critical or stressful moments that occur during the watch-keeping. However, the

results apply to the full range of activities of DEOW.

This study is based on data set for marine officers who attended NTS courses from the period

between 2012 and 2017. Further studies can be conducted covering more trainees, thus

enlarging the sample size.

The study is also limited to the proper measurement of NTS courses, which may eventually

provide a training tool, where feedback is given to trainees regarding their performance. In

addition, the research didn’t intentionally include the marine officers who aren’t belonging

to a specific shipping company.

5.3 Research Recommendations

Based on the current research findings, it is possible to develop some recommendations for

shipping companies and maritime institutes as follows:

1- MET institution:

• Marine education and training institutes should remain relevant in a rapidly maturing

and vital area that respond to the needs of the maritime industry. They could provide

118

an appropriate range of NTS training courses, while retaining excellent technical

competencies that do not lag behind Industry.

• As a result from this study, which indicated the importance of NTS training courses

for marine officers, new courses should be conducted for the cadets in the simulators

to train them on the managerial skills at early stage of their career.

2- Shipping companies:

• Shipping companies should consider the importance of the NTS training courses for

the safety of their ships, and carry out those courses either in the maritime institutes

or onboard their ships.

• The study showed that the workload management skills got less importance from the

sample of the study, so shipping companies should give it more care, also for the

situational awareness.

5.4 Future Research

Future research is needed to determine the marine safety requirements for a variety of NTS

programs rather than the courses covered in this work.

In addition to the above recommendations directed essentially to the industry, the following

points are judged to merit further investigation.

• More studies should be carried out conducting more NTS by using other methods

rather than questionnaire and compare it with this study.

• To select or include other groups of trainees that can be assessed, to study the causes

of marine accidents related to NTS and how to take measures to eliminate them.

• To expand the set of evaluation criteria by considering other models and different set

of NTS.

• To apply other evaluation model – such as a mathematical model, which could be

Fuzzy logic - and to compare the results.

119

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Appendices

133

Appendix A: AASTMT’ Course details for BRM and

ERM Courses

(A-1) BRM Training Course Model

College/ Institute/Complex/Center

:المعهد /الكلية/المجمع/المركز Complex Simulator Center

Department/ القسـم : Marine Department

Title/ اسم الدورة : Bridge Resource Management Simulator course

Code/ رمز الدورة : MS0201

Description/

:وصف الدورة

The main tenets of this course relate to the non-technical skills associated

with the social interaction between team members, situation awareness and

decision-making. This is a high fidelity, complex, simulated working

environment.

Objectives/

ورة أهداف الد :

The trainees who successfully complete this course will be able to effectively

contribute to the bridge team during ship maneuvering in normal and

emergency situations. In addition to recognize the value of bridge teamwork

and build greater understanding and awareness of efficient bridge procedures.

They will develop their situational awareness skills to enable them to

anticipate what is coming next in case of handling unexpected and emergency

situations during watch keeping and ship handling

Learning Outcomes/

من الدورة نتائج التعلم :

On completion of training, trainees will have sufficient knowledge and

understanding regarding the non-technical skills:

• Why BRM?

• Objectives of BRM

• Bridge Resources.

• Optimal utilization of all Resources

• Situation Awareness

• Situation Awareness

• Development of Error Chain

• Causes of Casualties and Grounding

• Avoidance of Casualties

• Efficient Bridge Organization

Participants/

:الفئات المستهدفة

▪ Deck officers’ in operation level.

▪ Deck officers’ in management level.

Duration/

فترة الدورة :

5 Days

134

Course Contents/

محتوى المقرر :

1. Familiarization with Simulators Systems

2. Departure Port Said Anchorage Area and Proceeding to PS Channel

3. Un-Berthing Tanker Ship And Proceeding Through Jong Fairway

(Singapore)

4. VLCC Proceeding Through Singapore D.W. Route And Homing To Jong

Anchorage Area

5. Berthing Container Ship At East Keppel Harbour (Singapore)

6. VLCC Proceeding Through D.W. Route Of Dover Strait

7. Berthing Tanker Ship At El Dekhala Port (Egypt)

8. Departure Sultana Shoal Anchorage Area And Berthing Tanker Ship (

Sinki FW- Singapore)

9. VLCC Proceeding Through Gibraltar Strait And Homing To Algeciras

Anchorage Area

Course

Credits/ ساعاتال

للمقرر المعتمدة

Course

Contacts/ ساعاتال

للمقرر الفعلية

30 Hours

Accreditations/ الاعتما

دات

(add the logo of the

accreditation

agency if any)/

)إضافة جهة الاعتماد إن

وجدت(

N/A

Language/

اللغة : English & Arabic

Location/

الموقع : Complex Simulator Center

Class Size/

أقل وأكبر عدد للمتدربين

يمكن تنفيذ الدورة به:

4/8

Trainer

Qualification/

:مؤهلات المدرب

The instructor shall have appropriate training in instructional techniques and

training methods .

