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Papermaking ibersTr u e paper in th e t ech n ica l s en s e o t th e t e rm w as fi r st mad e inC h in a in 105 A D f r o m t h e b a s t f i be r s o t p a p e r m u l b e r r y a n d p r o b a -b l y al s o t r o m b a m b o o . F o r m a n y c e n t u r i e s o M r ag s p r i n c i p a l l yc o t t o n o r l i ne n s u p p l i e d t h e p a p e r m a k e r s w i t h r a w m a t e ri a l . I nm o d e r n t i m e s s p r u c e w o o d f i b e rs h a v e l o n g b e e n o u t s t a n d i n g f o rp a p e r m a k i n g . I n r e c e n t d e c a d e s h o w e v e r t h e s p r u c e s h a v e b e e ne q u a l l e d i t n o t s u r p a s se d i n t o n n a g e u se d b y v a r i o u s s p e c i e s ofp i n e e s p e c i a l l y t h e s o u t h e r n y e l l o w p in e s . O f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r -tan ce h av e bee n th e fiber s o f doz en s o t o th er s pec ie s.IRVING H. ISENBERG 1

I n t r o d u c t i o n' P ape r when used as a general term,is the name for all kinds of matted orfelted sheets of fiber (usually vegetable,

but sometimes mineral, animal or syn-thetic) formed on a fine wire screen froma water suspension.The uses of p'*I~er are numerou s (some7,500 ire claimed ), but perhaps the twomost familiar to the layman are in therecording of ideas in one form or another

on it :md the use of it or of paperbo:trdfor packaging purposes. According toestimates, the worhl consumpt ion of paperpro~hwts was 57 million tons in 1954.

E a r l y H i s t o r yPaper has not always been the mediumthat man has used on which to recordhis though ts. The walls of eaves servedthis purpose for primitive man. Bark,

bricks, ivory, lead, leaves, shells, skins,stones, wax and wood were also usedlater. Scripture records th at Moses tookdown the Ten Commandments upon tab-lets of stone.

The manufacture of paper appears tohave begun in China about a centuryafter the start of the Christian era. His-torians credit its invention to Ts'ai Lunin 105 a.D. Originally the stalks of the1 R(,s(.ardl Associate. The Institute of PaperChemistry Appleton, Wis.

plants utilized were disintegrated manu-ally in a mor ta r after soaking. Thebeaten pulp was transferred to It vat. andsheets were made by dipping out some oftlle pulp on a mohl with a ree~l lmttom.Bast fiber of the paper mul berr y 4Brous-sonetia p(lpyri/erat was used principally,although bamboo is mentioned by somewriters.Prior to this invention by tile Chinese,a vegetable fibrous material had been inuse for eenturies by the ancients. Thiswriting sheet was made by pasting to-gether thin sections of the pith ofan Egyptian sedge (Cyperus pa'p ]r~st.Papyrus--from whieh our modern wordpalt er is derived--is known to havebeen used as early as 2,400 B.c. It s ervedas late as the tenth eentury after (?hristwhen i)arehment prepared from the skinsof goats, sheep and other animals wasmuch used and paper began to appear inEurope. Actually the importance ofpapyrus started to decline in the seventhcentury when Egypt was conquered bythe Arabs.The manufacture of paper began itsmovement westward shortly after its in-vention, and three decades later ~137A.D.) it was being made in Tunhuang.Apparently bast fibers of the genusBoehmeria came into use during thethird century. By the begimfing of thefifth century paper was being ma,te in

176

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P P E R M K I N G FI BE R S 177T u r f a n i n C h i n e s e T u r k e s t a n . T h eC h i n e s e b u i l t a m i l l a t S a m a r k a n d i nR u s s i a n T u r k e s t a n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n -t u r y . O n e s i g n i f i c a n t r es u l t o f t h e c a p -t u r e o f S a m a r k a n d a n d i ts a r ti s a n s b ythe Ara bs in 704 * . u . wa s the r a p id e x-p a n s i o n o f p a p e r m a k i n g t o t h e e a s t e r nr i m o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n . A m i l lwa s bu i l t in Ba gd a d in 795 * .D . a nd inD a m a s c u s s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t er . T h e A r a b sm a d e p a p e r f r o m l i n e n r a g s o r p e r h a p sf r o m t h e b a s t f i b e r o f f l a x Limtmusitatissimum). P a p e r m a k i n g s p r e a dr e l a t i v e l y r a p i d l y a c r o s s N o r t h A f r i c a ,t h a n k s a g a i n to t h e M o s l e m s . P a p e r w a sm a d e i n E g y p t i n 9 0 0 a . u . , m o r e t h a nt h r e e m i l l e n i a a f t e r t h e e a r l i e s t k n o w nu s e of p a p y r u s f o r w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l . T h eM o o r s m a d e p a p e r i n T o l e d o , S p a i n , i n1085 , in Xa t iva in 1154 , a nd in Va le nc ias o o n a f t e r w a r d .

I t h a s b e e n s t a t e d t h a t c o t t o n s e e dh d r w a s n o t u s e d f o r p a l ) e r n m k i n ge i t h e r d u r i n g t h e A r a b i a n o r t h e p r e -A r a b i a n p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e m a y b ed i s a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h i s p o i n t . I tha s a l so be e n s t ~ te d tha t the e a r l i e s tE u r o p e a n p a p e r m a d e f r o m c o t t o n w a sin 1102. Al le g e d ly the Sp a n ia rds foundc o t t o n r a g s t o b e b e t t e r s u i t e d t o p a p e r -m a k i n g t h a n t h e r a w f ib e r. T h e y a l s ou s e d b a s t f i b e r f r o m c o m n m n h e m p{Cannabis sativa) a n d f l ax a n d e v e nl in e n f ro m ol d m u m m y c l o th s. C e r t a i n l yt h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t t o t u r n t h e s t a m pm i l l s w i t h w a t e r p o w e r .

B y 1 1 8 9 p a p e n n a k i n g h a d r e a c h e dF r a n c e ( E s s o n n e s o r H e r a u l t ) a n d i n t h ee a r l y 1 4 t h c e n t u r y , G e r m a n y ( C o l o g n ea n d M a i n z ) . P r e s u m a b l y t h e I t a l i an sa c q u i r e d t h e a r t d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u ~ , .I n 1 4 9 4 a m i l l b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n E n g -l a n d , b u t i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t , p a p e r m a k i n gs p r e a d m u c h m o r e s l o w l y t h e r e i n t h e1 6 t h c e n t u r y t h a n i t d i d i n C h i n a i n t h es e c o n d c e n t u r y .

I n t h e N e w W o r l d , e a r l y S p a n i s h a c -c o u n t s r e c o r d t h a t t h e A z t e c s m a d ep a p e r f r o m Agave f i be r s. A g a v e p a p e r ,

h o w e v e r , w a s r e s e r v e d f o r s p e c i a l d o c u -m e n t s , a n d t h e p a p e r i n g e n e r a l u s e w a sp r e p a r e d f r o m t h e b a r k o f a Ficus p l a n t .I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e f i r s t p a p e r m i l lw a s b u i l t b y W i l l i a m R i t t e n h o u s e i n1 6 9 0 , n e a r P h i l a d e l p h i a ; l i n e n r a g s f u r -n i she d the f ibe r .

Modern is toryT h e i n v e n t io n o f m o v a b l e - t y p e p r i n t -

i n g b y J o h a n n e s G u t e n b e r g i n t i l e m i d d l ey e a r s o f t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e r e n a i s -s a n c e i n E u r o p e l ed t o a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e dd e m a n d f o r p a p er , a n d e v e n t u a l l y r t g sc o u l d n o l o n g e r s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t so f t h e p a p e r m a k e r s . O f c o u r se , d e v e l o p -m e n t s t o o k t im e , b u t t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r ysa w a r e ne we d a t t a c k on t i l e s e a rc h fo rf i b ro u s m a t e r i a l s o f us e f or p a p e n n a k -i ng . I t w a s R e n d R 5 a u m u r , th e F r e n c hsc ie n t i s t a nd inve n to r , who , in t i l e e a r lyp a r t o f t h e c e n t u r y , o b s e r v e d h o w t h ew a s p b u i l t i ts n e s t . I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o ft h e c e n t u r y D r . . l a c o b C h r i s t i a n S c h a f f er ,a G e r m a n p a s t o r , e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t hm a n y t y p e s o f v e g e t a b l e f i b e r , w a s pne s t s , he n lp , ba rk , s t r a w, c orn husks a nde v e n a f e w s p e c ie s o f w o o d . M a t h i a sK o o p , i n E n g l a n d , w a s t h e f i r s t t o u s ev e g e t a b l e f i b e r s o n a e o m m e r i c a l s c a l ea n d i n 1 8 0 0 p u b l i s h e d o n p a p e r n m d es o l e l y f r o m s t r a w a n d w o o d . I n t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s t h e f i rs t s t r a w p a p e r w a sm a n u f a c t u r e d i n 1 82 8 b y W i l l i a m M a g a wo f P e n n s y l v a n i a .

