Articulo Mancha en Ratas

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    http://jdr.sagepub.com/Journal of Dental Research

    http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/64/5/810The online version of this article can be found at:

    DOI: 10.1177/00220345850640050501

    1985 64: 810J DENT RESJ.L. McDonald, B.R. Schemehorn and G.K. Stookey

    Factors Relating to Dental Stain Formation in the Rat

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    F a c t o r s R e l a t i n g t o D e n t a l S t a i n F o r m a t i o n i n t h e R a tJ . L . M c D O N A L D , B . R . S C H E M E H O R N , a n d G . K . STOOKEYO r a l H e a l t h R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y S c h o o l o f D e n t i s t r y , 4 1 5 L a n s i n g S t r e e t , I n d i a n a p o l i s , I n d i a n a 4 6 2 0 2A s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s w a s c o n d u c t e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e u s e o f t h e r a t a sa n i n v i v o m o d e l f o r s t u d i e s o f d e n t a l s t a i n a n d t o i d e n t i f y d i e t a r yf a c t o r s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s m o d e l . I t was d e t e r -m i n e d t h a t a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t s o f s t a i n f o r m e d on t h e m o l a r t e e t ho f r a t s p r o v i d e d a s y n t h e t i c d i e t c o n t a i n i n g l a c t a l b u m i n , a n d t h eamount o f s t a i n i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h o u t a f o u r - w e e k t e s t p e r i o d . S t a i nf o r m a t i o n w a s a l s o o b s e r v e d w h e n r a t s w e r e p r o v i d e d t h e i r d i e t b yg a s t r i c i n t u b a t i o n . T o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f c h l o r h e x i d i n e g e n e r a l l yr e s u l t e d i n a n i n c r e a s e i n s t a i n f o r m a t i o n , a s d i d t h e p r e s e n c e o f t e ai n t h e d r i n k i n g w a t e r . T h e s e s t u d i e s s u p p o r t t h e u s e o f t h e r a t f o ri n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f d e n t a l s t a i n .J D e n t R e s 6 4 ( 5 ) : 8 1 0 - 8 1 4 , M a y , 1 9 8 5I n t r o d u c t i o n .Th e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s t a i n s on t o o t h s u r f a c e s c o n t i n u e s t op o s e a n e s t h e t i c p r o b l e m f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t number o fi n d i v i d u a l s . V o g e l ( 1 9 7 5 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t s u c h s t a i n s a r ee x t r i n s i c i n n a t u r e a n d r e p r e s e n t d i s c o l o r a t i o n s o f t h ep e l l i c l e a n d / o r p l a q u e . E r i k s e n a n d N o r d b e ( 1 9 7 8 ) s u g -g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e m e c h a n i s m s w h i c h m a yb e i n v o l v e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f e x t r i n s i c s t a i n s : ( 1 ) t h ep r o d u c t i o n o f c o l o r e d c o m p o n e n t s i n p l a q u e b y c h r o m o -g e n i c b a c t e r i a ; ( 2 ) t h e r e t e n t i o n o f c o l o r e d s u b s t a n c e sf r o m d i e t a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r a l c a v i t y ;a n d ( 3 ) t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o l o r e d p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e c h e m i -c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p e l l i c l e c o m p o n e n t s . S t u d i e s o f t h ea c c u m u l a t i o n o f s t a i n e d p e l l i c l e i n humans ( A d d y e t a l . ,1 9 7 9 a ; F o r m i c o l a e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ; P r a y i t n o e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ) h a v es u g g e s t e d t h a t s e v e r a l d i e t a r y f a c t o r s a p p e a r t o c o n t r i b u t et o s t a i n f o r m a t i o n ; t h e s e f a c t o r s i n c l u d e c o f f e e , t e a , a n d r e dw i n e s , a s w e l l a s s m o k i n g a n d t h e o r a l u s e o f a n t i m i c r o b i a la g e n t s . The f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l a g e n t s p r o p o s e d f o r c l i n i c a lp l a q u e c o n t r o l h a v e b e e n shown t o i n c r e a s e s t a i n e d p e l l i c l ef o r m a t i o n o n l y s e r v e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n v e s t i -g a t i o n s o f t h e e t i o l o g y o f s u c h s t a i n s .F o r o b v i o u s r e a s o n s , i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h ee f f e c t o f d i e t a r y c o m p o n e n t s u p o n s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i nh u m a n s , a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r m o d e l s h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d .S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( A d d y e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 b ; P r a y i t n o a n dA d d y , 1 9 7 9 ; A d d y a n d P r a y i t n o , 1 9 8 0 ) h a v e u t i l i z e d i nv i t r o m o d e l s t o s t u d y v a r i o u s e t i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s w i t h somes u c c e s s , b u t s u c h m o d e l s a r e r e c o g n i z e d t o h a v e s e v e r a ll i m i t a t i o n s ( e . g . , a b s e n c e o f c o m p o s i t e o r a l f l o r a , l a c k o fe n z y m a t i c d e g r a d a t i o n o f d i e t a r y c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h m a yb e i n i t i a t e d i n t h e o r a l c a v i t y , e t c . ) . T h e b e a g l e d o g h a sb e e n sh own ( S c h e m e h o r n e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ) t o b e a n a c c e p t a b l emodel f o r s t u d i e s o f d e n t a l s t a i n a c c u m u l a t i o n , b u t t h e u s eo f a d o g model h a s a numbe r o f p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s ( e . g . ,i n i t i a l a n d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s , s p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , d i f f i c u l t yi n h a n d l i n g a n i m a l s , e t c . ) . R a b b i t s h a v e a l s o b e e n u t i l i z e df o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f d e n t a l s t a i n ( E l l i n g s e n e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 a ,1 9 8 2 b ) , b u t t h e s e a n i m a l s a l s o p r e s e n t some o f t h e s a m el i m i t a t i o n s a s d o g s .Th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s d e s i g n e d t o d e v e l o p a r a tmodel f o r s t u d y i n g s t a i n a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d t o u s e t h i sm o d e l f o r a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f e c t o f s o m ed i e t a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s o n t h i s p r o c e s s .