▪ The instructors are existing AAST instructors who engaged with several

of STCW courses .

▪ AAST instructors already passed several of academic courses & test to

qualify them to be a member of the academy teaching staff.

Course References /

المراجع العلمية للدورة

1-STCW, as amended Manila (2010), section A.

2- IMO Model Course 1.22

3- Bridge Team Management, A practical Guide. Captain A. J. Swift.

135

(A-2) ERM Training Course Model

College/ Institute/Complex/Center

/الكلية/المجمع/المركز المعهد :

College of Maritime Transport and Technology

Department/ القسـم : Special Courses and Simulators Department

Title/ اسم الدورة : Engine Room Resource Management

Code/ رمز الدورة : ERRM

Description/

:وصف الدورة

The main tenets of this course relate to the non-technical skills

associated with the social interaction between team members,

situation awareness and decision-making. This is a high fidelity,

complex, simulated working environment.

Objectives/

ورةأهداف الد :

The objective of this course is to gain a fundamental understanding

of engine room resource management and to successfully participate

in leadership and team exercises, thereby displaying knowledge of

leadership, managerial skills, and team working skills.

Learning Outcomes/

من الدورة نتائج التعلم :

On completion of training, trainees will have sufficient knowledge

and understanding regarding the non-technical skills inside the

engine room to enable them to:

• Co-operation and teamwork.

• Situational awareness management.

• Decision-making.

• Human factors and human error.

• Crisis management and human behaviour.

• Leadership and workload management.

• Risk assessment and risk management.

• Efficient use of resources and delegation.

• Communications.

• Identification of cause of problem and timely correct response.

• Methodical and logical approach to fault diagnosis and problem

solving.

• Identification and justification of 'assumptions'.

Participants/

:الفئات المستهدفة

▪ Engineer officers’ in operation level.

▪ Engineer officers’ in management level.

Duration/

فترة الدورة : 5 Days

136

Course Contents/

محتوى المقرر :

1. Introduction to ERRM

2. Human Factors and ships accidents’

3. ERM requirements

4. Multi-Criteria Decision Making

5. Situational Awareness

6. The role of teamwork abilities and leadership skills in Engine

Room

7. Effective Communications

8. Assertiveness

9. Groups of Exercises in Engine Room Simulator Course

Credits/ ساعاتال

للمقرر المعتمدة

Course

Contacts/ ساعاتال

للمقرر الفعلية

30 Hours

Accreditations/الاعتماد

ات

(add the logo of the

accreditation agency

if any)/

)إضافة جهة الاعتماد إن

وجدت(

N/A

Language/

اللغة : English & Arabic

Location/

الموقع : Collage of Maritime Transport and Technology

Class Size/

أقل وأكبر عدد للمتدربين

يمكن تنفيذ الدورة به:

4/8

Trainer

Qualification/

:مؤهلات المدرب

▪ B.SC in Marine Engineering, Chief Engineer CoC and sea going

ship experience.

Course References /

المراجع العلمية للدورة

1- STCW, as amended Manila (2010), section A.

2- Maritime Human Resource Institute Engine-room Resource

Management (2012), Japan.

137

Appendix B: Different models used for assessment of training courses

Table (B-1): Different models used for assessment of training courses

No. Date Author Title Objective Method Result Comment

1 2017 Louise

Gorman

MA Thesis

An Examination of

The Performance

Management

Training Status of

Managers

Responsible for the

Implementation of

Performance

Management

Initiatives

in a Hospital Setting

The aim of this

research is a training

evaluation exercise,

to learn if the

managers in this

healthcare facility

feel that the training

and support they

receive is sufficient to

conduct the

Performance

Management

initiatives.

An evaluation of the top four

models Kirkpatrick, Kaufman,

Anderson, and Brinkerhoff will

inform on the most appropriate for

this study. A single method

approach of qualitative interviews

was employed to facilitate a more

thorough analysis of the managers’

opinions and perceptions in order

to fulfil the research aims and

objectives of this study.

Training reduces organisational

risks, promotes organisational

change, builds teams, enhances

communication and distributes

information and knowledge while

developing skills. Training

empowers individuals through a

methodical approach that expands

and impacts their knowledge,

attitude and skills which enhances

individual, team and

organisational effectiveness.

Reaction evaluation considers

the multiple reactions of the

various participants. Outcome

evaluation assesses if the

objectives are achieved at an

immediate, intermediate and

ultimate levels. Kirkpatrick’s

training evaluation model

assesses effectiveness by

looking at the participants’

reactions, their attitude and the

outcome behavior following the

training.

2 2016 V.

SCHUERM

ANN &

Marquardt

ADAPTATION OF

CREW

RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

TRAINING IN

HIGH-RISK

INDUSTRIES

First, this study seeks

to outline the current

state of CRM in

aviation and other

industries by offering

detailed information

about the training

programmes. Second,

it is essential to

clarify what works

well within the

training and what

does not.

Semi-structured interviews were

conducted to answer the research

questions. All interviews were

conducted by the same interviewer

and lasted 25 minutes to 1 hour.

