AS Media Studies

Key Concepts

INSTITUTIONOVERVIEW

This question asks you to reflect on who produced and financed the text, how they have influenced the content, as well as the powers of external agencies (e.g. regulatory bodies).

KEY TERMS

ALVARADOS SEVEN FEATURESManuel Alvarado lists seven features that shape media institutions:

Finance

Production Practices

Technology

Legislations

Circulation

Audience construction

Audience useIDEOLOGY

Does the institution have a clear ideology (ideas or beliefs) that could have influenced the way the product has been constructed?

The most obvious form of ideology is political bias. The production may have a left-wing (or liberal) bias, where they may support pro-community ideas, the welfare state, pro-immigration attitudes and a belief in reform and social justice.

Or the production may have an obvious right wing (or conservative) bias, where they support traditional values such as marriage and the family unit, support free-trade and big business as well as have a tough stance on law and order. Remember, due to corporate takeovers, sometimes a large company (or parent company) may own a subsidiary that reflects a different ideological perspective. Sometimes the parent company puts on pressure to make ideological changes or sometimes it leaves the company alone, meaning that we cannot always expect a consistent ideology to be expressed.SYNERGY

This is where different bodies of a corporation work together for their advantage. For example, Sky sells its Sky+ box as part of a package with the Sky TV channels, which also advertise the box. Synergy can also be more subtle, however. Rupert Murdochs News Corp. owns 20th Century Fox, Harper Collins and The Times newspaper. When Fox releases a new film, Harper Collins may publish the book of the film and the newspaper may advertise the production or give it a good write-up in its review section.BRAND IMAGE The producer may have a specific brand image that it wants to maintain (e.g. Disney would avoid putting its name on any product that was not family orientated). If the text upholds the institutions core values then it will proudly display its association through the use of a logo or ident. Certain institutions also pride themselves on their high production values (e.g. Americas HBO), whereas some makers of low-budget horror have famously low production values (e.g. Troma films) Some institutions pride themselves on their size. However, large commercial media productions are often criticised for putting the priority on making money, rather than making a good product. Smaller independent institutions, on the other hand, are often congratulated on making original productions, as they are often more willing to take a risk.FINANCE Institutions can be funded in a number of ways, especially in television, where we have: Commercial television, where the content is funded by advertisers and commercial breaks; commercial sponsorship (where a company puts its name to a particular programme); or, increasingly (due to a fall in revenue from commercial advertisement), product placement, where the product is advertised within the programme itself (e.g. seeing a character drink a certain branded beverage). Public Service Broadcasters, like the BBC, are funded through public donations or obligatory charges (like the BBC, who is funded through the UKs licence fee) Subscription channels, like Sky Sports or Americas HBO, are paid for by a monthly fee. A shows ratings (viewing figures) also has influence (see below). The method of finance can affect the programmes content. The BBC has access to a relatively secure budget, which allows them to invest in high-quality dramas with high production values. Commercial institutions tend to take fewer risks, because they have to secure high-viewing figures in order to reap good revenue from advertisers. Subscription packages can take more risks, because they do not have to bend to commercial pressures in the same way. They have to chase subscribers rather than viewers.REGULATORY BODIES

There are numerous bodies which have powers relating to the media. Here is a run-down of some of the main ones: OfCom (the Office of Communications) are responsible for regulating the broadcast industry. If you look at their Broadcasting Code you will see a variety of rules and regulations that television programme makers have to abide by. Most of the main television channels, for example, have a remit as a Public Service Broadcaster (PBS). This means that they have to perform certain duties, such as informing and educating the public and catering for children, that other channels (such as QVC) dont have to. The BBFC (the British Board of Film Classification) give a rating for every UK film release (E, U, PG, 12, 15, 18). Sometimes film makers will make editorial choices to alter the rating and therefore ensure that they are reaching their target audience. In some rare cases, such as Bruno (2009), the makers will release two versions with two different ratings, so that a larger audience will be catered for. The BBC has to abide by the decisions of the BBC Trust who can give directions as to the content of BBC productions. If you read the BBC Charter, you will see that they have specific duties to represent Britain in a very particular way, for instance, avoiding harmful stereotypes.

