ASM Volume 13C Corrosion - Industries Index

ASM Handbook

Volume 13CCorrosion: Environments and Industries

Prepared under the direction of the

ASM International Handbook Committee

Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Jr., Volume Editors

Charles Moosbrugger, Project Editor

Madrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator

Diane Grubbs, Editorial Assistant

Pattie Pace, Production Coordinator

Diane Wilkoff, Production Coordinator

Kathryn Muldoon, Production Assistant

Scott D. Henry, Senior Product Manager

Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production

Editorial Assistance

Joseph R. Davis

Elizabeth Marquard

Heather Lampman

Marc Schaefer

Beverly Musgrove

Cindy Karcher

Kathy Dragolich

Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002

www.asminternational.org

2006 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.ASM Handbook, Volume 13C, Corrosion: Environments and Industries (#05145)


Copyright # 2006

by

ASM International1

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.

First printing, November 2006

This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from

worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems.

Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES,

EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ASM International

ASM Handbook

Includes bibliographical references and indexes

Contents: v.1. Properties and selectionirons, steels, and high-performance alloysv.2. Properties and selectionnonferrous alloys and

special-purpose materials[etc.]v.21. Composites

1. MetalsHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-workHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee.

II. Metals Handbook.

TA459.M43 1990 620.106 90-115

SAN: 204-7586

ISBN-13: 978-0-87170-709-3

ISBN-10: 0-87170-709-8

ASM International1

Materials Park, OH 44073-0002


Printed in the United States of America

Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.



Foreword

This work, Corrosion: Environments and Industries, is application driven. The best practices in seg-ments of industry with respect to materials selection, protection of materials, and monitoring of corrosionare presented. The challenges of local environments encountered within these industries, as well as large-scale environmental challenges, are documented. The choice of solutions to these challenges can befound.Just as the environment affects materials, so also corrosion and its by-products affect the immediate

environment. Nowhere is the immediate effect of more concern than in biomedical implants. We arepleased with the new information shared by experts in this eld.As we recognize the energy costs of producing new materials of construction, the creation of engi-

neered systems that will resist corrosion takes on added importance. The importance and costs ofmaintenance have been discussed for many of the industrial segmentsaviation, automotive, oil and gaspipeline, chemical, and pulp and paper industries, as well as the military. The consequences of materialdegradation are addressed as the service temperatures of materials are pushed higher for greater efciencyin energy conversion. As engineered systems are made more complex and the controlling electronics aremade smaller, the tolerance for any corrosion is lessened.ASM International is deeply indebted to the Editors, Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Jr.,

who envisioned the revision of the landmark 1987Metals Handbook, 9th edition, Volume 13. The energythey sustained throughout this project and the care they gave to every article has been huge. The resultingthree Volumes contain 281 articles, nearly 3000 pages, 3000 gures, and 1500 tablescertainlyimpressive statistics. Our Society is as impressed and equally grateful for the way in which they recruitedand encouraged a community of corrosion experts from around the world and from many professionalorganizations to volunteer their time and ability.We are grateful to the 200 authors and reviewers who shared their knowledge of corrosion andmaterials

for the good of this Volume. They are listed on the next several pages. And again, thanks to the con-tributors to the preceding two Volumes and the original 9th edition Corrosion Volume.Thanks also go to the members of the ASMHandbook Committee for their involvement in this project

and their commitment to keep the information of the ASM Handbook series current and relevant to theneeds of our members and the technical community. Finally, thanks to the ASM editorial and productionstaff for the overall result.

Reza AbbaschianPresidentASM International

Stanley C. TheobaldManaging DirectorASM International

iii



Policy on Units of Measure

By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has adoptedthe practice of publishing data in both metric and customary U.S. units ofmeasure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have attempted to presentdata in metric units based primarily on Syste`me International dUnites (SI),with secondary mention of the corresponding values in customary U.S.units. The decision to use SI as the primary system of units was based on theaforementioned resolution of the Board of Trustees and the widespread useof metric units throughout the world.For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables are

presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents in par-entheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure, stress,and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa) with asuitable prex, and in customary U.S. units, which are pounds per squareinch (psi). To save space, large values of psi have been converted to kipsper square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi=1000 psi. The metric tonne (kg 103)has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Some strictly scienticdata are presented in SI units only.To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on art-

work. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations arepresented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs and charts,grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the left andbottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary U.S. unitsappear along the top and right edges.Data pertaining to a specication published by a specication-writing

group may be given in only the units used in that specication or in dualunits, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yieldstrength of steel sheet made to a specication written in customary U.S.

units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specied inthat specication might be presented only in inches.Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the

standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the unitsof that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also presented.Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original units used inthe analysis.Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEEE/

ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of signicant digits in theoriginal data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 F containsthree signicant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperature would begiven as 855 C; the exact conversion to 854.44 C would not be appro-priate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at a precisetemperature (such as the melting of pure silver), it would be appropriate toreport the temperature as 961.93 C or 1763.5 F. In some instances(especially in tables and data compilations), temperature values in C andF are alternatives rather than conversions.The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several

exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each instance,the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of theHandbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather thankg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume).SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units

formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the unitspreceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following thevirgule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses arerequired to prevent ambiguity.

iv



Preface

Corrosion, while silent and often subtle, is probably the most signicantcause of physical deterioration and degradation in man-made structures.The 2004 global direct cost of corrosion, representing costs experienced byowners and operators of manufactured equipment and systems, was esti-mated to be $990 billion United States dollars (USD) annually, or 2.0% ofthe $50 trillion (USD) world gross domestic product (GDP) (Ref 1). The2004 global indirect cost of corrosion, representing costs assumed by theend user and the overall economy, was estimated to be $940 billion (USD)annually (Ref 1). On this basis, the total cost of corrosion to the globaleconomy in 2004 was estimated to be approximately $1.9 trillion (USD)annually, or 3.8% of the world GDP. The largest contribution to this costcomes from the United States at 31%. The next largest contributions wereJapan, 6%; Russia, 6%; and Germany, 5%.

ASM Handbook Volume 13C, Corrosion: Environments and Industriesis the third and nal volume of the three-volume update, revision, andexpansion of Metals Handbook, 9th edition, Volume 13, Corrosion, pub-lished in 1987. The rst volumeVolume 13A,Corrosion: Fundamentals,Testing, and Protectionwas published in 2003. The second volumeVolume 13B, Corrosion: Materialswas published in 2005. These threevolumes together present the current state of corrosion knowledge, theefforts to mitigate corrosions effects on societys structures and econo-mies, and a perspective on future trends in corrosion prevention andmitigation. Metals remain the primary focus of the Handbook. However,nonmetallic materials occupy a more prominent position, reectingtheir wide and effective use to solve problems of corrosion and their fre-quent use with metals in complex engineering systems. Wet (or aqueous)corrosion remains the primary environmental focus, but dry (or gaseous)corrosion is also addressed, reecting the increased use of elevated-or high-temperature operations in engineering systems, particularlyenergy-related systems, where corrosion and oxidation are importantconsiderations.Volume 13C recognizes, as did Volumes 13A and 13B, the diverse range

of materials, environments, and industries affected by corrosion, the globalreach of corrosion practice, and the levels of technical activity and coop-eration required to produce cost-effective, safe, and environmentally-sound solutions to materials problems. As we worked on this project, wemarveled at the spread of corrosion technology into the many and diverseareas of engineering, industry, and human activity. It attests to the effec-tiveness of the pioneers of corrosion research and education, and of theorganizations they helped to create, in communicating the principles andexperience of corrosion to an ever-widening audience. Over 50% of thearticles in Volume 13C are new. Looking back over the three volumes, 45%of the articles are new to the revised Handbook, reecting changesoccurring in the eld of corrosion over the intervening 20 years. Authorsfrom 14 countries contributed articles to the three Handbook volumes.Volume 13C is organized into two major Sections addressing the per-

formance of materials in specic classes of environments and their per-formance in the environments created by specic industries. TheseSections recognize that materials respond to the laws of chemistry andphysics and that, within the constraints of design and operating conditions,corrosion can be minimized to provide economic, environmental, andsafety benets.