The interviews were recorded for

safeguarding all information. Then,

recordings were transcribed with

the help of a transcription software.

It focused on cross-industry

findings by presenting the results

based on the experts’ interviews.

Referring to the evaluation of

training, almost all experts pointed

out that it is not possible to

evaluate a CRM training on all

four levels of Kirkpatrick’s

evaluation model. This result

aligns with a meta-analysis from

Salas and his colleagues who

barely found studies that evaluated

CRM training on all four levels.

Qualitative interviews are a

valuable tool for finding out

extensive information. The

current study obtained

numerous results regarding

CRM. This section discusses the

results by considering the

study’s strengths and

limitations.

138


3 2015 Training

Division

(FC-T)

Coast Guard

Force

Readiness

Command

STANDARD

OPERATING

PROCEDURES

(SOP) FOR THE

COAST GUARD'S

TRAINING

SYSTEM

Volume 3

TRAINING

EVALUATION

This SOP provides

guidelines for

conducting

standardized

evaluations of

performance-based

resident courses and

other performance

interventions

managed within the

Coast Guard training

system. Evaluation

data is used to assist

with making critical

training decisions and

future design

decisions.

For the purpose of this SOP, the

Kirkpatrick Model will be used as

the model for Coast Guard

evaluations. A formative

evaluation is the ongoing process

of collecting data to improve a

program, product, or instruction

during the design and development

stage. Formative evaluation is

applied to both instructional

products and the instructional

process.

There is a strong correlation

between Level 1 and 2

evaluations. There is a strong

correlation between Level 3 and 4

evaluations. If the learner is able

to perform the new skill on the

job, chances are that it will have a

positive impact on the

organization.

High quality evaluation is time

consuming. However, it ensures

on-the-job application and

guarantees subsequent results

are maximized.

4 2015 Stefan

Röttger &

Jens T.

Kowalski

Effects of a

Classroom–Based

Bridge Resource

Management

Training on

Knowledge,

Attitudes,

Behaviour and

Performance of

Junior Naval

Officers

Assessment of the

effectiveness of

classroom–based

bridge resource

management (BRM)

training for junior

naval officers, in

which general

principles of human

behaviour and

performance in teams

and under stress were

conveyed.

For 117 study participants,

evaluation criteria were assessed

on all levels as defined by

Kirkpatrick: subjective training

evaluation, knowledge, attitudes,

and behaviour as well as

performance while commanding a

vessel during a real–world

exercise.

BRM participants showed better

subjective training evaluations and

more BRM–related knowledge

than controls. Training did not

produce differences between

groups regarding BRM–related

attitudes, the demonstration of

non–technical skills or the overall

success in the real–world exercise.

In the design of BRM and CRM

training courses alike, the

effective application of general

principles to a given context

must be defined, and application

must be emphasised during

training delivery.

139


5 2011 Donald

(Nick)

Rouse

Employing

Kirkpatrick’s

Evaluation

Framework to

Determine the

Effectiveness of

Health Information

Management

Courses and

Programs

The paper provides

concrete tips that

health information

management

instructors can apply

in the process of

evaluating the

effectiveness of their

courses and

programs.

The paper uses Kirkpatrick’s

evaluation framework to present a

model that health information

management instructors can use to

improve upon the standard course

evaluation form. Kirkpatrick’s

model stresses evaluation on the

levels of reaction, learning,

behavior, and results.

Although Kirkpatrick’s model was

never intended to describe exactly

what to evaluate and how to do it,

it does provide an overview of

how to proceed. The model is still

in widespread use. Also, it is the

standard to which other techniques

are compared. Kirkpatrick’s

evaluation framework provides an

excellent framework to determine

strengths and weaknesses of HIM

instruction.

Evaluation of the impact and

effectiveness of courses is

necessary so that strengths and

weaknesses can be identified

and improvements made.

Developed more than 50 years

ago as his dissertation,

Kirkpatrick’s framework for

evaluation has been used as a

basic model for the

identification and targeting of

training-specific interventions

in business, the military, and

industry alike.

6 2010

Ya-Hui

Elegance

Chang

PHD Thesis

An Empirical Study

of Kirkpatrick’s

Evaluation

Model in the

Hospitality Industry

This study examined

Kirkpatrick’s training

evaluation model by

assessing a sales

training program

conducted at an

organization in the

hospitality industry.

This study addresses

these issues by

examining the impact

of Kirkpatrick’s

evaluation model,

with particular

assessments of the

inter-level

relationships between

the four levels.

The attempt is to examine a

training intervention based on

comparative pre- and post-

intervention performance outcome

data. There are, however, extensive

and multiple data to assess the

various variables; that is,

knowledge and skills, job

performance, and organizational

impact. The relationships between

variables may be demonstrated.

