Research future advanced engine and drivetrain technologies

–

VFEL is proud to be an ISO certified and ISO accredited lab

• Research uture advanced eng·ne and drivetra·n technologies {involving modeling, advanced technology testing and demonstrafons)

NVFEL is a state of the art test facility that provides a wide array of dynamometer and analytical testing

NVFEL’s National Center for Advanced Technology EPA’s Advanced Technology Testing and Demonstration

NVFEL is proud to be an ISO

certified and ISO accredited lab

ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 17025:2005

EPA’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory Part of EPA’s Office of Transportation and Air Quality in Ann Arbor, MI

and engineering services for EPA’s motor vehicle, heavy-duty engine, and nonroad engine programs

• Certify that vehicles and engines meet federal emissions and fuel economy standards

•

• Analyze fuels, fuel additives, and exhaust compounds

• Develop future emission and fuel economy regulations

• Develop laboratory test procedures

• (involving modeling, advanced technology testing and demonstrations)

Test in-use vehicles and engines to assure continued compliance and process enforcement

National Center for Advanced

Technology (NCAT)

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 2

OPCS TOPICS

EPA’s program to Study the Efficiency Potential of Future Gasoline Engines

1. Assessing Current Production Engines

a) Develop benchmarking methods that yield good understanding of engine operation.

b) Generate consistent fuel maps to appropriately compare engines.

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

2. Assessing Potential Future Engines

a) What engine technologies are still on the table?

b) What might future engine maps look like?

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 3

Engine Fuel Consumption Map r-------------r.- ,- ~ -r -=--=:.-=--~-...::-...::-_:;-~

Component Data ,:, "

Additional Details are Available from EPA's SAE Technical Papers SAE 2018-01-0319 SAE 2018-01-1412

EPA's Quality Control Tools

mg 1mulatron

Overall Technology Assessment Program Relationships between Benchmarking, Modeling and Quality Control Methods

SAE INTERNATIONAL

EPA’s Quality Control Tools •Engine, Transmission, and Vehicle Test Data Package review and publication process

•Share results with stakeholders including the supplier / manufacturer

•Energy flow audit to ensure that the model agrees with proper physics.

•Data visualization tool to compare and contrast simulation modeling results

•Systematic comparison of simulation results against test data to verify understanding of the technology combinations

•Publish technical papers in peer-reviewed journals / conferences

•Conduct formal peer-reviews of major modeling and analysis methodologies

Inter-dependent data sets are used to cross-validate each other in an iterative process, such as:

a) Vehicle and component data informs development of the model vehicle control strategies

b)The model informs benchmarking methods and understanding of vehicle and component technology

Additional Details are Available from EPA’s SAE Technical Papers SAE 2018-01-0319 Benchmarking a 2016 Honda Civic 1.5-liter L15B7 Turbocharged Engine and Evaluating the Future Efficiency Potential of Turbocharged Engines SAE 2018-01-1412 Constructing Engine Maps for Full Vehicle Simulation Modeling

US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Modeling/Simulation

QC Methods In-depth Analysis

Engine Dyno Tests

Vehicle Dyno Tests

Component Data

Vehicle Data

Bringing “Data — Modeling — Analysis” Together

Engine Fuel Consumption Map

4

Test Phases: 1. Low-Mid Load 2. High Load 3. Idle-Low Load

Benchmarkin est Data Points

Test Phases: D D D 250

20 160kW

..... -. 140 kW 200 ...

~ 15 120kW a. 150 ~ 100 kW UJ • • ::;; • Ill 10 • • • 80kW • • • • • 100 • • • • 60kW • • E • • Z 5 • 40kW 50 • • • ., • • :::,

I I I 20kW e- I 10kW i2 0 0

• • • • • • • -10kW • • -20kW -50

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Speed (RPM)

EPA’s Latest Benchmarking Methods Described in SAE Paper 2018-01-0319

The design and performance of the 1.5-liter Honda L15B7 turbocharged engine are benchmarked

and then compared to several other past, present, and future downsized-boosted engines.

Benchmarking Test Data Points

Contents

A. Engine tethering setup

B. Engine test phases 1. Steady-State operation during Low-Mid torque loading 2. Initial and Final intervals identified during High torque loading 3. Idle-Low torque loading

C. Engine benchmarking test data points

D. Suite of benchmarking data maps

E. Complete ALPHA Input Map made from benchmarking data (SAE 2018-01-1412)

F. ALPHA full vehicle simulation using fuel map

G. Compare to BTE map published by Honda

CITATION: Mark Stuhldreher, John Kargul, Daniel Barba, Joseph McDonald, Stanislav Bohac, Paul Dekraker, Andrew Moskalik, "Benchmarking a 2016 Honda Civic 1.5-liter L15B7 Turbocharged Engine and Evaluating the Future Efficiency Potential of Turbocharged Engines," SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-0319, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-0319.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 5

20

18 - 200 ro 16 en -a. 14 w ~ 150 en 12

10

E Z 8 -Q) :::J 6 e-~

2

0 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000

Speed (RPM)

150 kW

135 kW

120 kW

105 kW

90kW

15 kW 7.5kW

20

18 -I.. ~ 16 ._

a. 14 w ~ CO 12

10 -E 8 z ._ Q) 6 ::, er I..

~ 4

2

0

250

200

150

100

50

0

135 kW

120 kW

105 kW

370/o 90kW

75kW

60kW

45kW

30kW

15 kW 7.5kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

2018-01-0319

SAE INTERNATIONAL

Generate Complete ALPHA Input Maps Fuel Consumption Map from Benchmarking Data (2016 Honda 1.5L Turbo Tier 2 fuel)

6US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

mapped using Tier 2 fuel

2016 Honda 1.5-liter L15B7 Engine Tier 2 Fuel

Steady State and High Load Initial*

BTE (%) - Brake Thermal Efficiency

37%

34%

*refer to SAE paper 2018-01-0319

2016 Honda 1.5-liter L15B7 Engine Tier 2 Fuel

Steady State and High Load Initial*

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kW-hr)

OPCS TOPICS

EPA’s program to Study the Efficiency Potential of Future Gasoline Engines

1. Assessing Current Production Engines

a) Develop benchmarking methods that yield good understanding of engine operation.

b) Generate consistent fuel maps to appropriately compare engines.

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

2. Assessing Potential Future Engines

a) What engine technologies are still on the table?

b) What might future engine maps look like?