G r o u n d w o o d p u l p w a s m a d e a b o u t1 8 4 0 b y F r i e d r i c h K e l l e r i n G e r m a n y .S o o n a f t e r w a r d B u r g e s s a n d W a t t , E n g -l i s h m e n , b u i l t a m i l l i n M a n a y u n k ,P e n n s y l v a n i a , w h e r e w o od w a s p u l p e db y t h e s o d a p r o c e s s a c c o r d i n g t o a p a t e n tg r a n t e d i n 1 854 . A p a t e n t f o r p u l p i n gb y t h e s u l f i t e p r o c e s s w a s g r a n t e d t oB e n i a m i n T i l g h m a n a f t er th e A m e r i c a nC i v i l W a r , b u t i t r e m a i n e d f o r C a r lE k m a n , a Sw e d e , t o p e r f e c t t h e c a l c i u mb i s u l fi t e p r o c e ss c o m m e r c i a l l y . I n a f e wlnore ye a r s Ca r l Da h l , a l so a Swe de , in -v e n t e d t h e s u l f a t e , o r k r a f t , p r o c e s s .

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78 ECONOMIC BOT NYTh e use o f wood as a source o f r awm a t e r i a l f o r p ap e r m ak i n g f i b e r w as d e f i-n i t e l y o n t h e u p s w i n g .S u ch u s e g r ew r ap i d l y u n t i l p r e s en t l y9 5 ~ o f t h e p u l p p r o d u ced i n t h e w o r l di s made f rom wood, and there i s no in -d i ca t i o n t h a t t h e d o m i n an ce o f w o o dlmlp i s dec l in ing , desp i t e a l a rming pre-d i c t i o n s , r ep ea t ed a t v a r i o u s t i m es d u r -i n g r ecen t d ecad es , t h a t t h e w o r l d ' s p u l p -w o o d r e s o u r ce s a r e o n t h e v e r g e o f, t ep l e ti o n . C e r t a i n o t h e r r aw m a t e r i a l s ,h o w ev e r , co n t i n u e t o b e u t i l i z ed b ecau s et h ey y i eh l p u l p s o f i n t r i n s i c v a l u e ; co n -ver s ion of espar to in to h igh-c las s p r in t -i n g p ap e r s i n G r ea t B r i t a i n an d o f f l axs t r aw i n t o e i g a r e t t i s s u e an d b an k - n o t ep ap e r i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s an d C an ad am a y be c i t ed a s ex am p l e s . M a n y o t h e rr aw m a t e r i a l s a r e t e ch n i ca l l y c ap ab l e o fy ieh l ing usab le pu l l ) s , s ince i t has beent r u l y s a i d t h a t I m l p an d p ap e r c an b er e . M e f r o m an y f i b r o u s p l an t . T h e v i t a lClucs t ion, of course, i s whether newm at e r i a l c an co m p e t e w i t h w o o d p u l p i npr ice : rod usefu lnes s and hence f ind ar ead y s al e o n t h e o p en m ar k e t . I t m i g h tbe f eas ib le in cer t a in s i tua t ions fo ro t h e r m a t e r i a l s t o b e u sed t o s u p p l y as m a l l i n t eg r a t ed m i l l m ak i n g p ap e r f o rloca l consmnpt ion , espec ia l ly i f such ami l l cou ld be g iven t a r i f f p ro tec t ion .N ev e r t h e l e s s , a l t h o u g h t h e n u m t ) e r o fs p eci e s st u d i ed f o r p ap e r m ak i n g is co n -s i d e r ab l e , o n l y r e l a t i v e l y f ew a r e a tp resen t r e l i ed upon .

A t th i s po in t i t may be wel l to em-p h as i ze t h e e s s en t i a l s i n an y m a t e r i a lp r o p os e d f o r p a p e r m a k i n g . T h e r a wm a t e r i a l m u s t b e a b u n d a n t a n d c o n -s i s t en t ly av a i l ab l e . G r o w t h m u s t b e i nc l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o e co n o m i c l ab o r s u p -p l i es and ample water suppl i es o f su i t -ab l e co m p o s i t i o n . C o n v e n i en t t r an s -p o r t a t i o n s h o u l d b e av a i l ab l e . T h e r awm at e r i a l m u s t p o s s e s s an ap p r o p r i a t ef i b r o u ~ s t r u c t u r e an d y i e l d a co m p a r a -t ive ly h igh percen tage of ce l lu lose , whi l ei t mus t be o f no s er ious eommere ia i in -t e r e s t t o an y o i l i e r i n d u s t r y .

L i t e r a l l y h u n d r ed s o f p l an t s p eci e shave been s tud ied as pos s ib le sources o fp ap e r m ak i n g f ib e rs . B r o ad l y s p eak i n g ,an y f ib rous p lan t can t )e pu lp ed andm ad e i nt o p ap e r o r b o a r d . T h e l i m i t i n gf ac t o r i s s o m e t i m es eco n o m i c , s o m e t i m est ech n i ca l . P e r h a p s t h e co st o f p r o d u c i n ga co m p e t i t i v e s h ee t o f eq u i v a l en t g r ad ei s too h igh to compete w i th sources a l -r e a d y em p l o y ed . B u t p r o g r e s s co n -t i n u es , an d a s t i l e d em an d f o r p ap e rproduct s r i s es in t i l e count r i es newly in -d u s t r i a l i z ed an d t h o se y e t u n t o u ch ed b ysc ien t i f i c advance , new sources o f f ib rousr aw m a t e r i a l s m u s t s u r e l y b e t ap p ed .

Pulping ProcessesG r o u n d w o o d . T h i s t y p e of m e c h a n i -ca l wood pu lp i s l ) rodueed by pres s ings h o r t b a r k ed an d c l ean ed l o g s s i d ew ay sag a i n s t a r ev o l v i n g n a t u r a l o r a r ti f i c ia lp u l p s t o n e i n t h e p r e s en ce of w a t e r , t h e r e -by r educing them to a f ib rous mass o fshor t f ibers . Th e var ious uses o f g roun d-

w o o d p u l p a r e d e t e r m i n ed b y i m p o r t an tphys ica l p roper t i es such as f r eenes s , r e l a -t ive l eng th of f iber , un i fo rm i ty o f f iberl eng th , s t r eng th , co lor and c lean l ines s ,w h i ch a r e d e t e r m i n ed b y t h e co a r s en es sor f inenes s o f the pu tps ton e used . thed r e s si n g o f t h e s t o n e s u r f ace , t h e m e t h o dof g r ind ing , the charac te r o f t l l e wood ,and the s creen ing of the pu lp .C h e m i c a l M e t h o d s . I n t h e u su alm a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e d u r e f o r c h e m i c a lwood pu lps , the barked and c leaned logsare r educed to ch ips , a f t e r which *hech i p s a r e s c r een ed t o e l i m i n a t e o v e r -s i zed and unde r s ized ch ips. Th e ac-cep t ed ch i p s a r e t h en s u b j ec t ed t och em i ca l t r e a t m en t w h i ch , l i s s o l v e s m o s to f t h e l ig n eo u s b i n d i n g m a t e r i a l ( l i g n i n ) ,l e av i n g t h e f ib e r, w h i ch m a y o r m ay n o tbe b leached before use .F i b r o u s r aw m a t e r i a l s , o t h e r t h anw o o d , w h i ch a r e t o b e p u l p ed a r e u s u a l l ycu t to p roper s i ze .SVLFtTE. In the sulf i te pu lpin g pro c-es s the ch ips a re d iges tc , : t a t t empera-lure s f rom 130 to 150 (7. in an aq ue -

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P PE R M K I N G FI B E R S 179o u s s o l u t i o n co n t a i n i n g a l k a l i n e - ea r t hb i su l f i t es (usua l ly ca lc ium b i su l f i t e o r am i x t u r e o f c a l c i u m an d m ag n es i u m b i -s u l f i t e s , a l t h o u g h s o d a b a s e , am m o n i ab as e an d m ag n es i a b a s e l i q u o r s a r e s u i t -ab le ) and an exces s o f su l fur d iox ide .T h e c o o k in g p r o c e d u r e m a y b e v a r i e d t op r o d u ce p u l p t h a t c an b e r o u g h l y c l a s s i-f i ed as weak , medium or s t rong , cor re -s p o n d i n g i n l a r g e m eas u r e t o t h e d eg r eeo f l i g n i n r em o v a l an d t h e d eg r ad a t i o n o fthe ce l lu lose o f the f iber .