    R e c e i v e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n S e p t e m b e r 4 , 1 9 8 4A c c e p t e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n F e b r u a r y 2 5 , 1 9 8 58 1 0

    M a t e r i a l s a n d m e t h o d s .I n e a c h o f t h e r a t s t u d i e s , s t a i n w a s d e f i n e d a s a n y s u p e r -f i c i a l d i s c o l o r a t i o n o r p i g m e n t a t i o n p r e s e n t o n t h e m o l a rt o o t h s u r f a c e s , f o l l o w i n g t h e r e m o v a l o f p l a q u e , o t h e r t h a nt h e n a t u r a l , i n h e r e n t c o l o r o f t h e t o o t h . C a l c u l u s w a s n o ts c o r e d a s s t a i n u n l e s s i t e x h i b i t e d s o m e d e g r e e o f p i g m e n t a -t i o n . T h e s c o r i n g m e t h o d e x a m i n e d a t o t a l o f s i x e n a m e la r e a s ( F i g . 1 ) on e a c h m a n d i b u l a r a n d m a x i l l a r y h e m i j a w ,b y u t i l i z a t i o n o f a 25X b i n o c u l a r d i s s e c t i n g m i c r o s c o p ea f t e r t h e d e a t h o f e a c h a n i m a l , p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e h e m i j a w sb y a u t o c l a v i n g , r e m o v a l o f s o f t t i s s u e a n d p l a q u e u s i n g at o o t h b r u s h , c o d i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e e l e m e n t s o f b l i n d n e s s ,a n d a i r - d r y i n g f o r 2 4 h o u r s . A s c o r e was a s s i g n e d t o e a c he n a m e l s u r f a c e b a s e d u p o n a v i s u a l e s t i m a t e o f t h e p e r c e n to f t h a t s u r f a c e c o v e r e d b y s t a i n ( 0 t o 1 0 0 % ) . I n a d d i t i o n ,

    t h e i n t e n s i t y o f e a c h s t a i n e d a r e a w a s a s s i g n e d e i t h e r a l i g h t ,m e d i u m , o r h e a v y d e s i g n a t i o n a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m e r i c a lv a l u e s o f 1 , 2 , o r 3 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( S c h e m e h o r n e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ) .T h e p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e s c o r e w a s t h e n m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e i n -t e n s i t y s c o r e i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a s t a i n s e v e r i t y s c o r e . T h em e a n p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e a n d s e v e r i t y s c o r e s f o r e a c h g r o u pw e r e t h e n c a l c u l a t e d . F i g s . 2 a n d 3 i l l u s t r a t e two d i f f e r e n tt y p e s a n d i n t e n s i t i e s o f s t a i n p r o d u c e d i n a l b i n o r a t s u n d e rd i f f e r e n t e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s .S i n c e t h e h e a v i e s t d e p o s i t o f s t a i n was o b s e r v e d t o o c c u ron t h e m e s i a l s u r f a c e o f t h e f i r s t m a x i l l a r y m o l a r , t h e r e -s u l t s o b s e r v e d i n S t u d y 1 w e r e t a b u l a t e d f o r b o t h w h o l emouth a n d f i r s t m a x i l l a r y m o l a r s ( T a b l e 1 ) . I n S t u d y 2 ,o n l y t h e s t a i n on t h e f i r s t m a x i l l a r y m o l a r s w a s s c o r e d( T a b l e 2 ) ; w h o l e mouth s t a i n w a s d e t e r m i n e d o n a l l o f t h er e m a i n i n g s t u d i e s .S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d u s i n g t h e B a r t l e t tC h i - s q u a r e t e s t f o r h o m o g e n e i t y o f v a r i a n c e ( a t c a = 0 . 1 0 ) . I nc a s e s w h e r e t h e v a r i a n c e s w e r e h o m o g e n e o u s , a o n e - w a ya n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s p e r f o r m e d . I n c a s e s i n w h i c h homo-g e n e i t y o f v a r i a n c e c o u l d n o t b e a s s u m e d , t h e W e l c h t e s tm o d i f i e d t h i s p r o c e d u r e . Wh e n a s i g n i f i c a n t "F" v a l u e w a sf o u n d , t h e L e a s t S i g n i f i c a n t D i f f e r e n c e ( L S D ) t e s t w a s u s e dt o i d e n t i f y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a lm e a n s .The a n i m a l s u s e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s w e r e w e a n l i n g W i s t a r( S t u d i e s 1 a n d 5 ) o r S p r a g u e - D a w l e y r a t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 1d a y s o f a g e , o b t a i n e d f r o m a l o c a l s u p p l i e r * o r r a i s e d i n o u rl a b o r a t o r y ( S t u d y 5 ) . I n S t u d i e s 1 t h r o u g h 4 , a l l a n i m a l sw e r e m a l e s ; e q u a l n u m b e r s o f m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s w e r e u s e di n S t u d y 5 . Th e a n i m a l s w e r e s t r a t i f i e d i n t o t h e d e s i r e dnumber o f g r o u p s o n t h e b a s i s o f i n i t i a l b o d y w e i g h t a n dw e r e u n i q u e l y i d e n t i f i e d b y e a r - p u n c h i n g . T h e n u m b e r o fa n i m a l s p e r g r o u p r a n g e d f r o m f i v e t o 2 0 i n t h e v a r i o u ss t u d i e s . A l l a n i m a l s w e r e h o u s e d i n p a i r s i n r a i s e d w i r ec a g e s i n a n a i r - c o n d i t i o n e d room i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n -n e r . I n a l l s t u d i e s e x c e p t w h e r e g a s t r i c i n t u b a t i o n w a s u s e d ,t h e d i e t s were p r o v i d e d a d l i b i t u m ; d e - i o n i z e d ( D I ) d r i n k i n gw a t e r was s i m i l a r l y p r o v i d e d a d l i b i t u m i n a l l s t u d i e s . U n -l e s s o t h e r w i s e n o t e d , a l l s t u d i e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d f o r t h r e ew e e k s . A t t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e a c h s t u d y , t h e a n i m a l s w e r e

