Article 9 - Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocational Education and Training Systems

8/13/2019 Article 9 - Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocational Education and Training Systems

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colsr160\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1181\sb178\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs22 Introduction\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri140\sb237\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Planning and policy development in any organization \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 can be analyzed and understood through a number of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 approaches. Traditionally, policy has been conceptualized \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 as a program of action. Any policy has usually been pre-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sented as a \u8216?\u8216?rational plan, consciously articulated by an \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 authoritative body, usually a government or government \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 agency, codified in text such as law or regulation which \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 articulates clear expectations for behaviour\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ba

scia,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : xii). This tidy linear process in which policy pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 gresses from one stage to another and where policy is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 defined as whatever governments choose to do, or not to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 do (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Dye, 1992\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) has been criticized by policy researchers \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 from different theoretical standpoints (e.g., liberal, neolib-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 eral, positivist, or post-structural approaches). There is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 now a considerable body of theoretical and empirical\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 work that views the nature of planning and policy devel-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 opment as \u8216?\u8216?far more complex, dynamic, and interactive \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 than any

of the traditional linear or staged models suggest\u8217?\u8217? \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Walford, 2003\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 2). The complexity of the process has \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 become an important feature of a number of well-known \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 frameworks for policy analysis, for example\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ball\u8217?s (1993, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1994)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Taylor\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . (1997)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 models.\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Taylor\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (1997)\ul0\nosupers



ub\cf5\f6\fs20 focus on three aspects of policy: context (economic, \line \up0\expndtw0\charscalex107 social, and political factors that give rise to an issue \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 emerging on the policy agenda), text (broadly refer to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the content of the policy), and consequences (differences \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in implementation).\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ball\u8217?s (1993, 1994)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 model of policy as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 text and policy as a discourse provides another way to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 understand the complexity of policymaking. Both frame-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 works are widely used in the literature (e.g.,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Stevenson, 2006; Olssen\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2004\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ).For example,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Olssen, \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (2004)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in developing Ball\u8217?s approach argue that: \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Education policy must be contextualised both nationally \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and globally as a transformative discourse that can have \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 real social effects in response to contemporary crises of \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 survival and sustainability\u8217?\u8217? (p. 3).\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri141\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The purpose of this article is not to analyze the differ-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ences between the various approaches to policy develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ment and policy analysis but to explore a number of \line \

up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 important considerations in terms of technical andvoca-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 tional education and training (TVET) policy develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ment, such as scope, scale, principles, and theoretical \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 justifications. Thepoint that we are making is that\par\pard\column \qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb218\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 TVET policy is multidimensional, is value-laden, exists \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in particular contexts, interacts with policies in other \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fields, its implementation is never straightforward, and it \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 results in unintended and intended consequences. Policy-\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 making for TVET is mainly a state activity and the state is \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 regarded as a complex and nonunitary entity of co

mpet-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ing parts that adds an additional aspect to any analysis.\par\pard\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li23\sb82\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs22 Complexity of TVET\par\pard\ql \li23\sb125\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Scope\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb122\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The great diversity of TVET systems worldwide illustrate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 a range of policy options that have been used and are \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 available to shape and reform them. Intrying to classify \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 existing TVET systems, researchers have considered a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 number of factors, including place of learning (typically, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 vocational schools and the workplace/enterprise work-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal

ex100 shops); type of regulation (government, market, and tra-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 dition, see e.g.,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Greinert, 1995\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ); or nonformal/informal \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 learning as a leading criterion for classifications.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1089\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 In reality, combinations of these patterns across the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 above dimensions can be found in particular countries \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 andall these dimensions should be accounted for when \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 undertaking planning and policy development in particu-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 lar countries.\par\pard\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard



\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li23\sb26\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Scale\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1087\sb122\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Another component of complexity in policy formulation \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 for TVET can be related to the scale of the policy within \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (any) TVET system. Improvements within a TVET sys-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tem can be carried out in terms of a particular element of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the system, such as qualification standards and specializa-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tion; articulation with general education; assessment and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 certification for achievements; methods of curriculum \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 development; governance; labor-market analysis; financing; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 legislation; access and admission; provision of training \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 places; special target groups; institutional arrangements \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 for delivery; and, information and guidance. Alternatively, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 improvements can be made to the system as a whole which \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 is known as a systematic reform. Systematic reform is built \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 upon the assumption that changing most or all elements of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the system is more likely to lead to TVET improvement. \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \ql \li10315\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li10315\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li10315\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li10315\sb140\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18469 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp