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 7

SAE INTERNATIONAL

NCAT has developed a process* to generate well documented engine maps to:

• Translate component data consistently into engine maps and vehicle model inputs

• Ensure engine technologies are evaluated equitably in engine map comparisons, and in vehicle simulation modeling

• Predict engine operation and behavior in real world operation

• Consistently scale engine size when estimating the effectiveness of technologies across the vehicle fleet (small cars to large trucks)

• Assess the potential effectiveness of new engine technologies

• Enable modeling for assessments of current and future standards

• Publish data and engine maps from EPA’s benchmarking efforts

Published data can be found at https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-

engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projects

Generate Consistent Fuel Maps to Appropriately Compare Engines

8

* Described in SAE paper: Paul Dekraker, Daniel Barba, Andrew Moskalik, Karla Butters, "Constructing Engine Maps for Full Vehicle Simulation Modeling," SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-1412, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-1412.

US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

200 -;:' 10 ro co

fu 8 150 ~ co

E z ~ 4 Q) ::,

e- 50 ~ 2

135kW

120 kW

105kW

90kW

75kW

60 kW

45kW

0 0------------------------'--_.__ ..... ___ _

200 12

~ 180

~ CO 10 160

Q. w 140

~ 8 120 6 100

~ 80 ~ 4 60 e-~ 40

2 20

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

\ \ \

Speed (RPM)

120kW

110kW

7 100 kW

37~ oom j / .,>I :!,Y 80kW ~ /,, 70kW

60 kW

50kW

40kW

30kW

-----20kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

250 12

~ ~ 10 00 Q. w

~ 8 150

~ 6 E 100 z Q) 4 ::,

e-~ 50

2

\ \ \ \

~

150kW

135kW

120kW

105kW

90kW

75kW

60kW

30kW

15kW

0 O t=:::i:=~lr:S:=:~=:::;:=:::::;:=~ =======7.5 kW

250 12

~ 10 200 Q. w ~ co

6 E z Q) 4 ::,

e~

2

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

\ 150kW 135kW

90 kW

75 kW

-- = 21! -::~i===========....:.~~'"-2:1§.:::::::--------------- 15 - 15 kW 5 10 1-8 - 7.5 kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

Progression of Engine Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE)

Naturally Aspirated Engines

Ricardo data EPA benchmarking data

X X2007 Toyota Camry

2013 GM

EcoTec LCV

34% 36%

2.5-liter Engine 2.4-liter Engine

Reg E10 Fuel

EPA benchmarking data Data from 2016 Aachen paper

37% 39%

Prototype 2014 Mazda

Toyota TNGA Skyactiv-G

2.5-liter Engine 2.0-liter Engine X

Tier 2 Fuel

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 9

20

18

ro 16 al

0.. 14 w

~ 12

E z Q) ::,

I= ~

10

8

6

4

2

0

20

18

250

00

50

00

50

0

~ 200 ~ 16

~ 14

~ 12 150

10

~ 8 100

~ 6 I= ~ 4 50

2

0 0

\ 'O ~d'

w-, 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Speed (RPM)

2

---------------

4500 5000 5500

150 kW

135 kW

120 kW

105 kW

90kW

60kW

45kW

30kW

15kW 7.5kW

135 kW

120 kW

105 kW

60 kW

45 kW

------------ 15 kW 7.5 kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

500 I 300 kW

\ 450 275 kW ro 20 250 kW al 400

225 kW a.. 350 w 200 kW

~ 15 al 300 175 kW

250 150 kW

E 10 200 z

100 kW Q) 150 ::, 75kW I=

5 100 ~ 50 kW 50 25kW

12.5 kW 0 0

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

450 \

~20 00

ro al 350

a.. W 15 00 ~ al

250

E 10 200

z 150

Q) ::,

I= 5 100 ~

50

0 0 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

Speed (RPM)

Progression of Engine Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE)

Turbocharged Engines

EPA benchmarking data

2013 Ford 34% EcoBoost

1.6-liter Turbo

Tier 2 Fuel

EPA benchmarking data

2016 Honda 37%

L15B7

1.5-liter Turbo

Tier 2 Fuel

EPA benchmarking data

36% 2015 Ford

EcoBoost

2.7-liter Turbo

Tier 2 Fuel

37%

preliminary EPA benchmarking

data*

2016 Mazda

Skyactiv-G

2.5-liter Turbo

Tier 2 Fuel

* EPA’s final data set will be published on EPA’s website.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 10

OPCS TOPICS

EPA’s program to Study the Efficiency Potential of Future Gasoline Engines

1. Assessing Current Production Engines

a) Develop benchmarking methods that yield good understanding of engine operation.

b) Generate consistent fuel maps to appropriately compare engines.

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

2. Assessing Potential Future Engines

a) What engine technologies are still on the table?

b) What might future engine maps look like?

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 11

ffim-~

Result

··-= IL'.:':

,p

EPA’s Vehicle Simulation Modeling Tool

SAE INTERNATIONAL

• ALPHA is EPA’s tool for understanding vehicle behavior, effectiveness of various powertrain

technologies and their greenhouse gas

emissions.

• ALPHA is an Advanced Light-Duty Powertrain and Hybrid Analysis tool created by EPA to

estimate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

from current and future light-duty vehicles.

12US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

• ALPHA is a physics-based, forward-looking, full vehicle computer simulation capable of analyzing various vehicle types combined with different powertrain technologies.

• ALPHA is not a commercial product - e.g. there are no user manuals, tech support hotlines, graphical user interfaces, full libraries of components, etc.

o ALPHA is freely available on EPA’s web-site, and open for use by interested stakeholders.

Operational strategies Test cycle

Engine Transmission Vehicle

Result: CO2 within 2% of tested vehicle

SAE INTERNATIONAL

Per

f N

eutr

al S

ized

Dis

pla

cem

ent

(lit

ers)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

Engi

ne

Effi

cien

cy (

%)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

CO

2 (

gCO

2/m

i)

Imp

rove

d E

ffic

ien

cy

[CO

2 R

edu

ctio

n]

(%)

Engine

2013 Ford EcoBoost 1.6L Turbo Engine 1.7 19.8 246.6 0.0%

2015 Ford EcoBoost 2.7L Turbo Engine 1.5 20.2 241.9 -1.9%

2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L NA Engine 2.5 20.7 237.1 -3.8%

2016 Skyactiv-G 2.5L Turbo Engine 1.7 20.5 238.4 -3.3%

2016 Honda L15B7 1.5L Turbo Engine 1.7 21.3 230.1 -6.7%

2016

Efficiency Comparison of 5 Production Engines Using ALPHA

13US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Comparison of

ALPHA vehicle

simulations with 5

different engines

Notes: • Refer to SAE paper 2018-01-0319 for road load values for this simulation. • Each of the engines in the table has a slightly different displacement

since when adapting an engine to a specific vehicle’s technology package and roadload mix ALPHA resizes the engine displacement so that the vehicle’s acceleration performance remains within 2% of baseline vehicle (as described in SAE paper 2017-01-0899).