    * H a r l a n I n d u s t r i e s , I n c . , C u m b e r l a n d , I Nby guest on May 23, 2011 For personal use only. No other uses without permission.jdr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

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    DENTAL STAIN IN THE RATe u t h a n i z e d , a n d t h e i r h e m i j a w s w e r e r e m o v e d a n d p r e p a r e df o r e x a m i n a t i o n .

    I n S t u d y # 1 , t h e s i x d i e t s u s e d w e r e a c o m m e r c i a la n i m a l r a t i o n * , d i e t 2 0 0 0 ( K e y e s , 1 9 5 9 ) , d i e t 5 0 0 ( M c D o n -a l d a n d S t o o k e y , 1 9 7 3 ) , d i e t 2 7 0 0 ( S h a w , 1 9 4 7 ) , a n d d i e tMIT 2 0 0 ( N a v i a e t a l . , 1 9 6 9 ) . D i e t s 5 0 0 , 2 0 0 0 , 2 7 0 0 , a n dMIT 2 0 0 a r e c o m m o n l y - u s e d c a r i e s - p r o m o t i n g d i e t s . T h eJ o n e s - F o s t e r ( J o n e s a n d F o s t e r , 1 9 4 2 ) s a l t m i x t u r e w a su s e d i n d i e t s 2 7 0 0 a n d MIT 2 0 0 i n p l a c e o f t h e s a l t m i x t u r et y p i c a l l y u s e d i n t h e s e d i e t s ; a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s m i n o rm o d i f i c a t i o n , t h e s e d i e t s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a s 2700A a n d MIT2 0 0 A . Th e l a s t g r o u p i n t h e s t u d y r e c e i v e d t h e i r d i e t v i ag a s t r i c i n t u b a t i o n u t i l i z i n g a n a q u e o u s s u s p e n s i o n o fn u t r i e n t s ( S c o w e t a l . , 1 9 5 7 ) .

    * W a y n e L a b B l o x

    - M e s i a l o f 3 r d M o l a r

    , M e s i a l o f 2 n d M o l a r

    M e s i a l o f 1 s t M o l a r

    F i g . 1t i o n . M a n d i b u l a r t o o t h s u r f a c e s e v a l u a t e d f o r s t a i n f o r m a -

    I n S t u d y # 2 , w h i c h wa s c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h er e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d u r a t i o n o f t h e s t u d y a n d t h e a m o u n to f s t a i n f o r m a t i o n , a l l a n i m a l s w e r e p r o v i d e d d i e t M IT2 0 0 A . O n e - h a l f o f t h e a n i m a l g r o u p s r e c e i v e d t w i c e - d a i l y( o n c e d a i l y on w e e k e n d s ) c h l o r h e x i d i n e t r e a t m e n t s ( 0 . 2 %c h l o r h e x i d i n e g l u c o n a t e ) a p p l i e d w i t h a s a t u r a t e d c o t t o na p p l i c a t o r f o r 3 0 s e c p e r h e m i j a w . T h e r e m a i n i n g a n i m a l sr e c e i v e d s i m i l a r t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f d e - i o n i z e d w a t e r .One g r o u p o f a n i m a l s f r o m e a c h t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n r e g i m e n

    F i g . 2 E x a m p l e o f h e a v y s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t m a x i l l a r ym o l a r o f t h e r a t .