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07fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d347fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d347fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f497817c6ba3fc44f0a693e32d02cfc5ba7e91ad25d496767e3af00f8efe17f8ae15b3bebad3a61ab7813e25f873c25e38d01dee2ce592d63d77c3da6c97d62f6baa592dc6997d657771d6d1401fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\li1292\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li1292\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx1947 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 470\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Vocational Education and Training - VET System\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6025

\colsr160\colno2\colw5575\colsr160\ql \li1292\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb152\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Coherence\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb121\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In planning TVET systems and in developing policies, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 coherence across sectors such as the interests of different \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 institutionsinvolved and different policies should be \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 taken into consideration. TVET is situated at the border \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 between education and work. To contribute successfully \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 to economic development TVET policy must outline: \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \u8216?\u8216?coherent and integrated changes in a range of related \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 institutions, including the economic, human resources \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and [TV]ET agencie

s of the state, the labour market, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the social organisation of work and in the forms of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 employer and trade union organisation\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Kraak, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 3).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 A coherent approach to TVET policy development \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 needs to relate it to arange of other policies and issues, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 including general education policy (both school and uni-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 versity); youth policy; adult education policy; vocational \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rehabilitation; public service employment and remunera-\line



\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tion conditions; economic policy; private-sector and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 enterprise-promotion policies; industrial development \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 policies; and labor-market and employment policies \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Kronner, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). Thus, TVET policy should be closely \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 linked with other policy areas and institutions, in particu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 lar to those dealing with education, work, employment, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 andeconomic development.\par\pard\ql \li1294\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb33\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Globalization\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri143\sb121\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The strategic direction of much of education policy is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 frequently justified as a means to enhanced economic \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 development leading to a more competitive economy, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 greater productivity, and increased wealth. Investment\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 in education and training is believed to provide the key \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to national competitiveness. Globalization processes and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the pressures for global uniformity have the tendency \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 to strengthen the Anglo-American influence on policy \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 development and raise concerns as to the appropriateness \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of such an occurrence:\par\pard\qj \li1531\ri381\sb116\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs18 Anglo-American schol

ars continue to exert a dispropor-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tionate influence on theory, policy and practice. Thus a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 relatively small number of scholars and policy makers \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 representing less than 8% of the world\u8217?s population pur-\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 port to speak for the rest. (\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs18 Walker and Dimmock, 2002\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs18 : 15)\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri140\sb121\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 However, many recent studies have shown that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 globalization-driven policy developments are sometimes \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 so sharply modified by national contexts thatthe output \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 they promise would vary greatly (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Rhoten, 2000; Welmond, \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 2002; Astiz\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20

., 2002\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) if implemented in another context. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Therefore, for the policy formulation, the specificcontext \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of a particular country should be taken into account to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 identify an adequate response to immediate and future \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 labor-market needs. It is important to \u8216?\u8216?identify that way \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 in which global pressures have driven state restructuring\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 . . . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the particular way in which restructuring at the\par\pard\column \qj \li6185\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri973\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 micro-level shapes policy development at an institutional\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 level\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 33). What is required are \

up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the analyses of the state, economy, and models of policy \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 development that recognize different cultural contexts. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Generally, the more \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8216?loosely-coupled\u8217? state structures \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 are, the more opportunity there is for policy variation at \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 the local level\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 30).\par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li22\sb69\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Principles of Policy Planning\par\pard\qj \li20\ri975\sb237\sl-239\slmult0 \