It supported his theories by

implementing all four levels of

evaluation as fully as possible at

an organization. The

implementation on only Levels 1

and 2 will not be a valid predictor

of Levels 3 and 4. Implementing

just the higher levels will not

validate the learner’s reaction

(Level 1) or learning (Level 2)

either. The findings indicated that

learning occurred (Level 2) in the

training, job performance

improved (Level 3), and

organizational results (Level 4)

were achieved.

The first assumption frequently

found in the literature is that the

levels are arranged in ascending

order and the model is

hierarchical in nature.

Therefore, the higher levels are

more valuable and important

than the lower ones.

140


7 2010 Eduardo

Salas et. al

Team Training in

the Skies:

Does Crew

Resource

Management

(CRM) Training

work?

The purpose of this

paper is to use

Kirkpatrick’s

typology for training

evaluation, as a

framework to

evaluate the

effectiveness of CRM

training programs in

aviation. Specifically,

the review is

organized via the type

of evidence collected

after training (i.e.,

reaction, learning,

behaviors, and/or

organizational

effectiveness).

Review resulted in the

identification of 58 studies that

appeared to evaluate the

effectiveness of aviation CRM

training programs. Next provide a

description of the state of CRM

evaluation efforts with respect to

each of the levels of evaluation as

identified by Kirkpatrick.

Specifically, studies that assessed

training at only one level will be

reviewed first, beginning with

those collecting reaction data and

ending with those collecting

results/organizational effectiveness

data. Following this will be a brief

review of studies that assessed

training at multiple levels, as

argued for by Kirkpatrick.

Although some have previously

argued that there is no evidence

that CRM is effective, this review

concludes that some evidence

does exist. And this is important.

The picture that has emerged after

reviewing the existing evidence

within the current framework

suggests that CRM training is

effective.

CRM training programs seem to

produce positive participant

reactions, learning, and

application of learned behavior

via simulators or on-line/on the

job. The current review

illustrated that although there

are still some rough spots in

terms of evaluating

implemented CRM training

programs, trends seem to

indicate that CRM training does

have an impact on multiple

aspects of the individuals and

crews completing the program.

8 2010 O'Connor,

Paul et, al

THE U.S. NAVY'S

CREW

RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

PROGRAM: THE

PAST, PRESENT,

AND

RECOMMENDATI

ONS FOR THE

FUTURE

The purpose is to

discuss the

development of CRM

training in U.S. Naval

aviation, and how that

training is managed in a

large organization with

many different

airframes and. This also

evaluations of the

effectiveness of Navy

CRM training and

suggests considerations

for improving the

program.

As has been the case with CRM in

commercial aviation, evaluations

of the effectiveness of the U.S.

Navy’s CRM training have been

reported in the scientific literature.

Kirkpatrick’s evaluation hierarchy

provides a useful framework to

assess the effects of a training

intervention on an organization by

considering training evaluations at

different levels.

There would generally appear to

be a positive effect of the Navy’s

CRM training at each of the levels

of Kirkpatrick’s evaluation

hierarchy.

A robust, scientifically-driven,

CRM training program is an

important mechanism for

addressing the human

component of aviation mishaps

in the U.S. Navy. These new

programs must be assessed to

ensure they are meeting naval

aviation’s operational needs.

141


9 2010 Sharon

Mavin et. al

The evaluation of

learning and

development in the

workplace:

A review of the

literature

The research has

highlighted the many

different reasons why

organisations use

evaluation as part of

their processes and it

is likely that

organisations will

vary significantly in

the reasons why they

use them but they

must have a clear

understanding of their

purpose so that they

can collect the

necessary information

in an appropriate

way.

It is necessary to look at some of

the practical issues which may

impact upon how evaluations are

designed and carried out.

Organisations may need to take a

wider view on things that appear to

be difficult to quantify by

reflecting on how they could be

measured in more innovative ways.

Examples might include

programme looking at less tangible

areas such as communication

skills. The most frequently used

method of data collection is asking

participants to complete evaluation

sheets towards the end of the

session.

It is clear from a range of papers

that researchers have identified the

importance of linking learning

with organisations’ overall

strategies and business objectives,

particularly where their people are

one of their sources of competitive

advantage. This means that those

responsible for learning,

development and evaluation have

to have a good understanding of

the strategy and objectives and

discuss the key issues with a range

of stakeholders.

It is clear from this review that

evaluation should be built into

the design process to ensure that

it will cover the most

appropriate areas and that they

will be realistic.

10 2010 Sharon

Mavin et. al

The evaluation of

learning and

development in the

workplace:

Scanning the

external

environment

This paper leads on

from the desk review

by looking at some

more of the practical

elements related to

effective evaluation

of learning and

development

interventions.

As part of this project all of the HR

Practitioners were asked to review

the CIPD toolkit on Learning

Evaluation and highlight the

strengths and weaknesses of the

ideas posed and the tools that have

been provided. In addition they

were asked to explore which tools

could be contextualised to enable

them to be more useful within the

Higher Education context.

It is evident from this study that a

diverse range of practices exist

within organisations both in the

UK and internationally. An

unexpected outcome however was

that only a very small number of

private sector organisations

provide details of their practices

and supporting policies and

documentation.