The rst Section is Corrosion in Specic Environments, addressingdistinct classes of environments where knowledge of the general attributesof the environment provides a generic framework for understanding andsolving corrosion problems. By the nature of this approach, solutions toproblems of corrosion performance and corrosion protection are viewed asspanning industries. The specic environments addressed in Volume 13Care fresh water, marine (both atmospheric and aqueous), underground, andmilitary, with an eclectic mix of other environments included under spe-cialized environments.The second Section is Corrosion in Specic Industries, addressing

corrosion performance and corrosion protection in distinct environmentscreated by specic industries. The specic industries addressed in Volume13C are nuclear power, fossil energy and alternative fuels, petroleum andpetrochemical, land transportation, commercial aviation, microelectronics,chemical processing, pulp and paper, food and beverage, pharmaceuticaland medical technology, building, and mining and mineral processing.Corrosion issues in the energy sector receive considerable attention in thisSection. In addition, there is substantial overlap between this Section andtopics addressed in military environments in the rst Section.Supporting material is provided at the back of the Handbook. A Cor-

rosion Rate Conversion includes conversions in both nomograph andtabular form. The Metric Conversion Guide gives conversion factors forcommon units and includes SI prexes. Abbreviations and Symbolsprovides a key to common acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols used inthe Handbook.Many individuals contributed to Volume 13C. In particular, we wish to

recognize the efforts of the following individuals who provided leadershipin organizing subsections of the Handbook (listed in alphabetical order):

Chairperson Subsection title

Alain A. Adjorlolo Corrosion in Commercial AviationVinod S. Agarwala Corrosion in Military EnvironmentsHira Ahluwalia Corrosion in the Chemical Processing IndustryDenise A. Aylor Corrosion in Marine EnvironmentsBernard S. Covino, Jr. Corrosion in Specialized EnvironmentsStephen D. Cramer Corrosion in Fresh Water Environments

Corrosion in Specialized EnvironmentsCorrosion in the Pharmaceutical and Medical Technology Industries

Harry Dykstra Corrosion in the Pulp and Paper IndustryDawn Eden Corrosion in the Petroleum and Petrochemical IndustryBarry Gordon Corrosion in the Nuclear Power IndustryDonald L. Jordan Corrosion in the Land Transportation IndustriesRussell Kane Corrosion in the Petroleum and Petrochemical IndustryBrajendra Mishra Corrosion in the Mining and Metal Processing IndustriesBert Moniz Corrosion in the Food and Beverage IndustrySeshu Pabbisetty Corrosion in the Microelectronics IndustriesKevin T. Parker Corrosion in Underground EnvironmentsLarry Paul Corrosion in the Fossil and Alternative Fuel IndustriesRobert L. Ruedisueli Corrosion in Marine EnvironmentsJohn E. Slater Corrosion in the Building Industry

These knowledgeable and dedicated individuals generously devoted con-siderable time to the preparation of the Handbook. They were joined in thiseffort by more than 200 authors who contributed their expertise and crea-tivity in a collaboration to write and revise the articles in the Handbook, and

v



by the many reviewers of their articles. These volunteers built on thecontributions of earlier Handbook authors and reviewers who provided thesolid foundation on which the present Handbook rests.For articles revised from the 1987 edition, the contribution of the pre-

vious author is acknowledged at the end of the article. This location in noway diminishes their contribution or our gratitude. Authors responsible forthe current revision are named after the title. The variation in the amount ofrevision is broad. Themany completely new articles presented no challengefor attribution, but assigning fair credit for revised articles was more pro-blematic. The choice of presenting authors names without comment orwith the qualier Revised by is solely the responsibility of the ASM staff.We thank ASM International and the ASM staff for their skilled support

and valued expertise in the production of this Handbook. In particular, wethank Charles Moosbrugger, Gayle Anton, Diane Grubbs, and Scott Henryfor their encouragement, tactful diplomacy, and many helpful discussions.We are most grateful to the National Energy Technology Laboratory(formerly the Albany Research Center), U.S. Department of Energy, for thesupport and exibility in our assignments that enabled us to participate in

this project. We especially thank our supervisors, Jeffrey A. Hawk andCynthia A. Powell, for their gracious and generous encouragementthroughout the project.

Stephen D. Cramer, FNACEBernard S. Covino, Jr., FNACENational Energy Technology LaboratoryU.S. Department of Energy

REFERENCE

1. R. Bhaskaran, N. Palaniswamy, N.S. Rengaswamy, and M. Jayachan-dran, Global Cost of CorrosionA Historical Review, Corrosion:Materials, Vol 13B, ASM Handbook, ASM International, MaterialsPark, OH, 2005, p 621628

vi



Ofcers and Trustees of ASM International (20052006)

Reza AbbaschianPresident and TrusteeUniversity of California Riverside

Lawrence C. WagnerVice President and TrusteeTexas Instruments

Bhakta B. RathImmediate Past President and TrusteeU.S. Naval Research Laboratory

Paul L. HuberTreasurer and TrusteeSeco/Warwick Corporation

Stanley C. TheobaldSecretary and Managing DirectorASM International

TrusteesSue S. Baik-Kromalic

Honda of AmericaChristopher C. Berndt

James Cook UniversityDianne Chong

The Boeing Company

Roger J. FabianBodycote Thermal Processing

William E. FrazierNaval Air Systems Command

Pradeep GoyalPradeep Metals Ltd.

Richard L. KennedyAllvac

Frederick J. LisyOrbital Research Incorporated

Frederick Edward Schmidt, Jr.Engineering Systems Inc.

Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (20052006)

Jeffrey A. Hawk(Chair 2005; Member 1997)General Electric Company

Larry D. Hanke(Vice Chair 2005; Member 1994)Material Evaluation andEngineering Inc.

Viola L. Acoff (2005)University of Alabama

David E. Alman (2002)U.S. Department of Energy

Tim Cheek (2004)International Truck & EngineCorporation

Lichun Leigh Chen (2002)Engineered Materials Solutions

Craig Clauser (2005)Craig Clauser Engineering Consulting Inc.

William Frazier (2005)Naval Air Systems Command

Lee Gearhart (2005)Moog Inc.

Michael A. Hollis (2003)Delphi Corporation

Kent L. Johnson (1999)Engineering Systems Inc.

Ann Kelly (2004)Los Alamos National Laboratory

Alan T. Male (2003)University of Kentucky

William L. Mankins (1989)Metallurgical Services Inc.

Dana J. Medlin (2005)South Dakota School of Mines andTechnology

Joseph W. Newkirk (2005)Metallurgical Engineering

Toby Padeld (2004)ZF Sachs Automotive of America

Frederick Edward Schmidt, Jr. (2005)Engineering Systems Inc.

Karl P. Staudhammer (1997)Los Alamos National Laboratory

Kenneth B. Tator (1991)KTA-Tator Inc.

George F. Vander Voort (1997)Buehler Ltd.