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

daff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7

ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3

f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015ed



fb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d2be09f18e91f103c2da478c342b3f1558693adc334f6569e36f02f8dfe1a78a61482eee2cdd757f037c47f0f7853c6be1f99a6b691e1b7d7bc3fa6dc5c5ab5bdfdbc52d8dd5adc4dd551401fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\li1815\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li1815\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx10315 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocational Education and Training Systems\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 471\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5911\colsr160\colno2\colw5689\colsr160\qj\li1179\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1597\ri381\sb126\sl-239\slmult0 \up0\expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs18 greatest extent possible,non-formal education\u8217?\u8217? (para \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 15, p. 16)\par\pard\qj \li1597\ri381\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?National policy should foster research related to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 technical and vocational education, with particular \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 emphasis on its potential within lifelong learning, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 directed to its improvement and relevance to the pre-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 vailing socio-economic context. This research should \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 be carried out at national and institutional levels, as \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 well as through individual initiative\u8217?\u8217? (para16, p. 16).\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb119\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 These principles highlight the importance of national \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 policies aimed at the quality of training, which can be \l

ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 achieved through structural change. These principles and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 approaches represent a traditional way of interpreting \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 policy as a rational plan of action; therefore, the level of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 effectiveness of their application will be different for \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 different countries. For example, with a state-guided \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 labor market, Singapore might find these principles to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 be more useful than other countries where the labor \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 market is less regulated. These principles provide a useful \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 list of general rules that should be used creatively by \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 governments.\par\pard\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1181\sb93\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosuper

sub\cf11\f12\fs22 Theoretical Frameworks\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb237\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 This section discusses a possible basis for theoretical \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102frameworks that could provide a foundation for TVET \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 policy formulation in both developed and developing \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 countries. The first set of theories relates to the structural \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 reform/policy formulation and the second set to the the-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ories that shape our understanding of how humans learn.\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri140\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The idea of an alignment between education, training, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 labor market, and economic policies can be underpinned \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 by the theoretical arguments of thehigh-skills thesis, com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 bined with what is de

scribed as the joined-up approach \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Brown,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). The high-skills thesis has caught the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 imagination of policymakers around the world (p. 31). It \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 was developed through the work of a UK team in the late \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 1980s and 1990s(see\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Finegold and Soskice, 1988; Finegold, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1991; Ashton and Green, 1996; Brown\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). They \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 argued that diversity and variability



in economic perfor-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mance are underpinned by social, cultural, and historical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 factors. Finegold (1991) explores the concept of equilib-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rium in terms of the self-reinforcing nature of the institu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tional networks that support the continuation of a given \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 skills-formation system and economic developmentpath. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Any change of one variable without corresponding shifts \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 in the other institutionalvariables is unlikely to lead to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 long-term changes in the social and economic system as \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100a whole. Using this concept, Finegold identified two ideal \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 types of economic and education/training (ET) systems: an \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 institutional framework based on low-skills equilibrium \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (LSE) and one based on high-skills equilibrium (HSE). \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Finegold\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 et al.\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 viewed Britain as being typical of anLSE\par\pard\column \qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1087\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 society where \u8216?\u8216?themajority of enterprises are staffed by \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 poorly trained managers and workers produce low quality \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 goods and services\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Finegold and Soskice, 1988\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 22). LSE \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 institutional factors identified by Finegold discourage and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 constrain any movement toward a high-skill alternative

. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 They included uncoordinated state policies, incoherent \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 TVET policies, low educational level of the majority of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 workers, minimal state intervention in TVET, and labor \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 markets. Another analysis (see\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Brown,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) demon-\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 strates that there is some presence of highskills in Britain. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Thus, joined-up or cross-sectoral policy coordination and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 complementarity are associated with a high-skills thesis. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Joining up is essentially an argument about the necessity \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 for educational reforms to interlock with macroeconomic, \line\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 industrial, and labor-market reforms so that the c

ombined \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 impact would influence the outcome in a significant and \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 positive way.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 A high-skills policy has been the center of economic, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 social, and educational policies in many Western coun-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 tries. However, due to differences in context \u8216?\u8216?there is no\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 one recipe or blueprint for developing a high-skills econ-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 omy\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder and Brown, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 37).\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder and Brown \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 (2006)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 identified four different types of labor market \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 structures. An occupational labor market whereeducation \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 and training are closely related to

the labor market; an \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 internal labor market, where high general skills are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 provided by TVET and specific skilling is undertaken \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102by corporations; and the state-guided labor market \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 which is a demand-led (e.g., specific to Singapore where \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the state encourages high-end production and innovation \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 and matches skills to the demand of the multinational \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 corporations) market structure. All three types of labor \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 markets have in common a close integration of TVET and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the labor m