    F i g . 3 E x a m p l e o f m o d e r a t e s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t m a x -i l l a r y m o l a r o f t h e r a t .TABLE 1EFFECT O l VARIOUS D I E T S ON STAIN FORMATION I N RATS ( S T U D Y # 1 )D e n t a l S t a i n D a t a

    W h o l e M o u t h D a t a M a x i l l a r y F i r s t M o l a rD i e t N u m b e r o f P e r c e n t M e a n P e r c e n t M e a nP r o v i d e d A n i m a l s C o v e r a g e S e v e r i t y C o v e r a g e S e v e r i t yK e y e s 2 0 0 0 5 ** * * ** * *I . U . 5 0 0 5 0 . 1 0 . 1 h *o* 0 . 1 + 0 . 1 0 0C o m m e r c i a l Chow 5 0 . 3. 3 +. 2 0.5+.20 . 5 0 . 5 5S h a w 2 7 0 0 A 5 1 . 1 0 . 6 1 . 1 0 . 6 7 . 5 3 . 7 7 . 5 3 . 7S c o w ( I n t u b a t e d ) 4 5 . 6 2 . 1 6 . 1 + 2 . 4 _ 2 8 . 8 1 1 . 6 J ] 3 5 . 0 1 5 . 5MIT 2 0 0 A 5 2 6 . 5 + 5 . 1 4 4 . 6 1 0 . 8 4 9 . 5 8 . 6 1 2 2 . 0 3 0 . 0* M e a n + s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e m e a n .* * E x t e n s i v e c a r i e s p r e c l u d e d s t a i n a s s e s s m e n t s .* * * V a l u e s w i t h i n b r a c k e t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .

    V o l . 6 4 N o . 5 8 1 1

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    4/6

    8 1 2 McDONALD ETAL.w a s k i l l e d a f t e r e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d s o f o n e , t w o , t h r e e ,a n d f o u r w e e k s .S t u d y # 3 i n v e s t i g a t e d s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c ea n d a b s e n c e o f c h l o r h e x i d i n e t r e a t m e n t s when a l l t h e n u -t r i e n t i n t a k e o f t h e r a t s was a d m i n i s t e r e d b y g a s t r i c i n t u b a -t i o n . T h i s p r o c e d u r e w a s u t i l i z e d i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e a n yd i e t a r y e f f e c t on s t a i n i n g . I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e tw o e q u a lg r o u p s o f a n i m a l s ( N = 2 0 ) r e c e i v e d t h e i r b a s i c n u t r i t i o n a lr e q u i r e m e n t s b y g a s t r i c i n t u b a t i o n on a t w i c e - d a i l y b a s i s( S c o w e t a l . , 1 9 5 7 ) , a n d t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f c h l o r h e x i -d i n e o r w a t e r w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a sS t u d y # 2 .S t u d y # 4 was d e s i g n e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i -b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s o f d i e t 200A t o t h es t a i n i n g p r o c e s s . A t o t a l o f 8 0 r a t s was d i v i d e d i n t o f i v ee q u a l g r o u p s a n d p r o v i d e d D i e t MIT 200A ( G r o u p A ) o rm o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h i s d i e t i n w h i c h c o r n s t a r c h r e p l a c e ds u c r o s e ( G r o u p B ) ; w h o l e w h e a t f l o u r r e p l a c e d s u c r o s e( G r o u p C ) ; c a s e i n r e p l a c e d l a c t a l b u m i n ( G r o u p D ) ; o r c o -c o n u t o i l r e p l a c e d c o t t o n s e e d o i l ( G r o u p E ) .S t u d y # 5 i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t e a o r c o f f e ec o n s u m p t i o n o n t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s t a i n i n t h e p r e s e n c ea n d a b s e n c e o f c h l o r h e x i d i n e t o p i c a l t r e a t m e n t s . A t o t a l o f

    TABLE 2E FF EC T O F TEST DURATION AND CHLORHEXIDINEON STAIN FORMATION I N RATS ( S T U D Y # 2 )T e s t Numbere s t NumberoDentalS t a i n D a t aP e r i o d T o p i c a l o f( D a y s ) T r e a t m e n t A n i m a l s P e r c e n t C o v e r a g e S e v e r i t y S c o r e

    7 C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 2 1 0 . 6 4 . 1 * * 1 5 . 2 6 . 17 D I W a t e r 1 2 5 . 8 + 5 . 4 5 . 8 5 . 41 4 C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 2 5 1 . 0 8 . 0 6 4 . 8 1 4 . 11 4 D I W a t e r 1 2 3 0 . 1 8 . 1 4 3 . 2 1 5 . 2 12 1 C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 2 6 4 . 6 + 5 . 5 1 0 1 . 3 + 1 4 . 32 1 D I W a t e r 1 1 3 1 . 9 + 8 . 1 5 6 . 0 + 1 6 . 6 J2 8 C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 2 8 1 . 5 7 . 4 1 8 9 . 8 2 2 . 52 8 D I W a t e r 1 0 5 1 . 4 6 . 7 9 8 . 6 2 1 . 4

    * M e a n s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e m e a n .* * V a l u e s w i t h i n b r a c k e t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .D I = d e - i o n i z e d .

    8 4 r a t s w a s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x g r o u p s , a l l o f w h i c h w e r e p r o -v i d e d d i e t 2 0 0 0 . P a i r s o f g r o u p s w e r e p r o v i d e d e i t h e r d e -i o n i z e d w a t e r , c o f f e e , o r t e a ; t h e c o f f e e a n d t e a wereb r e w e d d a i l y . W i t h i n e a c h p a i r o f g r o u p s , o n e g r o u p r e -c e i v e d t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f c h l o r h e x i d i n e a n d t h e o t h e rg r o u p r e c e i v e d a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f d e - i o n i z e d w a t e r ; t o p i c a la p p l i c a t i o n s w e r e g i v e n a s n o t e d i n S t u d y # 2 .R e s u l t s .