SULFATE Oa KRAFT. In t he su lf at e ork r a f t p u l p i n g p r o ce s s t h e ch i p s a r ed i g e s t ed a t f a i r l y h ig h t em p e r a t u r e s(170 to 180 C.) in a l iquo r which is am i x t u r e o f c au s t i c s o d a an d s o d i u m s u l -f i de i n p r o p e r p r o p o r t i o n s . T h e p u l p sare used for the mos t pa r t in ~che m an u-f ac t u r e o f t h e s t r o n g g r ad es o f t h e v a r i -o u s c l a s s e s o f p ap e r an d p ap e r b o a r d .SODa. In the sod a pulpin g process , theac t i v e co o k i n g ag en t i s c au s t i c s o d a , an dt h e d i g e s t i o n t ak e s p l ace a t f a i r l y h i g htem pe ra tu res (170 to 180 C . ) .SEM[CHEMICAL. A se m ic hc m ic al pu lp -ing proces s i s so-ca l l ed because on ly ap a r t o f th e l i g n eo u s p o r t i o n o f t h e w o o di s r em o v ed d u r i n g co o k in g . H i g h y i e l d sresu l t . Af te r cooking , the sof t ened ch ipsa r e m ech an i ca l l y d i s i n t eg r a t ed b y a s u i t -ab l e t y p e o f r e f in e r . T h e t e r m s em i -chem ica l i s no t spec i f i c to an y of thech em i ca l p u l p i n g p r o ce s se s . H o w ev e r ,p r o b ab l y t h e p r i n c i p a l t y p e o f s em i -chemica l pu lp ing i s the neu t r a l su l f i t cproces s , which uses a l iquor o f sod iums u l fi te b u f f e r ed w i t h s o d i u m b i ca r b o n a t e .CELDECOR-POSIILIO. The soda-chlorinep r o ces s o f P o m i l i o i n v o l v e s f o u r ch em i ca lo p e r a t i o n s : a l k a l i n e p r e t r ea t l n en t , g a sch l o r i n a t i o n , a l k a l i n e w as h , h y p o eh l o r i t eb leach .

S p e c i e s U s e d i n V a r i o u s o u n t r i esWe can l earn a g rea t dea l o f the pu lp ,p a p e r a n d p a p e r b o a r d i n d u s t r y b y c o n -s ider ing the var ious f iber s now used in

t h e m an n f ac t u r e o f t h i s e s s en ti a l co m -m o d i t y i n t h e co u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r h l .

U n i t ed S t a t es . T h e U n i t ed S t a t e s i san ap p r o p r i a t e p l ace t o b eg i n o u r d i s -cus s ion because i t i s by f a r the g rea tes tconsumer o f paper p ro~ lue t s in the wor ld ,us ing, as i t. does , abo ut 415 pou nds perp e r s o n an n u a l l y .I n 1 95 4 t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s co n s u m ed19.8 mil l ion ton s o f woo d pulp, 8 .1 mil -l ion tons o f was te paper , and abo ut 1 .2mi l l ion tons o f o th er f iber s . I t was thep r i n c i p a l ch em i ca l w o o d p u l p - p r o d u e i n gc o u n t r y a n d s e c o n d o n ly to C a n a d a i nt h e p r o d u c t i o n of m ech a n i ca l p u lp . T h econs um pt ion of pu lpwoo d in 1954 was29 .2 mi l l ion cords , o f which 85% wass o f t w o o d s an d t h e r em a i n i n g 1 ~ % w ash a r d w o o d s . A n ap p r ec i ab l e p o r t i o n o ft h i s s o f t w o o d i s i m p o r t ed f r o m C an ad a ,as i s much of our newspr in t .T h r ee - f i f t h s o f o u r d o m es t i c p u l p w o o dis p rod uce d in the S outh , an d of th i sab o u t 9 0 % i s s o u t h e r n y e l l o w p i n e .L o b l o l l y p i n e Pinus taeda) i s the p r in -c ipa l spec ies , bu t shor t l eaf , s l ash , long-leaf , pond , spruce , s and , V i rg in ia andpi t ch p ines a re p roces sed in va i ) ' i ngam o u n t s . I n t h e N o r t h t h e co n if e r s u s edfor pu lp a re b lack , whi te , r ed and Engel -m an n s p r u ce s ; b a l s am f i r ; e a s t e r n h em -l o ck ; i a ek , r ed o r N o r w ay , l o d g ep o l e an dw h i t e p i n e s ; an d t am ar ac k . I n t im W es tt h e s o f t w o o d s p u l p ed a r e w es t e r n an dm o u n t a i n h em l o ck s ; g r an d , w h i t e , s i l v e ran d n o b l e f ir ; D o u g l a s - f i r ; w es t e r n l a r ch ;l o d g ep o l e , p o n d e r o s a an d w es t e r n w h i t ep i n e s ; S i t k a an d E n g e l m an n s p r u ce s .

A n ew m i l l r e cen t l y co m p l e t ed i ns o u t h ea s t e r n A l a s k a co n s u m es p r i n c i -p a l l y w es t e r n h em l o ck an d S i t k a s p r u ce .T h e b r o ad l ea f s p ec ie s o f p ap e r - p u l pv a l u e i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s a r e a s p en( b o t h t r em b l i n g an d l a r g e t o o t h ) ; b a l s amp o p l a r an d v a r i o u s co t t o n w o o d s ; b l ack ,w a t e r an d s w am p t u p e l o ; s w ee t g u m ; r ed ,s i l v e r an d s u g a r m ap l e s ; y e l l o w an dp ap e r b i r ch es; y e l l o w p o p l a r ; cu cu m b er ;e v e r g r e e n m a g n o l i a ; s w e e t b a y ; b e e c h ;ches tnu t ; s evera l spec ies o f oak ; buck-ey e ; b a s s w o o d ; eh n ; a s h ; r ed a l d e r ; an da i h m t h u s . I n c r ea s ed d em an d f o r p u ll )-