arket. The fourth type of market, a flexible \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 labor market, is characterized by a high degree of individ-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ualism, \u8216?\u8216?in which the fit between education, training and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the labour market is often problematic; there is consider-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 able time spent in job search and work is insecure; and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the flexibility is numerical, so that employers can hire and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 fire as economic conditions change\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder and Brown, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 39). Some authors are less critical of flexible labor \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 market; however, there is agreement that more emphasis \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 on the development of generic skills and good credential-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ing systems are important for thistype of labor market to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 be successful. Eachtype of labor market influences policy \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 development in TVET and the type of skills that are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 emphasized in the policy. If one accepts that the long-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 term aim of the economy is to achieve an HSE and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 capacity building, then contributing to achieving such a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 goal should be seen as an important function of TVET\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 policy development.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Each country can be conceptualized within this \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 framework, for example,high-skills society (Germany), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 developmental high-s

kills society (Singapore), bipolar \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 high-skills/low-skills society \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (UK), and hybrid and \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1200\shptop800\shpright10800\shpbottom980\shpwr3\shpfblwtxt0\shpbxpage\shpbypage\shpz379\shplid3{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 75}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn pib}{\sv {\pict\jpegblipffd8ffe000104a46494600010101006000600000ffdb00430001010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffdb00430101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc0001108000b025d03012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001

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c370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d347fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d347fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d347fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d347fc370fc18ffa12bf6bff00fc57b7edf5ff00d0d35f5fd1401f207fc370fc18ff00a12bf6bfff00c57b7edf5ffd0d35f497817c6ba3fc44f0a693e32d02cfc5ba7e91ad25d496767e3af00f8efe17f8ae15b3bebad3a61ab7813e25f873c25e38d01dee2ce592d63d77c3da6c97d62f6baa592dc6997d657771d6d1401fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\li1292\sb0\sl-207\slmult

0\par\pard\li1292\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx1947 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 472\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Vocational Education and Training - VET System\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6025\colsr160\colno2\colw5575\colsr160\qj \li1292\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 differentiated low-, intermediate-, and high-skills soci-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ety (South Africa) (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Brown,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 2001; Kraak, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 TVET policy developers could use this analysis as a \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 starting point for policy formulation.\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Theories about human learninghave shaped our views \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 of the conditions nece

ssary to support curriculum develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ment andinstruction. However, it should be noted that \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 learning in TVET as well as learning at work, as such, are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 seldom the central focus of policy. \u8216?\u8216?Rather, the typical \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 situation is that policies that are targeted at something else \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 include learning at work within their scope. In the process, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 learning at work is usually assumed to be, in an uncritical \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 and \u8216?common sense\u8217? way, simply the acquisition of discrete \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 items of knowledge and skills\u8217?\u8



217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Hager, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 830).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Recent research on TVET (see, e.g.,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 argued that life-based learning(not work-based learning) \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 was required for vocational education focusing on capa-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 bility development and consideration of the learner as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 a whole person. According to Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ., life-based \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 learning isa win-win situation with benefits to both \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 employee and employer, based on employees taking per-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 sonal responsibility for their learning, based on the provi-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sion of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?rich learning environments\u8217?\u8217? \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 (p. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 49), which \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 provides,according to Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .: \u8216?\u8216?performance, growth \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and opportunity. It is adaptive, self-facilitated, based on \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 reflexive practice and uses any strategy appropriate to the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 task\u8217?\u8217? (p. 49). This broad interpretationof learning views \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 TVET as \u8216?\u8216?a knowledge-based industry, where knowledge \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 is its core business\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersu

b\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 24). As argued in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Life Based Learning\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 report (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ): the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 current period is one of rapid change where new ways of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 working and living are required. Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . argue that a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 learning ecologies metaphor can be used to understand \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 how we might work and live successfully. Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 focus on the tendency of ecological environments to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 move to equilibrium as the key to the metaphor. Thus, \line \up0 \expndtw-

