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CONTENTS Page No
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. General Introduction 1
1.2. Statement of study 1
1.3. Objectives of the study 1
1.4. Scope of Literature 2
1.5. Review of Literature 2
1.6. Methodology 2
1.7.System Analysis 3
1.8.Feasibility Study 4
2.DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1. Purpose of Design 5
2.2. Design Features 5
2.3. Block Diagram 5
2.4. Block Diagram Description 7
3.HARDWARE DETAILS
3.1. Atmega168 Microcontroller 8
3.1.1 Architecture 9
3.1.2 AVR CPU Core 10
3.1.3 Pin Configurations 12
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3.1.4 Features 13
3.1.5 Power Modes 14
3.1.6 Ports 15
3.1.7 Analog to Digital Converter 15
3.1.8 USART 15
3.2. Power Supply 16
3.3 Relay 17
3.4 LM7805C Voltage Regulator 18
3.5 Crystal Oscillator 20
3.6 MAX232 and DB9 connector (Level Converter) 22
3.7 RF transceiver. 23
4.SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Code Vision AVR Cross Compiler 25
4.2 AVR Studio Programmer 26
4.3 Embedded C 27
5. TESTING
5.1. Introduction 28
5.1.1 Unite Testing 28
5.1.2 System Testing 29
5.1.3 Integration Testing 29
5.1.4 Acceptance Testing 29
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6. DISCUSSION
6.1. Merits 30
6.2. Limitations 30
7. APPLICATION 31
8.Summary of Literature Survey 32
9. CONCLUSION 33
10. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS 34
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 35
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure names Page No.
Figure 1.1 Waterfall process model 2
Figure 2.1(a) Block diagram(transmitter) of proposed system 5
Figure 2.1(b) Block diagram(receiver) of proposed system 6
Figure 2.2 Circuit diagram of proposed system 6
Figure 3.1 Architectural Block Diagram of ATmega 168 10Figure 3.2 Block diagram of the AVR central processing unit 11
Figure 3.3 Pin configuration of the Atmega168 microcontroller 12
Figure 3.4 Relay symbol 17
Figure 3.5 Circuit diagram of relay 17
Figure 3.6 Voltage regulators 18
Figure 3.7 Circuit Diagram of voltage regulator 19
Figure 3.8 A Crystal Oscillator 21
Figure 3.9 Pin diagram of MAX232 22
Figure 3.10 MAX232 and DB9 connector 22
Figure 3.11 RF Transreciever 24
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. General Introduction :
This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic .Eg: In Bangalore the roads
are full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters .In this
distance the traffics police cant hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores this .Then
the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic it takes at least
30 minutes .So by this time any thing can happen to the patient .So this project avoid thesedisadvantages.
According to this project if any ambulance comes near when the ambulance at emergency
comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the signals and give green
signal for this ambulance.
1.2. Statement of Study:
The main aim of the project is to guide the ambulance in the hard core city traffic, as ambulance is
carrying the diseased to hospital for treatment it is a emergency situation, we need a efficient
traffic control system to help the ambulance to reach hospital in right time. This system can be
implemented in all the ambulances, so that the traffic control using RF/xbee, as well as physical
status of the patient is communicated to the hospital wirelessly using RF/xBEE and the precious
life of the patient can be saved much early.
1.3. Objectives of the study
Transparency and the rule of law. Strengthening operational processes, disciplinary measuresand individual competencies will only have marginal impact in the absence of broader structuralreforms aimed at setting the traffic light system within this governance framework.The main aim of the project is to guide the ambulance in the hard core city traffic, as ambulance is
carrying the diseased to hospital for treatment it is a emergency situation, we need a efficient
traffic control system to help the ambulance to reach hospital in right time.
1.4. Scope of literature
This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic .Eg: In Bangalore the roads
are full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters .In thisdistance the traffics police cant hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores this .Then
the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic it takes at least
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30 minutes .So by this time any thing can happen to the patient .So this project avoid these
disadvantages.
According to this project if any ambulance comes near when the ambulance at emergency
comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the signals and give green
signal for this ambulance.
.
1.5. Review of literature
Many books have provided valuable information that was very useful for this project.
One such book authored by John. B. Peatman , Design with Microcontrollers, Pearson
Education PTE. Ltd. First Edition , 2001
1.6 Methodology
Software Process:
The software process is the set of activities and associated results, which produced a
software product.
Example: Waterfall process model, Spiral model and Evolutionary model.