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18 E C O N O M I C B O T N Yw o o d an d n ew d ev e l o p m en t s i n b o t hp u l p i n g p r o ce s s e s an d p r o d u c t s , m ay p e r -m i t g r ea t e r u s e i n v o l u m e a s w e l l a s p e r -een t ag ew i s e i n t h e n ea r f u t u r e .F i l l e r s o t h e r t h an w o o d u s ed i n t h i sc o u n t r y i n th e m a n u f a c t u r e o f p a p e r a r ech i e fl y w h ea t s t r aw , co t t o n an d l i nenr ' tgs , co t ton l in te r s , l i nseed f l ax , sugarcan e b ag ass e , ab ac i , ( M an i l a f i b e r ) ,s i s a l , j u t e , s u n n an d eo l n m o n h em p .T h e r e m ay b e i n si g -n i fi c an t am o u n t s o fo t h e r v eg e t ab l e fi b er s . F r e q u en t l y w o o lf iber i s par t o f the fu rn i sh in s a tu ra t in gp ap e r s , an d m i n e r a l an d s y n t h e t i c f i b e r sen t e r c e r t a i n g r ad es .\ V i t h o u t q u es t i o n t h e r e a r e v a s t t o n -nages o f agr i cu l tu ra l r es idues which canfurn i sh f iber to th.e pap er in dus t ry i fan d w h en co n d i t i o n s w a r r an t . T h e r e i sco n s i d e r ab l e ex p l o r a t i o n i n p r o g r e s s o nthese sources as wel l as on species ofwood no t l i s t ed above .C an ad a . C a n a d a i s t h e w o r h l ' s l a r g e s tl ) rodueer o f mec han ica l 1 )u ll ) , mo s t o fwhich goes in to newspr in t , o f which shei s by f a r the ch ie f source o f supply .Canada i s a l so the s econd l a rges t p ro-d u ce r , a f t e r t h e U n i t ed S t ' t i e s , o f ch em i -ea l w o o d l m l p . T h e C an ad i an s u s e 2 80p o u n d s o f p ap e r p r o d u c t s p e r p e r s o na n n u a l l y .T h e p r i n c i p a l s o f t w o o d p u l p s p ec i e si n C an ad a a r e b l ack , E n g e l m an n , r ed ,S i t k a an d w h i t e s p r u ce s ; j a ck , r ed o rN o r w ay , w h i t e , t o d g ep o t e an d p o n d e r o s ap i n e s ; e a s t e r n an d w es t e r n h em l o ck s ;ba l sam, s ih ' e r , g rand and noble f i r s ;D o u g l a s - f i r ; w e s t e r n r e d - c e d a r ; a n dt a m a r a c k . T h e h a r d w o o d s a r e a s p e n s;b a l s a m p o p l a r ; n o r t h e r n b l a c k c o t t o n -w o o d : r ed a l d e r : w h i t e an d y e l l o wb i r ch es ; h a r d an d s o f t m ap l e s . F i b e r so t h e r t h an w o o d a r e ch i e f l y w h ea ts t r aw; co t ton and l inen r ags ; l inseedf lax ; and some of the so-ca l l ed ropefibers.L a t i n A m e r i c a . O u r n e i g h b o r i m m e d i -a t e l y t o t h e s o u t h o f t h e R i o G r an d euses 17 pound s of paper per per son an-

n u a l l y , b u t t h e co n s u m p t i o n i s i n c r ea s -ing and Mexico i s open ing new mi l l s tome et ' ti le dem and . Tru e f i rs . p ines( i n c l u d i n g p o n d e r o s a ) an d s u g a r c an eb ag as s e a r e u s ed p r i n c i p a l l y : s o m eeue a ly p t s a lso . Thought , i s be ing g ivent o w ar d t t l e ex p l o i t a t i o n o f s o m e o f t h emixe d t rop ica l hardwo od s t . tnds inY u e a t a n a n d o t h e r a re a s.T h e c o n s u m p t i on o f p a p e r p r o d u c t si n s ev e r a l L a t i n A m er i can co u n t r i e s i sr e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , t h e ap p r o x i m a t e n u m -her o f pounds per per son annu- t l ly be-i n g : C u b a , 5 7 ; U r u g u ay , 5 0 ; A r g en t i n a ,44; Ven ezue la. 25; Chi le , 2_'2; Bra zi l , 19;C o l o m b i a , 1 2 ; C o s t a R i ea , I 0 : D o m i n i -can 1Republ ic. 7; (_hmtemala. 6: Ecua-d o r , 5 ; H o n d u r a s , 3 ; B o l i v i a . 2 ; P a r a -gua y , 2 ; Hai t i , 1 . Mos t o f th i s pape ri s impor ted , bu t there a re s evera l mi l l sin Sou th Amer ica . In l a t e 1953 -t me et -ing of pu lp and paper exper t s was he ldi n B u en o s A i r e s t o s t i m u l a t e L a t i nA m er i can p r o d u c t i o n .

The pr inc ipa l wood spec ies used a reP a r a n / p i n e (Arattcaria a~g,stifolia),pophu a nd euea ly p t s . A Braz i l i an mi l lis p u l p i n g m i x ed t r o p i ca l h a r d w o o d s l a slna ny as fi0 spec ies) by the s emi -chem ica l p roces s fo r unb lea c imd pu lp .M i x ed t r o p i ca l h a r d w o o d s a r e b e i n gs tud ied in the p i lo t phm t s t age inBol iv ia , amt i t i s hoped tha t fu l l s ca lep r o d u e t i o n w i l l s t a r t w i t h i n t h r ee y ea r s .F a s t - g r o w i n g ee t i eo (Cecropia sp . ) woodi n P e r u h a s b een s h o w n t o b e ex ce l l en tf o r g r o u n d w o o d , an d f u t u r e ex p l o i t a t i o ni s an t i c ipa ted .T i l e ch ie f sources o f domes t i c Imlps ,however , a r e wheat s t r aw , r i ce s t r aw ,sugar cane bagas se , Ar~tnclo dotta.r cane ,a n d c a r o a Neo~.flaziovia vurieoctta).C o s t a R i ea l r a s a s m a l l p u l p an d p ap e rmi l l conve r t ing abae ; t as the b as ic r awm a t e r i a l i n to m u l t i - w a l l b ag s . A s m a l lm i l l p r o d u c i n g b o a r d f r o m ex t r ac t edlemon gras s IC.ympof]on cit','at,~.s~ inG u a t e l n a l a i s o p e r a t i n g a t a f r a c t i o n o fc a p a c i t y , a n d a n o t h e r in T r i n i d a d

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P P E R M K I N G FI BE R S 8

which depended upon bamboo has re-cently closed.Europe. Following tile United Statesand Canada in annual per capita con-sumption of paper are the Europeancountries, particularly those of northernand western Europe. The followingamounts in pounds are given: Sweden,200; United Kingdom, 164; Denmark,141; Switzerland, 14 1; Norway, 140;Finland, 12 4; West Germany, 109;Belgimn, 108; Netherlands, 105; France,84; Eire, 60. Other European statesfollow in this order: Austria, 69; Bul-garia, 45; East Germany, 45; Czecho-slovakia, 40; Italy. 35; Poland, 35;8oviet Union, 25; Portugal, 17; Spain,17: Greece, 15; Hungary, 15; Yugo-slavia, 11; Itumania , 7. There is no cor-relation between these statistics and theproduction of pulp, paper or paperboard.The northern countries of Finland,Norway and Sweden have long beenpulp suppliers for ninny regions of theworhl. The number of species utilizedtin fact, available) in these countries isfew; the principal species pulped arepine ~Pinus sylvestris), spruce Piceae.rcel.~a~, aspen PopuIus tremula) andbirch I Bettd a pubescens and verru-cosa ).Other wood species t)ulped in Europeare true firs especially silver), pines,larch, various hybrids of Pop~dus, beech,chestnut, oak, and in countries such asPortugal and Spain, eucalyptus. Ger-many has become one of the foremostcountries in the pulping of temperatehardwoods. About 70~c of Itali an pulp-wood is hardwood, mainly poplar. Awide variety of other plants has beenstudied very intensively in severalEuropean countries, especially duringwartime when imports must, perforce,be dras tica lly reduced. One mightmention, for example, the bast fibersfrom potato stalks and hop vines. Evenpeat has been examined for its pulpingcharacteristics. Non-woody fibers actu-

ally in use include various cereal straws,esparto, Arundo donax reed, Phragmitescomrnunis reed, cotton, flax and hemp.It is said that tourists can purchasepapyrus sheets made contemporarily inSicily.Australia. The people of Austral iaand New Zealand consume appreciablequantities of paper products, some ofwhich are produced domest ically. Theannual per capita consumption is 130pounds in Australia and 104 pounds inNew Zealand. Several species ofeucalypts, mountain ash Eucalyp tusregnans) and messmate stringy-barkE. obliqua) in particular, are beingpulped, and only recently a second largemill in New Zealand has begun pro-duction from radiata pine {P. radiata),a species introduced from Californiawhere it is known as Monterey pine.Minor quantities of other softwoods areused in Australia. New Zealand flax,or phormium fiber tPhormium tenax),is also pulped in at least one Australianmill.Japan. The Japanese have been mak-ing paper for many centuries, but, al-though the Fourdrinier machine whichincreased the production of cheaperpapers greatly, was invented in Franceby Roberts in 1796, it is only relativelyrecently that it has been used to anyextent in Japan. The ,Japanese use thebast fibers from kozo, or paper nIulber WBroussonetia papyrifera); mitsumata

Edgeworthia papyrifera); and gampiWikstroemia canascens) ; and leaffibers of abaeh Mtesa textilis) to makebeautifully formed handmade sheetswhich find use in everything from housesto umbrellas and handkerchiefs to stenciltissues. Woods pulped in Japan arechiefly spruce, true fir and pine. Japanhas been using increasing amounts ofhardwoods, mainly poplar, since thewar. The neut ral sulfite semi-chemicalprocess is used principal ly. Japan isnow the fifth largest producer of chemi-