4\charscalex100 when there is change (to work or life) this is regarded as a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 disturbance and we need to work to achieve equilibrium, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and we do that by adapting. Ratherthan a model or a set of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 procedures, the focus of an ecological approach is orien-\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 tation and thus \u8216?\u8216?it offers a complex, diverse, dynamic and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 adaptive framework that gives us a fresh perspective on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 working and learning in contemporary environment\u8217?\u8217? \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 27).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb2\sl-238\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 These two types of theories, one that relates to the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 economic aim of achieving an HSE and the ot

her that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 focuses on the learner in coherent ways could provide a \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 useful framework for policy development.\par\pard\ql \li1292\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb219\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Cases Around the World\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb238\sl-238\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Policy development as a complex and multifaceted process \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 can be identified through the product, the policy docu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ment, and the process in which implementation is as\par\pard\column \qj \li6185\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri972\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 import



ant as formulation. According to\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (2006)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , \u8216?\u8216?It is important to understand the context in which \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101policy development takes place - how policies emerge, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 how they form and take shape, and how they become \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 lived through the actions of those engaged in the policy-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 development process\u8217?\u8217? (p. 25).\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Smyth (1993)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 has empha-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 sized the need to recognize the pivotal role of central \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 governments in shaping policy.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri974\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 This section examines four policies across developed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and developing countries to illustrate the points dis-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 cussed above. Two examples from England and Australia \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 relate to policy as text or the content of the policy itself. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 They illustrate a capacity-building thesis within the \line \up0\expndtw0\charscalex101 lifelong learning paradigm. Two examples from devel-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 oping countries relate to policy as discourse that gradu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ally builds over time and sets boundaries to what actors \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 are allowed to think anddo. Discourses, then, as\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ball \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (1990)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 summarizes them, \u8216?\u8216?embody meaning and social \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 relationships, they constitute both subjectivity and power \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 rel

ations\u8217?\u8217? (p. 2).\par\pard\qj \li20\ri974\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 The first example is the English participation policy \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex92 (2007). The English document:\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Raising Expectations: Staying \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 in Education and Training Post-16\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 presented to Parliament \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 in March 2007 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Department for Education and Skills, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 2007\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) argues for the new policy on the basis that \u8216?\u8216?the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 structure of the economy has changed dramatically, with \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 an ever-growing dependence on more highly skilled \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 workers\u8217?\u8217? (1.5, p. 9). The goal of the policy is: \u8216?\u8216?to stop \line\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 young people dropping out of education or tra

ining \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 before 18, because of the benefits that higher attainment \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 and longer participationbring, to the individual young \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 person, to the economy and to society\u8217?\u8217? (p. 11). Continuing \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 in education or training is seen as important to the econ-\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 omy, \u8216?\u8216?which will increasingly demand more highly skilled \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 employees\u8217?\u8217? (2.2, p. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 11) and the aim is to reach 90% \line \up0\expndtw0\charscalex104 participation in education or training among 17-year-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 olds by 2015. Measures across different areas already \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 being implemented in England include: reforms to the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 14-19 curriculum; changes to Key Stage 3; a major expan-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 sion of capacity in

work-based learning; the Education \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Maintenance Allowance; the Youth Matters reforms, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 others. Employers are playing an important part in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 providing training or releasing young people from work \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 to undertake training. This policy is closely related to a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 high-skills thesis. It is also an example of a policy that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 addresses one issue across a number of sectors and posi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 tions it within some existing policies. The pressure of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 globalization is presented through the request to increase \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch



arscalex100 competitiveness of the economy.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri973\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Since the 1990s there has been a similar concern across \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Australia that young people are not gaining the right skills \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to compete in the global economy. Although the different \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 state governments (who have responsibility for educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 tion) have responded in different ways,\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20Australia\u8217?s National \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex89 Strategy for Vocational Education and Training \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex88 2004-2010 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1080\shptop800\shpright10700\shpbottom980\shpwr3\shpfblwtxt0\shpbxpage\shpbypage\shpz310\shplid4{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 75}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn pib}{\sv {\pict\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e84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d2be09f18e91f103c2da478c342b3f1558693adc334f6569e36f02f8dfe1a78a61482eee2cdd757f037c47f0f7853c6be1f99a6b691e1b7d7bc3fa6dc5c5ab5bdfdbc52d8dd5adc4dd551401fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\li1815\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li1815\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx10315 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocational Education and Training Systems\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 473\par\par

