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Running head: CUEING SYSTEMS AND TEACHING READING

Cueing Systems and Teaching Reading

Ashley Johnson

Grand Valley State University

10 April 2014

Abstract

Cueing Systems and Teaching Reading 1

In today’s society, students must become literate in both traditional print technologies, and in

new digital technologies. These literacies have specific challenges, yet can also provide many

benefits. Reading is a complicated process in which students must be taught to use three cueing

systems simultaneously; in the context of digital literacies, students must still be able to use these

systems in addition to other cues. If a child is unable to use even one of these, reading does not

occur. It is clear that the process of teaching students how to read is changing in today’s society

yet it is just as imperative as ever that they are taught how to do so effectively. Currently, this is

an area of technological innovation; this paper will conclude by evaluating a few technological

resources on their advantages and disadvantages in literacy education.


The pedagogy behind teaching students how to read is a constantly debated topic. In spite

of everyone’s opinions, there is no doubt that learning to read is a complicated process. It is one

in which students must be taught to use three cueing systems simultaneously; if a child is unable

to use even one of these cues, reading does not, in fact, occur. In today’s society, not only must

children learn how to read in traditional print, they also must learn how to function in the context

of digital literacies. With new technology constantly being introduced, students must still be able

to use these systems, in addition to other learned skills. There are many different technological

resources available that can help children to improve their literacy skills; three of these are

analyzed at the end of this paper. It is clear that the process of teaching students how to read is

changing in today’s society yet it is just as imperative as ever that they are taught how to do so

effectively.

Graphic cues are one of several integral parts of children learning how to read; they are

the printed letters and words from the text. In order for students to actually receive the message

from what they are reading, they must be able to understand the print symbols and their various

combinations (Fox, 80). In the English alphabet, every word, sentence, or paragraph is just a

different combination of the same 26 characters; children must be able to recognize, decipher,

and decode them. In her book, Reading Magic, Mem Fox calls this first secret of reading, the

magic of print.

However, graphophonic knowledge is not enough; there are occasions “when readers –

young and old – can see the print and read it phonically yet can’t decipher it enough to make

meaning out of it” (Fox, 84). In these cases, people are able to make the correct sounds from the

print cues but have no idea about what it truly means. This often occurs when people learn to


read a different language for the first time; they are able to “read” (pronounce the words

correctly) but are not able to comprehend the meaning. For instance, students may be able to read

the text that represents the word, “Chicago.” They could sound out the symbols that make up the

word however, they may not have any true comprehension of the word. Clearly, graphic cues

are just one part of the reading process.

Another imperative part of reading is the syntactic cueing system. Syntactic cues are a

reader’s intuition regarding the structure of the language (Melvin, 279). They are entirely

different and separate from graphophonic knowledge yet, they are just as important. Mem Fox

would call this secret of reading, the “magic of language.” People must understand the way the

language works; the more “we know about a language – in our case, the more we know about

how English works – the more of the language we know, the easier it is to read it (Fox, 87). If a

child is unable to understand the way that words link to form sentences, they will not be able to

effectively learn to read. For instance, readers may already be able to sound out the word,

“Chicago,” when using graphophonic cues but syntactic cues can help as well. In knowing how

the English language works, readers will understand that a capital letter at the beginning of a

word indicates the beginning of a sentence, or in this case, a proper noun. This will help them

come to the realization that Chicago is a place. Understanding that, while putting graphophonic

and syntactic cues together, will help to create more comprehension for students.

The best way for children to learn about how the syntactic part of knowledge works is

simply being exposed to it. Children “who haven’t been read to, don’t expect print to make

sense” (Fox, 97). Reading to children will help students to know what to anticipate, regarding

syntax, when they encounter text. However, it is possible that they could understand English and


how it works, as well as understand how print functions, yet not be reading. A child could be

“reading” (pronouncing words correctly and accurately pausing at different punctuation marks)

but still not comprehend the material.

The final cueing system that allows children to actually read is the semantic one.

Semantic cues are the reader’s prior knowledge of words and concepts (Melvin, 279). Mem Fox

refers to this system as the magic of general knowledge; the more information “we know about

life, the easier it is to read” (Fox, 103). Once again, the easiest way to build this information for

children, is to read aloud to them and expose them to a wide variety of experiences. The more we

read aloud to children, the more they will “read by themselves, the more experience they’ll have

in the world through the things they encounter in books. And the more experience they have of

the world, the easier it will be to read” (Fox, 104). Although children learn about the world

vicariously through books, they also increase their amount of semantic knowledge from

experiencing things in real life.