Secondary research carried out

by the research team found

limited evidence of specific

evaluation policies or associated

documents.

142


11 2008 O'Connor,

Paul

Crew resource

management

training

effectiveness: A

metaanalysis

and some critical

needs

Empirical studies of

Crew Resource

Management (CRM)

training effectiveness

were subjected to

meta-analysis.

Sixteen CRM

evaluation studies

were found to fulfill

the a priori criteria for

inclusion in the meta-

analysis.

The metrics of CRM training

effectiveness analyzed were:

reactions, attitudes, knowledge,

and behaviors, CRM trained

participants responded positively

to CRM (a mean of four on a five

point Likert scale). Kirkpatrick’s

hierarchy is used as the popular

framework for guiding training

evaluation, data collected and is

gathered using a paper-based

questionnaire.

The findings from the meta-

analysis are encouraging for the

effectiveness of CRM training.

The reactions to CRM training

were positive, large effects of

CRM training were found for

attitudes and behaviors, and a

medium effect size was found for

knowledge - congruent with other

reviews

For a study to be included in the

meta-analysis, an evaluation

had to be reported from at least

one of the first three levels of

Kirkpatrick’s evaluation

hierarchy: reactions, learning

(attitudes and knowledge), or

behaviors.

12 2006 Eduardo

Salas, et. al

Does Crew

Resource

Management

Training Work?

An Update, an

Extension, and

Some Critical

Needs

This review provides

the state of crew

resource management

(CRM) training

evaluations and

extends it to areas

beyond aviation

cockpits. Some

critical evaluation

needs in CRM

training are also

covered.

Using D. L. Kirkpatrick's (1976)

framework for evaluating training,

we reviewed 28 published accounts

of CRM training to determine its

effectiveness within aviation,

medicine, offshore oil production

and maintenance,

shipping/maritime, and nuclear

power domains.

Findings indicate that CRM

training generally produced

positive reactions from trainees;

however, the impact of training on

learning and behavioral changes

suggest mixed results across and

within domains. Furthermore, we

cannot ascertain whether CRM

has had an impact on the

organization's bottom line (i.e.,

safety).

Learning is measured in terms

of a desired change in trainees'

attitudes toward CRM. The next

level, behaviors, assesses

whether the knowledge learned

during the training is transferred

into actual behaviors on the job

or in a simulation.

The highest level of

Kirkpatrick's typology is the

impact of training on the

organization. Evaluating

training at this level determines

whether the training had an

impact on the goals of the

organization.

143


13 2002 O'Connor,

Paul

Methods used to

evaluate the

effectiveness of

CRM training: A

literature review

This review paper

examines the methods

used to evaluate Crew

Resource

Management (CRM)

training in 48

published studies

from aviation and

other industries. The

purpose of the review

is to concentrate on

how the CRM

training course is

evaluated and what

results were reported.

The training evaluation techniques

are categorized in terms of

reactions, learning, attitudes,

behaviour and organisational

effects. In this review a similar

framework was adopted by using

Kirkpatrick’s hierarchy for training

evaluation to examine the impact

of CRM training interventions at

four different levels: reactions,

learning, behaviour, and

organisational effects. All of these

used a paper-based questionnaire

method.

It was found that in general CRM

training was well received,

resulted in a positive change in

CRM attitudes, and had the

desired effect on CRM

behaviours.

In the forty eight studies

included in this literature review

it was found that the techniques

used to evaluate CRM training

in these industries have tended

to be adaptations of the methods

which have previously been

used in aviation.

144

Appendix C: Questionnaire

Effect of Non-Technical Skills’ courses on Performance of Marine Officers

Dear Participant,

The objective of this questionnaire is to measure the effect of Non-Technical Skills’ courses

on the performance of marine officers, and to investigate the impact of these courses on their

work behavior after passing these courses. The information you provide will be used for

scientific research purposes to obtain an objective and clear vision, based on implementing

marine Non-Technical Skills’ courses.

Your response will be kept strictly confidential. A summary of the results could be mailed

to you, after being analyzed, if you request.

This survey will take a five minutes to be completed. Please kindly submit your feedback by

email to: [email protected]

Thank you for your kind time and cooperation.

Researcher: Hesham Mahmoud Helal

AASTMT

mailto:[email protected]

145

Questionnaire

Effect of Non-Technical Skills’ courses on Performance of Marine Officers

Part A: Demographic data

Company Name: _____________ Nationality: _________________

Name (Optional): ____________ Date: Click or tap to enter a date.