d\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5911\colsr160\colno2\colw5689\colsr160\qj\li1179\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1179\ri140\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0\expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ANTA, 2003\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) developed at the national level, highlighted \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 an attempt at a systematic approach towardTVET devel-\line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 opment in the country. Key objectives for vocational educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 tion and training(VET) that are formulated in the National \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Strategy 2004-10 highlighted:\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb119\sl-239\slmult0\tx1408 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1. the global economic competition as the reason for \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 skills development (industry will have a highly skilled\par\pard\qj \li1408\ri143\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 workforce to support strong performance in the global \up0 \expndtw-5\c

harscalex100 economy);\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb1\sl-238\slmult0\tx1408 \up0\expndtw0\charscalex101 2. the end-user as a focus of the policy (employers and\line\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 individuals will be at the center of VET); and\par\pard\ql \li1179\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 3. benefits for communities (communities and regions\par\pard\qj \li1408\ri141\sb3\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 will be strengthened economicallyand socially \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 through learning and employmentand Indigenous \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Australians will have skills for viable jobs and their \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 learning and culture will be shared).\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb120\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 In November 2003, state ministers endorsed the key \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 performance measures for the VET system as part of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 2004-10 National Strategy. The key performance mea-\line \up0 \ex

pndtw-4\charscalex100 sures cover the following critical areas:\par\pard\ql \li1368\ri143\sb120\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Student participation and achievement in VET. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Student employment outcomes and satisfaction from \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 VET.\par\pard\qj \li1368\ri552\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Employer engagement and satisfaction with VET. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 VET outcomes for Indigenous Australians.\par\pard\qj \li1368\ri367\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Community engagement and satisfaction with VET. \line \up0\expndtw-3\charscalex100 VET system efficiency (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ANTA and NTSC, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ).\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb119\sl



-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Some of the strategies identified include: increase par-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ticipation and achievement in TVET, particularly by \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 existing workers; help clients navigate and interact with \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 VET; improve the value, brand, language, and image of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 VET and public recognition of its employment outcomes; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 strengthen industry\u8217?s role in anticipating skill require-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ments and develop products and servicesto meet them; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 make learning pathways seamless; improve quality and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 consistency; and facilitate access to international markets. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 This policy is an example of systematic reform, where \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 participation (as in the English case) is just one compo-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 nent of the policy.\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Both examples from developed countries represent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 competitiveness-driven TVET policies as governments \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 sought to defend their global competitiveness by enhanc-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ing the productivity of the domestic labor force.\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Two examples from developing countries come from \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Africa and Cambodia. Although education policies in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 developing countries can be closely related to donor \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 priorities and perspectives, these cases provide illustra-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 tions of how policy can be u

sed in different ways. On the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 one hand, international funds can be used to imple-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ment measures that are episodic and lack essential coher-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ence. On the other hand, they can be used to provide \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 partial financial support for a large-scale systematic \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 educational reform.\par\pard\column \qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1087\sb136\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Between the 1980s and 1990s, international donor \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 funding in Africa was directed away from TVET and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 toward support for basic education. TVET provision \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 was marginalized as the attention of policymakers was \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 directed elsewhere (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 McLean and Kamau, 1999\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). However,

\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 during the late 1990s, two factors emerged: a growing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 crisis of youth unemployment and low levels of economic \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 competitiveness. These factors became the main policy \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 drivers in bringing skills back into the policy spotlight, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100particularly for the Southern African countries (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Roberts, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 50). One of the challenges facing educational plan-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ners is the need to develop a coherent policy on skills \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 development that articulates well with the economic \line \up0\expndtw-3\charscalex100 development plans.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239\tldot\tx1472 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 This example can be analyzed within\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Estevez-Abe\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20

et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (2001)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 approach where they distinguish three types of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 skills: firm-specific (Japan and Korea), industry-specific \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (Germany), and general skills. In any economy all three \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 types of skills will beutilized; however, in some structured \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 economies, the development of one of these skills types \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 will predominate over the others. Firm-specific skills are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the least portable, industry-specific skills are portable \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 across an industry, while general skills can be