Another important part of these systems is pragmatic knowledge; this is a small part of

the semantic cueing system. Pragmatics is the cultural and social influences from society and in

language. It is most helpful in “interpreting humor, sarcasm, and other social and cultural

linguistic features” (D. Goodman, 14). Once again, if a reader is unaware of these concepts, it

will be incredibly difficult for them to create comprehension from the text; it is an important part

of the background knowledge needed to gain meaning from reading. Using the previous example

of the word, “Chicago,” semantic cues are the missing piece of the puzzle to help readers gain

comprehension. Once students have experienced Chicago in real life or vicariously through

pictures or other books, they will understand that it is a busy city with many tall buildings where


people are always moving. These semantic cues will help to build readers to understand what is

truly occurring in the book by combining the three cueing systems. Semantic cues are the final

system that can work together with the other cueing systems in order to create meaning behind

the act of reading.

As a child is learning to use the cuing systems simultaneously, one of a teacher’s

responsibilities, should be to observe miscues, the errors a child makes when reading. In

analyzing miscues, educators are able to help students improve on the cueing systems in which

they need the most improvement. These simple observations can make all the difference in a

child who is struggling to read; if he or she is able to focus in on the true problem and work on

solving it, the child may be able to overcome his or her reading difficulties. For a child who is

struggling to read, this could be life-changing.

It is possible for readers to support themselves while reading, on just one of the cueing

systems; however, it often results in many miscues when reading. This should be apparent to

their teachers by the type of miscues they are making. For instance, students who are using

graphophonic cues may make miscues that look or sound similar to the actual words in the text

(Wohlwend, 111). They are concentrating on the print and text and ignoring their own semantic

or syntactic background information. By focusing on the symbols so much, they may mistake

them for a different word and pronounce it aloud, resulting in a miscue. If a reader is using only

syntactic cues when reading, they may make substitution, omission, or insertion miscues that

would fit in a conventional word order; it is also likely that they would substitute the same part

of speech (verb for a different verb) or even substitute words that fit the child’s developing

understanding of rules for language and grammar (for example, goed for went) (Wohlwend,


111). When a reader focuses on the syntax so much, they are not able to incorporate the other

cueing systems. There are also some signs that a reader is using semantic cues. Students may

make substitutions, omissions, or insertion miscues that still preserve the sense of the sentence;

they may also self-correct miscues that do not make sense. (Wohlwend, 111). For these miscues,

students focus on their background knowledge and use that information incorrectly. It is

imperative that teachers are able to help their students to know what category their miscues are

falling under, in order to continue to grow as a reader.

The progression in miscues in developing readers can be a useful tool in discovering the

best way to teach as well. There have been several studies done, analyzing miscues that occur in

developing readers. One study employed running records of 30 first grade, at-risk emergent

readers to analyze the types of cues used when reading. After much investigation, researchers

found that these students tended to use semantic and syntactic cues when they were challenged

by the reading (Kelly & Klein, 1). This study found that students “draw upon their knowledge of

the world and their familiarity with language structure when they approach the initial task of

learning how to read” (Kelly & Klein, 5). As students grow as readers, they seem to continue to

use their prior knowledge of meaning and structure in addition to their use of graphic cues.

Another study discussed a university sponsored program for 8- to 13-year olds in which they

worked on developing students as readers. Examples of dialogue and growth are mentioned in

the article, however the main goal was to teach students strategies for faster and more accurate

word pronunciation. One student worked to become more flexible in using all cueing systems

instead of simply graphophonic information, as he was previously doing. While working with

students, the teachers used traditional books as a way to build student’s semantic and syntactic


knowledge (Fielding, 392). Their goal was to keep the focus on meaning and enjoyment of the

books while helping children to balance their use of the cueing systems.

When the graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic systems work together, productive

reading is able to occur; they work together to help readers to create comprehension. When the

systems work separately, “they function badly. Reading is a grand guessing game, and if one of

the secrets of reading fails to help us ‘guess’ or read correctly, the other two kick in to help us

along (Fox, 109). For instance, if a roommate with barely legible handwriting leaves a note on

the kitchen counter that says: “I’ll miss you; have a grout weekend!” we may not be able to

decipher the print. However, our general knowledge helps us to realize that it has to be a ‘great’

weekend because we know that ‘grout weekend’ does not make much sense. When we read, we

do not actually have to read every word; many are unimportant and can be skimmed through. For

example, new drivers may attempt to read a sign as they drive by but as other cars drive past,

some of the words are blocked. Although they can only read “Be … Roads … slippery,” that is

enough to understand the general meaning. They could also use syntactic and semantic

knowledge to fill in the sentence in their head to read “Be careful, Roads may be slippery.”

When the unimportant words are left out, readers are sometimes still able to make sense of a

piece of writing by using other cueing systems to fill in the blanks.