0.0%

-1.9%-3.8% -3.3%

-6.7%

-45%

-40%

-35%

-30%

-25%

-20%

-15%

-10%

-5%

0%

Perc

ent

CO

2R

edu

ctio

n

Comparison of an example 2016 Mid-sized Car with 5 different engines

20

13

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st1

.6L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

15

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st2

.7L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

14

Sky

acti

v-G

2.0

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

16

Sky

acti

v-G

2.5

L Tu

rbo

En

gin

e(f

rom

EP

A b

ench

mar

kin

g)

20

16

Ho

nd

a L1

5B

7 1

.5L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

OPCS TOPICS

What Engine Technologies are Still on the Table?

1. Assessing Current Production Engines

a) Develop benchmarking methods that yield good understanding of engine operation.

b) Generate consistent fuel maps to appropriately compare engines.

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

2. Assessing Potential Future Engines

a) What engine technologies are still on the table?

b) What might future engine maps look like?

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 14

SAE INTERNATIONAL

EPA regularly conducts technology assessments to better understand the status of the

industry’s engine development

• Attend conferences, review papers and journal articles, meet with manufacturers and suppliers.

• Determine technology content of recently introduced or announced engines.

• Determine the technology frontier and possible future technology combinations.

See 2018 SAE paper* for an example assessment performed by EPA to evaluate the degree of

implementation of turbocharged engine technologies.

What Engine Technology Combinations Remain Available for the Future?

15US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

*CITATION: Mark Stuhldreher, John Kargul, Daniel Barba, Joseph McDonald, Stanislav Bohac, Paul Dekraker, Andrew Moskalik, "Benchmarking a 2016 Honda Civic 1.5-liter L15B7 Turbocharged Engine and Evaluating the Future Efficiency Potential of Turbocharged Engines," SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-0319, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-0319. he color coding designations were determined for each technology in the table.

Example: Technology Frontier for Turbocharged Engines

EPA’s technical paper* “technology frontier”

charged engines in the US market.

of each engine are compared against of 2025 engine technology

the 2012 LD GHG FRM.

Boosted Engines

Intro

Year Var

iab

le V

alve

Tim

ing

(VV

T)

Inte

grat

ed E

xhau

st M

anif

old

Hig

h G

eom

etri

c C

R

Fric

tio

n R

edu

ctio

n

Hig

her

Str

oke

/Bo

re R

atio

Bo

ost

ing

Tech

no

logy

coo

led

EG

R

Var

iab

le V

alve

Lif

t (V

VL)

Mill

er C

ycle

VN

T/V

GT

Turb

o

Par

tial

Dis

cree

t C

ylin

der

Dea

c.

Full

Au

tho

rity

Cyl

ind

er D

eac.

Var

iab

le C

om

pre

ssio

n R

atio

Gas

olin

e SP

CC

I / L

ean

Mo

des

Ford EcoBoost 1.6L 2010

Ford EcoBoost 2.7L 2015

Honda L15B7 1.5L 2016

Mazda SKYACTIV-G 2.5L 2016 4 4

VW EA888-3B 2.0L 2018

VW EA211 EVO 1.5L 2019 ? 3

VW/Audi EA839 3.0L V6 2018 ? 3

Nissan MR20 DDT VCR 2.1L 2018 + ? 3 ? 3 ? 3 ? 3

Mazda SKYACTIV-X SPCCI 2.0L SC1 2019 + ? 3 NA

EPA/Ricardo EGRB24 1.2L2 N/A

yellow = early implementation light & dark green = nearing maturity red = technology not present

1- Supercharged 2- EPA Draft TAR 3- Not known at time of writing

4- Mazda accomplishes equivalent of VNT/VGT using novel valving system

Selecting Technologies for Assessment

Selection Criteria for Benchmarking Programs

1. Recent model year vehicles with emerging advanced fuel and emissions technologies (US-market strongly preferred)

2. High potential for cost-effectiveness

3. Heavy focus on advanced engine technology like those shown in the table.

4. Little or no publically available data describing its operation or effectiveness

SAE INTERNATIONAL

• Chart is taken from describing the current for turbo- -

• Features EPA’s projection (Ricardo EGRB 24) for

*SAE paper 2018-01-0319

US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 16

Technology Comparison with Other Turbo Engines

Takeaways*

SAE INTERNATIONAL 17US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

• Engine parameters and technologies have been steadily advancing since 2010 – including: a) compression ratio (CR), b) stroke/bore ratio, c) intake cam phase authority, d) integrated exhaust manifolds, e) friction

reduction, f) faster camshaft phasing control, g) advanced boosting technology, h) cooled EGR, and i) Miller Cycle.

• No engine incorporates all potential improvements – significant untapped efficiency improvement potential is still available with application of:

a) cylinder deactivation

b) variable valve lift [VVL]

c) variable compression ratio [VCR]

d) variations of dilute combustion/spark assisted gasoline compression ignition

*refer to SAE paper 2018-01-0319

OPCS TOPICS

What Might Future Engine Maps Look Like?

1. Assessing Current Production Engines

a) Develop benchmarking methods that yield good understanding of engine operation.

b) Generate consistent fuel maps to appropriately compare engines.

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

2. Assessing Potential Future Engines

a) What engine technologies are still on the table?

b) What might future engine maps look like?

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 18

What Might Future Engine Maps Look Like?

EPA previous engine map projections and recent work

SAE INTERNATIONAL

Previous Engine Map Projections:

1. Honda 1.5L turbo engine

2. EPA GT-Power model of future Atkinson engine with cooled EGR

(based on Skyactiv-G 2.0L)

3. Toyota Prototype 2.5L TNGA engine

(Atkinson w/cooled EGR)

Recent Evaluations of Emerging Engine Technologies:

4. Mazda Skyactiv-X 2.0L engine

(gasoline compression ignition)

5. Addition of Cylinder Deactivation to engine maps

19US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

eek rpm

1.5L TC

efficiency

20 10 20 30 40 Engine speed (xlOO rpm) ___ _.

>--------------+---+---+--('-'r-~,_., .,-,.