    Th e s t a i n s c o r e s o b t a i n e d i n S t u d y # 1 i n w h i c h d i f f e r e n td i e t s w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p r o d u c es t a i n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 . No s t a i n s c o r e s w e r e o b -t a i n e d f o r t h e K e y e s 2 0 0 0 d i e t b e c a u s e m a n y o f t h e t o o t hs u r f a c e s were o b l i t e r a t e d b y c a r i e s . A l l d i e t s p r o d u c e d am i n i m a l amount o f s t a i n w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f MIT 2 0 0 A ,w h i c h p r o d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e s t a i n t h a n d i d t h e o t h e rd i e t s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , s o m e s t a i n w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e r a t sw h i c h r e c e i v e d t h e i r d i e t e n t i r e l y b y g a s t r i c i n t u b a t i o n .T a b l e 2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e c o n d s t u d y w h i c he x a m i n e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s t u d y d u r a t i o n a n d c h l o r h e x i -d i n e t r e a t m e n t s u p o n s t a i n f o r m a t i o n . Th e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t et h a t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s t u d y d u r a t i o n ( s e v e n , 1 4 , 2 1 , o r 2 8d a y s ) , t h e a d d i t i o n o f d a i l y t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f c h l o r -h e x i d i n e r e s u l t e d i n a n i n c r e a s e i n d e n t a l s t a i n i n g . Th e i n -c r e a s e d s t a i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m c h l o r h e x i d i n e w a s s t a t i s t i c a l l ys i g n i f i c a n t a t 1 4 , 2 1 , a n d 2 8 d a y s . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f c h l o r -h e x i d i n e , b o t h t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s t a i n a n d t h e s t a i n i n t e n -s i t y ( s e v e r i t y ) i n c r e a s e d a s t h e s t u d y d u r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d .T h e d a t a f r o m S t u d y # 3 , w h i c h w a s c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r -m i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c h l o r h e x i d i n e u p o n d e n t a l s t a i n i n gi n t h e a b s e n c e o f d i e t a r y f a c t o r s , s h o w e d t h a t t h e c h l o r h e x i -d i n e t r e a t m e n t w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y a 4 0 %i n c r e a s e i n s t a i n . H o w e v e r , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e w a s n o t s t a t i s -t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r m s o f e i t h e r c o v e r a g e o r i n t e n s i t y .T a b l e 3 s u m m a r i z e s t h e s t a i n d a t a o b t a i n e d i n S t u d y # 4 ,w h e r e v a r i o u s d i e t a r y c o m p o n e n t s w e r e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h ecommo n i n g r e d i e n t s n o r m a l l y p r e s e n t i n d i e t MIT 2 0 0 A .T h e u s e o f c o c o n u t o i l i n p l a c e o f c o t t o n s e e d o i l s i g n i f i c a n t -l y i n c r e a s e d s t a i n c o v e r a g e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o fs t a r c h a n d f l o u r f o r s u c r o s e n u m e r i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d b o t hs t a i n c o v e r a g e a n d s e v e r i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r en o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . C o n v e r s e l y , wh en c a s e i n r e -p l a c e d l a c t a l b u m i n i n t h e d i e t , a s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n t h es t a i n s e v e r i t y s c o r e w a s o b s e r v e d .

    TABLE 3EFFECT OF DIETARY COMPONENTS ON STAIN FORMATION I N RATS ( S T U D Y # 4 )Number o f D e n t a l S t a i n D a t a

    D i e t a r y A l t e r a t i o n A n i m a l s P e r c e n t C o v e r a g e S e v e r i t y S c o r eM IT 200A w i t h c o c o n u t o i lr e p l a c i n g c o t t o n s e e d o i l 1 5 2 1 . 2 + 3 . 9 * * 2 4 . 0 4 . 7M IT 200A w i t h c o r n s t a r c hr e p l a c i n g s u g a r 1 5 1 6 . 3 + 2 . 9 1 9 . 2 3 . 3MIT 200A w i t h w h o l e w h e a t f l o u rr e p l a c i n g s u g a r 1 6 1 7 . 5 2 . 9 1 8 . 6 3 . 1MIT 2 0 0 A , u n a l t e r e d 1 6 9 . 8 + 2 . 8 1 3 . 2 3 . 3MIT 200A w i t h c a s e i nr e p l a c i n g l a c t a l b u m i n 1 4 4 . 8 1 . 0 5 . 8 1 . 3* M e a n s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e m e a n .* * V a l u e s w i t h i n b r a c k e t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .

    JDent R e s M a y 1 9 8 5

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    DENTAL STAIN IN THE RATT a b l e 4 s u m m a r i z e s t h e r e s u l t s o f S t u d y # 5 c o n c e r n i n gt h e e f f e c t s o f c o f f e e , t e a , a n d c h l o r h e x i d i n e on s t a i n f o r -m a t i o n . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f c h l o r h e x i d i n e , t e a r e s u l t e d i n ap r o n o u n c e d i n c r e a s e i n b o t h t h e e x t e n t a n d i n t e n s i t y o fs t a i n , w h i l e c o f f e e p r o d u c e d o n l y a n u m e r i c a l i n c r e a s ew h i c h w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . I n no i n s t a n c e i n t h i s s t u d y w a st h e amount o f s t a i n f o r m a t i o n a l t e r e d b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o fc h l o r h e x i d i n e .