Clearly, reading is not just a visual process; readers see the print while also using their

prior knowledge to make sense of the text. As children read, they anticipate the structure of

language as well as the flow of words. Primarily, readers must use their knowledge of the

language in order to actually read. When reading, people “read some words, predict

(subconsciously) what will come next, then read just enough to test the prediction” (Melvin,


278). If their anticipation is correct, the reader will proceed through the text. Reading is an

activity in which prediction is extremely important. When the flow is interrupted by an

incorrectly guessed meaning of a misread word, the reader must stop and carefully confirm or

deny the correct meaning. In predicting unknown words, the semantic cueing system allows

readers to use their prior knowledge as context (Wheat & Demond, 2). Another way to use the

tool of prediction is in the structure of the print. Readers that use the syntactic cueing system are

able to take his or her knowledge of oral language and use it in reading printed materials (Wheat

& Demond, 2). Proficient readers will use semantic and syntactic cues, however they will also

use some graphic cues. The “more control the learner has of his oral language and the greater his

background of experiences, the less visual information he needs to gain meaning from the text”

(Wheat & Demond, 3). As students begin to read, they often focus most of their efforts on

studying graphic cues. As they continue to develop their literacy skills however, they will need

fewer graphophonic cues. They will develop more and more syntactic and semantic

understanding as they continue learning to read; this knowledge will help immensely in reading

effectively. All systems are necessary for reading, but as students grow as readers, they will

increase the amount of non-visual information (semantic and syntactic cues) while decreasing the

visual input (graphophonic cueing system).

Teachers should help students to incorporate the three cueing systems immediately when

starting the learning process. “Students should integrate cueing systems and strategies from the

beginning… to ensure a smoother, faster transition to independent reading” (Lusche, 13). If

teachers are aware of a cue that is not being used by a student, it is their responsibility to help

them learn to use it more frequently. When children do not learn to read, “It’s often due to too


great a focus on one of the secrets of reading to the exclusion of the others” (Fox, 109). Using

the cueing systems simultaneously and immediately when beginning to read is imperative for

developing readers.

The purpose in reading is, very simply, to gain meaning. In using the cueing systems,

children are able to make language into a meaning-seeking process (K. Goodman, 458). This is

often created, when students are first beginning to read, by reading graphic cues. However, as the

reader becomes more advanced, his or her prior knowledge of grammar, make it possible to

predict the syntax while also creating an expectation for the semantic meaning (K. Goodman,

459). While learning how to read, readers are able to develop “strategies for picking out the most

productive cues before he encounters them” (K. Goodman, 459). Although children begin to read

by using the graphophonic cueing system, they learn to use the syntactic and semantic systems

more effectively as they develop at readers. Clearly all three cueing systems are imperative to

actually reading.

However, in today’s society, according to a survey from 2012, adolescent literacy,

comprehension, and new literacies/digital literacies were three of the eight most critical literacy

topics (Cassidy & Loveless, 16). There were 25 qualified people from all over the United States

who discussed 27 separate topics and their relative importance for today’s literacy professionals;

each of the topics was then assigned as either “hot” or “not hot” (Cassidy & Loveless, 16).

Adolescent literacy and the need for comprehension have been topics of great discussion for

many years. However, new literacies/digital literacies is a newer “hot” topic and one that is

affecting the way students learn to read. In today’s society, students are growing up in a world


where they are constantly inundated with technology; this can change the way they learn to read

and function as readers.

One of the biggest changes with new literacies is the idea that texts have changed from

graphemes being the primary source of meaning to digital technologies in which combinations of

sound, print and images work together to create meaning (Hassett & Schieble, 62-63). Because

of these changes, students must be taught a new way to read, write, interpret and interact with

these literacies. The three cueing systems are used in creating comprehension, however, there is

more to think about and navigate through in digital literacies. These new combinations of words

sounds, and illustrations working together can help students to grow as readers; however, they

can also be more challenging at times. Although students are encountering new forms of literacy

every day, “literacy instruction is currently dominated by traditional texts in schools” (Hassett &

Schieble, 67). It is imperative that students are directly taught how to find comprehension in a

world that has constantly changing and evolving technology.

This change in society is demonstrated in the fact that 47.9% of all 12- to 17-year-olds in

the United States have access to the internet at home (Schmar-Dobler, 80). To be considered

literate in today’s world, students must know how to read and write in print, but also in the

digital realm. The skills that students use while reading print must crossover and converge with

the skills used for technology. For instance, readers of print use a set of comprehension strategies

that include skills from the three cueing systems; readers of print must draw inferences,

synthesize, determine important ideas, repair comprehension, monitor comprehension, activate

prior knowledge, and ask questions (Schmar-Dobler, 82). In addition to those skills, readers must

also be able to navigate by locating information while also making meaning from the text.


Readers must know how to navigate the internet through “their use of prior knowledge about the

topic and the structure of the text,” similar to the semantic and syntactic cues previously

mentioned (Schmar-Dobler, 85). Future teachers must help their students to take their knowledge

of reading cues from print and apply that to their use of technology. It is their job, to include

technology as a part of their literacy education in today’s world.