applied \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 across a range of firms and industries. Each type requires \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 different type of training and assumes particular kinds of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 economic development strategies. As argued by\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . (2006)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , \u8216?\u8216?for firm-specific skills a high level of general \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 education is desirable. This is then used as the foundation \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 for the in-house development of skills that firms demand. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Industry-specific skills require some interaction between \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the education and training system and industry for the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 training to be appropriate and up todate in supplying the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 skills required\expndtw0\charscalex100\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 For general skills, education at only a\par\pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 minimum level is required for the lower end of the flexi-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ble labour market.\u8217?\u8217? (p. 48). Thus, the assumption that an\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 improvement in general education in Africa would pro-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 vide the opportunity for firm-specific training proved to\par\pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 be wrong. This was due to the limited number of firms\par\pard\ql \li20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 able to provide such training. The conclusion to be drawn\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmul

t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 from this is that more emphasis on the development of\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 industry-specific skills is required so that the economic\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development plans can be achieved. \u8216?\u8216?This requires gov-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ernment commitment in the form of policy development,\par\pard\ql \li20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sound skills and human resource development planning,\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 inter-ministerial co-operation - primarily between edu-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 cation and labour ministries - and financial commitment\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 to developing a skilled population\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Roberts, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 52).\par\pard\ql \l

i260\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Cambodia is an example to demonstrate the effective-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ness of a sector-wide education approach presented\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 through a developed national program for education in a\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 developing country. In Cambodia\u8217?s case the approach\par\pard\ql \li20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 comprised: The Education Sector Support Program\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0\expndtw0\charscalex103 (ESSP) 2001-06. The overall goal of the ESSP was to\par\pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 contribute to the \u8216?\u8216?achievement of the Government\u8217?s pov-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 erty reduction strategy through pro-poor systematic and \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp

{\*\shpinst\shpleft1200\shptop800\shpright10800\shpbottom980\shpwr3\shpfblwtxt0\shpbxpage\shpbypage\shpz399\shplid5{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 75}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn pib}{\sv {\pict\jpegblipffd8ffe000104a46494600010101006000600000ffdb00430001010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffdb00430101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc0001108000b025d03012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001



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0\par\pard\li1292\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx1947 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 474\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Vocational Education and Training - VET System\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6025\colsr160\colno2\colw5575\colsr160\qj \li1292\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 targeted interventions\u8217?\u8217? \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Forsberg and Ratcliffe, \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 2002\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 TVET isincluded in this policy. Government flexibility \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in negotiating a mix of donor-financing modalities helped \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 maintain inclusive partnerships. High-level national lead-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ership and authority of the ESSP reform processhas been \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 critical and it was provided directly through the minister. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 This is an exampleto illustrate when policy development \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 is not a simple case of setting up the priorities. Policy had \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 been seen as a dialectic process in which the government \line \up0\expndtw-3\charscalex100 and the donors were involved in shaping its development. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Policy development is therefore both a continuous and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 contested processin which those with competing values \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and different access to power seek to form and shape \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 policy in their own interests\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 2).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb

0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 These four cases demonstrate the different ways the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 governments approach policy development: through the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 high-skills thesis in Australia and England; and through \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the combination approach (high skills/low skills) in Africa \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and Cambodia. Systematic approach at different levels has \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 been seen important for the three cases examined.\par\pard\ql \li1292\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb217\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Conclusions\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb238\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 This article analyzes issues, such as the scope, scale, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and coherence within TVET and across different sectors \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 within particular countries to demo

nstrate the complexity \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of TVET policy formulation. It is argued in the article \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that tensions between the pressures for global uniformity \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and regional specificity should be considered by policy-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 makers. It is also argued that any attempt to develop a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 universal set of principles for policy development should \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 be adopted with caution, particularly due to differences in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the labor-market structures across the countries. Two \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 types of theories are proposed to provide the basis for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 understanding how educational policy could be planned. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 They are high-skills thesis and life-based learning. They \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 provide the basis for macro- and micro-level planning.\par