REPRESENTATIONOVERVIEW

This question will ask you to consider how specific people, groups, events, places or concepts have been represented; the editorial choices made (whats been included and whats been left out); the reliance on stereotypes and the ideological beliefs that the representation may expose.

KEY TERMS

KEY CONCEPTS

When a media text represents the world, the text is mediated in that it is constructed, edited and represented in a particular way. Sometimes the representation may reveal a certain view or ideological belief. There are three ways in which we can look at the relationship between reality and the representation:

The reflective view suggests that the media is exposing the truth of the matter, like a mirrors reflection. The intentional view suggests the representation will have an intended meaning (e.g. an advert showing an attractive person drinking a can of Coke will have the meaning the advertisers intended go away and buy some). The constructionist view sees a representation as never being the truth and investigates some of the influences that the processes of production has over the representation.

Some texts will use stereotypes (easily recognised caricatures) to simplify the narrative (e.g. the stereotypical villain is completely unsympathetic), or to poke fun at people or groups (e.g. the stereotypical school nerd).

A text could conform to (support) social stereotypes, for example, that women always look after the home and children. A text can also subvert (go against) these stereotypes, for example presenting women as strong, independent and powerful. When a text deliberately subverts stereotypes in order to challenge the official (or status-quo) beliefs of a society, then it can be considered an act of dissent (to go against the prevailing ideas of society). For example, a dissenting representation of suicide bombers would be to show sympathy for their cause, if not their actions. When considering a particular representation, think about the frame of reference the audiences uses when responding (their age, nationality, social class, lifestyle and experiences of other media representations)ContinuedREPRESENTATION IN THE NEWS

The editorial choices the news make clearly influences the representation (who gets to speak and who doesnt). The way the news may represent an issue could be influences by the way the information is presented. For example, the use of vox pops (interviewing the man in the street) may try to convey the public sentiment, but will ultimately over-simplify or distort the full range of public opinion. or the way the information is gathered. For example User Generated Content (UGC) (e.g. footage from mobile phones) may try to convey a more reflective view of reality, whereas even this is mediated. The news can use language to create a positive or negative representation (e.g. calling the Iraqi resistance to the Coalition insurgents rather than freedom fighters). The news can also lend weight to its sources, e.g. by repeating statements from politicians as fact Or they can encourage scepticism of some information by using words such as claim or allege for some of their sources. The news can also distance the audience from the subject, either by having the news anchor contradict the speaker or, in the case of non-English speakers, by using a voice-over, instead of subtitles (which may benefit the hard-of-hearing, but also prevents us from hearing the original voice, with its original intonation and emotion). The news can also have an agenda and present an event from a particular point of view (for instance, we rarely see a war from the enemys perspective). The way the news contextualises a story (the background information they choose to include and that which they choose to ignore) can also affect the representation. Rarely are we reminded, for instance, that the Palestinian people were forcibly removed from their homes and have had their land stolen from them.SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE

Political ideology can deeply influence the representation of people, groups, events or places. For instance, it is common in films to present Islamic terrorists as cold-hearted, merciless and barbaric and American or British soldiers as warm-hearted, friendly and sympathetic. These representations often stem from a political ideology that maintains support for a political cause. The ideology (or business plans) of the institution can also affect representation. For example, Rupert Murdoch, in his bid to conquer the Chinese market, often ensures that his newspapers represent Tibet in a way that supports Chinas invasion. Political parties or leaders can be represented in positive or negative ways, depending on the political bias of the institution. Due to Globalisation, western texts are dominating the world market. As a result, western representations have more influence in the world.

AUDIENCEOVERVIEW

This question asks you to consider who the product is aimed at and how the text appeals to the audiences needs, wants and desires.