In science programs especially, expository or informational texts can be difficult for

students to comprehend. When transitioning into reading more informational texts, teachers can

include multimedia resources as a way to engage students and scaffold their learning

(Montelongo & Herter, 89). Many educators believe that “the time has come to take technology

more seriously as a component of middle-school literacy curriculum and pedagogy”

(Montelongo & Herter, 95). It is clear that technology can be used as a tool to help students to

comprehend texts.

In spite of technology being a huge advantage, it can also add some challenges to a

classroom. Lillian M. Martin writes about some of these in her classroom. For instance, she

discovered time being wasted searching for appropriate information that was difficult to find,

many students misbehaving with off-task behavior, very little note taking and discussion, and

information that was too difficult to read (Martin, 736). However, there are many ways to

combat these difficulties. For instance, Martin uses prereading and post reading, in her

classroom, as ways to discover more information about a specific topic. Also, she encourages

teachers to create a simple plan and set bookmarks for students to work in small groups and

make classmates accountable to each other (Martin, 737). Students will need to be guided

through their use of technology but it allows each student to "make connections with the print,


work[s] cooperatively, communicate[s] with his class, and reflect[s] on how the computer aids

his learning" (Martin, 737). Although technology can be a distraction, the benefits to using it in a

classroom largely outweigh the possible negative effects.

Technological Literacy Tool Research

One technological resource that could be used in order to assist in teaching reading is

Electronic books, or E-books; there are many different websites, applications, and handheld

devices that offer these tools. In my research however, I have evaluated three different services

in order to understand how traditional print and new digital technologies can work together to aid

in children reading. E-books are perfect examples of how combinations of sound, print, and

images work together to create meaning; they are an entertaining way to keep students’ attention

while also providing an educational opportunity.

TumbleBooks Research

The first online resource that I analyzed is TumbleBooks. It is the most extensive of the

three that I evaluated; TumbleBooks are animated, talking picture books. This website takes

picture books that already exist, add animation, sound, music and narration to create an

electronic picture book. In order to gain access to TumbleBooks, one must have a paid, 12 month

subscription; it costs $599 per year for each school or library branch. TumbleBooks also offers a

free 30 day trial period if one wants to check out the product before investing for an entire year.

TumbleBooks, however, is only available for schools and libraries (no individuals or

homeschoolers).

TumbleBooks can be accessed online from every computer in the school or library with

internet connection or from home with a direct link on the school or library website.


TumbleBooks requires the latest Flash plugin if using a Windows computer; however, it is also

available on iPads, iPhones and tablets. I am able to access TumbleBooks for free through my

public library’s website. It is possible to change the language of TumbleBooks to English,

Spanish, or French.

There are 540 different titles available through TumbleBooks as of 2013. Also, there is

no limit as to how many students that can access the collection at the same time or the number of

times they can view each title. There are many different sections of TumbleBooks (seen on the

homepage in figure one). One of the biggest areas of the website is the story books; they are the

animated, talking picture

books, the biggest draw

of the resource. These

books are ones that have

been published in print

and are now animated for

this website. Users are able to have ability to automatically or manually turn the pages. They are

also able to choose whether or not the website reads aloud. When reading aloud, the sentence

that is being read is highlighted. Chapter books are another option that can be used on

TumbleBooks; the target age for this section is older than the story books. There are no

animations but the E-books still have the option of being narrated. They also have a chapter

menu so that students are able to jump to a specific chapter; it is possible to make bookmarks and

notes in this part of the website as well. Users are able to change the color of the background and

text, as well as the font style, size, and line spacing. In the chapter books, readers are able to

Figure 1: TumbleBooks Homepage


choose automatic or manual page turning and narration or silence. There is a much smaller

selection of chapter books than the story books. There are nonfiction books available with the

same options as well; the subjects vary from health to astronomy to biology.

By each book selection, there is a list of the suggested grade, lexile, and accelerated

reader level. There is also a tumbletime listed; this is the duration of time that it will take to read

the book when set to read and play automatically. There is a link to learn more about the author

or illustrator as well. When a student has completed his or her book, there is a reading

comprehension skills test that he or she can take. There are also audioquizzes available that could

be done as a whole-class activity. There is an opportunity for users to write a book report, as well

as many lesson plans available. There are many activities that could be done in conjunction with

reading an E-book to further educate a child.

The Playlist tool allows users to listen to pre-loaded playlists of several books. They

combine books with similar themes, reading levels, or authors and can be up to twenty-five

minutes of entertainment. It is also possible to create an original playlist of several books to play

consecutively. The favorites section is also very easily accessible. Under each book, there is a

button that says “add to favorites.” If a user clicks on that button, the book will be added to his or

her favorite list.

TumbleBooks is not just based upon the E-books; it is an extensive website that contains

many other features. There are puzzles and games available. These are educational tools that

relate to the stories that are available through TumbleBooks. There is a language learning section

that includes books in Spanish, French, Russian, and Chinese. There are National Geographic

videos (2-5 minutes long) on various topics that can be paired with an E-book to introduce a


topic. It is possible that users can download their own E-book or create their own E-card to send

as well.