>--------------+-----+---+---+I· t-' , ~,_.,

2so ~~-~-~-~--~-~~ 20

~ ti 28 15kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

S eed RPM

E A's BTE map made from ... te~:...:.::=.:..:i.:: 250

20

~ 18 ~ 200 ~ 16

[lj 14 ::!, 150 IO 12

10

~ 8 100

~ 6 e-~ 4 50

2

0 0

20

18

cij 16 O'.I

~14

1000

200

w 150 ~ 12

10

E 8 100 z

" 6 ::, e-~ 4 50

2

0

~30 kW

~ 15kW 7.5kW

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

1000 1500

100 kW

~~ ·-: 80 kW

' ' ' ' 0- ' : 60 kW

...:,----"'- ----1 , 40 kW ' ' '

- - --------- I -~-:-s_;;_=-=:~:;:;-: 0 : 20kW =-==--:; =------- 1 I . -. . .......... 2...... . : 10 kW

2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Speed (RPM)

Example 1: Projection of Honda 1.5L Turbo Engine

based on Honda Published Data (and later verified with benchmarking data)

EPA’s BTE map made from Honda’s BSFC map image of the Prototype Engine* EPA’s BTE map made from test data from SAE World Congress: EPA benchmarking data

Data from Honda’s 2016 SAE paper

38%

37%

Outside extent of original Honda image

The dotted black line reflects the extent of the original Honda image.

37%

Veh.

Tech. EngineSized Displ.

(liters) Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

Fuel

Eco

no

my

(MP

G)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

CO

2 (

gCO

2/m

i)

Map

: %

CO

2 D

elta

(EP

A/H

on

da

- 1

)

Ye

ar:

% C

O2 D

elta

(20

25

/20

16

- 1

)

Baseline 2016 mid-sized car 2.437 (I4) 36.8 241.4 -- --

Honda L15B7 Earth Dreams Turbo

(map from Honda published image)1.653 (I4) 39.0 227.8 --

2016 Honda L15B7 Turbo

(map from EPA test data)1.654 (I4) 38.6 230.4 --

Honda L15B7 Earth Dreams Turbo

(map from Honda published image)1.427 (I4) 52.6 168.9 -26%

2016 Honda L15B7 Turbo

(map from EPA test data)1.420 (I4) 52.2 170.4 -26%

2016

1.1%

2025 0.9%

See paper for vehicle and road load definitions.

Efficiency (BTE) Difference Plot EPA map from test data minus EPA map from Honda image

✓ALPHA runs only predict about a 1% difference in CO2 over the regulatory cycles for both 2016 and 2025 mid-sized vehicles.

✓ CO2 is higher using the map from EPA’s test data.

For ALPHA engine input maps, go to:

https://www.epa.gov/regul ations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projects

And click link to:

Test Data for Light-duty Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Technology

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY *refer to SAE paper 2018-01-0319 20

https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projectshttps://www.epa.gov/vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-testing/test-data-light-duty-greenhouse-gas-ghg-technology

2014 Mazda Skyactiv G 2.0L Engine Tier 2 Fuel Future Atkinson Concept Engine with cEGR

12

-,._ ro

CO 10 ........ a. w ~ co

E z ........ Q) ::::J

E" ~

8

6

4

2

0

1

2

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

1,2

-,._ ro co 10 160

kW ........

31'0/o O kW fu 140 ~ 8

0 kW co 120

,......_ 6 100

E z 80

a> 4 60 ::::J

_:::::;.;;......,,,~--

120 kW

110 kW

100 kW

90 kW

80 kW

70 kW

60 kW

50 kW

40 kW

::::::::;;;;.....~~--30kW e-~ 40

~ .....,,...-----30 kW

----20 r-=---=======18

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 Speed (RPM)

20 kW

10 kW 5kW

2 ------20

0 0 1--.1.-_..__ ..... _ ...... _.....__ ...... ____ __._ __________ _

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

20 kW

10 kW 5kW

Example 2: Projection of Future Atkinson w/ Cooled EGR

based on EPA GT-Power model of a Skyactiv-G 2.0L

• EPA used GT-Power modeling used to add cooled EGR technology to the Skyactiv-G 2.0L engine.

-1,2

EPA benchmarking data

GT-Power modeling EPA GT-Power modeling

37% 38%

1

2

CITATION: Lee, S., Schenk, C., and McDonald, J., "Air Flow Optimization and Calibration in High-Compression-Ratio Naturally Aspirated SI Engines with Cooled-EGR," SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-0565, 2016, doi:10.4271/2016-01-0565. EPA’s engine map process document is at: https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projects, and then click link to Test Data for Light-duty Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Technology

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 21

https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projectshttps://www.epa.gov/vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-testing/test-data-light-duty-greenhouse-gas-ghg-technology

1

2

3

250 12

~ 10 200 a. w ~ 8 OJ

- 6 E z

4

2

0

150

5

39% 90kW

75kW

45kW

30kW

15 kW --19 7.5 kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

Example 3: Projection of Toyota’s 2.5L TNGA Engine (Atkinson w/cooled EGR)

based on Toyota published data

Prototype TNGA 2.5L conventional engine Prototype Toyota 2.5L TNGA Engine 1 1Data from 2016 Aachen paper Toyota’s data from 2016 Aachen paper

Converted using techniques described in SAE 2018-01-1412 2,3

39%

1 Data from Toyota’s 2016 Aachen paper: Innovative Gasoline Combustion Concepts for Toyota New Global Architecture, Eiji Murase, Rio Shimizu, Toyota Motor Corporation.

2 CITATION: Paul Dekraker, Daniel Barba, Andrew Moskalik, Karla Butters, "Constructing Engine Maps for Full Vehicle Simulation Modeling ," SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-1412, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-1412.

3 EPA’s engine map process document is at: https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projects, and then click link to Test Data for Light-duty Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Technology

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 22

https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas#technical-projectshttps://www.epa.gov/vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-testing/test-data-light-duty-greenhouse-gas-ghg-technology

2014 Mazda Skyactiv G 2.0L Engine Tier 2 Fuel

200 12

180 i I 10 160 -

140 8

120

6 100

80

4 60

40 2

20

0 0

\ \ \

80 kW

70 kW

60 kW

50 kW

40kW

30 kW

- 2

_____ 20kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 Speed (RPM)

/

BREAKTHROUGH

SPARK IGNITION (51) HOMOGENEOUS CHARGE COMPRESSION IGNITION (HCCI)

........ IJ..141:/•l;J:t:Jll(◄·\..Y·l■•l~li;JIJlfl·iil•I;

MAZDA GLOBAL TECH FORUM 201 7 I SKYACTIV-X. NEXT GENERATION GASOLINE ENGINE - ICHIRO HIROSE

2- PRE-IGNITION - ABNORMAL COMBUSTION CONTROL

COUNTERMEASURE: INJECT AIR • FUEL MIXTURE OURING COMPRESSION STROKE AND UTILIZE IGNITION DELAY

MEANS: SUPER HIGH-PRESSURE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

"-AN AI R• f'UEL MIXTURE LEAN ENOUGH THAT IT WON'T IGNITE

7

AIR INTAKE ~OCHS

IGNITION DELAY • TEMP. INCREASE PERIOD + VAPORIZATION PERIOD+CHEMICALREACTION PERIOD

SHORTER THAN IGNITION LAG

IUPl!R HIGH•l'RHSUAI!