    D i s c u s s i o n .The r e s u l t s f r o m t h e f i r s t s t u d y s h o w e d t h a t o f t h e d i e t st e s t e d , o n l y MIT 200A d i e t p r o d u c e d a n y s i g n i f i c a n tamount o f d e n t a l s t a i n i n g . A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a lc o m p o n e n t s o f t h e h i g h - s t a i n - p r o d u c i n g MIT 200A d i e tw i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - s t a i n i n g I . U . 5 0 0 , c o m m e r c i a lc h o w , a n d Shaw 2700A d i e t s s h o w s a m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a ld i f f e r e n c e . L a c t a l b u m i n i s u n i q u e t o d i e t MIT 2 0 0 A , w h e r e -a s t h e s u c r o s e , c e l l u l o s e , v i t a m i n , a n d s a l t m i x t u r e s a r eco m m o n t o s e v e r a l o f t h e d i e t s . A l t h o u g h c o t t o n s e e d o i li s p r e s e n t o n l y i n d i e t MIT 2 0 0 A , d i e t 2700A c o n t a i n e d as i m i l a r c o m p o n e n t ( c o r n o i l ) . T h u s , l a c t a l b u m i n a p p e a r e dt o b e t h e m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d i e t MIT

    200A a n d t h e o t h e r d i e t s t e s t e d , w h i c h m i g h t b e r e s p o n s i -b l e f o r t h e i n c r e a s e d s t a i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e d i e t .I n o r d e r t o d e l i n e a t e b e t t e r t h e " s t a i n i n g - f a c t o r " i n d i e tMIT 2 0 0 A , w e made v a r i o u s s u b s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s d i e tu s i n g c o m p o n e n t s s i m i l a r t o t h e o r i g i n a l d i e t a r y c o n s t i t u -e n t s ( S t u d y # 4 ) . The p r o v i s i o n o f c o c o n u t o i l i n p l a c e o fc o t t o n s e e d o i l a s w e l l a s t h e u s e o f c o r n s t a r c h a n d w h e a tf l o u r i n p l a c e o f s u c r o s e g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h e s t a i n p r o -d u c e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l MIT 200A d i e t . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e u s eo f c a s e i n i n p l a c e o f l a c t a l b u m i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d t h es e v e r i t y ( i n t e n s i t y ) o f t h e s t a i n a n d n u m e r i c a l l y d e c r e a s e dt h e a m o u n t o f s t a i n c o v e r a g e . The e v i d e n c e f r o m t h i s s t u d y ,a s w e l l a s i n d i r e c t r e a s o n i n g b a s e d o n t h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h ef i r s t s t u d y , s u g g e s t s t h a t l a c t a l b u m i n m a y b e a n i m p o r t a n ts t a i n - p r o d u c i n g f a c t o r p r e s e n t i n d i e t MIT 2 0 0 A .F rom t h e p r e s e n t s t u d i e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e o n l y t o s p e c u l a t ea b o u t w h y l a c t a l b u m i n i s more c o n d u c i v e t o s t a i n f o r m a -t i o n t h a n i s c a s e i n . On e m i g h t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i sd u e t o e l e v a t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c a l c i u m a n d p h o s p h o r u si n l a c t a l b u m i n , r e s u l t i n g i n e n h a n c e d m i n e r a l i z a t i o n o fa c q u i r e d p e l l i c l e a n d p l a q u e . H o w e v e r , t h i s i s n o t c o n -s i d e r e d t o b e a l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n , s i n c e c a s e i n c o n t a i n s t wot o t h r e e t i m e s m o re c a l c i u m a n d p h o s p h o r u s t h a n l a c t a l b u -m i n . E l l i n g s e n e t a l . ( 1 9 8 2 a , b ) h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t s t a i nf o r m a t i o n m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f i r o n s u l f i d ew h i c h o c c u r s b y e x p o s u r e o f t h i o l g r o u p s d u r i n g t h e d e n a -t u r a t i o n o f m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s b y a n t i m i c r o b i a l a g e n t s . Thef a c t t h a t l a c t a l b u m i n c o n t a i n s a b o u t t w i c e a s much s u l f u r