The Waterfall process model has been followed for the development of this project.
This model is the one of the best process models. There are several variations of this
model.
This process is best only when all the requirements are known in advance. This process is
easy to understand by system developers as well as users. And this process model is more
visible, as it produces deliverables at the end of end phase.
Visibility is one of the process characteristics that are looked for by project managers
while selecting a process model for any project.
Figure 1.1 Waterfall process model
Implementation
Testing
Design
Analysis
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2
The waterfall process model has five phases. They are as given below.
(1)Analysis
The systems services, constraints and goals are established by consultation with system
users.(2)Design
The systems design process partitions the requirements to either hardware or software
systems. It establishes an overall system architecture. Software design involves
representing the software system functions in a form that may be transformed into one or
more executable programs.
(3)Implementation
During this stage, the software design is realized as a set of programs or program units.
(4)Testing
The individual program units or programs are tested. Then they are integrated and tested
as a complete system to ensure that the software requirements have been met. After
testing, the software system is delivered to the customer.
Advantages:
1) The development process is more visible, i.e. deliverables are produced after each
phase. This will help to know the status of the project at any time.
2) This is best suitable for projects in which all the requirements are known in advance
and projects changes are not required.
Disadvantages:
It is not possible to go to previous phase to accommodate any changes in it.
1.7 System Analysis
1.7.1 Problem statement
What we have to do is we have to attach a IR receiver on pole 0.5km before the traffic signal.
Ambulance will be continuously transmitting signals, these transmitted signal are received by
the receiver on the pole after receiving these signal if the red light is (ON) on the way of
Ambulance that light will be automatically turned to green and on all other ways the red light will
be turned (ON) making way for Ambulance . If there is green light no action will be performed.
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When the Ambulance is nearby to the hospital it will start sending the signal to the host attached
to PC using wireless technology (xBEE/RF) range around 300 meters for our demo purpose later
it can be improved with a little more cost.
The informed transmitted to the host computer in hospital from the ambulance includes type
disease being suffered this input is given by the concerned person in the ambulance.
3
1.8 Feasibility Study
1.8.1 TECHNICAL:
When there is a whole range of desirable new high end features to the scene, the new
features interact in cleverer ways.
The Atmega168 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced
RICS architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
Atmega168 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, allowing the system
designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. High performance is its
main feature. It operates with a voltage of 4.5-5.5.
1.8.2 ECONOMICAL:
The components like Atmega168, DC motors, relay costs low. From economical
point of view the cost of purchasing software is low. Ultimately, the implementation of
this project will reduce the expenditure of power supply board.
1.8.3 OPERATIONAL:
The module provides very user friendly interface and does not need extra training
for usage.
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CHAPTER 2
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1. Purpose of Design:
This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic .Eg: In Bangalore the
roads are full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters.In this distance the traffics police cant hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores
this .Then the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic
it takes at least 30 minutes .So by this time any thing can happen to the patient .So
this project avoid these disadvantages.
According to this project if any ambulance comes near when the ambulance at emergency
comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the signals and give green
signal for this ambulance.
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2.3. Block Diagram:
To practically implement the above features, the arrangement of various devices in our
system is as shown in the following block diagram
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Module in Ambulance
RF
RELAY
Micro Controller
ATmega48/88/32
IR
SENSORS
POWER
SUPPLYBuzzer LED
DC motors
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RECEIVER AT HOSPITAL
RF
POWER
SUPPLY
PC
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RECEIVER AT POLE
Figure 2.1(B) Block diagram of proposed system
LEDs
Micro Controller
ATmega48
POWER
IR
sensors
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Figure 2.2 Circuit diagram of proposed system
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2.4 Block Diagram Description
What we have to do is we have to attach a IR receiver on pole 0.5km before the trafficsignal. Ambulance will be continuously transmitting signals, these transmitted signal
are received by the receiver on the pole after receiving these signal if the red light is (ON)
on the way of Ambulance that light will be automatically turned to green and on all
other ways the red light will be turned (ON) making way for Ambulance . If there is
green light no action will be performed.
When the Ambulance is nearby to the hospital it will start sending the signal to the host
attached to PC using wireless technology (xBEE/RF) range around 300 meters for ourdemo purpose later it can be improved with a little more cost.
The informed transmitted to the host computer in hospital from the ambulance includes
type disease being suffered this input is given by the concerned person in the ambulance.
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CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
The hardware components used in our project is listed below.