\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 The issues and theories discussed in the opening section \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 of the article provide the basis for the analysis of policy \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 examples from developed and developing worlds pre-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sented in the next section. The conclusion is advanced \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that TVET systems policies and planning should exist as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 part of a system of lifelong learning adapted to the needs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of each particular country and to worldwide economic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development. It is important to be aware of the complex-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca



lex102 ity of TVET and its interdependence with other policy \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 areas. In a modern market economy, governments carry \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 primary responsibility for TVET policy design. However, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 a partnership between government, employers, profes-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sional associations, industry, employees and their repre-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sentatives, the local communities, and nongovernment \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 organizationsshould play a crucial role in policy design \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (UNESCO/ILO, 2002: 9a). The overall conclusion to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 be advanced in this article is that policy planning and\par\pard\column \qj\li6185\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri974\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development should be based on research that is directed\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 toward TVET improvement and its relevance to particular \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 socioeconomic contexts.\par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb84\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Bibliography\par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\ri1144\sb109\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs15 ANTA (Australian National Training Authority) (2003). Shaping our \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Future: Australia\u8217?s National Strategy for Vocational Education and\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1367\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Training 2004-2010: Final Report. Australian National Training \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Authority, Brisbane.\par\pard\ql \li20\ri976\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 ANTA (Australian National Train

ing Authority) and NTSC (National \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Training Statistics Committee) (2005). Shaping our Future: Measuring\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1221\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the Future: Key Performance Measures for Australian Vocational \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Education and Training 2004 to 2010: An Implementation Plan / \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 [National Training Statistics Committee]. Brisbane: ANTA.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Ashton, D. and Green, F. (1996). Education, Training and Global\par\pard\ql \li199\sb7\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Economy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1345\sb2\sl-180\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Astiz, M., Wiseman, A., and Baker, D. (2002). Slouching towards \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 decentralization: Consequences of globalisation for curriculum\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1364\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 control in national edu

cation systems. Comparative Education \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Review 46(1), 66-88.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1640\sb0\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Ball, S. (ed.) (1990). Foucault and Education: Disciplines and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Knowledge. London: Routledge.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1389\sb1\sl-180\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Ball, S. (1993). What is policy? Texts, trajectories and toolboxes. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Discourse 13(2), 10-17.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri973\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Ball, S. (1994). Education Reform. Buckingham: Open University Press. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Bascia, N., Cumming, A., Datnow, A., Leithwood, K., and Livingstone, D.\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1199\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (eds.) (2005). Introduction. International Handbook of Educational \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Policy, pp XIII-XXXVII. Springer: Dordrecht.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1040\sb1\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \ex

pndtw-4\charscalex100 Bell, L. and Stevenson, H. (2006). Education Policy: Process, Themes \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and Impact. Routledge: London.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri989\sb1\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Brown, P., Green, A., and Lauder, H. (2001). High Skills, Globalisation, \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Competitiveness and Skill Formation. Oxford: Oxford University\par\pard\ql \li199\sb6\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Press.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1301\sb2\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Department for Education and Skills (2007). Raising Expectations: \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Staying in Education and Training Post-16. Norwich: TSO.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10



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the Federal Republic of Germany. Structure and Function,\par\pard\ql \li199\sb6\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2nd rev. edn. Stuttgart: Holland + Josenhans.\par\pard\ql \li20\ri974\sb1\sl-180\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Hager, P. (2005). Current theories of workplace learning: A critical\line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 assessment. In Bascia, N., Cumming, A.,Datnow, A., Leithwood, K.,\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1214\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and Livingstone, D. (eds.) International Handbook of Educational \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Policy, pp 829-846. Dordrecht: Springer.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri975\sb1\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Kraak, A. (2006). High skills and joined-up policy: An introduction to the \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 debate. In Kraak, A., Lauder, H., Brown, P., and Ashton, D. (eds.)\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1140\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Debating High Skills and Joined-Up Policy, pp 1-30. Cape Town: \up

0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 HSRC (Human Science Research Council) Press.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1073\sb1\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Kronner, H. (2006). Scope of TVET Policy. Summaries of the National \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Workshop on Technical and Vocational Education and Training.\par\pard\qj \li199\ri1102\sb1\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Pyongyang, Democratic People\u8217?s Republic of Korea, 30 August-1 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 September 2006, .\par\pard\qj \li20\ri975\sb0\sl-179\slmult0\tx209 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Lauder, H. and Brown, P. (2006). The high-skillsthesis. In Kraak, A., \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Lauder, H., Brown, P., and Ashton, D. (eds.) Debating High Skills and \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1080\shptop800\shpright10700\shpbottom980\shpwr3\shpfblwtxt0\shpbxpage\shpbypage\shpz178\shplid6

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Article 9 - Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocational Education and Training Systems

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