~ UANIE.R IUAH ANO SHOflTUl TIMI! TO COMPAf.SS AIA•n.il!L WIJTUR(

COMFtAIESSION PROCESS

IGNITION

>

SPCCI COMBUSTION

SPCCI SPARK CONTROLLED COMPRESSION IGNITION

Cl COMAU-.TION

How it Works:

UPANDING f'IRIE BALL 11.a"'fTQJC1

Example 4: Projection of Skyactiv-X 2.0L Engine

Summary of New Mazda SPCCI - Spark Controlled Compression Ignition

As Mazda explained at their 2017 Global Tech Forum*, a

breakthrough was needed to enable compression ignition

gasoline engines

How it Works:

• Lean premixture injected during intake stroke that won’t ignite

• 2nd high pressure injection during compression stroke to create a combustible mixture near spark plug

• Spark initiates combustion

• Expanding fireball creates final push to cause the whole mixture to combust

SAE INTERNATIONAL

*https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1112524_mazdas-skyactiv-x-diesel-fuel-economy-from-gasoline-engine/page-2 24

https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1112524_mazdas-skyactiv-x-diesel-fuel-economy-from-gasoline-engine/page-2

Real world driving done by using Mazda’s dataloggers

https://www.greencarreport s.com/news/1112524_mazd

Drastic improvement in fue l consumpt ion rate

0 200

\ .. \ \

\ \.

Old MZR

"",, Current SKYACTlV-G

' .......... ____ , ..... .

... .. . .. ... . SKYACTIV· X

@2000rpm

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Engine load (8MEP) [kPa]

Data under development as Aug. 2017 Mild.I Motor Corpor•hon

£2. Dr IY IOA RIIMI J I Co mo..LLlu..n...

Orlve, '~I ___ o_._r_1u_s_~---SKY A CT IV ·X

To1'11 38.6 1-

Clty/SUOI 37.3 1-Y o ur Dr l• lllf d tll ~ ~--

Mazd13 SKY·G

~~ 1m~::-n1

113.2% 1

113.6% 1

£2. O th,iag Bg:,,1,,,1 I, :a ~gmg:a [higa

Driver : ! J . V(US)

S KYA C T IV-X Mazda3 SKY•G

To1al l 39.9 1-.. 34.1 1-..

CltyfSubl 39 .9 1-.. 33.6 1-.. Your 01 ,ving dil\.lt

•.,,,1u!u1!m ~-~--_..,

Mazda announced new Skyactiv-X engine

CURRENT SKYACTIV·G SKYACTIV·X

·--~ i' '-. .,,:

i' .\ z ·, ~ iii .., ::, ~ ::, ~ 0 0 a: a: 0 0 ... ...

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

(RPM] (RPM]

95RON 91 RON

SKYACTIV·X

CURRENT SKYACTIV·G

....... Improvem en t

jhl/,_I

114.3% 1 PREVIOUS MZR

11s.4% 1

1000 2:000 3000 ,ooo 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 ENGINE SPEED (RPMI ENGINE SPEEDIRPM)

Example 4: Projection of Skyactiv-X 2.0L Engine based on Mazda published Information (gasoline spark controlled compression ignition)

Mazda announced new Skyactiv-X engine (SPCCI -Spark Control Combustion Ignition)

Mazda images published in: MAZDA Next-generation Technology – PRESS INFORMATION, October 2017

https://jalopnik.com/i-drove-mazda-s-holy-grail-of-gasoline-engines-and-it-w-1800874806

as-skyactiv-x-diesel-fuel-economy-from-gasoline- Mazda’s press release: “With an engine displacement of 2.0L, engine/page-2

on their demo vehicle. - automotive press

the SKYACTIV-X delivers at least 10 percent more torque than the

current SKYACTIV-G, and up to 30 percent more at certain rpms”

Mazda’s press release: “SKYACTIV-X delivers a 20 percent improvement in fuel economy compared to the SKYACTIV-G”

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 25

https://jalopnik.com/i

Suggested Reading / Sources

SAE INTERNATIONAL 26US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

1. MAZDA Next-generation Technology - PRESS INFORMATION, October 2017, https://1ijylmozio83m2nkr2v293mp-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/02_ENG_Mazda_Next_Generation_Technology_Press_Information.pdf

2. Briefing on Mazda’s Long-Term Vision for Technology Development -Technical Overview of SKYACTIV-X, Kiyoshi Fujiwara, https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjRk9jqu 6HaAhUuTd8KHc4gCOIQFgg4MAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autopareri.com%2Fapplications%2Fcore%2Finterfac e%2Ffile%2Fattachment.php%3Fid%3D17652&usg=AOvVaw26JAUTbUZBDs_lP8NW0vZw

3. Mazda Global Tech Forum 2017, https://www.mazda-press.com/ch-de/news/mazda-global-tech-forum-2017/

4. Mazda's Skyactiv-X: diesel fuel economy from gasoline engine - Page 2, Green Car Reports, https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1112524_mazdas-skyactiv-x-diesel-fuel-economy-from-gasoline-engine/page-2

5. Mazda’s ‘Holy Grail’ Of Gasoline Engines Is Completely Fascinating, David Tracy, 9/07/17, https://jalopnik.com/mazda-s-holy-grail-of-gasoline-engines-is-completely-1801820285

6. I Drove Mazda’s Holy Grail Of Gasoline Engines And It Was Incredibly Impressive, David Tracy, 9/07/17, https://jalopnik.com/i-drove-mazda-s-holy-grail-of-gasoline-engines-and-it-w-1800874806

https://1ijylmozio83m2nkr2v293mp-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/02_ENG_Mazda_Next_Generation_Technology_Press_Information.pdfhttps://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjRk9jqu6HaAhUuTd8KHc4gCOIQFgg4MAI&url=http://www.autopareri.com/applications/core/interface/file/attachment.php?id%3D17652&usg=AOvVaw26JAUTbUZBDs_lP8NW0vZwhttps://www.mazda-press.com/ch-de/news/mazda-global-tech-forum-2017/https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1112524_mazdas-skyactiv-x-diesel-fuel-economy-from-gasoline-engine/page-2https://jalopnik.com/mazda-s-holy-grail-of-gasoline-engines-is-completely-1801820285https://jalopnik.com/i-drove-mazda-s-holy-grail-of-gasoline-engines-and-it-w-1800874806

Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) 95 RON Fuel

2014 Mazda Skyactiv G 2.0L Engine Tier 2 Fuel

Skyactiv-G Skyactiv-X CURRENT SKYACTIV·G SKYACTIV·X

■ ■ • 1000 2000

• 3000 4000 SOOO 6000

(RPM]

-1000 2000 )000 4000 S000 6000

(RPM] . - -----------------------• ••

12

lii CO 10

0.. LJ.J :::E 8 co

200

180

160

140

120

6 100

E 80 z

~

Q) 4 60 :, !: ~ 40 2

20

0 0 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

EPA Projection of Mazda's newly announced Skyactiv-X engine

Assum tions EPA Projection

15

iii 200

ID

a.. 10 ~ 150 ID

E z

0

34%

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 Speed (RPM)

90 f

SAE INTERNATIONAL

nifal ALPHA

Estimate

B11u111 Cgmg1 c l1gn

D. T{US)

SKYACTIV-X Mazda3 SKY-G

Total l 38.6

Clty/Subl 37.3

You r Or Iv Ing d I t I

Dnve

lmpg

lmpg

" l., ] .. r:

33.1

32.2

. . . .. . . . . .. .. .. ...

lmpg

lmpg

0 • • • • • ...............

·nnuunuu ........... ,,,.,.1 EnglM load frequency dl•trlbutlon

'1mprov-:me"nr ( (b¥U100km)

, 113.2% 1 .... __ 113.6% I

-1 -... ... -... -~ = • SPC0 , .. ..

CombwtJon Stat•

i- - - .... I \ '- # - -

P civioa Resu I ts Como a rison 8 n Driver : _I ____ J_. _V_(_U_S-) ___ ~

SKYACTIV-X

Total ,_l __ 3_9_.9 _ _..lmpg

City/Sub,_l __ 3_9_.9 _ _..lmpg

Your Driv in g da t o

Mazda3 SKY-G

,___3_4_.1 _ _..l mpg

,___3_3_.6 _ ___.l mpg

=r

MuSPffd ..... ~ km/h .± - " , " J ,.

r" - .. Av•G ..,_ .. ITDm1.•2 T ~ d . ·qnnunnu ........ #'11, ..... 1

Engine load tnqu•ncy distribution

"1m;;ov-;',r,e";;r, / (ltvL/lOOl.m)

' I 14.3% 1 ..._ __ 11s.4% 1

,.,. .... -,.. ... ... . .. ... • SPCO ,.. ... , .. ..

Combustion State

Example 4: Initial Projection of Skyactiv-X 2.0L Engine Comparison of Reduced Fuel Consumption from Test Drives v. Initial ALPHA Estimate

Per

f N

eutr

al S

ized

Dis

pla

cem

ent

(lit

ers)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

Engi

ne

Effi

cien

cy (

%)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

CO

2 (

gCO

2/m

i)

Imp

rove

d E

ffic

ien

cy

[CO

2 R

edu

ctio

n]

(%)

Engine2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L Engine 2.5 20.7 237.1 0.0%

2019 Skyactiv-X 2.0L SPCCI Engine5 2.1 23.6 207.6 12.5%

2016 Mid-sized Car

*using data from ALPHA using Mazda's published information

Initial ALPHA

Estimate

The 12.5% efficiency improvement in ALPHA results compare reasonably with real-world driving results in the automotive press test drives (13%-14%).

▪ This is just an initial estimate to gain a sense of the potential impact of this technology. Since the technology is not yet in the market place, it is too early to project if Skyactiv-X technology could be widely used in the industry and in what time frame.

▪ EPA plans to confirm this estimate with vehicle and engine benchmarking data as soon as the vehicle becomes available.

Test Drive Notes:

▪ It appears that the test drive involved a comparison to a European Skyactiv-G (14:1 CR), probably operating on European premium fuel.

▪ Some of the drive cycle was standard traffic around suburban Frankfurt, Germany, including low-speed residential and town stop-and-go, but they also spent a few miles at up to 160 km/h

28 (100 mph) during two short Autobahn stints.* Driver BDriver A

US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY *Mazda's Skyactiv-X: diesel fuel economy from gasoline engine - Page 2, Green Car Reports

28

SAE INTERNATIONAL

Example 5: Projection of Adding Cylinder Deactivation to Current and Future Engines Adding Full Continuous Cylinder Deactivation (deacFC)

29US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

• Full Continuous Cylinder Deactivation (deacFC*) allows any of the cylinders to be deactivated, and the number of deactivated cylinders can be varied in a continuous fashion.

This is an advanced form of cylinder deactivation that involves all cylinders (e.g, all 8 cylinders in V8)

rather than a fixed subset (e.g., only 4 specific cylinders in a V8).

• deacFC engine can be run on a non-integer number of cylinders (e.g., 2.5 cylinders) by varying number and pattern of firing cylinders from cycle to cycle.

• deacFC can command complete cylinder cutout during decelerations, cutting both fuel and air to the engine, reducing aftertreatment cooling and vehicle deceleration.

• Tula Technology developed an implementation of deacFC called Dynamic Skip Fire (DSF) and applied it to V8 and I4 engines.

*Bohac, S. V., 2018 “Benchmarking and Characterization of a Full Continuous Cylinder Deactivation System,” Oral Only, SAE World Congress, Detroit, MI, April 10-12, 2018. Presentation to be made available following SAE World Congress at: https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas

200 12

180

-::-10 mo (1) Ill - 140 a.. w 8 ~ 120 Ill

- 5 E

100

z 80 Q)

5- 4 ... 60 ~

40 2

20

0 0

~ 120kW ~ 110kW

.1< 100 kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 Speed (RPM)

90 kW

80 kW

70 kW

60 kW

50 kW

40 kW

30 kW

20 kW

10 kW 5kW

200 12

180

-::-10 mo (1) Ill

- 140 a.. w 8 ~ 120

_ 5 100 E 2 80 Q)