Previous Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee

R.J. Austin(19921994) (Member 19841985)

L.B. Case(19311933) (Member 19271933)

T.D. Cooper(19841986) (Member 19811986)

C.V. Darragh(19992002) (Member 19892005)

E.O. Dixon(19521954) (Member 19471955)

R.L. Dowdell(19381939) (Member 19351939)

Henry E. Fairman(20022004) (Member 19932005)

M.M. Gauthier(19971998) (Member 19902000)

J.P. Gill(1937) (Member 19341937)

J.D. Graham(19661968) (Member 19611970)

J.F. Harper(19231926) (Member 19231926)

C.H. Herty, Jr.(19341936) (Member 19301936)

D.D. Huffman(19861990) (Member 19822005)

J.B. Johnson(19481951) (Member 19441951)

L.J. Korb(1983) (Member 19781983)

R.W.E. Leiter(19621963) (Member 19551958,19601964)

G.V. Luerssen(19431947) (Member 19421947)

G.N. Maniar(19791980) (Member 19741980)

W.L. Mankins(19941997) (Member 1989)

J.L. McCall(1982) (Member 19771982)

W.J. Merten(19271930) (Member 19231933)

D.L. Olson(19901992) (Member 19821988,19891992)

N.E. Promisel(19551961) (Member 19541963)

G.J. Shubat(19731975) (Member 19661975)

W.A. Stadtler(19691972) (Member 19621972)

R. Ward(19761978) (Member 19721978)

M.G.H. Wells(1981) (Member 19761981)

D.J. Wright(19641965) (Member 19591967)

vii



Authors and Contributors

Alain A. AdjorloloThe Boeing Company

Vinod S. AgarwalaNaval Air Systems Command, U.S. Navy

Hira S. AhluwaliaMaterial Selection Resources, Inc.

Peter L. AndresenGeneral Electric Global Research

Zhijun BaiSyracuse University

Wate BakkerElectric Power Research Institute

Donald E. BardsleySulzer Process Pumps Inc.

John A. BeaversCC Technologies

Graham BellM.J. Schiff & Associates

J.E. BenferNAVAIR Materials EngineeringCompetency

David BennettCorrosion Probe Inc.

Henry L. BernsteinGas Turbine Materials Association

James BrandtGalvotec Corrosion Services

S.K. BrubakerE.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc.

Sophie J. BullardNational Energy Technology Laboratory

Kirk J. BundyTulane University

Jeremy BusbyUniversity of Michigan

Sridhar CanumallaNokia Enterprise Systems

Clifton M. CareyAmerican Dental Association Foundation

Bryant Web ChandlerGreenman Pedersen, Inc.

Norm ClaytonNaval Surface Warfare Center, CarderockDivision

M. ColavitaItalian Air Force

Everett E. CollierConsultant

Pierre CombradeFramatome ANP

Greg CourvalAlcan International Limited

Bernard S. Covino, Jr.National Energy Technology Laboratory

William CoxCorrosion Management Ltd.

Stephen D. CramerNational Energy Technology Laboratory

J.R. CrumSpecial Metals Corporation

Chester M. DacresDACCO SCI, Inc.

Phillip DanielBabcock & Wilcox Company

Michael DaviesCariad Consultants

Stephen C. DexterUniversity of Delaware

James R. DivineChemMet, Ltd., PC

Joe DouthettAK Research

Harry DykstraAcuren

Dawn C. EdenHoneywell Process Solutions

Teresa ElliottCity of Portland, Oregon

Paul EyreDuPont

F. Peter FordGeneral Electric Global Research (retired)

Aleksei V. GershunPrestone Products

Jeremy L. GilbertSyracuse University

William J. GilbertBranch Environmental Corp.

Barry M. GordonStructural Integrity Associates, Inc.

R.D. GranataFlorida Atlantic University

Stuart L. GreenbergerBureau Water Works, City of Portland,Oregon

Richard B. GrifnTexas A&M University

I. Carl HandsyU.S. Army Tank-Automotive & ArmamentsCommand

Gary HanvyTexas Instruments

William H. HarttFlorida Atlantic University

Robert H. HeidersbachDr. Rust, Inc.

Drew HevleEl Paso Corporation

Gordon R. HolcombNational Energy Technology Laboratory

W. Brian HoltsbaumCC Technologies Canada, Ltd.

Ronald M. HornGeneral Electric Nuclear Energy

Jack W. HorvathHydroChem Industrial Services, Inc.

Wally HuijbregtsHuijbregts Corrosion Consultancy

Herbert S. JenningsDuPont

David JohnsonGalvotec Corrosion Services

Otakar JonasJonas, Inc.

D.L. JordanFord Motor Company

Russell D. KaneHoneywell Process Solutions

Ernest W. Klechka, Jr.CC Technologies

viii



Kevin J. KovaleskiNaval Air Warfare Center,Aircraft Division

Angel KowalskiCC Technologies

Lorrie A. KrebsAnderson Materials Evaluation, Inc.

Ashok KumarU.S. Army Engineer Research andDevelopment Center (ERDC) ConstructionEngineering Research Laboratory (CERL)

Steven C. KungThe Babcock & Wilcox Company

Kenneth S. KutskaWheaton (IL) Playground District

George Y. LaiConsultant

Jim LangleyUSA Cycling Certied Mechanic

Michael LaPlanteColt Defense LLC

R.M. LatanisionExponent

Jason S. LeeNaval Research Laboratory, Stennis SpaceCenter

Rene LeferinkKEMA

Clement LemaignanCEA France

Lianfang LiW.R. Grace, Inc.

E.L. LieningThe Dow Chemical Company

Brenda J. LittleNaval Research Laboratory, Stennis SpaceCenter

Joyce M. ManciniJonas, Inc.

W.L. MathayNickel Institute

Ronald L. McAlpinGas Turbine Materials Associates

R. Daniel McCrightLawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Sam McFarlandLloyds Register

Spiro MegremisAmerican Dental Association

Joseph T. MenkeU.S. Army TACOM

Michael MeyerThe Solae Company

William MillerSulzer Process Pumps Inc.

B. MishraColorado School of Mines

D.B. MittonUniversity of North Dakota

Bert MonizDuPont

William G. MooreNational Electric Coil

Max D. MoskalMechanical and Materials Engineering

Ned NiccollsChevron Texaco

Randy NixonCorrosion Probe Inc.

J.J. PakHanyang University, Korea

Rigo PerezBoeing Company

Lyle D. PerrigoU.S. Arctic Research Commission(retired)

Frank PiancaOntario Ministry of Transportation

Joseph PikasMATCOR Inc.

Jerry PodanyPaul Getty Museum

David F. PulleyNaval Air Warfare Center, AircraftDivision

Jianhai QiuNanyang Technological University

Richard I. RayNaval Research Laboratory, Stennis SpaceCenter

Raul B. RebakLawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Craig ReidAcuren

John ReppCorrpro/Ocean City Research Corp.

P.R. RobergeRoyal Military College of Canada

Ralph (Bud) W. Ross, Jr.Consultant

Alberto A. SaguesUniversity of South Florida

K.K. SankaranBoeing Company

Adrian SantiniCon Edison of New York

Daniel P. SchmidtThe Pennsylvania State University

Peter M. ScottFramatome ANP

L.A. ScribnerBecht Engineering

K. Anthony SelbyWater Technology Consultants, Inc.

Lyndsie S. SelwynCanadian Conservation Institute

Barbara A. ShawThe Pennsylvania State University

Wilford W. ShawThe Pennsylvania State University

David A. ShierNaval Surface Warfare Center, CarderockDivision

Stan SilvusSouthwest Research Institute

Douglas SingbeilPaprican

Prabhakar SinghPacic Northwest National Laboratory

James SkogsbergChevron Texaco

John E. SlaterInvetech Inc.