Course Name: BRM ☐ ERM ☐

Current Rank:

• Master ☐ • Ch. Eng. ☐

• Ch. Mate ☐ • 2nd Eng. ☐

• 2nd Mate ☐ • 3rd Eng. ☐

• 3rd Mate ☐ • 4th Eng. ☐

Age:

• From 20 to less than 30 years ☐



• More than 50 years ☐

Years of Experience (No. of years):

• Less than 5 years ☐




• More than 20 years ☐

146

Part B: Effectiveness of NTS’ courses:

This form will help us evaluate how well the training has met your expectations and needs. Please

check the square which best corresponds to your answer according to the following scale:

Strongly

Agree Agree Neutral Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

5 4 3 2 1

1. Effective communication 5 4 3 2 1

(St.1) Trainee has the ability to communicate well for

technical proficiency and safety. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.2) After attending the course, trainee personal problems

cannot adversely affect his performance. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.3) Trainee feels obligated to mention psychological

stress or physical problems to other personnel before or

during a duty.

☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.4) It is from trainees’ responsibilities towards the crew

to identify emergencies during the pre-sailing brief. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.5) When the trainee is in charge, he must explain the

plans and procedures and must be sure that the information

is understood by others and can be implemented.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. Leadership and cooperation 5 4 3 2 1

(St.6) Trainee helps new staff get up to speed quickly, gives

people challenging job assignments, and monitors

performance.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.7) Trainee provides people with assignments to develop

their skills, gives timely coaching, acts as a role model for

development.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.8) Trainee must be aware of, and sensitive to, the

personal problems of other team members. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.9) Trainee could be able to consider the personal work

styles for effective team coordination. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.10) Trainee is aware of the extent of the change in

behavior, knowledge and skill level. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.11) Trainee is able to explain the contribution that

learning and development makes to his/her team. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

147

Strongly

Agree Agree Neutral Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

5 4 3 2 1

3. Situational awareness 5 4 3 2 1

(St.12) Trainee feels he/she fits better for the job. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.13) In critical situations, trainee relies on his superiors to tell

him what to do. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.14) Trainee is less effective when stressed or fatigued. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.15) Many improvements have been made to our organization

interventions as a result of learning and development evaluation

information.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.16) Trainee is able to apply what he/she learned in the course

on the job during emergency situations (drills). ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Workload management 5 4 3 2 1

(St.17) Trainee should alert others to their actual, or potential,

work overload. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.18) Trainee will inform other team members when the

workload becomes (or is about to become) excessive. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.19) Trainee and managers take joint ownership for learning

and development. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.20) Senior management reviews the contribution of learning

and development activities in achieving the company's goals and

objectives as a result of attending the course.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5. Decision-making 5 4 3 2 1

(St.21) Trainee's ability to make good decisions in emergencies

has become as it is in routine situations. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.22) A regular debriefing of procedures and decisions after any

task is an important part of developing and maintaining effective

team co-ordination.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.23) Trainee became less likely to make personnel judgment

errors in an emergency. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.24) There is noticeable and measurable change in the activity

and performance of the trainee when back in his/her role. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.25) The change in behavior and the new knowledge level of

the trainee is sustained. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5 4 3 2 1

(St.26) Overall, I am satisfied with this course. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Do you have any comments in regard with the training course?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Thanks and best regards

148

استبيان

لتقييم مردود الدورات البحرية الخاصة بالمهارات غير الفنية على أداء

الضباط البحريين

عزيزي المشارك،

تم تصميم هذا الاستبيان لقياس مردود حضور الضباط البحريين دورات المهارات غير الفنية ومدى تأثيرها على سلوكهم

بعد اجتياز الدورة والعودة إلى العمل. وسوف تستخدم هذة المعلومات في أغراض علمية وبحثية, وسوف تسهم الوظيفي

معلومات الاستبيان في التعرف على مدى التحسن في الأداء الوظيفي, وستسهم إجاباتكم في إعطاء صورة صحيحة ورؤية

.هارات غير الفنيةلتقييم مردود الدورات البحرية الخاصة بالم وموضوعيةصادقة

سيتم الحفاظ على اجاباتكم في سرية تامة كما يمكننا إرسال ملخص نتائج الاستبيان إليكم بعد الانتهاء من تحليل البيانات،

.إذا رغبتكم في ذلك

:سيستغرق ملء هذا النموذج خمسة دقائق, يرجى التكرم بإعادته الينا بعد استكماله على البريد الالكتروني

[email protected]

مع فائق شكري وتقديري

الباحث: هشام محمود هلال

الأكاديمية العربية للعلوم والتكنولوجيا والنقل البحري

mailto:[email protected]

149

استبيان

الضباط البحريينلتقييم مردود الدورات البحرية الخاصة بالمهارات غير الفنية على أداء

الجزء الأول: البيانات الديموغرافية

___________________ اسم الشركة: _____________________ الجنسية:

________________ الاسم )اختياري(: .Click or tap to enter a dateالتاريخ:

☐ BRM ☐ ERM إسم الدورة:

الرتبة الحالية:

☐ كبير مهندسين • ☐ ربان •

☐ مهندس ثان • ☐ كبير ضباط •

☐ مهندس ثالث • ☐ ضابط ثان •

☐ مهندس رابع • ☐ ضابط ثالث •

السن:

☐ سنة 30لأقل من 20من •



☐ سنة 50أكبر من •

الخبرة )عدد سنين الخبرة البحرية(:

☐ سنوات 5أقل من •

☐ سنوات 10سنوات لأقل من 5من •

☐ سنة 15سنوات لأقل من 10من •

☐ سنة 20سنة لأقل من 15من •

☐ سنة 20أكثر من •

150

الجزء الثاني: مردود دورات المهارات غير الفنية

الاستبيان هذا إعداد غي تم المهارات دورات تلبية مدى لقياس لتقييم وكذلك واحتياجاتك لتوقعاتك نوفره الذي الفنية

التحقق من المربع الذي يتوافق بشكل أفضل مع إجابتك وفقًا للمعايير التالية:مردوده، يرجى

غير موافق

جدا موافق جدا موافق محايد غير موافق

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 الاتصال الفعال -1

(St.1)العمل علي والقدرة الجيد الاتصال علي القدرة لديه المتدرب

السلامة في الكفاءه أجل من الجماعي☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.2)المتدرب أداء على سلبا تؤثر تعد لم الشخصية المشاكل ان اتضح

الدورة حضوره بعد☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.3) المشاكل أو النفسي الإجهاد إلى بالإشارة ملزم بأنه يشعر المتدرب

الوردية. أثناء أو قبل منها يعاني التي الجسدية☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.4)الطوارئ حالات تحديد في الطاقم تجاه مسئولياته يمارس المتدرب

الإبحار قبل ما فترة خلال المحتملة☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.5)الخطط بشرح يقوم فانه المسئولية موقع في المتدرب يكون عندما

ويستطيعون التعليمات يفهمون الآخرين أن من ويتأكد والإجراءات

تتنفيذها.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

1 2 3 4 5 القيادة والتعاون -2

(St.6) ويغذي الأداء، وكفاءة سرعة على الجدد الموظفين المتدرب يساعد

الأداء. ويراقب الوظيفية، بالمهام للقيام التحدي روح الطاقم أفراد في☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.7) لتطوير اللازمة بالمهام الأشخاص بتزويد المتدرب يقوم

نموذج بمثابة ويكون المناسب، الوقت في التدريب ويعطي مهاراتهم،

للتطوير. به يحتذى

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.8)الآخرين الفريق لأعضاء الشخصية بالمشاكل علم على المتدرب

بها اهتماما ويبدي☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.9)فريق لايجاد الشخصية العمل أساليب تحديد على قادر المتدرب

ومتعاون فعال☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.10)ومستوى والمعرفة السلوك في التغيير مدى المتدرب يدرك

المطلوب. المهارة☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.11)حضور من اكتسبها التي المساهمة شرح المتدرب يستطيع

لفريقه. والتطوير التعلم مجال في الدورات☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

1 2 3 4 5 تفهم الموقف -3

(St.12)للعمل للجاهزية قبل من أفضل أصبح المستوى أن اشعر ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.13)ما ليخبروه رؤسائه على المتدرب يعتمد الحرجة، الحالات في

به القيام يجب☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.14)متعب أو ضغط تحت يكون عندما فعالية أقل المتدرب ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.15)سفن على السلامة معايير على التحسينات من العديد إجراء تم

الدورة من المكتسبة والمهارات للمعلومات كنتيجة الشركة☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.16)العمل روتين أثناء الدورة في تعلمّه ما تطبيق المتدرب يستطيع

الطوارئ. حالات وأثناء☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

151

غير موافق

جدا موافق جدا موافق محايد غير موافق

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 الإضطلاع بمسئوليات العمل -4

(St.17)عبء وجود( )أواحتمال وجود إلى الآخرين ينبه المتدرب

العمل. في إضافي☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.18)عندما الآخرين الفريق أعضاء إعلام على يعمل المتدرب

مفرطًا يصبح( أن وشك على )أو العمل عبء يصبح☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.19)مجال في المشترك بالتعاون تؤمن العليا والإدارة المتدرب

والتطوير التدريب☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.20)والتطوير التعلم أنشطة مساهمة العليا الإدارة تستعرض

الدورة لحضور كنتيجة الشركة وأهداف غايات تحقيق في☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

1 2 3 4 5 صنع القرار -5

(St.21)في الجيدة القرارات اتخاذ على المتدرب قدرة اصبحت

الروتينية المواقف في لقدرته مماثله الطوارئ حالات☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.22)منتظم بشكل والقرارات الإجراءات مراجعة عملية تعد

الفعال التنسيق على والحفاظ تطوير في مهمًا جزءًا مهمة أي بعد

للفريق

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.23)في خاطئة أحكام لإصدار عرضة أقل المتدرب أصبح

الطوارئ حالات☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.24)بعد المتدرب وأداء نشاط في وملموس ملحوظ تغير هناك

اليه الموكلة بالمهام والقيام العمل إلى العودة☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

(St.25)أدائه على طرأ الذي التغير على يحافظ المتدرب

الدورة من اكتسبها التي والمعلومات☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5 4 3 2 1

(St.26) بصفة عامة أنا راض عن مدى الاستفادة من هذة الدورة ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