Although it is clear that TumbleBooks is an extensive website with many different

sections, the real question is whether or not the resource actually helps students to develop their

literacy skills. Graphophonically, the print is not difficult to read, as seen in figure two. All of the

story books have

text that is large

enough to read; the

size is not

adjustable, however,

all of the story

books that I viewed, had text that is of adequate quality. I found the same to be true in the

nonfiction books; the text is not adjustable, however, I had no trouble reading it. In the chapter

book section, it is possible to change the size, font, color, and spacing of the text. It makes it

incredibly user friendly and graphically easy to read. It is also helpful that the text that is being

read is highlighted, as shown in figure three; this helps with readers who are still learning to

decode. If the narrator reads

a sentence, the reader is

easily able to follow along

and see the symbols that

represent the audible voice.

Ultimately, matching up the

narrator with the text will help readers to decode the words more easily. Syntactically, hearing

the narration will also help students to understand how sentences form paragraphs. The

Figure 2: Graphemes in TumbleBooks (One Duck Stuck)

Figure 3: Syntax in TumbleBooks (Duck! Rabbit!)


highlighted sentences aid in gaining syntactic knowledge as well. TumbleBooks seems to have

the same standards in each of the sections on their website regarding the syntactic cueing

systems. Semantically, the animations in the story books and nonfiction books help to create

meaning. When the illustrations move, they draw attention to themselves. This reminds readers

to look at them and allow them to help create comprehension. They are not able to create much

background knowledge for readers much beyond that of what a traditional print book could do.

However, they do remind the reader to pay attention and use semantic knowledge for clues as to

the meaning. It is clear that this resource would help students to engage in each of the cueing

systems, improving their literacy skills.

Bookflix Research

Another electronic resource that could plausibly assist in students’ development of

literacy skills is BookFlix. This website pairs a fiction book with a nonfiction book for students’

viewing pleasure. There are nine different categories under which a pair can fall from family and

community to imagination. There are over 400 titles available. This resource is provided to local

libraries by the state through MeL (Michigan eLibrary) but the pricing varies on the size of the

library. These are titles that have been published in print and are now available online as well.

There is no installation of this website required; however, Flash version 9.x or higher is

necessary.


From the home page (shown in

figure four), users are able to choose a

category and then the book pairs are

listed in alphabetical order by story title.

In each pair, there is a fiction book in

which users can “Watch the Story.”

There is also a related nonfiction book

for users to “Read the Book.” As seen in

figure five, the pair of related books work together for users. The fiction story allows children to

view an animated storybook from Weston Woods (part of Scholastic). Students are able to

choose the read along option if they would

like the words to appear on the bottom of

the video (similarly to closed captions).

Otherwise, students simply listen as a

narrator speaks while the video plays. In

the related nonfiction book, students are

able to read an E-book similar to

traditional print. This text has a read along

function (or that can be turned off for students to read to themselves) as the word that is being

read is highlighted. Also, key vocabulary words are highlighted in yellow and users can hover

the mouse over the word in order to display the definition. If the student clicks on the definition,

the narrator will read that as well. Users must click to turn the page and continue the narration.

Figure 4: BookFlix Homepage

Figure 5: Pairs of related books on BookFlix


There are some Spanish versions available in both the fiction and nonfiction books. There is a

button that children can click on under each pair to learn more about the author, as well as lesson

plan ideas along with the curriculum correlations for teachers or parents. Finally, there are links

to other websites where students could learn more about these topics.

Along with each pair, there are educational games called “Puzzlers.” “Word match” is a

game that asks students to match a definition to the correct vocabulary word. “Fact or Fiction”

asks students to identify statements as either fact or fiction. “Which came first” asks students

about the sequence of events from the fictional book. Although there are only these three options

for games, it allows students to know how the games work without having to learn new rules

each time. They are simple enough to operate for even young children. It is a much smaller

selection than the ones available through TumbleBooks yet they are effective in engraining the

learning done by users.

Graphophonically, the text from

BookFlix is large enough to read without

any trouble, as referenced in figure six.

Most of the books from this resource are

smaller than those from TumbleBooks.