John S. Smart IIIJohn S. Smart Consulting Engineers

Herbert SmithBoeing Company

Narasi SridharSouthwest Research Institute

Sridhar SrinivasanHoneywell Process Solutions

L.D. StephensonU.S. Army Engineer Research andDevelopment Center (ERDC) ConstructionEngineering Research Laboratory (CERL)

Kenneth R. St. JohnThe University of Mississippi MedicalCenter

John StringerElectric Power Research Institute

Mats StromVolvo Car Corporation

Khuzema SulemanjiTexas Instruments

Windsor SungMassachusetts Water Resources Authority

Barry C. SyrettElectric Power Research Institute

A.C. TanMicron Semiconductor Asia

J.L. TardiffFord Motor Company

Ramgopal ThodlaGeneral Electric Company

Mercy ThomasTexas Instruments

Chris ThompsonPaprican

ix



Neil G. ThompsonCC Technologies

Jack TinneaTinnea & Associates, LLC

Arthur H. TuthillTuthill Associates

John TverbergMetals and Materials Consulting Engineers

Jose L. VillalobosV&A Consulting Engineers

Puligandla ViswanadhamNokia Research Center

Nicholas WarcholU.S. Army ARDEC

Gary S. WasUniversity of Michigan

Angela WensleyAngela Wensley Engineering

Paul K. WhitcraftRolled Alloys

Peter M. WoyciesjesPrestone Products

Zhenguo G. YangPacic Northwest National Laboratory

Te-Lin YauYau Consultancy

Lyle D. ZardiackasUniversity of Mississippi Medical Center

Shi Hua ZhangDuPont

x



Reviewers

Ralph AdlerU.S. Army

Hira AhluwaliaMaterial Selection Resources, Inc.

Todd AllenUniversity of Wisconsin

Anton BanwegNalco Company

Sean BarnesDuPont

Gregory A. BatesSolae Company

Franceso BellucciUniversity of Naples Federico II

Ron BianchettiEast Bay Municipal Utility District

Timothy BieriBP

Francine BovardAlcoa

Robert L. BrattonNuclear Materials Disposition andEngineering

Mike BresneyAGT

Stanley A. BrownFDA

Stephen K. BrubakerDuPont

Kirk J. BundyTulane University

Juan BustillosDow Chemical

Gary M. CarinciTMR Stainless

Tom ChaseChase Art Services

Tim CheekInternational Truck & Engine Corp.

Lichun Leigh ChenEngineered Materials Solutions

Jason A. ClineSpectral Sciences, Inc.

Desmond C. CookOld Dominion University

Thomas CordeaInternational Truck and Engine Corporation

Robert A. CottisUMIST

Irv CottonArthur Freedman Associates, Inc.

Bruce CraigMetCorr

Larry CraigieAmerican Composites ManufacturersAssociation

Jim CrumSpecial Metals Corporation

Phil L. DanielBabcock & Wilcox

Craig V. DarraghThe Timken Company

Chris DashConoco Phillips Alaska, Inc.

Michael DaviesCARIAD Consultants

Guy D. DavisDACCO SCI, Inc.

Sheldon DeanDean Corrosion Technology

John DevaneyHi-Rel Laboratories, Inc.

John B. DionBAE Systems

John DisegiSynthes (USA)

Roger DolanDolan Environmental Services, Inc.

Gary DollThe Timken Company

David E. DombrowskiLos Alamos National Laboratory

R. Barry DooleyElectric Power Research Institute

Timothy EckertElectric Power Research Institute

Dave EdenInterCorr International

Peter ElliottCorrosion and Materials Consultancy, Inc.

Henry Ed FairmanCincinnati Metallurgical Consultants

Robert FilipekAGH University of Science and Ceramics

Brian J. FitzgeraldExxonMobil Chemical Company

John FitzgeraldExxonMobil Chemical Company

Gerald S. FrankelThe Ohio State University

Peter FurrerNovelis Technology AG

Brian GleesonIowa State University

John J. GoetzThielsch Engineering

Martha GoodwaySmithsonian Center for Materials Researchand Education

Gary GrifthMechanical Dynamics & Analysis, LLC

Carol GrissomSCMRE

John GrubbAllegheny Ludlum Technical Center

Charlie HallMears Group

Nadim James HallabRush University Medical Center

Larry D. HankeMaterials Evaluation and Engineering, Inc.

Jeffrey A. HawkGeneral Electric Company

M. Gwyn HockingImperial College London

Paul HoffmanCIV NAVAIR

Mike HollyGeneral Motors Corp.

xi



Glenn T. HongGeneral Atomics, San Diego, CA

Merv HowellsHoneywell Airframe Systems

Fred H. HuaBechtel SAIC Co., LLC

Dennis HuffmanThe Timken Company

Kumar JataCIV USAF AFRL/MILL

Carol JeffcoateHoneywell Airframe Systems

David JensenEli Lilly and Company

Anders JenssenStudsvik Nuclear AB, Sweden

Paul JettSmithsonian Institute

Randy C. JohnShell Global Solutions (US) Inc.

Kent JohnsonEngineering Systems Inc.

Joanne Jones-MeehanNaval Research Laboratory

Donald L. JordanNorth American Engineering

Robert KainLaQue Center for Corrosion

Don KelleyDow Chemical

Srinivasan KesavanFMC Corporation

Naeem A. KhanSaudi Arabian Oil Company

Jonathan K. KlopmanMarine Surveyor NAMS-CMS

Ernest KlechkaCC Technologies

David KolmanU.S. Department of EnergyLos Alamos National Laboratory

Lou KoszewskiU.S. Tank Protectors Inc.

David KroonCorrpro Companies

Roger A. LaBoubeUniversity of Missouri-Rolla

Gregg D. LarsonExelon Nuclear

Kevin LawsonPetrofac Facilities Management Ltd.

Thomas W. LeeJabil Circuit, Inc.

William LeVanCast Iron Soil Pipe Institute

E.L. LieningDow Chemical

Scott LillardU.S. Department of EnergyLos Alamos National Laboratory

Huimin LiuFord Motor Company

Gary A. LoretitschPuckorius & Associates, Inc.

Stephen LowellDefense Standardization Program Ofce

Digby MacDonaldPennsylvania State University

William L. MankinsMetallurgical Services Inc.

Florian B. MansfeldUniversity of Southern California

William N. MatulewiczWincon Technologies, Inc.

Craig MatzdorfU.S. Navy

Graham McCartneyUniversity of Nottingham

Bruce McMordieSermatech

Gerald H. MeierUniversity of Pittsburgh

Joseph T. MenkeU.S. Army TACOM

Ronald E. MiziaIdaho National Engineering &Environmental Laboratory

Raymond W. MonroeSteel Founders Society of America

Jean MontemaranoNaval Surface Warfare Center, CarderockDivision

Robert E. MooreWashington Group International

Sandra MorganInternational Truck and EngineCorporation

Bill MullisAberdeen Test Center

M.P. Sukumaran NairFACT, Ltd.

Larry NelsonGE Global Research Center

Karthik H. OblaNational Ready-Mixed ConcreteAssociation

David OlsonColorado School of Mines

Michael R. OstermillerCorrosion Engineering

Toby V. PadeldZF Sachs Automotive of America

Larry PaulThyssenKrupp VDM USA Inc.

Steven J. PawelU.S. Department of EnergyOak Ridge National Laboratory

Fred PettitUniversity of Pittsburgh

G. Louis PowellY-12 National Security Complex

Raul RebakLawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Michael RennerBayer Technology Services GmbH

Chris RobbinsHealth & Safety Executive

Elwin L. RooyElwin L. Rooy and Associates

Marvin J. RudolphDuPont

Brian SaldnahaDuPont

Sreerangapatam SampathArmy Research Laboratory

Philip J. SamulewiczAmbiant Air Quality Services, Inc.

B.J. SandersBJS and Associates

Jeff SarverThe Babcock & Wilcox Company

Frederick Edward Schmidt, Jr.Engineering Systems Inc.

Michael SchockU.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Robert J. ShafferDaimlerChrysler Corporation

C. Ramadeva ShastryInternational Steel Group, Inc.

Robert W. ShawU.S. Army Research Ofce

Theresa SimpsonBethlehem Steel Corp.