1 ATmega168 microcontroller
2 Power Supply
4 LM7805cV (Regulator)
5. IR sensor
6. TARANG (RF TRANCEIVER)
7. DC motor
8. RELAY
3.1 ATmega168 microcontroller
The microcontroller is at the core of every embedded module. Hence, great care must be
exercised in choosing the right microcontroller without compromising on functionality.
Keeping in view many factors that governed the correct implementation of our project the
ATmega168 microcontroller from Atmel Corporations AVR microcontroller family was
chosen. Few crucial reasons may be cited so as to justify our choice of this
microcontroller. The first being, that all AVR microcontrollers are designed to deliver
more performance at lesser power consumption. It is compatible with popular protocols
like I2C and SPI. It also has advanced features like an on chip analog to digital converter,
six pulse width modulation channels, and data retention is supported up to a hundred
years at 25 C. Also compilers for the ATmega88 are available free of cost from the
manufacturer. An added advantage is that the AVR series can be programmed using the
AVRGCC (GNU C compiler) , thus making it an undisputed choice for even GNU/Linux
based programmers. The Atmega48 microcontroller has execution speeds of up to one
MIPS per MHz of clock frequency. Elucidating the specifications of the CPU of the
AVR, it is an 8 bit microcontroller with advanced RISC architecture. The CPU is
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designed for the stellar combination of parallelism and performance. Thus the CPU uses
the Harvard architecture (separate memories and buses for program and data). The CPU
also accommodates a 32 general purpose 8-bit registers.
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3.1.1 Architecture
The ATmega168 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR
enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle,
the ATmega88 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system
designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. The AVR core
combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two
independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle.
The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten
times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers. The architectural block diagram is
as shown in the next page.
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Figure 3.1: Architectural Block Diagram of ATmega 168
3.1.2 AVR CPU Core
This section discusses the AVR core architecture in general. The main function of the
CPU core is to ensure correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to
access memories, perform calculations, control peripherals, and handle interrupts.
In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a Harvard architecture
with separate memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the program
memory are executed with a single level pipelining. While one instruction is being
executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory. This concept
enables instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The program memory is In-
System Reprogrammable Flash memory.
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The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general purpose working registers with a
single clock cycle access time. This allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
operation.
10
In a typical ALU operation, two operands are output from the Register File, the operation
is executed, and the result is stored back in the Register File in one clock cycle.
Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address register pointers for
Data Space addressing enabling efficient address calculations. One of the these address
pointers can also be used as an address pointer for look up tables in Flash program
memory. These added function registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z-register, described
later in this section.
Program flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call instructions,
able to directly address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a single 16-
bit word format. Every program memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit instruction. The
Block Diagram of the AVR Architecture is as shown in the next page.
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Figure 3.2: Block diagram of the AVR central processing unit
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3.1.3 Pin Configurations
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Figure 3.3: Pin configuration of the Atmega168 microcontroller
3.1.3.1: VCC Digital supply voltage
3.1.3.2: GND Ground
3.1.3.3: Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2-Port B is an 8 bit bi-directional
I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. Alternate functions of the pins of Port B are
functions related to SPI and the Pin Change Interrupt or PCINT.
3.1.3.4: Port C (PC6:0)-Port C is a 7-bit bi directional I/O port, with the PC6 pin being
used as a reset pin if the reset disable fuse (RSTDISBL) is not programmed. If PC6 is
used as a reset pin, then a low level lasting for more than 2.5 s at that pin will generate
the required reset condition. The alternate function for the pins of this port is that they act
as ADC input channels used here with the thermistor to aid in temperature measurements.
3.1.3.5: Port D (PD7:0)- Port D is an 8-bit bi directional I/O port and even its pins, like
those of port B and C have alternate functions. The pins of port D can also serve as
transmitter and receiver pins for the internal USART of the microcontroller, they can also
add up as comparator inputs to the internal comparator circuit of the microcontroller.
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3.1.3.6: AVCC-It is the supply voltage for the ADC, PC3 to PC0 and ADC 7:6. It is
externally connected to VCC and if the ADC is used it is connected to the VCC supply
voltage through a low pass filter.
3.1.3.7: AREF-It is the analog reference pin for the ADC.