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182 E C O N O M I C B O T N Yeal woodpulp and the sixth largest pro-ducer of mechanical woodpulp in theworld. The annual per capita consump-tion is 47 pounds.China. China, where papermaki ngoriginated, uses only 1.6 pounds perperson per year, although Taiwan con-sumes 13 pounds and Hong Kong 35.Rice straw, bamboo, sugar canebagasse, hemp and cotton stalks servefor papermaking in China. Bleachedpulp from bagasse is being made inTaiwan. Pulp is also made there frombamboo, rice straw, ramie, banana fiber,grasses, and from hem loc k trees saidto be four to five feet in diameter.Sheets of rice paper, resembling papyrus,are not made from rice straw but fromthe Taiwan plant Fatsia papyrifera).The white pith is cut spirally into thinsections with a sharp knife, and theseare laid next to each other, slightlyoverlapping, to make sheets.India. India , which requires only 1.9pounds per person per year, has beenincreasing its domestic production ofpaper. The chief raw materi als con-tinue to be bamboo (several species,e.g., Dendrocalamus strictus) and sabaigrass EuIaliopsis binata). Secondaryraw materials are rags, rope cuttings,hosiery cuttings, waste paper and im-ported woodpulp, but other sources arenow entering the scene. One uni t usesbagasse for coated board, and bleachedbagasse is being used for other purposes.Rice straw Oryza sativa) is made intostrawboard. Eta reed is also pulped.Newsprint has been manufactured froma mechanical pulp prepared by grind-ing salai wood BosweUia serrata) anda bleached bamboo kraft pulp as thechemical fiber. Several other species ofwood have been investigated at theDehra Dun Forest Research Institute,but apparently sal Shorea robusta) isthe only other one processed at present.Himalayan conifers, such as Piceamorinda, Abies pi~drow and Pimtslongifolia, could produce excellent pulps;

the first two would make an excellentgrade of groundwood. Jute , sunn andpaper mul berry furnish bast fibers whichmight be converted into specialty papersif they are not so utilized already.Other Asiatic Countries. With the ex-ception of Japan which consumes 47pounds of paper per person annually,the other nations of Asia have a verylow annual consumption per capita:Philippine Islands, 10; Israel, 9; Turkey,6; Ceylon, 3.7; Indonesia, 3.5; Iraq, 2;Thailand, 2; Pakistan, 2; Indo-China,2; Burma , 1.3 pounds. Tile huge popu-lations of many of these nations and ofcertain of their neighbors, especially inSoutheast Asia, will constitute a vastpotential market when the masses be-come literate and when industrializationincreases. In the Philippines, bleachedpulp is being produced from sugar canebagasse by the Celdeeor-Pomilio process.There is talk of producing pulp fromcertain of the lauan woods, from abaeand from large stands of pine in themountains of northern Luzon.In Pakistan bamboo Melocannabambusoides) and cereal straw arepulped, particularly in East Pakistan.With the possible exception of smallamount.s of handmade paper fromWikstroemia viridiflora and Broussonetiapapyri]era, all paper products must beimported into Indo-China (Vietnam,Cambodia, and Laos) . Two mills inIndonesia (Java) are producing pulpfrom rice straw. In Thailand bambooThyrostachys siamensis and Bambusaarundinacea ) and wood ~Tetramelessp., Spondias sp., and Bombax sp.) arepulped in limited quantities.A mill in Turkey is pulping Abiesbornmuelleriana and A. nordmanniana,Picea orientalis, Pinus sylvestri.s, poplar,aspen, willow, wheat straw and rag.Africa. Known paper consumption inAfrican countries is: South Africa, 34;Egypt, 11; Belgian Congo, 11; Algeria,11 pounds per person annually.Pulp is produced in South Africa from

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P P E R M K I N G F I B E R S 183bagasse, eucalyptus E. saligna), wattleAcacia decurrens) and spreading-leavedpine Pinus patula), an exotic intro-duced from Mexico. Straw pulp wasmanufactured for a time but eventuallythe supply of wheat straw proved inade-quate. Late st reports indicated th atlocal pines are ground into mechanicalpulp in Southern Rhodesia.Algeria, the source of much of the es-parto grass used in pulping in GreatBritain, Italy and France, is now pro-ducing some of this pulp itself and in-corporating it into sheets with wheatstraw pulp. A board mill in Moroccouses local cedar Cedrus atlantica) andeucalypts in conjunction with importedmaterials. In Egypt cotton fibers andrice straw have gone into paper. Abagasse mill is in the development stage.In view of the large supply, papyrusstems have received consideration as apossible source of pulp but have notbeen used to any great extent, appar-ently because of the large volume ofpith (over 80 ). A somewhat highconsumption of chemical was necessaryand the resulting paper was rather hard,rat tly and translucent. It is somewhatdoubtful, however, that the price obtain-able for this product in competition withthe superior materials already availablewould be sufficiently high to render itsproduction remunerative. In Ugandaone small mill is using papyrus for themanufactu re of board for local use. InTanganyika a factory has been erectedto ex tract fiber from the baobab or mon-key bread tree Adansonia digitata).It is reported that a bagasse mill is un-der construct ion in Angola. Wat tle ispulped in Southern Rhodesia.The French Government, through theRegie Industrielle de la Cellulose Co-loniale, has erected a modified soda(soda-sulfur) pilot plant capable ofpulping 6,000 tons annually from rainforest tropical hardwoods in the IvoryCoast, French West Africa. To be eco-nomically feasible, a pulp mill must pro-

duce about ten times this amount. Asthe local market is very small in manytropical areas and probably will be sofor some time, the production must bedirected toward the markets of countrieswith high industrial potential.Survey by amil ies and Genera

The first part of this article has con-sidered rather briefly the species usedin making pulp, paper and paperboardin various countries of the world. Un-der present world conditions it is difficult--sometimes impossible to get accurateor complete information on raw ma-terials.In this section tim information onpapermaking fibers has been summar-ized for the reader by considering themby family and genus. Only seed-bear-ing plants are involved.

GYMNOSPERMAEConiferales

PinaceaePinus. A large percentage of the sul-fate (kraft) pulp made from wood isproduced from various species of thisgenus. In Europe the principa l sourceof supply in many countries is Scotchpine P. sylvestris). Maritime, or clus-ter, pine P. pinaster) is made into kraftpulp in France, Portugal and Italy.Corsican pine P. nigra caIabrica) andSwiss mountain pine P. montana) arealso pulped in Italy.In North America, loblolly pine (P.taeda), shortleaf pine P. echinata),]ongteaf pine P. palustris), slash pineP. caribaea) and jack pine P. bank-siana) are the chief sources of supply,but Virginia pine P. virginiana), lodge-pole pine P. contorta lati]olia), ponder-osa pine P ponderosa), pitch pine (P.rigida), pond pine P. rigida serotina),spruce pine P. glabra), sand pine (P.clausa), eastern white pine P. strobus),western white pine P. monticola) andcertain Mexican pines, probably P.

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184 ECONOMIC BOTANYa - ~ . - . . . . . . . ~