However, BookFlix allows users to toggle

to full-screen mode; this fills the entire

screen with the book and enlarges the words exponentially. Other than that, there is no way to

change the way the text appears. BookFlix also highlights each individual word as it is read; this

helps readers with the decoding and being able to connect how the audible word looks in print

Figure 6: Graphemes in BookFlix (Bark, George)


form. This focus on one word at a time would help students to visualize each individual word in

the text when they hear it aloud. In the fiction videos, when the read along option is turned off, as

seen in figure seven, users are able to listen to the

video; however, there are no words to read. This is

not helpful for students’ graphophonic awareness. In

order to build on this knowledge, there must be print

to read. Syntactically, each individual word is

highlighted on BookFlix; when only one word at a

time is highlighted, it does not help students to be

able to see the entire sentence. However,

simply hearing the words read aloud will help readers to better understand how the English

language works. Semantically, the pairing of books helps to create a better understanding of the

topic. The fictional book works to pull in the reader and create interest and the nonfiction book

draws on that with true information. The pairing of the books is a wonderful tool to help readers

build on their semantic cueing system. The animations in the fictional stories will also help to

entertain readers and remind them to use the illustrations as cues when reading. Also, by viewing

nonfiction books, students are learning about the real world vicariously and gaining more

awareness of the world around them. Finally, the puzzles that link to each pairing can help to

engrain the knowledge into their minds. This information can be building blocks for other books

to continue to gain semantic knowledge. BookFlix is easy to navigate. It has fewer sections than

TumbleBooks and is simpler for users to explore. It also provides many ideas for lesson plans,

connections to the curriculum standards, and information about the author. Clearly, BookFlix is

Figure 7: No graphemes when read along option turned off in BookFlix (Diary of a Fly)


another resource that is similar to traditional print books in some ways yet also has obvious

advantages to it for increasing literacy skills.

Read Me Stories Research

Read Me Stories is another resource in which children can explore and increase their

digital literacies skills. This is an app for iOS (4.0 or later) and Android (minimum operating

system of 2.2). This resource begins with a homepage that encourages the reader to choose a

series of books. There are eight different series available. Once he or she does so, there is one

free sample book from each series. After that, the user must pay $1.99 for the other books in the

series. The number of books in the series vary from four to twenty-nine; however, it is $1.99 for

the rest of the series no matter the number of books. These books are not ones that are published

in traditional text. This may be beneficial for readers who want something different; however, it

also means that the story has not had to go through many extensive steps in order to be

published.

Once students select a series, they are prompted to press a button to indicate whether they

want to listen to the book being read or read the book by themselves. In the read aloud option,

the app narrates the text and each individual word is highlighted as it is read. After each “page”

is read, there is sometimes an option to click on a character in the story. When this occurs, there

is a small amount of text that usually explains what the character is thinking. After all of the

information has been read, the user must press the arrow button to move to the next screen. In the

read aloud option, there is no way to stop the narration until it has finished reading the entire

page. It is usually not a large amount of text; however, there is no way to simply pause the

narration in the middle of a scene. If a reader is reading the book to themselves, they still must


press the arrows in order to move the story to the next screen. The illustrations in this app are

cartoon-like drawings but they are not animated. At the end of the story, it usually leaves the

reader on a cliff-hanger ending in order to market the next book. It actually tells the reader that it

has a new book for them and to “go get mommy or daddy to help you.” This app is very

obviously geared towards very young children.

Although this app is much simpler than the two previous websites, its easy accessibility makes it

a useful resource. Graphophonically, this app highlights individual words as they are being read,

helping the reading to increase their knowledge of the text. Similarly to the previous resources,

hearing the narrator read the words helps to decode

the text and understand what word the symbols

represent. The text is much smaller (as seen in figure

eight) since it is on a smaller device which may make

the graphemes more difficult for some users,

especially early readers. Syntactically, the individual word highlighting, referenced in figure

nine, once again, does not help readers to

identify the whole sentence. However, the

option of narration helps readers to hear how

the English language forms sentences. There

are many silly voices that draw readers in and

help to improve their syntactic knowledge.

Semantically, the bright illustrations remind readers to pay attention and use them for clues in

Figure 8: Graphemes in Read Me Stories (The Lion and the Mouse)

Figure 9: Syntax in Read Me Stories (Hullabaloo Down at the Zoo)


order to create meaning. If the user is reading by

themselves and meaning breaks down

graphophonically or syntactically, the illustrations may

help them to create comprehension. However, there is

no nonfiction or true information of any kind attached

to this app. Also, when the reader is able to click on a character (when there is a purple ring

around them) visible in figure ten, they may gain some insight into how the character is feeling

or what they are thinking; this may help to build some semantic knowledge. Because of the few

options available, this app would be easy for even very young children to navigate.

Quantitative Data Analysis

After analyzing these different resources, it is clear that each has its own advantages and

disadvantages. However, I wanted to create some kind of quantitative way to evaluate them. I

created a system in which each resource, in addition to traditional print books, is assessed in

several different categories. Each literacy resource is assigned a number (one through four)

representing its rank in the category. For instance, if one resource is very clearly the winner of

the specific category, it receives a four; therefore, the resource that has the least quality in a

specific category receives a one. This quantitative data can be viewed in Appendix A. A short

explanation of each category, along with the requirements for a high score for each can be seen

in Appendix B.