    as c a s e i n a n d t h a t t h e s u l f u r i s p r e s e n t as t h e amino a c i d sc y s t i n e a n d m e t h i o n i n e , w h i c h p r o v i d e t h i o l g r o u p s , p r e -s e n t s a more p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o b -s e r v a t i o n s o f E l l i n g s e n e t a l . ( 1 9 8 2 a , b ) .I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t v a r i a t i o n s i n s t a i n scores p r o -d u c e d b y d i e t MIT 200A were o b s e r v e d f r o m s t u d y t os t u d y ( f o r e x a m p l e , a v a l u e o f 2 6 . 5 f o r S t u d y # 1 v s . 9 . 8 f o rS t u d y # 4 ) . T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o d i f f e r -e n c e s i n r a t s p e c i e s u s e d ( W i s t a r v s . S p r a g u e D a w l e y ) ; num-b e r o f r a t s u s e d ( o n l y f i v e a n i m a l s p e r g r o u p were u s e d i nS t u d y # 1 ) ; c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e o r a l f l o r a ; a n d a d d i t i o n a lf a c t o r s w h i c h r e m a i n u n k n o w n .Th e f i n d i n g s i n S t u d y # 2 - t h a t b o t h t h e a m o u n t o fs t a i n c o v e r a g e a n d t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s t a i n g e n e r a l l y i n -c r e a s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t e s t p e r i o d - weren o t u n e x p e c t e d . I t i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t s t a i n accumu-l a t i o n i n man i s a n i n s i d i o u s p r o c e s s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e con-t i n u o u s d e p o s i t i o n o f g l y c o p r o t e i n s a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n o fp i g m e n t e d m a t e r i a l s ( o r r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s ) f r o m t h e o r a le n v i r o n m e n t ; t h u s , s u c h s t a i n s are t h o u g h t t o i n c r e a s e i nm a g n i t u d e i n a l i n e a r manner as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e . Thef a c t t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e s were n o t more n e a r l y l i n e a r a s af u n c t i o n o f t i m e i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y c o u l d b e d u e t o t h es u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e g r a d i n g p r o c e d u r e , o r i t m a y b ei n d i c a t i v e o f a n o n - l i n e a r r a t e o f s t a i n a c c u m u l a t i o n w i t hp e r i o d s o f l e s s s t a i n f o r m a t i o n .As n o t e d e a r l i e r ( T a b l e 1 ) i t was o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e moste x t e n s i v e d e p o s i t i o n o f s t a i n o c c u r r e d on t h e m e s i a l s u r -f a c e s o f t h e m a x i l l a r y f i r s t m o l a r s . I t was o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h tt h a t t h e u s e o f o n l y t h i s s u r f a c e m i g h t i m p r o v e t h e s e n s i -t i v i t y o f t h e m o d e l ( T a b l e 1 ) ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e di n s t u d i e s 3 - 5 s u p p o r t e d t h e same c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d l e s s o ft h e manner o f t a b u l a t i n g t h e d a t a .The p r o n o u n c e d i n c r e a s e i n s t a i n f o r m a t i o n o b s e r v e dwhen t e a was i n g e s t e d i n p l a c e o f d r i n k i n g w a t e r ( S t u d y# 5 ) was a n t i c i p a t e d , s i n c e o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a d s u g g e s t e dt h a t t e a c o n s u m p t i o n e n h a n c e d s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i n h u m a ns t u d i e s ( A d d y e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 a ; F o r m i c o l a e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ; P r a y i t -no e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ) as w e l l as i n i n v i t r o s t u d i e s ( A d d y e t a l . ,1 9 7 9 b ) . H o w e v e r , t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s e f f e c t - more t h a na t w o - f o l d i n c r e a s e was much g r e a t e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d .I n c o n t r a s t , t h e p r o v i s i o n o f c o f f e e t o t h e r a t s r e s u l t e d i no n l y a n u m e r i c a l i n c r e a s e i n s t a i n , w h i c h was not s t a t i s -t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . A n a l y s i s o f t h e s e d a t a s u g g e s t s t h a t t e ai s o f g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n c o f f e e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o fs t a i n .To e x p l o r e p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a i n f o r m a t i o n r e -l a t e d t o t h e s ex o f t h e a n i m a l s , S t u d y # 5 u t i l i z e d b o t hm a l e a n d f e m a l e r a t s i n e q u a l n u m b e r s i n e a c h g r o u p .A l t h o u g h t h e d a t a a r e n o t p r e s e n t e d , t h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e dt h a t , w h i l e f e m a l e s t e n d e d t o h a v e n u m e r i c a l l y g r e a t e r

    TABLE 4EFFECT OF C O F F E E , T E A , AND CHLORHEXIDINE ON STAIN FORMATION I N RATS ( S T U D Y # 5 )D r i n k i n g T o p i c a l Number o f D e n t a l S t a i n D a t aF l u i d R e g i m e n A n i m a l s P e r c e n t C o v e r a g e S e v e r i t y S c o r eW a t e r W a t e r 1 4 2 6 . 4 + 5 . 8 * * * 4 1 . 3 + 1 1 . 7 1W a t e r C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 4 3 3 . 9 6 . 3 5 9 . 1 1 2 . 7C o f f e e W a t e r 1 4 3 2 . 9 + 7 . 1 6 5 . 0 + 1 7 . 5 _C o f f e e C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 3 4 4 . 8 6 . 7 J90.01 6 . 6 JT e a W a t e r 1 4 6 6 . 6 + 4 . 3 1 1 5 1 . 3 + 1 6 . 9 1T e a C h l o r h e x i d i n e 1 4 6 1 . 8 + 5 . 2 J 1 6 3 . 6 + 1 7 . 1 J* M e a n + s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e mean.* * V a l u e s w i t h i n b r a ck e t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .

    V o l . 6 4 N o . 5 8 1 3

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  • 8/4/2019 Articulo Mancha en Ratas

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    8 1 4 McDONALD ETAL.s t a i n scores t h a n m a l e s ( r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a lr e g i m e n ) , no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m a l e s a n df e m a l e s were o b s e r v e d .The r e s u l t s o b s e r v e d w i t h d i e t 2 0 0 0 i n two d i f f e r e n ts t u d i e s ( # 1 a n d # 5 ) are i n t e r e s t i n g a n d s u g g e s t t h e p o s s i -b i l i t y o f a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s w h i c h m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o s t a i nf o r m a t i o n . I n S t u d y # 1 ( T a b l e 1 ) , t h i s d i e t r e s u l t e d i ne x t e n s i v e c a r i e s , w h i c h e l i m i n a t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s s e s -s i n g s t a i n . I n S t u d y # 5 ( T a b l e 4 ) , h o w e v e r , c a r i e s was n o ta p p a r e n t , a n d t h e s t a i n scores w e r e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h . T h ef a c t s t h a t no a t t e m p t was made t o i n f e c t t h e a n i m a l s w i t hc a r i o g e n i c m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s a n d t h a t c a r i e s was o b s e r v e di n one s t u d y b u t n o t t h e o t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t t h e amount o fs t a i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e i n f l u e n ce d b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e o r a lf l o r a . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t a n o n - c a r i o g e n i cf l o r a m a y b e more c o n d u c i v e t o s t a i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t m o r ed e f i n i t i v e s t u d i e s a re n e e d e d .

    I n s e v e r a l o f t h e s e s t u d i e s , c h l o r h e x i d i n e t r e a t m e n t swere i n c l u d e d f o r tw o r ea s o n s : ( 1 ) t o serve as a p o s i t i v ec o n t r o l t o v e r i f y t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e m o d e l , s i n c e a n t i m i c r o -b i a l a g e n t s h a v e b e e n shown t o e n h a n c e s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i nh u m a n s ; a n d ( 2 ) t o e x p l o r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h i sa g e n t a n d d i e t a r y f a c t o r s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s t a i n . W i t ht h e e x c e p t i o n o f one g r o u p i n one s t u d y ( # 5 ) , c h l o r h e x i -d i n e t r e a t m e n t s i n c r e a s e d s t a i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d i n s e v e r a li n s t a n c e s t h i s e f f e c t was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The l o n ee x c e p t i o n o c c u r r e d when t h e a n i m a l s w e r e p r o v i d e d t e a ,w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n e x t e n s i v e s t a i n f o r m a t i o n ; i n t h i s i n s t a n c e ,i t i sp o s s i b l e e i t h e r t h a t t h e t e a m a s k e d any e f f e c t s o fc h l o r h e x i d i n e o r t h a t t h e m o d e l was u n a b l e t o d e t e c tg r e a t e r amounts o f s t a i n .W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c h l o r h e x i d i n ea n d d i e t a r y f a c t o r s , i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t b o t h c o n t r i b u t et o s t a i n f o r m a t i o n b u t t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t m e c h a n i s m s . T h i ss e p a r a t i o n o f m e c h a n i s m s i s s u g g e s t e d b y t h e o b s e r v a t i o nt h a t c h l o r h e x i d i n e t r e a t m e n t s g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h ea m o u n t o f s t a i n r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i e t . T h u s ,t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e one m e c h a n i s m o f s t a i n f o r m a t i o nw h i c h i s r e l a t e d t o t h e d i e t a n d most l i k e l y i n v o l v e s t h ei n c l u s i o n o f p i g m e n t e d d i e t a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s d u r i n g a d s o r p -t i o n o f g l y c o p r o t e i n s on t h e t o o t h s u r f a c e . The f o r m a t i o no f s t a i n b y a n t i m i c r o b i a l a g e n t s s u c h a s c h l o r h e x i d i n ea p p e a r s t o i n v o l v e a s e c o n d m e c h a n i s m w h i c h i s i n d e p e n -d e n t o f t h e f i r s t . The l a t t e r m e c h a n i s m m a y i n v o l v e a reac-t i o n o f t h e a n t i m i c r o b i a l a g e n t w i t h d i e t a r y c o m p o n e n t s ,a s h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d ( A d d y e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 b ) , o r i t c o u l di n v o l v e a n i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a n t i m i c r o b i a l a g e n t a n dt h e m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s w h i c h h a v e b e e n k i l l e d b y t h e a g e n t .T h e e t i o l o g y o f d e n t a l s t a i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e p r e s e n c e o fan a n t i m i c r o b i a l a g e n t , a p p e a r s t o i n v o l v e s e v e r a l p r o c e s s e sa n d m a y b e f a r more c o m p l e x t h a n h a s b e e n t h o u g h t .I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h er a t m a y b e u s e f u l f o r s t u d i e s o f t h e e t i o l o g y o f d e n t a l s t a i n .I n e a c h o f t h e s t u d i e s , s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f s t a i n f o r m e di n t h e r a t s w i t h i n a t h r e e - w e e k t e s t p e r i o d . F u r t h e r , f a c t o r skn o w n t o i n c r e a s e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f e x t r i n s i c d e n t a l s t a i n i nman ( e . g . , t e a , c h l o r h e x i d i n e ) were s i m i l a r l y f o u n d t o e n -h a n c e s t a i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e r a t . T h u s , i t would appear t h a t

    t h e p r e s e n t m o d e l m a y b e o f v a l u e f o r s t u d i e s o f b o t h t h ee t i o l o g y a n d p r e v e n t i o n o f s t a i n .A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s .

    Th e a u t h o r s w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e t e c h n i c a l a s s i s -t a n c e o f M s . C a r o l A . R o d l u n a n d M s . J a n i c e A . W a r r i c k i nc o n d u c t i n g t h e s e s t u d i e s .REFERENCES

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