,* ~

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P P E R M K I N G F I B E R S 185f a t e p r oce ss . T a m a r a ck IL. laricina)and wes te rn l a rch I ,L . occidentalis) areu s ed i n t i l e U n i t ed S t a t e s an d C an ad a ,an d E u r o p ean l a r ch t L . decidua) in sev-e r a l co u n t r i e s o f C en t r a l E u r o p e .Picea. T h i s g en u s i s p r o b ab l y t h e m o s tu n i v e r s a l l y f a v o r ed f o r p u l p i n g b ecau s ethe wood combines t i l e des i r ab le qua l -i t i es o f l igh t co lor , r e l a t ive ly low p i t chco n t en t an d l o n g f ib e r. I t p r o d u ces anexce l l en t g roundwood, su l f i t e o r su l f a tep ull ). M a n y p a p e r m a k e r s h a v e f e r v e n t l ys h o u t e d - - " sp r u ce is k i n g "N o r w ay s i ) r u ce I P. excelsa) i s w ide lyu s ed i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . I n C an ad aan d t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s , b l ack s p r u ce ( P .mariatm), w h i t e s p r u ce iP. glaucal an dred spruce tP. rubens) are f avor i t es , andSi tka spruce (P. sitchensis) an d E n g e l -m an n s p r u ce IP. er~gelmanni) are usedas n m ch a s p o s si b le . T h e J ap an es em ak e p u l p f r o m s ev e r a l s p ec i e s , n am e l y :e z o m a t s u (P. jezoensis), t o h i (P. hon-doe~Tsisl, i r a m o m i (P. bicolor), a k a e z otP. glehnil a n d h a r i m o m i (P. polita).P. orientalis i s u s ed i n T u r k ey .P s e u d o t s u g a . D o u g l a s - f i r (P. taxi-]olia l i s pu lped by the su l f a te p roces s int i l e U n i t ed S t a t e s an d C an ad a .T s u g a . W e s t e r n h e m l o c k (T. hetero-phglla i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p u l p i n gspec ies in the Pac i f i c Nor thwes t r eg iono f t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s an d C an ad a . S o m em o u n t a i n h e m l o c k IT. mertensiana) isu n d o u b t e d l y m i x e d w i t h w e s t e r n h e m -lock in the mi l l . Ea s te rn hem lock (T .ca~adet~.~i.s~ i s Imlped in bo th count r i esa i~ o. T h e J ap a n es e p u l p T. sieboldiian d T. diversifolia.Abies . Var io us spec ies o f th i s genusa r e m an u f ac t u r ed i n t o g r o u n d w o o d , s u l -r it e and su l f a te pu lps . Bal s am f i r (A.bal.~'(~mea~ f inds cons iderab le use inea s t e r n N o r t h A m er i ca . I n t h e P ac i f icN o r t h w es t . g r an d f i r I A. wan dis), w h i t efir IA. co~wolort, noble f i r iA. procera},red fir ,.4. magnificat, amabi l i s f i r (A.amabili.,'~ and alpine f i r 1 .4. lasiocarpalare ut i l ized.

In cen t r a l Europe , s i lver f i r (A. pec-tinata) i s used appr ec iab ly . In Mexico ,sacred f i r (A. religiosa) i s pu lped , andi n J ap an s o a r e A. firma, homolepis,mariesii, mayriana, sachalinensis an dveitchii. I n T u r k e y , A. bornmuellerianaan d A. nordmanniana are pu lped .

TaxodiaceaeS eq u o i a . S o m e r ed w o o d (S. semper-virens) i s r ed u ced t o f i b r o u s m a t e r i a l b ythe Ma soni t e exp los ion proces s . The

bas t f iber has been forme d in to shee t sf o r b a t t e r y s ep a r a t o r s .Ta iw ani a . A l a rge t r ee used for pu l l)in Ta iwan has been r e fer r ed to in at r ad e n o t e a s " h e m l o c k " b u t m o rel ikely is Taiwania cryptomeroides.Cupressaceae

Thuja. W es t e r n r ed - ced a r (T. plicata)i s pu lped by t i l e su l f a te p roces s in t i l ePac i f i c Nor thwes t r eg ion .Araucariaceae

A g a t h is . Q u een s l an d k au r i (A. pal-merstoni an d microstachga) i s pulped insmal l amounts .A r au ca r i a . P a r a n g p i n e (A. angusti-/olia) i s pu lped by the su l f i t e p roces s inB r az i l an d n o r t h e r n A r g en t i n a , an d f o rgroun dwoo d in Braz i l . Ho op p ine {A.cunninghamii) a n d b u n y a p i n e (A. bid-wiIli} are pu lped in smal l amounts inAus t r a l i a .A N G I O S P E R M A E

M o n o c o t y l e d o n a eP N D N L E STyphaceae

T y p h a . T h e d o w n of t h e f r u i t o f t h eco m m o n ca t t a i l (T. latifolia) i s used fori n s u l a t i o n p u r p o s e s an d m ay p o s s i b l yen t e r t h e i n d u s t r y a s a w as t e m a t e r i a l .

G R M I N L E SGramineae Poacoideae)

S t i p a. E s p a r t o i s o b t a i n ed f r o m S.ter~acis.~ima i n N o r t h A f r i c a an d S p a i n ;also from a related ~or.t~..., Lgge~m spar-

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186 ECONOMIC BOT NYt u rn . T h e g r a s s is p u l p ed p r i m a r i l y i nt h e U n i t ed K i n g d o m , b u t a l s o i n F r an ce ,I t a l y , S p a i n , an d q u i t e r e cen t l y i n A l -ger ia .A v en a . S t r aw f ro n I t h e co m m o n o a t(A. sat iva) i s pu lped , p r inc ipa l ly inE u r o p e .P h r a g m i t e s . D a n u b e r e e d (P . commu-his) i s p u l p ed i n I t a l y an d R u m an i a ,and poss ib ly in o ther r eg ions .A r u n d o . T h e g i a n t r e e d (A. donax)serves as a source of pu lp in I t a ly andA r g en t i n a , an d p o s s i b l y i n o t h e r a r ea s .H o r d e u m . S t r a w f r o m t h e c u l t i v a t e db a r l e y ( H . s a t i w n n ) i s pu lped , p r in -c i p a l l y i n E u r o p e .

T r i t i c u m . S t r a w f r o m c o m m o n w h e a t4T. vulgate) i s p u l p ed i n m an y co u n -t r i e s , e s p ec i a l l y H o l l an d , I t a l y , G e r -m a n y . U n i t e d K i n g d o m , U n i t e d S t a t e s ,A r g e n t i n a , U r u g u a y , H u n g a r y , A l g e r i a ,P o r t u g t d , S p a i n , T u r k ey , p o s s i b l y i no ther s . Abo ut a ha l f -m i l l ion tons ofs t r aw ImlI ), ch ie f ly whe at , a r e p r odu cedin th i s count ry , bu t l i t t l c , i f any , o f th i sp u l p i s b l each ed an d u s ed f o r h i g h - g r ad eI):tpers.Secale . S t r aw f r o m cu l t i v a t ed r y e (S.cereale) i s Imlped , p r inc ipa l ly in cen t r a lE u r o p e .

O r y za . S t r aw f r o m cu l t i v a t ed r ic e ( 0 ..s'ativa) i s pu lped in China , Indones ia ,A r g en t i n a , I t a l y , B r az i l , U n i t ed S t a t e s ,S p a i n , E g y p t an d p o s s i b l y o t h e r r eg i o n s .C y m b o p o g o n . L e m o n g r as s (C. citra-t ,~ . , ' ) res idue af ter oi l extract ion is pulpeda n d f o r m e d i n t o b o a r d i n G u a t e m a l a .Z ea . M a i ze , o r I n d i a n co r n (Z. rnais),h as b een p u l p ed f o r b o a r d p u r p o s e s i nt h e U n i t ed S t a t e s b u t ap p a r en t l y i s n olonger u t i l i zed .

S a c e h a r u m . T h e r e h a s be e n co n s i de r -ab le r esearch and d i scuss ion on the useof sugar cane bagasse (S. officinarum)as a source of pu lp for var ious grades ofp a p e r. F o r m a n y y e a r s a b o a r d k n o w na~ C e l o t ex h a s b een m an u f ac t u r ed , i ntor t a t l eas t , f rom washed bagasse .B ag as s e h a s b een p u l p ed i n w i d e l y s ca t -tere( t area s by several 1)rocesses . Am on g

these a reas can be l i s t ed Argent ina ,B r az i l , C h i n a , C o l o m b i a , C u b a , H aw a i i ,I n d i a , M ex i co , P e r u , P h i l i p p i n e I s l an d s ,P u e r t o R i co , S o u t h A f r i c a , T a i w an an dt h e U n i t ed S t a t e s .S o r g h u m . T h e c a n e f r o m A f r i c a n c o rn($ . wdgare) h as b een p r o p o s ed f o r p u l p -ing.Eula l iops i s . Saba i g ras s (E. binata)is o n e o f t h e p r i m a r y r aw m a t e r i a l s f o rt h e p ap e r i n d u s t r y i n I n d i a .