Robert SmallwoodDet Norske Veritas

Gaylord D. SmithSpecial Metals Corporation

Vernon L. SnoeyinkUniversity of Illinois

Donald SnyderAtotech R & D Worldwide

Gerard SorellG. Sorell Consulting Services

Andy SpisakEME Associates

David L. SponsellerOMNI Metals Laboratory, Inc.

xii



Roger StaehleStaehle Consulting

Karl StaudhammerLos Alamos National Laboratory

Jan SteinElectric Power Research Institute

Martin L. StephensDaimlerChrysler Corp.

John StringerElectric Power Research Institute (retired)

Henry TachickDairyland Electrical Industries, Inc.

Ken TatorKTA Tator Inc.

Oscar TavaresLafarge North America Inc.

Michael TavaryDow Chemical

George J. TheusEngineering Systems Inc.

Dominique ThierryTechnopole de Brest Rivoalon

A.C. TiburcioUS Steel Research

Whitt L. TrimbleFluor Corporation

Arthur TuthillTuthill Associates, Inc.

Elma van der LingenMINTEK

Krishna VenugopalanDePuy, Inc.

Mike WaymanUniversity of Alberta

Alan WhiteheadGE Power Systems (retired)

James WhiteldU.S. Navy (CIV NAVAIR)

Gary S. WhittakerWhittaker Materials Engineering Associates,LLC

Roger WildtRW Consulting Group

David WillisBlueScope Steel Research

Tim WoodsU.S. Navy (CIV NAVAIR)

Ernest YeboahOrange County Sanitary District

Shi Hua ZhangDuPont

xiii



Contents

Corrosion in Specic Environments .................................................... 1

Introduction to Corrosion in Specic Environments

Stephen D. Cramer .............................................................................. 5

Corrosion in Freshwater Environments ................................... 5

Corrosion in Marine Environments ......................................... 5

Corrosion in Underground Environments ............................... 5

Corrosion in Military Environments ....................................... 6

Corrosion in Specialized Environments .................................. 7

Corrosion in Fresh Water Environments

Corrosion in Potable Water Distribution and Building Systems

Windsor Sung ....................................................................................... 8

Theoretical Considerations ...................................................... 8

Mitigation against Corrosion ................................................. 10

Additional Considerations ..................................................... 11

Corrosion in Service Water Distribution Systems

K. Anthony Selby ............................................................................... 12

Typical System Designs ........................................................ 12

Typical Water Qualities ........................................................ 13

Corrosion Mechanisms in Service Water Systems ............... 13

Corrosion Challenges in Service Water Systems .................. 13

Corrosion Control in Service Water Systems ....................... 14

Deposit Control ..................................................................... 14

Rouging of Stainless Steel in High-Purity Water

John C. Tverberg ............................................................................... 15

Pharmaceutical Waters .......................................................... 15

Chlorides ................................................................................ 16

Passive Layer ......................................................................... 17

Surface Finish ........................................................................ 18

Rouge Classication .............................................................. 18

Castings ................................................................................. 20

Cleaning and Repassivation .................................................. 21

Corrosion in Wastewater Systems

Jose L. Villalobos, Graham Bell ....................................................... 23

Predesign Surveys and Testing ............................................. 23

Material Considerations ........................................................ 24

Corrosion in Marine Environments

Corrosion in Seawater

Stephen C. Dexter .............................................................................. 27

Consistency and the Major Ions ............................................ 27

Variability of the Minor Ions ................................................ 30

Effect of Pollutants ................................................................ 37

Inuence of Biological Organisms ........................................ 38

Effect of Flow Velocity ......................................................... 40

Corrosion in Marine Atmospheres

Richard B. Grifn .............................................................................. 42

Important Variables ............................................................... 42

Modeling of Atmospheric CorrosionISO CORRAG

Program ............................................................................. 51

Corrosion Products ................................................................ 57

Atmospheric Corrosion Test Sites ......................................... 57

Corrosion of Metallic Coatings

Barbara A. Shaw, Wilford W. Shaw, Daniel P. Schmidt .................. 61

Thermal Sprayed Coatings .................................................... 61

Hot Dip Coatings ................................................................... 65

Electroplated Coatings .......................................................... 66

Methods of Protection ........................................................... 66

Performance of Organic Coatings

R.D. Granata ..................................................................................... 69

Surface Preparation ............................................................... 69

Topside Coating Systems ...................................................... 70

Immersion Coatings .............................................................. 72

Marine Cathodic Protection

Robert H. Heidersbach, James Brandt, David Johnson,

John S. Smart III ............................................................................ 73

Cathodic Protection Criteria .................................................. 73

Anode Materials .................................................................... 73

Comparison of Impressed-Current and Sacricial Anode

Systems .............................................................................. 74

Cathodic Protection of Marine Pipelines .............................. 74

Cathodic Protection of Offshore Structures .......................... 75

Cathodic Protection of Ship Hulls ......................................... 77

Corrosion in Underground Environments

External Corrosion Direct Assessment Integrated with Integrity

Management

Joseph Pikas ...................................................................................... 79

Four Step ECDA Process ...................................................... 79

Step 1: Preassessment (Assessment of Risk

and Threats) ....................................................................... 79

Step 2: Indirect Examinations ............................................... 81

Step 3: Direct Examination ................................................... 81

Step 4: Post Assessment ........................................................ 82

Close-Interval Survey Techniques

Drew Hevle, Angel Kowalski ............................................................ 84

CIS Equipment ...................................................................... 84

Preparation ............................................................................. 85

Procedures ............................................................................. 86

Dynamic Stray Current .......................................................... 87

Offshore Procedures .............................................................. 87

Data Validation ...................................................................... 87

Data Interpretation ................................................................. 88

xv



Corrosion of Storage Tanks

Ernest W. Klechka, Jr. ....................................................................... 89

Soil Corrosivity ..................................................................... 89

Cathodic Protection ............................................................... 90

Data Needed for Corrosion Protection Design ..................... 90

Soil-Side Corrosion Control .................................................. 92

Aboveground Storage Tanks ................................................. 93

Underground Storage Tanks .................................................. 95

Monitoring ASTs and USTs .................................................. 95

Well Casing External Corrosion and Cathodic Protection

W. Brian Holtsbaum .......................................................................... 97

Well Casing Corrosion .......................................................... 97

Detection of Corrosion .......................................................... 97

Cathodic Protection of Well Casings .................................... 99

Stray Currents in Underground Corrosion

W. Brian Holtsbaum ........................................................................ 107

Principles of Stray Current .................................................. 107

Consequences of Stray Current ........................................... 109

Interference Tests ................................................................ 109

Mitigation ............................................................................ 111

Corrosion Rate Probes for Soil Environments

Bernard S. Covino, Jr., Sophie J. Bullard ...................................... 115

Nonelectrochemical TechniquesPrinciples of

Operation ......................................................................... 115

Electrochemical TechniquesPrinciples of Operation ...... 116

Nonelectrochemical TechniquesExamples of Uses

in Soils ............................................................................. 117

Electrochemical TechniquesExamples of Uses

in Soils ............................................................................. 117

Potential Sources of Interference with Corrosion

Measurements .................................................................. 119

Cathodic Protection of Pipe-Type Power Transmission Cables

Adrian Santini .................................................................................. 122

Resistor Rectiers ................................................................ 122

Polarization Cells ................................................................ 122

Isolator-Surge Protector ...................................................... 123

Field Rectiers .................................................................... 123

Stray Currents ...................................................................... 123

Corrosion in Military Environments

Corrosion in the Military

Vinod S. Agarwala ........................................................................... 126

Introduction ......................................................................... 126