3.1.4 Features
High Performance, Low Power AVR 8-Bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
131 Powerful Instructions Most Single Clock Cycle Execution
32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20 MHz
Non-volatile Program and Data Memories
4/8/16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash (ATmega48/88/168)
Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
256/512/512 Bytes EEPROM (ATmega48/88/168)
Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles
512/1K/1K Byte Internal SRAM (ATmega48/88/168)
Programming Lock for Software Security
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode.
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Six PWM Channels
8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and MLF package
6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package
Programmable Serial USART
Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator13
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Special Microcontroller Features
Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
Internal Calibrated Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, andStandby
I/O and Packages
23 Programmable I/O Lines
28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP and 32-pad MLF
Operating Voltage:
1.8 - 5.5V for ATmega48V/88V/168V
2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega48/88/168
Temperature Range:
-40C to 85C
Speed Grade:
ATmega48V/88V/168V: 0 - 4 MHz
ATmega48/88/168: 0 - 10 MHz
Low Power Consumption
Active Mode:
1 MHz, 1.8V: 240A
32 kHz, 1.8V: 15A (including Oscillator)
Power-down Mode: 0.1A at 1.8V
3.1.5 Power modes
The Idle mode stops the CPU while the SRAM, Timer/Counters, USART, 2-wire Serial
Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system continue to function. In the Power-down mode,the register contents are saved but the oscillator is frozen until an interrupt is raised or the
hardware is reset. In the Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer is running while the
remaining peripheral components of the device are sleeping. For reduction of noise with
respect to the ADC, the CPU and all other I/O devices are halted and only the
asynchronous timer along with the ADC is runningThe standby mode can be useful for
quick start-ups. Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the oscillator,
disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
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asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In
Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is
sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption. Moving
ahead, now a brief discussion of the external interrupts has to be done.
3.1.6 Ports
The ports of the AVR have read-modify-write functionality when used as general digital
I/O ports, as stated in the datasheet of the device. The ports are bi-directional I/O ports
with optional internal pull-ups. Each port pin mainly has three register bits which are
DDxn, PORTxn and PINxn. DDxn is the data direction bit and indicates input or output at
a particular pin of any port .
If DDxn is set to one, the pin is used as output pin, else it is an input pin. If PORTxn is
written to a logic one, and if DDxn is set to zero that particular pins internal pull upresistor is activated. The DDxn is accessed at the DDRx register, the PORTxn is in the
PORTx register and the PINxn is at the PINx register. Writing a logic one to PINxn will
toggle PORTxn. The alternate functions of the port pins and the port registers are
explained at the end as part of the datasheets. The pin value can be read at any time
through the PINxn register bit, irrespective of the DDxn pin setting.
3.1.7 Analog to digital converter
The Atmega48 is equipped with a successive approximation analog to digital converterwith a resolution of 10 bits. All the input channels of the ADC are connected to a
multiplexer.
The ADC channel is selected by selecting the corresponding bits as defined in the
ADMUX register of the microcontroller. The ADC output which is 10 bits long is stored
in the ADCH and ADCL registers of the microcontroller. For eight bit precision, reading
ADCH is sufficient. Further details of the ADC are provided with the datasheets.
3.1.8 USART
A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (usually abbreviated UART and
pronounced is a type of "asynchronous receiver/transmitter", a piece of computer
hardware that translates data between parallel and serial forms. A UART is usually an
individual (or part of an) integrated circuit used for serial communications over a
computer or peripheral device serial port.
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Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other
medium is much more cost effective than parallel transmission through multiple wires. A
UART is used to convert the transmitted information between its sequential and parallel
form at each end of the link. Each UART contains a shift register which is the
fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms.
The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used
between different items of equipment. Typically, separate interface devices are used to
convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signaling levels.
Communication may be "full duplex" (both send and receive at the same time) or "half
duplex" (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).
3.1.8.1 Features
Asynchronous or Synchronous Operation
Full Duplex Operation (Independent Serial Receive and Transmit
Registers)
Master or Slave Clocked Synchronous Operation
High Resolution Baud Rate Generator
Supports Serial Frames with 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 Data Bits and 1 or 2 Stop Bits
Odd or Even Parity Generation and Parity Check Supported by Hardware
Data OverRun Detection
Framing Error Detection
Noise Filtering Includes False Start Bit Detection and Digital Low Pass
Filter
Three Separate Interrupts on TX Complete, TX Data Register Empty and
RX Complete
3.2 Power Supply
Power supply is used to energies the equipments such as microcontroller, relay, level
converter, GSM and GPS module. The power supply is used to energies the whole
module. The power supply can be in the form of wired or battery. In our project 12V
battery is used as a power supply.