Gr a m in e a e P a n ic o id e a e )Panicum. I t m ay b e t h a t m i l l e t ( P .miIi~weum) i s pu lped in China .Gr a m in e a e B a m b u s e a e )

T h er e a r e ap p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 0 s p ec i e sand var ie t i es o f banf l )oo , o f which someare qu i t e su i t ab le for lmlp ing . Cer ta inspec ies a re used for pu ll ) in Ind i a . Chin a ,P ak i s t an , T h a i l a n d an d B u r m a . S p ec ie sknow n to be used for t if fs purpose a rel is ted here.B a m b u s a . O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n l yp r o cess ed i s d ab a o r k an t a i B. arundi-~acea). A re la ted spec ies , B. tulda, isa l so used in Ind ia . An oth er i s ba lk i ~B.balcooa).D en d r o e a l am u s . S o m e s p ec ie s o f t h i sg en u s w h i ch a r e p u l p ed i n I n d i a a r e D .s tr ic tus ( s a l i a ) , D. hami l ton i i an d D .lo~gispathes.Melocanna. M u l l o r m i t en g a (M.bamb ~soides) i s pu lped in Ind ia andP ak i s t an .P s e u d o s t a c h y u m . P . p o I y m o r p h u m islmlped in Ind ia .T e i n o s t a c h y u m . T. duIloa i s pu lpedin Ind ia .T h y r o s t a c h y s . T. s iamensis i s pu lped

i n T h a i l an d .Cyperaceae

C y p e r u s . F o r m o r e t h an 3 0 cen t u r i e sp ap y r u s w as m ad e f r o m t h e p i t h o f C .papyr~s. I t s m a n u f a c t u r e p r a c t i c a l l yceased near the c lose of the t en th cen-tury . Th e sedge is being use~t loca l lyin Uga nda for board .

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P A P E R M A K I N G F I B E R S 187X Y R I D A L E S

Brome l i a c e a eT i l l a n d s i a . S p a n i s h m o s s (T. usne-oMes) i s u s e d f o r i n s u l a t i o n a n d m a y

f i n d i t s w a y i n a d v e r t e n t l y a s a w a s t ei n t o t h e p a p e r i n d u s t r y .A n a n a s . T h e l e a f o f th e p i n e a p p l ep l a n t (A. sativa) c on ta ins a f ibe r whic hi s e x t r a c t e d i n v a r i o u s t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e sf o r t e x t i l e p u r p o s e s . A s a w a s t e i t m a ye n t e r t il e p a p e r i n d u s t r y . T h e v e r y n a r -r o w d i a m e t e r o f tt~ e u l t i m a t e f i b e r m a yb e o f i n t r i n s i c v a l u e i n c e r t a i n s p e c i a l t ygra de s .

Ae ch ema e P i t a f l o j a i s o b t a i n e d f r o mA. magdalenae.N e o g l a z i o v i a . F i l l e r f r o m t h e le a f o fe a r o a {N. variegata) i s pu lpe d in Bra z i la r m u s e d i n l i g h t w e i g h t p a p e r s . I t h a sa l s o b ee n u se d f o r c e r t a i n m o l d e d p r o d -U C t S

L I L 1 A L E S

Li l ia ceaeP h o r m i u m . T h e l e af o f P. tenax l u n -f o r t u n a t e l y c a ll e d b y t he m i s n o m e r

N e w Z e a l a n d f la x o r h e m p ) c o n -ta ins a f ibe r whic h i s use d fo r t e x t i l e sa n d c o r d a g e , e s p e c i a l l y i n i t s n a t i v eh i n d. T h e f i b e r e n t e r s t h e p a p e r in d u s -t W p r i n c i p a l l y a s a c o r d a g e w a s t e b u th a s b e e n c u l t i v a t e d f o r p u l p i n g i n A u s -t r a l i a .S a n s e v i e r i a . B o w s t r i n g h e m p i s o b -t a i n e d f r o m t h e l e a f o f S. zeylanica.I t m a y e n t e r t h e p a p e r i n d u s t r y a s co r d -a ge wa s te .

Y u c c a . B e a r g r a s s (Y. e latal h a s b e e np u l p e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d u s e df o r s p e c i a l t y p u r p o s e s .

Amary l l i d a c e a eA g a v e . A t l e a s t t w o a n d p o s s i b l y

m o r e m e m b e r s o f t i f f s g e n u s e n t e r t h ep a p e r i n d u s t r y a s w a s t e f r o m t h e c o r d-a ge indus t ry . The se spe c ie s a re s i s a lIA. si.salana~ a n d h e n e q u e n (A. four-crogdes). O t h e r s p e ci e s w h i c h a r e p o s -s ib i l i t i es a rc c a n ta la o r ma gu e y tA . ('a*~-

tala) a n d p i t a o r c e n t u r y p l a n t ( A .americana).F u r c r a e a . T h e sp e ci es k n o w n v a r i -o u s ly a s M a u r i t i u s h e m p , p i t e i r aa n d a l o e (F. gigantea) e n t e r s t h ep a p e r i n d u s t r y a s o l d c o r d a g e o r r o u g ht e x t i le w a s t e a s d o m a n y o f t h e s o - c a l l e dh a r d r e v i l e f i b e r s .

S C I T A M I N A L E SMusa c e a e

Musa A b a c o r M a n i l a f i b er (M. tex-tills) h a s b e e n u s e d f o r m a n y y e a r s t om a k e s p ec i a l g r a d e s . I n J a p a n a l i g h t -w e i g h t s h e e t w a s m a d e a n d e x p o r t e d t ot il e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r s t e n ci l p a p e r , b u t1 5 o r 2 0 y e a r s a g o d o m e s t i c m i l l s b e g a nt o m a k e t h e i r o w n p a p e r f r o m v i r g i nf i be r i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e P h i l i p p i n e I s -la nds . Th is f ibe r ha s a l so be e n use d fo rt e a b ag s . M a n i l a f i b e r h a s g o n e i n t of lo u r s a c k s a n d s i m i l a r a r t i c l e s b e c a u s ei t i s f l ex ib le , s t ron g a nd tough . M uc ho f t h e f i b e r e n t e r s t h e i n d u s t r y f r o m o h lc o r d a g e a n d r o u g h t e x t i l e w a s t e t o m a k ethe so -c a l le d rope pa pe r s . One mi l l inC o s t a R i c a p r o d u c e s a b a c a p u l p a n db l e n d s i t w i t h k r a f t w a s t e p a p e r t o p r o -d u c e n m l t i w a l l b a g p a p e r .

B a n a n a tM. sapientum) a n d p l a n t a i n(M. paradisiacal ha ve a f ibe r whic h i sn o t s o l on g n o r s o s t r o n g a s t h a t o fMusa teztilis.

P A L M A L E SPa lma c e a e

C o c o s . C e r t a i n s p e c ie s o f p a h n , f r o mw h i c h f i b e r s a r e p r e p a r e d , m a y g e t i n t ot h e p a p e r i n d u s t r y i n s m a l l a m o u n t s a sw a s t e . A n e x a m p l e i s c o i r p r e p a r e df r o m t h e h u s k o f t h e c o c o n u t (Cocosnucifera} w h i c h h a s b e e n w i d e l y u s e d a sd o o r m a t s .

D i c o t y l e d o n a eM A G N O L I A L E SMagno l i a c e a e

M a g n o l i a . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s e v -e r a l m e m b e r s o f t h i s g e n u s a r e p u l p e d

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188 ECONOMIC BOTANYin mixture with other hardwoods. Thesespecies are cucumbertree M. acumi-nata), evergreen or southern magnoliaM. grandiflora), sweetbay M. virgini-a~za) and its southern variety, australis.Liriodendron. Yellow-poplar L. tu-lipiJera) is pulped in the United States,chiefly with other hardwoods.

Laurac eaePersea Small quantities of redbayP. borbonia) and swampbay P. palus-

trisl undoubtedly are pulped in mixturewith other southern hardwoods.Sassaf ras Sassafras S. variifolium)may occasionally be I)ulped with otherspecies.

C1STALESDat i s c ac eae

Te t r ame l e s Small amounts are usedfor chemical pulp in Thailand.SALICALESSa l i c ac e ae

Salix. Black willow S. nigra) ispuli)ed in small amounts in the UnitedStates. Pres umably some willow ispulped in Argentina and Turkey.Populus. Wood from various speciesand hybrids of this genus is used forpulpwood in several regions of the world,especially in the United States. Canadaand Europe. Poplar culture is quiteprevalent in Europe, and there are sev-eral experimental stations where hybridsare grown. Various hybrids have beenstudied in the United States during thelast 30 years.In Xorth America the species usedchiefly for pulping is quaking aspen P.trem~doides). It is made into ground-wood, sulfite, soda, kraft, and neutralsulfite semi-chemical pulps. Other spe-cies used are largetooth aspen P. gran-didentata), balsam poplar P. tacama-hrtca~, eastern cottonwood i P. deltoides)and it.~ var iety virginian ~, swami) cot-

tonwood P. heterophylla) and northernblack cottonwood P. trichocarpa has-tata). In northern Europe the speciespulped is aspen P. tremula) ; in centraland southern Europe, P. alba, canaden-sis, italica and nigra. Those in Japanare probably P. sieboldii and P. maxi-mowiczii. Poplar is also pulped in Ar-gentina and Turkey.THEALES

Dip t e r ocarpac eaeShorea The wood of the common In-dian species, sal S. robusta), is pulpedin small amount.