Military Problems ................................................................ 127

Corrosion Control and Management ................................... 132

Long-Term Strategy to Reduce Cost of Corrosion ............. 134

Military Specications and Standards

Norm Clayton .................................................................................. 136

Types of Documents and Designations ............................... 136

Format of Specications ...................................................... 138

Sources of Documents ......................................................... 139

Notable Specications, Standards, and Handbooks ............ 139

Department of Defense Corrosion Policy ........................... 140

Corrosion Control for Military Facilities

Ashok Kumar, L.D. Stephenson, Robert H. Heidersbach ............... 141

The Environment ................................................................. 141

Case Studies ......................................................................... 141

Emerging Corrosion-Control Technologies ........................ 144

Ground Vehicle Corrosion

I. Carl Handsy, John Repp .............................................................. 148

Background .......................................................................... 148

Requirements for Corrosion Control ................................... 148

Procurement Document ....................................................... 148

Testing Systems to Meet the Armys Needs ....................... 149

Supplemental Corrosion Protection .................................... 149

Improved Maintenance Procedures ..................................... 150

Considerations for Corrosion in Design .............................. 150

Armament Corrosion

Nicholas Warchol ............................................................................ 151

Overview of Design, In-Process, Storage, and In-Field

Problems .......................................................................... 151

Design Considerations ......................................................... 151

In-Process Considerations ................................................... 152

Storage Considerations ........................................................ 154

In-Field Considerations ....................................................... 154

High-Temperature Corrosion in Military Systems

David A. Shier ............................................................................... 156

High-Temperature Corrosion and Degradation

Processes .......................................................................... 156

Boilers .................................................................................. 156

Diesel Engines ..................................................................... 161

Gas Turbine Engines ........................................................... 162

Incinerators .......................................................................... 164

Finishing Systems for Naval Aircraft

Kevin J. Kovaleski, David F. Pulley ............................................... 171

Standard Finishing Systems ................................................ 171

Compliant Coatings Issues and Future Trends ................... 173

Military Coatings

Joseph T. Menke .............................................................................. 180

Electroplating ...................................................................... 180

Conversion Coating ............................................................. 181

Supplemental Oils ............................................................... 181

Paint Coatings ...................................................................... 182

Other Finishes ...................................................................... 183

U.S. Navy Aircraft Corrosion

John E. Benfer ................................................................................. 184

Environment ........................................................................ 184

Aircraft Alloys ..................................................................... 184

Aircraft Inspection ............................................................... 185

Prevention and Corrosion Control ....................................... 186

Examples of Aircraft Corrosion Damage ............................ 189

Military Aircraft Corrosion Fatigue

K.K. Sankaran, R. Perez, H. Smith .................................................. 195

Aircraft Corrosion Fatigue Assessment .............................. 195

Causes and Types of Aircraft Corrosion ............................. 196

Impact of Corrosion on Fatigue .......................................... 197

Corrosion Metrics ................................................................ 198

Investigations and Modeling of Corrosion/Fatigue

Interactions ...................................................................... 199

Methodologies for Predicting the Effects of Corrosion

on Fatigue ........................................................................ 201

Recent Development and Future Needs ............................. 203

Corrosion of Electronic Equipment in Military Environments

Joseph T. Menke .............................................................................. 205

An Historical Review of Corrosion Problems .................... 205

Examples of Corrosion Problems ........................................ 206

xvi



Microbiologically Inuenced Corrosion in Military Environments

Jason S. Lee, Richard I. Ray, Brenda J. Little ................................ 211

General Information about Microorganisms ....................... 211

Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... 211

Metals Exposed to Hydrocarbon Fuels ............................... 213

Immersion ............................................................................ 213

Burial Environments ............................................................ 217

Service Life and Aging of Military Equipment

M. Colavita ...................................................................................... 220

Reliability and Safety of Equipment ................................... 220

Aging Mechanisms .............................................................. 220

Management ........................................................................ 223

Prevention and Control ........................................................ 225

Prediction Techniques ......................................................... 227

Corrosion in Specialized Environments

Corrosion in Supercritical WaterWaste Destruction

Environments

R.M. Latanision, D.B. Mitton .......................................................... 229

The Unique Properties of Supercritical Water .................... 229

The Economics and Benets of SCWO .............................. 229

Facility Design Options ....................................................... 230

Materials Challenges ........................................................... 230

Mitigation of System Degradation ...................................... 233

The Future ........................................................................... 233

Corrosion in Supercritical WaterUltrasupercritical

Environments for Power Production

Gordon R. Holcomb ........................................................................ 236

Water Properties .................................................................. 236

Steam Cycle ......................................................................... 236

Steam Cycle Chemistry ....................................................... 237

Materials Requirements ....................................................... 237

Boiler Alloys ....................................................................... 238

Turbine Alloys ..................................................................... 240

Corrosion in Supercritical Water ........................................ 240

Efciency ............................................................................. 242

Benets ................................................................................ 243

Worldwide Materials Research ........................................... 244

Corrosion in Cold Climates

Lyle D. Perrigo, James R. Divine ................................................... 246

Cold Climates ...................................................................... 246

Corrosion Control Techniques and Costs ........................... 246

Design .................................................................................. 247

Transportation and Storage ................................................. 248

Construction ........................................................................ 248

Operations and Maintenance ............................................... 249

Corrosion in Emissions Control Equipment

William J. Gilbert ............................................................................ 251

Flue Gas Desulfurization ..................................................... 251

Waste Incineration ............................................................... 252

Bulk Solids Processing ........................................................ 253

Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries ............................ 254

Corrosion in Recreational Environments

Lorrie A. Krebs, Michael LaPlante, Jim Langley,

Kenneth S. Kutska ........................................................................ 257

Corrosion in Boats ............................................................... 257

Corrosion of Firearms ......................................................... 257

Bicycles and Corrosion ....................................................... 259

Public Playground Equipment ............................................. 260

Free Rock Climbing ............................................................ 262

Corrosion in Workboats and Recreational Boats

Everett E. Collier ............................................................................. 265

Hulls, Fittings, and Fastenings ............................................ 265

Metal Deck Gear ................................................................. 266

Equipment ............................................................................ 267

Propulsion Systems ............................................................. 268

Electrical and Electronic Systems ....................................... 271

Plumbing Systems ............................................................... 273

Masts, Spars, and Rigging ................................................... 274

Corrosion of Metal Artifacts and Works of Art in Museum and

Collection Environments

Jerry Podany ................................................................................... 279

Common Corrosion Processes ............................................. 279

Pollutants ............................................................................. 280

The Museum as a Source of Corrosion ............................... 280

Plastic and Wood ................................................................. 281

Sulfur ................................................................................... 281

Corrosion from Carbonyl Compounds ................................ 282

Past Treatments ................................................................... 285

Preservation ......................................................................... 286

Corrosion of Metal Artifacts Displayed in Outdoor Environments

L.S. Selwyn, P.R. Roberge ............................................................... 289

Environmental Factors Causing Damage ............................ 289

Corrosion of Common Metals Used Outdoors .................... 293

Preservation Strategies ........................................................ 298

Conservation Strategies for Specic Metals ....................... 299

New Commissions ............................................................... 301

Corrosion of Metal Artifacts in Buried Environments

Lyndsie S. Selwyn ............................................................................ 306

The Burial Environment ...................................................... 306

Corrosion of Metals during Burial ...................................... 309

Corrosion after Excavation .................................................. 314

Specic Corrosion Problems after Excavation ................... 314

Archaeological Conservation .............................................. 315

Conservation Strategies ....................................................... 315

Chemical Cleaning and Cleaning-Related Corrosion of Process Equipment

Bert Moniz, Jack W. Horvath .......................................................... 323