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3.4 LM7805C Voltage Regulator :
A voltage regulator based on an active device (such as a bipolar junction
transistor, field effect transistor or vacuum tube) operating in its "linear region" and
passive devices like zener diodes operated in their breakdown region.
The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously
adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage.
Figure.3.6. Voltage Regulators
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Figure 3.7: circuit diagram of voltage regulator
Linear regulators exist in two basic forms: series regulators and shunt regulators.
Series regulators are the more common form. The series regulator works by providing a
path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance (the main transistor
is in the "top half" of the voltage divider). The power dissipated by the regulating device
is equal to the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating
device.
The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground
through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage
divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows
uselessly to ground, making this form even less efficient than the series regulator. It is,
however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in
very low-powered circuits where the wasted current is too small to be of concern. Thisform is very common for voltage reference circuits.
The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series
(7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device
number are the output voltage; eg, a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a -15 V
regulator. The 78xx series ICs can supply up to 1.5 Amperes depending on the model.
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3.4.1 Features
1. 5V, 3V, and 3.3V versions available
2. High accuracy output voltage
3. Guaranteed 100mA output current
4. Extremely low quiescent current
5. Low dropout voltage
6. Extremely tight load and line regulation
7. Very low temperature coefficient
8. Use as Regulator or Reference
9. Needs minimum capacitance for stability
10. Current and Thermal Limiting
11. Stable with low-ESR output capacitors (10m to 6)
3.5 Crystal Oscillator - 4MHz :
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time, to provide a stable
clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers.
The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator
circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators".A crystal is a solid in
which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered,
repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with
appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration.For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in
mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape,
elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically
cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used
in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not
needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a
quartz crystal.
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When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its
previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves
like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant
frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in
such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific
characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is
cut (relative to its crystallographic axes).[5] Therefore, the resonant frequency of the
plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz
clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz
oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can
also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanicalvibrations.
Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to
tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually.
Most are small devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios,
computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement
equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
Figure 3.8: A Crystal Oscillator
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5. IR SENSORS
A Passive Infrared sensor(PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light
radiating from objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are often used in the construction ofPIR-
basedmotion detectors (see below). Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with
one temperature, such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with another
temperature, such as a wall.[1]
All objects aboveabsolute zeroemit energy in the form of radiation. It is usually infrared radiation
that is invisible to thehuman eye but can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a
purpose. The termpassive in this instance means that the PIR device does not emit an infrared
beam but merely passively accepts incoming infrared radiation. Infra meaning below our ability
to detect it visually, and Red because this color represents the lowest energy level that our eyes
can sense before it becomes invisible. Thus, infrared means below the energy level of the color
red, and applies to many sources of invisible energy. [2]
.
6. DC motors
Used for rotating the camera.
An electric motorconverts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most
electric motorsoperate through interacting magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductorscurrent-carrying conductors to generate force, although electrostatic
motors useelectrostaticforces. The reverse process, producing electrical energy
from mechanical energy, is done by generatorssuch as analternatoror
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a dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice
versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas turbine, ortraction motors used
on vehicles, often perform both tasks. Electric motors and generators are
commonly referred to as electric machines.
MOTOR
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically
through the interaction ofmagnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse
process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a
generatorordynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks. Many
types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances,power tools, anddisk drives. They may be powered
bydirect current(for example abatterypowered portable device or motor vehicle), or by
alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be
found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions
and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. Electric
motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction,
by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric
current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing
efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of
electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical
distribution networks.
3.1.1 Construction of Motor
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Fig 3.1: Components of Motor
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Fig 3.2: Assembly of Electric Motor
Fig 3.3: Working principle of Electric Motor
3.1.2 History and development
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Fig 3.4: Setup of Electromagnetic experiment of Faraday, 1821
The principle
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means
was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire
was dipped into a pool ofmercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a
current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the
current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often
demonstrated in school physics classes, butbrine (salt water) is sometimes used in place
of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar
motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices
only, unsuited to practical applications due to their primitive construction.
Fig 3.5: Jedlik's "lightning-magnetic self-rotor", 1827(Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest.)
In 1827, Hungarian nyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating
devices he called "lightning-magnetic self-rotors". He used them for instructive purposes
in universities, and in 1828 demonstrated the first device which contained the three main
components of practical direct current motors: thestator,rotorand commutator. Both the
stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic, employing no permanent
magnets. Again, the devices had no practical application.