KEY TERMS

AUDIENCE PROFILING

Producers of texts can use a variety of methodologies to identify their target audience. Sometimes this is a small, particular (or niche) audience; it is sometimes a large (or mass) audience; or it can appeal to a range of different audiences in different ways (this is known as audience segmentation). Sometimes there is a primary (or main) audience and a secondary audience (for example, Pixars films are aimed primarily at children, but they have a secondary audience of parents). Demographics

Audiences can be classified into groups using quantitative data about age, gender, socio-economic group, e.g:

A

Upper middle class

Top management, bankers, lawyers, doctors and other professionals

B

Middle class

Middle management, teachers, many creatives e.g. graphic designers etc.

C1

Lower middle class

Office supervisors, junior managers, nurses, specialist clerical etc.

C2

Skilled working class

Skilled workers, tradespersons (white collar)

D

Working class

Semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers (blue collar)

E

People at lowest level of income

Unemployed, students, pensioners, casual workers

They can be segmented further into groups into groups and sub-groups by identifying professional status, geographical location, religion, and ethnicity and so on. This data is used by media producers in two ways. It influences future production and perhaps, more importantly, can be used to gain advertising revenue by selling audiences to advertisers.

Psychographics

Psychographics is a system for measuring consumers beliefs, opinions and interests. Its like demographics, but instead of counting age, gender, race, etc., it gathers psychological information (opinions on abortion, religious beliefs, music tastes, personality traits, etc.). These are also called IAO variables (Interests, Attitudes and Opinions).

Advertising agents, Young and Rubicam, identified four main types of consumers:Mainstreamers

Make up 40% of the population. They like security, and belonging to a group.

AspirersWant status and the esteem of others. Like status symbols, designer labels etc. Live off credit and cash.

Succeeders

People who have already got status and control.

Reformers

Define themselves by their self-esteem and self-fulfilment.

Youth Facts alternatively claimed to identify the following types of young people:

Free Spirits (new-age hippies), Nesters (get married/have kids), Funseekers (they work hard and play hard), Leaders (Career driven), Followers (they do what everyone else is doing) and Armchair Rebels (they dont worry about anything).SPEAKING TO THE AUDIENCE

The way the text speaks differently to different audiences is called Modes of Address. The way it appeals to an audience, calls to them, is called interpellation. APPEALING TO THE AUDIENCES NEEDS, WANTS AND DESIRES

Richard Dyers UtopiasRichard Dyer (1992) proposed that media texts appealed to audiences by making up for some of the deficiencies of modern life. These are as follows:

Community real communities are breaking down, so the media create imagined communities (e.g. by watching Friends) or virtual ones (e.g. Facebook).

Intensity most peoples lives consist of routine, such as going to work or college, raising families etc. Media texts offer worlds where exciting things happen, which is pleasurable for the audience.

Abundance one of the key pleasures of many media texts is seeing worlds where people can drop whatever theyre doing and pursue adventures without any apparent financial cares. We love to see glamorous and exotic locations and lifestyles that contrast with our own.

Transparency in most narratives, motives are laid clear and, unlike in real life, all the answers are (usually) provided. This is one of the appeals of news consumption in that it helps us make sense of the real world.

Energy the daily routines of most peoples lives are tiring. They are so tiring, in fact, that the energy many people have left at the end of the day is just about enough to turn on the TV and watch others looking less exhausted! Texts that harbour energy are not just about people, but also about editing style, colour, mise-en-scne and the sense of spectacle contained within many media texts. Print media texts with a lively and bright/colourful layout can equally be said to have energy.

ADVERTISERS LINES OF APPEAL

A different Dyer Gillian Dyer (1988) demonstrated how advertisers use specific lines of appeal that tap into our desires and our fears. Images and references put into advertising connect with our social needs.