:::J 4 e- 60 ~

2 40

20

~~~ 120kW

~ 110kW

.1< ~ ~ 100 kW 90 kW

80 kW

70 kW

60 kW

50 kW

40 kW

30 kW

l-~ ~~~~~~~~~ii~f-;;:;-=-:;::~:.:§== 20kW :;;;;;. 10kW

5kW

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Speed (RPM)

Example 5: Projection of Adding Cylinder Deactivation to Current and Future Engines Adding deacFC to Skyactiv-G 2.0L Engine

2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L Engine with deacFC Tier 2 Fuel 2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L Engine Tier 2 Fuel

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 30

OPCS TOPICS

EPA’s program to Study the Efficiency Potential of Future Gasoline Engines

1. Assessing Current Production Engines

a) Develop benchmarking methods that yield good understanding of engine operation.

b) Generate consistent fuel maps to appropriately compare engines.

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

2. Assessing Potential Future Engines

a) What engine technologies are still on the table?

b) What might future engine maps look like?

c) Use vehicle simulation (ALPHA) to assess vehicle fuel consumption.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 31

32

0.0%

-1.9%

-3.8%-3.3%

-6.7%

-7.7% -6.9%

-9.5%

-15.8%

-25.7%

-28.1%-28.6%

-29.0%

-31.0%-30.8%

-31.8%

-35.3%

-36.3%

-40%

-35%

-30%

-25%

-20%

-15%

-10%

-5%

0%

CO

2R

ed

uct

ion

Comparison of Reduced CO2 Emissions of 2016 and 2025 Mid-Sized Cars

2016 vintage2016 vintage with deacFC2025 vintage2025 vintage with deacFC

20

25

Ric

ard

o C

on

celp

t Tu

rbo

En

gin

e(f

rom

an

alyi

sis

for

20

12

FR

M)20

13

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

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Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

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PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

15

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st2

.7L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

14

Sky

acti

v-G

2.0

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

16

Sky

acti

v-G

2.5

L Tu

rbo

En

gin

e(f

rom

EP

A b

ench

mar

kin

g)

20

16

Ho

nd

a L1

5B

7 1

.5L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

18

To

yota

TN

GA

2.5

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

mTo

yota

20

16

Aac

hen

pap

er)

20

19

Sky

acti

v-X

2.0

L SP

CC

I En

gin

e(f

rom

Maz

da

info

rmat

ion

)

Lab Benchmarks Projections

Futu

re A

tkin

son

2.0

L N

A E

ngi

ne

w/c

EGR

(fro

mEP

A G

T-P

ow

er m

od

elin

g)

... (

.. ' ■

' ' ' ■ ,, ' '

,, ' ' '

,, ' ' .-" ' ' ' .. ' ' ' ' . ' ~ ,,

----- -' ' ' ' -- -' ' ' ' ' ' ; ' \ ' ' \ ' \ ' ' \ ' \ ' ' • ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' .... '•, ' ' ' ' ' ' ' _..._ ' ' --- .... ' ' .... '■ ;

........ ' ' ' ..... ' ' ' ' ..... ' ' ' ..... ' ' ' ' ..... ' ' ' ■ ' :

Using ALPHA to Compare Engine Maps

in a Mid-sized Car

ALPHA vehicle simulations of current and potential future engines*

Mid-Sized CarP

erf

Neu

tral

Siz

ed

Dis

pla

cem

ent

(lit

ers)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

Engi

ne

Effi

cien

cy (

%)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

CO

2 (

gCO

2/m

i)

Imp

rove

d E

ffic

ien

cy

[CO

2 R

edu

ctio

n]

(%)

Per

f N

eutr

al S

ized

Dis

pla

cem

ent

(lit

ers)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

Engi

ne

Effi

cien

cy (

%)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

CO

2 (

gCO

2/m

i)

Imp

rove

d E

ffic

ien

cy

[CO

2 R

edu

ctio

n]

(%)

Engine

2013 Ford EcoBoost 1.6L Turbo Engine1 1.7 19.8 246.6 0.0% 1.5 23.8 183.2 -25.7%

2015 Ford EcoBoost 2.7L Turbo Engine 1.5 20.2 241.9 -1.9% 1.3 24.5 177.4 -28.1%

2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L NA Engine 2.5 20.7 237.1 -3.8% 2.1 24.7 176.2 -28.6%

2016 Skyactiv-G 2.5L Turbo Engine 1.7 20.5 238.4 -3.3% 1.5 24.8 175.1 -29.0%

2016 Honda L15B7 1.5L Turbo Engine 1.7 21.3 230.1 -6.7% 1.4 25.6 170.2 -31.0%

Future Atkinson Engine w/cEGR2 2.5 21.5 227.7 -7.7% 2.1 25.5 170.6 -30.8%

2018 Toyota TNGA 2.5L N/A Engine3 2.4 21.4 229.5 -6.9% 2.0 25.9 168.2 -31.8%

2025 Ricardo Concept Turbo Engine4 1.5 21.9 223.0 -9.5% 1.2 27.3 159.5 -35.3%

2019 Skyactiv-X 2.0L SPCCI Engine5 2.1 23.6 207.6 -15.8% 1.8 27.8 157.0 -36.3%

1- baseline 2- from EPA GT-Power model 3- from Toyota 2016 Aachen paper

4- from Ricardo for EPA's 2012 FRM 5- from Mazda published information

2016 2025

*refer to SAE paper 2018-01-0319 for roadload values.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY deacFC - Full Continuous cylinder deactivation

33

0.0%

-2.4% -0.2%

-3.6%

-6.0%-4.2%

-3.0%

-10.9%

-13.1%

-25.8%

-26.1% -25.9%

-28.6%

-30.7%-28.4% -28.8%

-33.7%

-35.5%

-40%

-35%

-30%

-25%

-20%

-15%

-10%

-5%

0%

CO

2R

ed

uct

ion

Comparison of Reduced CO2 Emissions 2016 and 2025 Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs)

2016 vintage2016 vintage with deacFC2025 vintage2025 vintage with deacFC

20

25

Ric

ard

o C

on

celp

t Tu

rbo

En

gin

e(f

rom

an

alyi

sis

for

20

12

FR

M)

20

13

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st1

.6L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

15

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st2

.7L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

14

Sky

acti

v-G

2.0

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

16

Sky

acti

v-G

2.5

L Tu

rbo

En

gin

e(f

rom

EP

A b

ench

mar

kin

g)

20

16

Ho

nd

a L1

5B

7 1

.5L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

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PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

18

To

yota

TN

GA

2.5

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

mTo

yota

20

16

Aac

hen

pap

er)

20

19

Sky

acti

v-X

2.0

L SP

CC

I En

gin

e(f

rom

Maz

da

info

rmat

ion

)

Futu

re A

tkin

son

2.0

LN

A E

ngi

ne

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(fro

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er m

od

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Lab Benchmarks Projections

I I I I

'

.. ... ...... ... .... ... ... ... ... .... -

--• ... ... ...

i '•----• ... ... ... t

,---=~--L_-~_ ~ l ~ -: i

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Using ALPHA to Compare Engine Maps

in Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs)

ALPHA vehicle simulations of current and potential future engines*

Sport Utility VehicleP

erf

Neu

tral

Siz

ed

Dis

pla

cem

ent

(lit

ers)

Co

mb

ined

Cyc

le

Engi

ne

Effi

cien

cy (

%)

Co

mb