Graphophonically, TumbleBooks was the clear winner; it received a four. The story

books are of good size, including the print, but the chapter books have many different options

when it comes to the text formatting. This appeals to readers and helps them to decode the

Figure 10: Semantics in Read Me Stories (Tuffy the Pony)


symbols more easily if the text is readable. Print books received second place in this category;

regarding the print, books are published using symbols that are big enough to read. They are not

able to be changed by the click of a button, however, they are evident and of decent size.

BookFlix is the next resource in this category, which received two points. The text is a good size,

however, in the fictional stories, it is possible to completely turn the text off. In the read aloud

option, users are able to simply watch the video and listen to the story; there is no text visible at

all. Finally, Read Me Stories received one point in the graphophonic category. The text is

incredibly small; it is all contained to a small phone screen. It is readable but may be difficult for

beginning readers.

In evaluating the winner for the syntactic cueing system, TumbleBooks won once again.

All of the electronic resources have the option to narrate the story; that helps readers to grow

syntactically if they are able to hear the way the language sounds. However, TumbleBooks

received the highest score in this category because it reads the page aloud while also highlighting

the entire sentence. It is important that students hear the way individual words sound. Yet, seeing

the entire sentence at once helps to build the knowledge of how sentences are formed even more.

Both Bookflix and Read Me Stories have the option of a narrator but highlight individual words

as they are read. This earned both of these technological resources a score of two (in a tie) for the

syntactical cueing system category. Finally, traditional print books came in last place in helping

to build syntactic knowledge. Although print can be read aloud, it does not have an automatic

button that will do so for the user. The reader must find someone to read to them if they want to

hear how the sentences are formed and better understand how the English language sounds.


In the semantic cueing system category, Bookflix was the winner. The pairing of a

fictional story with a nonfiction book helped this resource to receive the highest score. In the

fictional story, the animations draw the reader in and entertain them while reminding them to use

the illustrations as clues to create meaning. Bookflix also allows readers to view nonfiction

books; this helps them to gain important knowledge about the world around them. The books

working together on Bookflix, along with the puzzler games helping with comprehension made it

the clear winner. The next highest score semantically was TumbleBooks. The illustrations are

animated in this resource, helping to remind readers to use them to gain comprehension. Next,

Read Me Stories, has illustrations: they are cartoonish in nature with bright colors that will draw

readers attention to them, yet they are not animated. This app does however allow users to click

on characters occasionally in the story in order to gain some insight into what they may be

thinking. This will help readers to gain some knowledge about their inner thoughts and may

assist in building comprehension. Finally, traditional print books are able to create some meaning

for readers from illustrations or true information. They do not have animated illustrations but

readers are able to use the pictures to gain comprehension when meaning breaks down.

In looking at the ease of navigation, print books received the most points for the category.

Traditional books are clearly the easiest to traverse. Readers are able to open the cover and read

the book from left to right by turning the pages; there are no buttons to click or different

webpages to travel through. Read Me Stories received the next highest score for ease of

navigation. Because this app is only available through iOS and Android on a phone system, it is

the simplest of the technological resources. Users start out on a home page where they are able to

select a book; without buying more options, there are only a few selections. The reader is able to


navigate the E-book by clicking on the arrow button and arriving at the next scene. There are not

many extra pages that users are able to access; it is a very simple app. Bookflix is the resource

that received a two in the ease of navigation category. Both Bookflix and TumbleBooks are

much more complicated than traditional print books and Read Me Stories. Bookflix has many

more books to choose from, as well as, different games, resources, and lesson plans. Even the

books themselves, have many different options that can be changed from the narration to the text

size. Finally, TumbleBooks has even more buttons to click, different pages to explore, and

options to change. As the websites contain more resources, they are more difficult to explore.

Since TumbleBooks is the most extensive website with the most resources available, it is also the

most difficult to navigate.

Accessibility is another huge factor that should be taken into consideration when

analyzing these literacy tools. The winner of this category is the app that is available for iOS and

Android, Read Me Stories. Most people in today’s society, have a phone that readers could use

in order to access this app. However, if their phone is not an iOS or Android, Read Me Stories is

not downloadable. This was still the winner in this category however because of the size needed

in order to use Read Me Stories. The amount of physical space that a phone demands, is very

small. A phone can fit into a woman’s purse or a man’s pocket; if the user (or the user’s parents)

own an iOS or Android phone, the accessibility is incredibly easy. Print books is the runner-up in

the category of accessibility. Generally, traditional books take up a fairly small space. They too

can sometimes be carried in a woman’s purse, in a backpack, or another bag; they are easy for

children to carry. There are no requirements to download the books; people are simply able to

carry them where they go. Finally, both TumbleBooks and Bookflix tied for last in the category


of accessibility. Both of these resources must be accessed on a computer with internet access; it

is possible to use either a laptop. Still, this would take up much more space than traditional

books. This was a difficult category to analyze qualitatively. However, according to space

accessibility, TumbleBooks and Bookflix do not receive high numbers.