Advertisements often feature some of the following: happy families; rich, luxurious lifestyles; dreams and fantasy; successful romance and love; elite people or experts; glamorous places; nature and the natural world; beautiful people; comedy and humour; childhood.THE USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORYDenis McQuail (1987) proposed the following reasons for people to consume media texts: Information

Personal Identity

Integration and social interaction

Entertainment

The Uses and Gratifications theory was advanced by Blumler and Katz (1974). More information about this can be found the AS Media Studies book on pages 16 and 17.

Media Forms/Language(Codes & Conventions)OVERVIEW

This question asks you to consider how a text has been constructed and why editorial, presentational and stylistic choices have been made, as well as how and what these may communicate to an audience.

KEY TERMS

Carl Jungs Archetypes

Psychologist Carl Jung studied the traditional stories of different cultures and different periods of history and traced patterns of storytelling and images which kept cropping up. The following are some examples:1. The mother figure: This could be a caring, nurturing or dominating character, but could also be symbolised impersonally by the church, nation, forest or ocean.2. The shadow: Derived from our pre-human, animal past the dark, amoral side of our being. Symbols of this shadow can be snakes, monsters and demons. 3. The persona: This is the mask that we put on in public. It is the self which we want others to recognise. It can be used to create a false impression and it can delude us, e.g. Bruce Waynes playboy antics in Batman Begins.4. The father: Any authority figure.5. The child: This represents the future, becoming, rebirth, the promise of new beginnings.6. Mana or spiritual power: Sometimes symbolised as the hero figure, e.g. Luke Skywalker in the Star Wars films. 7. The maiden: Representing purity or innocence and naivet, e.g. Princess Leia in Star Wars.8. The wise old man: He guides the hero and often has magical powers, e.g. Merlin, Gandalf or Obi Wan Kenobi.9. The trickster: Always causing trouble for the hero. In Norse mythology many of the gods adventures are originated by the tricks played by the half-god Loki.MEDIA CODES

Roland Barthes Narrative Codes

The French critic Roland Barthes put forward a scheme of five types of narrative coding useful for analysing stories:

1. The Action Code: Actions have a logical relationship to the real world and we have expectations from certain actions, e.g. when a gunslinger draws his gun, we expect an exchange of shots.2. The Semic Code: This code includes all signs and meanings in the text which depict character. E.g. in a horror film, a vampire may be pale, hide from sunlight etc.3. Mystery (or Enigma) Code: These are codes that puzzle the audience and create suspense. For example, a sense of mystery is created at the beginning of a detective story, as we find out who committed the crime.4. The Cultural Code: Stories make sense and possess realism by making reference to information which is part of the real world. For example, James Bond drinks Martini, which is part of the real world. Advertisers have taken advantage of this by using product placement, where goods are used in films as a form of advertising. 5. Code of Oppositions: These are binary opposites such as good v evil, nature v civilisation, life v death, childishness v maturity. It is very useful when looking at oppositions to consider which side the narrative favours. GENRE Most broadcast productions have a specific genre (e.g. horror, drama etc.) To make the genre clear, the producers use genre codes or tropes (e.g. a gun to communicate action, a spaceship for science-fiction etc.). The amalgamation of these tropes is called the repertoire of elements. Sometimes the text may be a hybrid genre (mix of genres); for example, Shaun of the Dead borrows from both comedy and horror.REFERENCING AND SHORCUTS When a text borrows or copies from another text, it is called intertextuality. The Simpsons make regular use of intertextual references to popular books and films. Sometimes a film will use a shortcut (called a metonym) to signify something particular (e.g. the shots of a clock, with the hour hand moving, to show the passing of time). Sometimes a metonym will be used so many times that it becomes an icon. The iconography of 9/11 has been used in many Hollywood films, for instance.ANALYTICAL LANGUAGE We use semiotics (the study of signs) to analyse most texts. In semiotics, part of the text may signify something (create a particular meaning). The aspects of the text that communicate these meanings are called the signifiers. The signifier will usually have connotations, meanings which are signified (suggested and implied).

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