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3.1.3 Categorization of electric motors
The classic division of electric motors has been that ofAlternating
Current (AC) types v/s Direct Current (DC) types. This is more a
de facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example,many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being
referred to as universal motors.
Rated output power is also used to categorise motors, those of less than 746 Watts, for
example, are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors(FHP) in reference to the
old imperial measurement.
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as moderndrivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor,
driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some
approximation thereof. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the
stepping motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring external electronic control,
although historically, stepping motors (such as for maritime and naval gyrocompass
repeaters) were driven from DC switched by contacts.
Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving
magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer
distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous
motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce
current in the winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the
common AC induction motor which must slip to generate torque. In the synchronous
types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current production (e.g.
permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric
machine).
Servo motor
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A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing feedback
to correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to
systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help control mechanical
position or other parameters. For example, an automotive power window control is
not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic feedback which controls positiontheoperator does this by observation. By contrast the car's cruise control uses closed loop
feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism.
Synchronous electric motor
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with
coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting
magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under
usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to
produce torque. A synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is
excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to rotor. The
rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed.
Induction motor
Induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to
the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another commonly used
name is squirrel cage motor because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a
squirrel cage (hamster wheel). An electric motor converts electrical power to
mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power
to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC
source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An
induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator
(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor
(rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially
polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives
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Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)
Electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the
attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of
conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply,although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors
instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low
voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin
Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in
micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts,
and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores.
Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear androtary electrostatic motors.
Many of the limitations of the classic commutatorDC motor are due to the need for
brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds,
brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the
irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. (Sparks are also created
inevitably by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the
brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the
commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections
and hence coil endsmomentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the
inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is
opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum
speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the
commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with
theirresistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric
contact also causes electrical noise, and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes
eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to
wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The
commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision
assembly of small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the
rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output,
but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor
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can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the
problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also
desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a
given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower
efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brushdesign entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.
There are five types of brushed DC motor:
A. DC shunt wound motor
B. DC series wound motor
C. DC compound motor (two configurations):
Cumulative compound
Differentially compounded
D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor
E. Separately-excited (sepex)
Brushless DC motors
Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design.
In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is
replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position.
Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a
brushless electric motor of up to 96.5% were reported by researchers at the Tokai
University in Japan in 2009), whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-
80% efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the
brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use
a permanent magnet sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive
electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics
as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back EMF(electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase
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synchronous motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A
specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the
main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and
velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles.
When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelistsas outrunner motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as
in computerdisk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD,CD-
ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers
andphotocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:
Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, runningmuch cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-
improved life of the fan'sbearings.
Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be
significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator.
Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a
commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive
devices like audio equipment or computers.
The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)
applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK"
signal.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to
precise speed control.
Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making
them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also,
sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings
risking harm to occupants' health.
Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are
generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
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They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment
that is affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many
kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric
vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
Coreless or ironless DC motors
Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron
(steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of
the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC
motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid
acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The
rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure
comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the
stator magnets; a magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a
return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding
basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a
magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewiseprovides a return path for the flux.
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed
from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more
rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constantless than 1 ms. This is especially
true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is
no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often
be cooled by forced air.
Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the
poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for
rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.
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Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors
A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the windings
shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets, arranged in a circle,
facing the rotor and forming an axial air gap. This design is commonly known thepancake motor because of its extremely flat profile, although the technology has had
many brand names since it's inception, such as ServoDisc.
The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed
armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using
advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a unique
construction, in the brushed motor world, in that is does not have a separate ring
commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole
design very compact.
An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a
central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are
typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems. These
are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are
highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) (UL File No. E
210549).
The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration
caused by attraction between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents
cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless. This can greatly improve efficiency,
but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct
current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.
These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) ofmagnetic tape drives,
in the burgeoning computer industry. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-
performance servo-controlled systems, humanoid robotic systems, industrial
automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available the
technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump
and basic servo applications.
Universal motors
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_currentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_currentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic -
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A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been designed
to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to operate on AC is because the
current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields)
will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical
force will occur in a constant direction.
Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very rarely larger
than one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower). Universal motors also form the basis of the
traditional railway traction motorin electric railways. In this application, to keep their
electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies,
with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are universal
motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from
a third rail powered by DC.
An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors
which have some characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high
starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative
aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a
result, such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power
tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands.Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by
use of a thyristorcircuit, while (imprecise) stepped speed control can be accomplished
using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds
frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diodethat can be inserted in
series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).
Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances
such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is
desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills,
circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum
cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other
similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of
design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, suddenloss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated
into the motor's protection and control schemes. In some smaller applications, a fan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system#Low-frequency_alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system#Low-frequency_alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_dryerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_sawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_(power_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_trimmerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dremelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dremelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system#Low-frequency_alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_dryerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_sawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_(power_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_trimmerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dremelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical) -
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blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a
safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field
windings.
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Table 1: Classification of Electric Motors
Electric motors
Broad Motor Categories Synchronous motor AC motorDC motor
Conventional
Electric Motors
InductionBrushed DC Brushless DC Stepper
Linear UnipolarReluctance
Novel Electric Motors Ball bearingHomopolar PiezoelectricUltrasonic
ElectrostaticSwitched Reluctance
Motor
Controllers
Adjustable-speed driveAmplidyne Direct torque
controlDirect on line starterElectronic speed control
Metadyne Motor controllerVariable-frequency
drive Vector control Ward Leonard control
Thyristor drive
Others Barlow's Wheel Nanomotor Traction motor Lynch
motor Mendocino motorRepulsion motor
Inchworm motorBooster (electric power) Brush
(electric) Electrical generator Alternator
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unipolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_Reluctance_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_Reluctance_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustable-speed_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustable-speed_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplidynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplidynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_on_line_starterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_on_line_starterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_control_(motor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_Leonard_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow's_Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendocino_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(electric_power)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(electric_power)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unipolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_Reluctance_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustable-speed_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplidynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_on_line_starterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_control_(motor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_Leonard_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow's_Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendocino_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(electric_power)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator 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Table 2: Comparison of motor types
Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical ApplicationTypical
Drive
AC Induction
(Shaded Pole)
Least expensive
Long life
high power
Rotation slips from
frequency
Low starting torque
FansUni/Poly-
phase AC
AC Induction
(split-phase
capacitor)
High power
high starting
torque
Rotation slips from
frequencyAppliances
Uni/Poly-
phase AC
AC
Synchronous
Rotation in-sync
with freq
long-life(alternator)
More expensive
Industrial motors
Clocks
Audio turntablestape drives
Uni/Poly-
phase AC
Stepper DC
Precision
positioning
High holding
torque
Requires a
controller
Positioning in
printers and floppy
drives
DC
3 Relay
Relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays allow one circuit to switch a
second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. Relays can switch AC and
DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard
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transistors. Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays
can switch many contacts at once.
Figure 3.4: Relay symbol
Figure 3.5: Circuit diagram of relay
17
3.3.1 Advantages
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.
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Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (>5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
3.3.2 Disadvantages
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many
times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
7 RF(TRANSRECIEVER)
RF was created to address the market need for a cost-effective, standards-basedwireless networking solution that supports low data-rates, low-power consumption-usersexpect battery to last months to years, security, and reliability. RF is the only standards-
based technology that addresses the unique needs of most remote monitoring and controland sensory network applications.
The initial markets for the RF Alliance include Consumer Electronics, EnergyManagement and Efficiency, Health Care, Home Automation, Building Automation andIndustrial Automation.
It is wireless networking protocol aimed at automation and remote controlapplications.The RF mesh network connects sensors and controllers without beingrestricted by distance or range limitations. RF mesh networks let all participating devicescommunicate with one another, and act as repeaters transferring data between devices.
These modules use the IEEE 802.15.4 networking protocol for fast point-to-multipoint orpeer-to-peer networking. They are designed for high-throughput applications requiringlow latency and predictable communication timing.
23
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USER MANUAL
1. Power on the xbee module by giving +12v DC Power supply.
2. Connect the xbee module to the server using RS3232 cable using level
converter.
3. Open the .net software in computer.
4. Open the corresponding port.
5. Switch on the module near the door enter the valid key which is setted in the
server if the key matches the will open with the buzzer indication.
6. If the wrong key entered door will not get accessed
7. Check for device on off using relay.
.
Chapter-4
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
The software components used in our project is listed below.