Not only is accessibility an important aspect of these resources, but price is another factor

that should be considered. Traditional books are the winner in this category; generally, the price

range can be anywhere from five dollars up to around thirty; however, picture books generally

cost fewer than thirty dollars. It is also possible to visit a local library and have access to

thousands of books for free. Read Me Stories received the next highest amount of points for

price. There are a few stories that can be read for free; yet, to buy the rest of the E-books, it is

only $1.99 for the rest of the series. This is less than the cost of most traditional books, however

Read Me Stories requires a phone in order to upload it. The cost of a smart phone that is able to

access this app can vary widely; for instance, this can depend on the type of phone to how new it

is. In almost all circumstances, an iOS or Android phone will cost more than a print book.

Bookflix had the next ranking for the price category. This resource is provided to local libraries

by the state through MeL (Michigan eLibrary). The pricing varies depending on the size of the

library. Bookflix is a subscription-based resource for schools and libraries only; it is not possible

to purchase as an individual. TumbleBooks also is only available through schools and libraries. It

received the lowest points in this category because of its price of $599 per year. In using both

Bookflix and TumbleBooks, readers may be able to use it free because of their local library or

school. However, they would still need a computer to access the website. These, once again, may


be used through the library or school but if the reader is using their own computer, the cost

exceeds that of a phone or print book.

Pedagogical value is the last category in which I analyzed these resources. Bookflix

received the most points. The lesson plans and resources were the most extensive provided of the

literacy tools I analyzed. TumbleBooks received the next highest amount of points in the

pedagogical value category. TumbleBooks also has an extensive amount of lesson plans and

resources available. However, Bookflix’s pairing of fiction with nonfiction books helped to

narrowly win the category. Both Bookflix and Tumblebooks have books that could be played for

an entire class if technology allows in the classroom. Traditional print books are the next best in

this category; they could easily be read aloud by students. Teachers could research or come up

with their own lesson plan ideas based on the book; however, there are no ideas attached to the

book in any way that could be used for teaching. Finally, Read Me Stories, has very little

pedagogical value. It is not a resource that could be used to read aloud in the classroom; the

screen is too small for that. It also does not have any ideas for lessons as a part of the app.

In the end, traditional print books received the highest total score of 18 when I analyzed

these literacy tools quantitatively. Tumblebooks and Bookflix tied with scores of 17 and Read

Me Stories received 16. All of the scores are very close in proximity and demonstrate the fact

that all of these resources can be helpful in different ways. At first glance, the technological

resources seem like much better tools to help children in reading, but after taking into

consideration ease of navigation, accessibility and price, it is clear that they are not always the

best tool for the situation. As a future teacher, I would recommend each of these resources in

different situations. The lesson plans and extra resources attached to TumbleBooks and Bookflix


could be extremely helpful. Read Me Stories may be a useful app to have for parents of my

future students. However, a traditional print book is able to help develop the same reading skills

for a much lower price and greater ease of navigation and accessibility. It is true that traditional

print books are not as showy as the electronic resources however, they are still helpful in

developing readers.

Clearly, in any kind of text, graphophonic, syntactic and semantic cues work together to

create comprehension. Although there are many different technological resources available to

help improve these skills in today’s society, traditional print books are often just as useful.

Ultimately, any exposure that students have to reading will help to improve children’s literacy.

However, it is imperative that children are taught at an early age how to use the three cueing

systems simultaneously in any type of text; they are the future generation and must be prepared

to function in a society that uses both print and digital literacies.


Appendix A

TumbleBooks BookFlix Read Me Stories Traditional Print Books

Graphophonic cues 4 2 1 3

Syntactic cues 4 2 2 1

Semantic cues 3 4 2 1

Ease of navigation 1 2 3 4

Accessibility 1 1 4 3

Price 1 2 3 4

Pedagogical value 3 4 1 2

Total 17 17 16 18


Appendix B

Explanation of qualitative analysis: Each literacy resource is assigned a number (one through four) representing its rank in the category. The resource with the most points has the highest quality in that category. For instance, if one resource is very clearly the winner of the specific category, it receives a four; therefore, the resource that has the least quality in a specific category receives a one. The best resources receive higher points and vice versa. Each category is listed below with the requirements that would earn a high score.

Graphophonic cues (printed letters and words in the text): A high rating requires large text, print that is easy to read, and/or possible to change text size.

Syntactic cues (structure of the language): A high rating requires an optional narrator and/or highlighting each sentence as it is read.

Semantic cues (prior knowledge of words and concepts): A high rating requires ability to build on prior knowledge, engaging illustrations, and/or related educational games.

Ease of navigation: A high rating requires a simple resource that is easy for readers to use.

Accessibility: A high rating requires convenience of the electronic device that the resource requires and/or having a small physical space demand.

Price: A high rating requires a low cost and/or accessibility for an individual.

Pedagogical value: A high rating requires many resources (outside links), ideas for lesson plans, and/or overall helpfulness for teachers.


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