Chemical Cleaning Methods ............................................... 323

Chemical Cleaning Solutions .............................................. 324

Chemical Cleaning Procedures ........................................... 326

On-Line Chemical Cleaning ................................................ 328

Mechanical Cleaning ........................................................... 329

On-Line Mechanical Cleaning ............................................ 330

Corrosion in Specic Industries ....................................................... 331

Introduction to Corrosion in Specic Industries

Hira S. Ahluwalia ............................................................................ 337

Corrosion in the Nuclear Power Industry ........................... 337

Corrosion in Fossil and Alternative Fuel Industries ........... 337

Corrosion in the Land Transportation Industries ................ 337

Corrosion in Commercial Aviation ..................................... 337

Corrosion in the Microelectronics Industry ........................ 338

Corrosion in the Chemical Process Industry ....................... 338

Corrosion in the Pulp and Paper Industry ........................... 338

Corrosion in the Food and Beverage Industry .................... 338

xvii



Corrosion in the Pharmaceutical and Medical Technology

Industries ......................................................................... 338

Corrosion in the Petroleum and Petrochemical Industry .... 338

Corrosion in the Building Industries ................................... 338

Corrosion in the Mining and Metal Processing

Industries ......................................................................... 338

Corrosion in the Nuclear Power Industry

Introduction to Corrosion in the Nuclear Power Industry

Barry M. Gordon ............................................................................. 339

Corrosion in Boiling Water Reactors

F. Peter Ford, Barry M. Gordon, Ronald M. Horn ........................ 341

Background to Problem ....................................................... 341

EAC Analysis ...................................................................... 343

Prediction of EAC in BWRs ............................................... 350

Mitigation of EAC in BWRs ............................................... 354

Summary of Current Situation and Commentary

on the Future .................................................................... 356

Corrosion in Pressurized Water Reactors

Peter M. Scott, Pierre Combrade .................................................... 362

PWR Materials and Water Chemistry Characteristics ........ 362

General Corrosion, Crud Release, and Fouling .................. 363

PWR Primary Side Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................... 367

Irradiation-Assisted Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic

Stainless Steels ................................................................ 375

Steam Generator Secondary Side Corrosion ....................... 375

Intergranular Attack and IGSCC at the Outside Surface .... 377

Corrosion Fatigue ................................................................ 380

External Bolting Corrosion ................................................. 381

Effect of Irradiation on Stress-Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion

in Light Water Reactors

Gary S. Was, Jeremy Busby, Peter L. Andresen ............................. 386

Irradiation Effects on SCC

Gary S. Was, Peter L. Andresen ..................................... 387

Service Experience .............................................. 388

Water Chemistry .................................................. 391

Radiation-Induced Segregation ........................... 393

Microstructure, Radiation Hardening, and

Deformation ..................................................... 398

Radiation Creep and Stress Relaxation ............... 403

Mitigation Strategies

Peter L. Andresen, Gary S. Was ..................................... 404

Water Chemistry MitigationBWRs ................. 404

Water Chemistry MitigationPWR Primary ..... 405

LWR Operating Guidelines ................................. 405

Design Issues and Stress Mitigation ................... 405

New Alloys .......................................................... 405

Irradiation Effects on Corrosion of Zirconium Alloys

Jeremy Busby .................................................................. 406

Corrosion of Zirconium Alloy Components in Light Water Reactors

Clement Lemaignan ......................................................................... 415

Zirconium Alloys ................................................................ 415

Corrosion of Zirconium Alloys in Water without

Irradiation ........................................................................ 416

Heat Flow Conditions .......................................................... 417

Impact of Metallurgical Parameters on Oxidation

Resistance ........................................................................ 417

Hydrogen Pickup and Hydriding ......................................... 417

Oxide Morphology and Integrity ......................................... 418

Effect of Irradiation on Microstructure and Corrosion ....... 418

LWR Coolant Chemistry ..................................................... 419

Corrosion of Fuel Rods in Reactors .................................... 419

Corrosion of Containment Materials for Radioactive-Waste Isolation

Raul B. Rebak, R. Daniel McCright ................................................ 421

Time Considerations ............................................................ 421

Environmental and Materials Considerations ..................... 422

Reducing Environments ...................................................... 422

Oxidizing Environments ...................................................... 425

Corrosion in Fossil and Alternative Fuel Industries

Introduction to Corrosion in Fossil and Alternative Fuel Industries

John Stringer ................................................................................... 438

Fuels .................................................................................... 438

Energy Conversion .............................................................. 438

Efciency ............................................................................. 439

High-Temperature Corrosion in Gasiers

Wate Bakker .................................................................................... 441

Corrosion Mechanism and Laboratory Studies ................... 441

Long-Term Performance of Materials in Service ............... 444

Corrosion in the Condensate-Feedwater System

Barry C. Syrett, Otakar Jonas, Joyce M. Mancini .......................... 447

Corrosion of Condensers

Barry C. Syrett, Otakar Jonas ........................................ 447

Types of Condensers ........................................... 447

Cooling Water Chemistry .................................... 448

Corrosion Mechanisms ........................................ 448

Biofouling Control .............................................. 452

Other Problems .................................................... 452

Corrosion Prevention ........................................... 452

Corrosion of Deaerators

Otakar Jonas, Joyce M. Mancini ................................... 452

Deaerator Designs ............................................... 452

Corrosion Problems and Solutions ...................... 453

Corrosion of Feedwater Heaters

Otakar Jonas, Joyce M. Mancini ................................... 456

Types of Feedwater Heaters ................................ 456

Materials .............................................................. 456

Water and Steam Chemistry ................................ 457

Corrosion Problems ............................................. 457

Corrosion of Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems

W.L. Mathay .................................................................................... 461

Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Technology ..................... 461

FGD Corrosion Problem Areas ........................................... 461

Materials Selection for FGD Components .......................... 462

Future Air Pollution Control Considerations ...................... 463

Corrosion of Steam- and Water-Side of Boilers

Phillip Daniel .................................................................................. 466

Chemistry-Boiler Interactions ............................................. 466

Corrosion Control and Prevention ....................................... 466

Common Fluid-Side Corrosion Problems ........................... 466

Corrosion of Steam Turbines

Otakar Jonas ................................................................................... 469

Steam Turbine Developments ............................................. 469

Major Corrosion Problems in Steam Turbines ................... 469

Turbine Materials ................................................................ 471

Environment ........................................................................ 472

xviii



Design .................................................................................. 473

Solutions to Corrosion Problems ......................................... 474

Monitoring .......................................................................... 474

Further Study ....................................................................... 474

Fireside Corrosion in Coal- and Oil-Fired Boilers

Steven C. Kung ................................................................................ 477

Waterwall Corrosion ........................................................... 477

Fuel Ash Corrosion ............................................................. 478

Prevention of Fireside Corrosion ........................................ 479

High-Temperature Corrosion in Waste-to-Energy Boilers

George Y. Lai .................................................................................. 482

Corrosion Modes ................................................................. 482

Corrosion Protection and Alloy Performance ..................... 483

Corrosion of Industrial Gas Turbines

Henry L. Bernstein, Ronald L. McAlpin .......................................... 486

Corrosion in the Compressor Section ................................. 486

Corrosion in the Combustor and Turbine Sections ............. 487

Components Susceptible to Dew-Point Corrosion

William Cox, Wally Huijbregts, Rene Leferink ............................... 491

Dew Point ............................................................................ 491

Components Susceptible to Attack ..................................... 491

Mitigation of Dew-Point Corrosion .................................... 494

Guidance for Specic Sections of the Plant ........................ 496

Corrosion of Generators

William G. Moore ............................................................................ 497

Retaining-Ring Corrosion ................................................... 497

Crevice-Corrosion Cracking in Water-Cooled

Generators ........................................................................ 497