هل لديك مقترحات خاصة بالدورة؟

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Thanks and best regards

152

المستخلص

الكفاءة والربحية لزيادةأصبح النقل البحري في الوقت الراهن صناعة دولية متعددة الثقافات والتكنولوجية مع مطالب قوية

الاقتصادية من تلك الصناعة. ويظهر هذا في تعدد الجنسيات لأطقم السفن في كثير من الأحيان. ومع ذلك، كثيرا ما يذكر

.٪ من جميع الحوادث البحرية 80 حوالي أن العامل البشري هو سبب

ا لتحليل المتبعة والأساليب البشري الخطأ توقعات حساب نظريات تطوير في ورغم كبير حد إلى وإدارتها لأخطاء

في هذه الصناعات بالفعل إلى ةالبشري خطاءالأ حيث أدتصناعات أخرى مثل الطاقة النووية والصناعات الكيميائية.

التي المعرفة حول قضايا مثل نوع الأخطاء المأساوية والكوارث. وقد نتج عن هذا قدر كبير من الحوادث العديد من

.ذا تحدث؟ وكذلك كيف يمكن منعها وتجنبهاارتكبت، وكيف ولما

علاوة على ذلك، فقد شهدت صناعة النقل البحري زيادة في اعتماد تدريب الضباط البحريين كما هو مذكور في تعديلات

Bridge Resource Management لمدونة التدريب والشهادات والنوبة، مثل إدارة موارد غرفة القيادة 2010مانيلا

(BRM) رة موارد غرفة المحركوإدا (ERM) لتحسين العمل الجماعي والتنسيق بين الضباط ،.

المهارات غير التقنية كل من المهارات الاجتماعية والمعرفية مثل الوعي بالمواقف المختلفة، والعمل الجماعي، وتشمل

تسمح المهارات غير التقنية الجيدة وصنع القرار، والقيادة، والمهارات الإدارية، والتواصل. كما أنه في حالة الأزمات،

للضباط البحريين بالتعرف على المشكلة بسرعة وإدارة الموقف والفريق بأمان وفعالية. نتيجة لذلك، فإن تقييم وتصنيف

.لضمان السلامة على متن السفن اضروري يعد المهارات غير التقنية لضباط البحرية

ت السابقة, كما تم تجميع المعلومات من خلال استبيان تم توزيعه على الضباط استخدمت هذه الرسالة أداة مراجعة الدراسا

البحريين لكلا من قسمي السطح والماكينة. تم حساب النسب المئوية للمشاركين بالاستبيان الذين يختارون كل بديل من

المعياري والانحرافات المتوسطات وتم حساب الاستبيان. في لكل سؤال الاستجابة التي بدائل الأسئلة لهذه والوسائط ة

القوة للبياناتتتطلب إدخالات رقمية التقنية حتى يمكن تحديد نقاط المهارات غير تأثير وفعالية دورات . ومن ثم تقييم

والذي يعتمد على تقييم مستويات التفاعل والتعلم والسلوك Kirkpatrick والضعف وإدخال تحسينات. تم اسخخدام نموذج

.مترتبة على حضور الدورات التدريبيةوالنتائج ال

ية للكشف عن وجود اختلافات في عنومحصائية وتم تعيين مستوى الفقا لذلك ، تم تحليل البيانات باستخدام اختبارات إوو

تصورات فعالية المهارات غير التقنية، من بين المهارات الخمسة المشار إليها بمدونة التدريب والشهادات والنوبة. كما

للتحقيق في وجود ارتباطات بين هذه المتغيرات. بالإضافة إلى Pearson’s correlationاستخدام ارتباط بيرسون تم

ذلك تم إجراء التحقق من صحة النتائج باستخدام نموذج تحليل الأهمية والأداء. وقد أسفر البحث أن النتائج تدعم الافتراض

ؤثر بشكل إيجابي على العمل الجماعي لتحسين السلامة البحرية وتقديم يمكن أن ت NTSالقائل بأن الدورات التدريبية

تقديرات للآثار المتوقعة من التدريب.

البحري والنقل والتكنولوجيا الأكاديمية العربية للعلوم

معهد الدراسات العليا البحرية

تقييم تأثير دورات المهارات غير الفنية علي أداء الضباط البحريين التجاريين

كاديمية العربية للعلوم والتكنولوجيا والنقل البحري لاستكمال متطلبات نيل درجة رسالة مقدمة للأ

دكتوراه ال

فى

البحرى تكنولوجيا النقل

"التعليم والتدريب البحري"

إعداد

هلال هشام محمود أحمد

مصر

إشراف

الأستاذ الدكتور/ سعد مصباح عبد الرحمن

كلية النقل البحري والتكنولوجيا

الأكاديمية العربية للعلوم والتكنولوجيا والنقل البحري

محمد السعيد عبدالقادر الأستاذ الدكتور /

كلية النقل البحري والتكنولوجيا

والتكنولوجيا والنقل البحري الأكاديمية العربية للعلوم

2020

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