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le

CO

2 (

gCO

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Imp

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d E

ffic

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cy

[CO

2 R

edu

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(%)

Per

f N

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Dis

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Co

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Cyc

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Engi

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Effi

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CO

2 (

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[CO

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(%)

Engine

2013 Ford EcoBoost 1.6L Turbo Engine1 2.3 20.8 318.4 0.0% 2.0 25.1 236.3 -25.8%

2015 Ford EcoBoost 2.7L Turbo Engine 2.0 21.3 310.9 -2.4% 1.7 25.2 235.4 -26.1%

2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L NA Engine 3.4 20.9 317.7 -0.2% 2.8 25.1 235.9 -25.9%

2016 Skyactiv-G 2.5L Turbo Engine 2.4 21.6 306.9 -3.6% 2.0 26.1 227.3 -28.6%

2016 Honda L15B7 1.5L Turbo Engine 2.3 22.1 299.3 -6.0% 1.9 26.8 220.8 -30.7%

Future Atkinson Engine w/cEGR2 3.4 21.7 305.1 -4.2% 2.8 26.0 228.2 -28.4%

2018 Toyota TNGA 2.5L N/A Engine3 3.3 21.5 308.8 -3.0% 2.7 26.1 226.8 -28.8%

2025 Ricardo Concept Turbo Engine4 1.9 23.3 283.8 -10.9% 1.6 28.1 211.1 -33.7%

2019 Skyactiv-X 2.0L SPCCI Engine5 2.8 24.0 276.7 -13.1% 2.3 28.9 205.5 -35.5%

1- baseline 2- from EPA GT-Power model 3- from Toyota 2016 Aachen paper

4- from Ricardo for EPA's 2012 FRM 5- from Mazda published information

2016 2025

*refer to SAE paper 2018-01-0319 for roadload values.

SAE INTERNATIONAL US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY deacFC - Full Continuous cylinder deactivation

SAE INTERNATIONAL

Engine

2013 Ford EcoBoost 1.6L Turbo Engine1

2015 Ford EcoBoost 2.7L Turbo Engine

2014 Mazda Skyactiv-G 2.0L NA Engine

2016 Skyactiv-G 2.5L Turbo Engine

2016 Honda L15B7 1.5L Turbo Engine

Future Atkinson Engine w/cEGR2

2018 Toyota TNGA 2.5L N/A Engine3

2025 Ricardo Concept Turbo Engine4

2019 Skyactiv-X 2.0L SPCCI Engine5

Effect on CO• Engine size • Implementation

(e.g., I4, V6 • Implementation of

(e.g., cylinder

• Other (e.g., engine to

.. .. ' ' ' ■ ' .... ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - ..... ' ' ' ·- ' ' ' ' ' ,, ' ' ' ' ' ' ' .-" ' ' .... ' .. ' ' ' ' 1 ' : ,' ... , ; ' -~ .. ' " ' ' ' ' ! ... ... ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' \ ' ll ' ' ' \ ' ' \ ' ' ' ' • ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - -■. ' ' .. - ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ., ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ; ' ' ' --- ' ' ' ' '11-- i -----'■ .... J

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' -+- ' -+- ' ' ' ' ' ..... ' ..... ' ' ' ' ' ' ' -+- ' -+- ' • ' ' ' ' ' ' ..... ' • ..... ' ' ' ' ' ! :

Using ALPHA to compare engine maps

0.0%

-1.9%

-3.8%-3.3%

-6.7%

-7.7% -6.9%

-9.5%

-15.8%

-25.7%

-28.1%-28.6%

-29.0%

-31.0%-30.8%

-31.8%

-35.3%

-36.3%

-40%

-35%

-30%

-25%

-20%

-15%

-10%

-5%

0%

CO

2R

ed

uct

ion

Comparison of Reduced CO2 Emissions of 2016 and 2025 Mid-Sized Cars

2016 vintage2016 vintage with deacFC2025 vintage2025 vintage with deacFC

20

25

Ric

ard

o C

on

celp

t Tu

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En

gin

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an

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for

20

12

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13

Fo

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20

15

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(fro

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PA

ben

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20

14

Sky

acti

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2.0

L N

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ne

(fro

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ben

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20

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20

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a L1

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7 1

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20

18

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2.5

L N

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19

Sky

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Maz

da

info

rmat

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)

Lab Benchmarks Projections

Futu

re A

tkin

son

2.0

L N

A E

ngi

ne

w/c

EGR

(fro

mEP

A G

T-P

ow

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g)

deacFC - Full Continuous cylinder deactivation

2 Depends on Factors v. vehicle loading

& architecture etc.)

strategies deacFC fly zone)

elements in powertrain where transmission allows

operate)

0.0%

-2.4% -0.2%

-3.6%

-6.0%-4.2%

-3.0%

-10.9%

-13.1%

-25.8%

-26.1% -25.9%

-28.6%

-30.7%-28.4% -28.8%

-33.7%

-35.5%

-40%

-35%

-30%

-25%

-20%

-15%

-10%

-5%

0%

CO

2R

ed

uct

ion

Comparison of Reduced CO2 Emissions 2016 and 2025 Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs)

2016 vintage2016 vintage with deacFC2025 vintage2025 vintage with deacFC

20

25

Ric

ard

o C

on

celp

t Tu

rbo

En

gin

e(f

rom

an

alyi

sis

for

20

12

FR

M)

20

13

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st1

.6L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

15

Fo

rd E

coB

oo

st2

.7L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

14

Sky

acti

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2.0

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

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20

16

Sky

acti

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2.5

L Tu

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En

gin

e(f

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EP

A b

ench

mar

kin

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20

16

Ho

nd

a L1

5B

7 1

.5L

Turb

o E

ngi

ne

(fro

m E

PA

ben

chm

arki

ng)

20

18

To

yota

TN

GA

2.5

L N

A E

ngi

ne

(fro

mTo

yota

20

16

Aac

hen

pap

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20

19

Sky

acti

v-X

2.0

L SP

CC

I En

gin

e(f

rom

Maz

da

info

rmat

ion

)

Futu

re A

tkin

son

2.0

LN

A E

ngi

ne

w/c

EGR

(fro

mEP

A G

T-P

ow

er m

od

elin

g)

Lab Benchmarks Projections

deacFC - Full Continuous cylinder deactivation

US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 34