Corrosion and Erosion of Ash-Handling Systems .............................. 499

Fly Ash Systems .................................................................. 499

Wet Bottom Ash Systems ................................................... 499

Mitigating the Problems ...................................................... 500

The Future ........................................................................... 500

Corrosion in Portable Energy Sources

Chester M. Dacres ........................................................................... 501

Battery Types ...................................................................... 501

Corrosion of Batteries ......................................................... 501

Corrosion of Fuel Cells ....................................................... 502

Corrosion in Fuel Cells

Prabhakar Singh, Zhenguo Yang .................................................... 504

Fuel Cell Types ................................................................... 504

Corrosion Processes in Fuel Cell Systems .......................... 506

Materials and Technology Status ........................................ 511

Corrosion in the Land Transportation Industries

Automotive Body Corrosion

D.L. Jordan, J.L. Tardiff ................................................................ 515

Forms of Corrosion Observed on Automobile Bodies ........ 515

Corrosion-Resistant Sheet Metals ...................................... 516

Paint Systems ....................................................................... 517

Automotive Exhaust System Corrosion

Joseph Douthett ............................................................................... 519

High-Temperature Corrosion .............................................. 520

Cold End Exhaust Corrosion ............................................... 522

Engine Coolants and Coolant System Corrosion

Aleksei V. Gershun, Peter M. Woyciesjes ....................................... 531

Antifreeze History ............................................................... 531

Cooling System Functions ................................................... 531

Corrosion ............................................................................. 533

Engine Coolant Base Components and Inhibitors .............. 535

Engine Coolant Testing ....................................................... 536

Automotive, Light-Duty versus Heavy-Duty

Antifreeze/Coolant .......................................................... 536

Automotive Proving Ground Corrosion Testing

Mats Strom ....................................................................................... 538

When To Use Complete Vehicle Testing ........................... 538

When Complete Vehicle Testing is Less Than

Adequate .......................................................................... 538

Real-World Conditions the Tests are Aimed to

Represent ......................................................................... 538

Elements of a Complete Vehicle Corrosion Test ................ 539

Evaluation of Test Results .................................................. 539

Corrosion of Aluminum Components in the Automotive Industry

Greg Courval ................................................................................... 545

Stress-Induced Corrosion .................................................... 545

Cosmetic Corrosion ............................................................. 545

Crevice Corrosion ................................................................ 545

Galvanic Corrosion .............................................................. 546

Electric Rail Corrosion and Corrosion Control

Stuart Greenberger, Teresa Elliott .................................................. 548

Stray-Current Effects ........................................................... 548

Electric Rail System Design for Corrosion Control ........... 548

Electric Rail Construction Impacts on

Underground Utilities ...................................................... 551

Utility Construction and Funding ........................................ 553

Monitoring and Maintenance for Stray-Current Control .... 556

Corrosion in Bridges and Highways

Jack Tinnea, Lianfang Li, William H. Hartt, Alberto A. Sagues,

Frank Pianca, Bryant Web Chandler ....................................... 559

A Historical Perspective and Current Control Strategies

Jack Tinnea ..................................................................... 559

History ................................................................. 559

Current Corrosion-Control Strategies ................. 560

Terminology ........................................................ 560

Concrete: Implications for Corrosion

Jack Tinnea ..................................................................... 560

Cement Chemistry ............................................... 561

Additives to Concrete .......................................... 563

Aggressive Ions ................................................... 564

pH and Corrosion Inhibition

Lianfang Li ..................................................................... 565

pH of Concrete Pore Water ................................. 565

Chloride Threshold .............................................. 565

Applications ......................................................... 566

Modes of Reinforcement Corrosion

Jack Tinnea ..................................................................... 566

General Corrosion ............................................... 566

Localized Corrosion ............................................ 567

Prestressing Steel

William H. Hartt ............................................................. 569

Types of Prestressed Concrete Construction ....... 569

Categories of Prestressing Steel .......................... 569

Performance of Prestressing Steel in Concrete

Highway Structures ......................................... 569

Posttensioned Grouted Tendons

Alberto A. Sagues ........................................................... 570

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Corrosion Inspection

Jack Tinnea ..................................................................... 571

Corrosion Condition Surveys .............................. 571

Assessment of Concrete Quality and Cover ....... 572

Visual Inspection and Delamination Survey ....... 573

Reinforcement Potentials .................................... 573

Concrete Resistivity ............................................ 573

Chloride and Carbonation Proles ...................... 574

Corrosion Rate Testing and Other Advanced

Techniques ....................................................... 575

Inspection of Steel Elements ............................... 575

Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcement

Jack Tinnea ..................................................................... 575

Approaches to Corrosion Resistance ................... 576

Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement ............................. 576

Stainless Steels and Microcomposite Alloys ...... 578

Galvanized Reinforcement .................................. 580

Performance of Weathering Steel Bridges in North America

Frank Pianca .................................................................. 580

Weathering Steel as a Material ........................... 580

Rate of Corrosion of Weathering Steel ............... 580

Performance of Weathering Steel ....................... 581

Recommendations and Considerations on the

Use of Weathering Steel .................................. 581

Coatings

Bryant Web Chandler .................................................. 582

Barrier Coatings for Steel .................................... 582

Concrete Sealers .................................................. 583

Electrochemical Techniques: Cathodic Protection,

Chloride Extraction, and Realkalization

Jack Tinnea ..................................................................... 583

Cathodic Protection ............................................. 584

Electrochemical Chloride Extraction (ECE)

and Realkalization ........................................... 590

Corrosion in the Air Transportation Industry

Corrosion in Commercial Aviation

Alain Adjorlolo ................................................................................ 598

Corrosion Basics .................................................................. 598

Commonly Observed Forms of Airplane Corrosion ........... 599

Factors Inuencing Airplane Corrosion .............................. 600

Service-Related Factors ....................................................... 605

Assessing Fleet Corrosion History ...................................... 606

Airworthiness, Corrosion, and Maintenance ...................... 607

New Fleet Design: Establishing Rule-Based Corrosion

Management Tools .......................................................... 610

New Airplane Maintenance ................................................. 611

Corrosion in the Microelectronics Industry

Corrosion in Microelectronics

Jianhai Qiu ...................................................................................... 613

Characteristics of Corrosion in Microelectronics ............... 613

Common Sources of Corrosion ........................................... 614

Mechanisms of Corrosion in Microelectronics ................... 616

Corrosion Control and Prevention ....................................... 620

Corrosion Tests .................................................................... 620

Corrosion in Semiconductor Wafer Fabrication

Mercy Thomas, Gary Hanvy, Khuzema Sulemanji ......................... 623

Corrosion During Fabrication ............................................. 623

Corrosion Due to Environmental Effects ............................ 626

Corrosion in the Assembly of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits

A.C. Tan ........................................................................................... 629

Factors Causing Corrosion .................................................. 629

Chip Corrosion .................................................................... 630

Oxidation of Tin and Tin Lead Alloys (Solders) ................ 630

Mechanism of Tarnished Leads (Terminations) ................. 630

Controlling Tarnished Leads at the Assembly .................... 633

Corrosion in Passive Electrical Components

Stan Silvus ....................................................................................... 634

Halide-Induced Corrosion ................................................... 634

Organic-Acid-Induced Corrosion ........................................ 636

Electrochemical Metal Migration (Dendrite Growth) ........ 638

Silver Tarnish ...................................................................... 640

Fretting ................................................................................ 641

Metal Whiskers .................................................................... 641

Corrosion and Related Phenomena in Portable Electronic Assemblies

Puligandla Viswanadham, Sridhar Canumalla .............................. 643

Forms of Corrosion Not Unique to Electro

ASM Volume 13C Corrosion - Industries Index

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Transcript of ASM Volume 13C Corrosion - Industries Index