1. CVAVR cross compiler
2.AVR studio programmer
3.Embedded C
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4.1 Code Vision AVR Cross Compiler
1. CodeVisionAVR is a C cross-compiler, Integrated Development Environment and
Automatic Program Generator designed for the Atmel AVR family of
microcontrollers.
2. The program is designed to run under the Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000 andXP operating systems.
3. The C cross-compiler implements nearly all the elements of the ANSI C language,
as allowed by the AVR architecture, with some features added to take advantage
of specificity of the AVR architecture and the embedded system needs.
4. The compiled COFF object files can be C source level debugged, with variable
watching, using the Atmel AVR Studio debugger.
The Integrated Development Environment (IDE) has built-in AVR Chip In-SystemProgrammer software that enables to automatically transfer of the program to the
microcontroller chip after successful compilation/assembly. The In-System Programmer
software is designed to work in conjunction with the Atmel STK500/AVRISP/AVRProg
(AVR910 application note), Kanda Systems STK200+/300, Dontronics DT006, Vogel
Elektronik VTEC-ISP, Futurlec JRAVR and MicroTronics ATCPU/Mega2000
programmers/development boards. For debugging embedded systems, which employ
serial communication, the IDE has a built-in Terminal. esides the standard C libraries, the
CodeVisionAVR C compiler has dedicated libraries for:
1. Alphanumeric LCD modules
2. Philips I2C bus
3. National Semiconductor LM75 Temperature Sensor
4. Philips PCF8563, PCF8583, Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS1302 and DS1307
Real Time Clocks
25
5. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor 1 Wire protocol
6. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS1820, DS18S20, DS18B20 Temperature Sensors
7. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS1621 Thermometer/Thermostat
8. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS2430 and DS2433 EEPROMs
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9. SPI
10. Power management
11. Delays
12. Gray code conversion
CodeVisionAVR also contains the CodeWizardAVR Automatic Program Generator that
allows you to write, in a matter of minutes, all the code needed for implementing the
following functions:
1. External memory access setup
2. Chip reset source identification
3. Input/Output Port initialization
4. External Interrupts initialization
5. Timers/Counters initialization
6. Watchdog Timer initialization
7. UART (USART) initialization and interrupt driven buffered serial communication
8. Analog Comparator initialization
9. ADC initialization
10. SPI Interface initialization
11. Two Wire Interface initialization
12. CAN Interface initialization
13. I2C Bus, LM75 Temperature Sensor, DS1621 Thermometer/Thermostat and
PCF8563, PCF8583, DS1302, DS1307 Real Time Clocks initialization
14. 1 Wire Bus and DS1820, DS18S20 Temperature Sensors initialization
4.2 AVR Studio Programmer
AVR Studio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for writing and
debugging AVR applications in Windows 9x/ME/NT/2000/XP/VISTA environments.
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AVR Studio provides a project management tool, source file editor, simulator, assembler
and front-end for C/C++, programming, emulation and on-chip debugging.
26
AVR Studio supports the complete range of ATMEL AVR tools and each release will
always contain the latest updates for both the tools and support of new AVR
devices.AVR Studio 4 has a modular architecture which allows even more interaction
with 3rd party software vendors. GUI plug-ins and other modules can be written and
hooked to the system.
4.3 Embedded C
Embedded C is extensive and contains many advanced concepts. The range of modules
covers a full introduction to C, real-time and embedded systems concepts through to the
design and implementation of real time embedded or standalone systems based on real-
time operating systems and their device drivers. Real time Linux (RTLinux) is used as an
example of such a system. The modules include an introduction to the development of
Linux device drivers. Embedded C covers all of the important features of the C language
as well as a good grounding in the principles and practices of real-time systems
development including the POSIX threads (pthreads) specification.
The design of the modules is intended to provide an excellent working knowledge of the
C language and its application to serious real time or embedded systems. Those wanting
in-depth training specifically on RTLinux or Linux kernel internals should contact us to
discuss their requirements; this set of modules is geared more towards providing the
groundwork for approaching those domains rather than as in-depth training on a specific
approach.
Embedded C contains essential information for anyone developing embedded systems
such as microcontrollers, real-time control systems, mobile device, PDAs and similar
applications. This C course is based on many years experience of teaching C, extensive
industrial programming experience and also participation in the ANSI X3J11 and BSI
standards bodies that produced the standard for C. We focus on the needs of day-to-day
users of the language with the emphasis being on practical use and delivery of reliable
software.
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