The a c e a eGordonia. Small amounts of loblolly-bay fG. lasianthus) are probably usedin mixture with other southern hard-

wo o d s

ROSALES

P l a t an a c e a ePlatanus . Small amounts of sycamoreP. occidentalis) may find use withother central hardwoods.Ros a c e a e

Prunus. Wild black cherry P. sero-tina) is pult)ed occasionally by the alka-line process and perhaps by neutral sunrite semi-chemical.Mimo s a c e a e

Acacia. Apparen tly black wattle A.decurrens), which has a bark rich intannins, is being pulped in South Africa.Legum ino s a e

Crotalar ia The bast fiber of sunn C.juncea) and possibly of other speciesenters the industry for rope papers fromused cordage and rough textile waste.Glycyrrhiza. Extracted licorice rootsG. glabra) have been u-:ed in boardmanufacture.

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P P E R M K I N G F I B E R S 189H M M E L I D L E SHamamel idaceae

L i q u i d a m b a r . S w e e tg m n , o r r e d g u mqL. stgraciflua), i s genera l ly used as ap u l p w o o d i n t h e S o u t h .THYMEL E LES

hymelaeaceaeDaphne The bas t f iber o f some or i -en ta l spee ies (D. cannabina, invohtcra,pet~dulal i s used loea l ly (N epa l ) in

h a n d m a d e p a p e r s .E d g e w o r t h i a . T h e b a s t f i b er f r o mm i t s u m a t a IE. papgrifera) i s used inJ ap an . T h e s h r u b i s eu l t i v a t ed t o o b -ta in the bas t f iber .W i k s t r o em i a . T h e b a s t f i b e r o f g am p iI IV. carmscen,s } i s u s ed i n J ap an . T h ef i b e r is s im i l a r to t h a t o f m i t s u m a t a b u ti s ob ta in ed on ly f rom wih t p lan t s . IV .t.,iridiflora a p p e a r s i n h a n d m a d e p a p e r sin V ie t Xam.M Y R T L E SNyssaceae

Ny s s a S e v e r a l s p e c i e s , c o m m o n l yca l l ed g u m s , co n s t i t u t e t h e m a .i o rpor t ion of the pu lp hard woo ds in theSouth . Th e pr inc ip a l spec ies a re b lackt u p e l o , o r b l ack g u m (N. sgIvatical, an dw a t e r t u p e lo , o r t u p e l o g u m ( N . aqua-tica). S w am p t u p e l o , o r s w am p b l ack -g u m ( N . sylvatica biflora), i s also used,an d p r o b ab l y s o m e b o l t s o f s o u r t u p e l o ,or Ogeehe l ime (N. oqeche), f ind the i rway in to mi l l s .

MyrtaceaeE u ca l y p t u s . S ev e r a l s p ec i es , e s p ec i a l l ym o u n t a i n a s h (E. reg~ans) an d m es s -m a t e s t r i n g b a r k (E. obliqua), a r e p u l p edin Aus t r a l i a . O th er spec ies pu lp ed a rea lp ine ash (E. gigantea), m a n n a g u m(E. viminales), p e p p e r m i n t (E. salici-folial an d s i l v e r t o p a s h (E. sieberiana).B l u e g u m (E. globulus) i s pulped inP o r t u g a l , S p a i n , M o r o cco an d C h i l e .

The same spec ies i s used in the manu-

fae ture of roof ing fe l t s in South ern Cal i -forn ia . Sa l igna gum IE. saligna) isused in Braz i l and South Af r ica . Fore s tr ed gum rE. umbellata) i s also used inBraz i l and r iver r ed gum (E. camaldM-ends) in I t a ly .U R T I C L E SUlmaceae

U l m u s . T i le A m er i can , o r w h i t e , eh n(U. americana) h as b een u s ed , p a r t i cu -l a r l y a s fe l t w o o d fo r t h e m a n u f ac t u r e o ff i t )er for roof ing fel t .

CannabinaceaeCannabis T h e b a s t f i b e r o b t a i n edf r o m c o m m o n h e m p (C. sativa) hasf o u n d i t s w ay i n t o m an y t y p es o f p ap e r ,

e s p ec i a l ly r o p e p ap e rs , f o r m a n y y ea r sin m an y count r i es . I t was one of s ev-era l bas t f ibers used in the ear ly da ys ofp ap e r m ak i n g . M o s t o f t h e f i b e r en t e r sthe indus t ry as t ex t i l e o r cordage was te .H u m u l u s . T h e b a s t f ib e r o f co m m o n

hop v ine (H. bl,p~d~,sl h as ap p ea r ed i np ap e r i n c en t r a l E u r o p e d u r i n g w a rper iods .Moraceae

Broussonetia T h e b a s t f i b e r o f p ap e rm u l t ) e r r y tB. papyrifera) has been inp ap e r m ak i n g f o r c en t u r i e s i n t h e F a rE as t . I n J ap an , w h e r e t h e f i b e r isk n o w n a s k o zo , i t i s m ad e b y h an dm e t h o d s i n t o p a p e r s w i t h m a n y u l t i m a t eu s es . T h e t ap a c l o t h o f t h e P ac i f i c Is -l and na t ives i s ma de f rom s t r ips o f thei n n e r b a r k .C e c r o p i a . h n b a u b a (Cecropia sp.) isu s ed in s m a ll am o u n t f o r g r o u n d w o o din Brazi l .

UrtieaceaeU r t ic a . B a s t f b e r f r o m t h e c o m m o ns t ing ing ne t t l e (U. dioica) o f E u r o p e h a sp r o b ab l y en t e r ed t h e r o p e p ap e r i n d u s -t ry as used cordage or f i sh ne t s .B o eh m er i a . T h e f i be r s u s ed b y ea r l yC h i n es e p ap e r m ak e r s a r e b e l i ev ed t o

have inc luded the bas t f iber s o f var ious

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190 E C O N O M I C B O T N Y

spec ies o f th i s genus , such as r amie (B .nivea) an d i t s v a r i e t y , tenacissima. T ow h a t ex t en t t h e s e a r e o f s e r v i ce t o d ayi s no t known.

F G L E SBe t u l a c e a e

C a r p i n u s . H o r n b e a m (C. betulinus)i s p r o b a b l y p u l p e d i n G e r m a n y a n do t h e r co u n t r i e s o f c en t r a l E u r o p e .B e t u l a . T h e p r i n c i p a l s pec ie s o f b i r chl m l p ed i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s an d C an ad ai s paper , o r whi te , b i r ch (B. papyri]era).Yel low b i r ch (B. 5dea) i s also used andl )erha l) s o th er spe c ie s - -g ray b i r ch (B .pop~difolia), sweet b i r ch lB. lenta) a n dr i v e r b i r ch lB. nigra). I n t h e S can d i n a -v i an co u n t r i e s , B. alba, p~d)e.s'cens a n dverrncosa are pult)e(l .A lnus . Red a lder (A . rubra) i s pu lpedi n t h e P ac i f i c N o r t h w es t . E u r o p ea nb l ack ah t c r (A. glutinosa) i s l ) robablypul l ) e ( l in Germany.

Fa g a c e a eF ag u s . E u r o p ea n b eech ( F . . s i l v a t i c a )

i s used cons iderab ly for pu l l ) in cen t r a lEuro t ) e , espec ia l ly for ( l i s so tv ing pu lp .A sm a l l am o u n t o f A m e r i can b eech I F .grandifolia) i s pu lped in th i s count ry .Castanea A m e r i c a n c h e s t n u t (C. den-t~lta) has been tmlped for more t i l an aq u a r t e r o f a c en t u r y . B o t h t h e u n ex -

t r ac t ed w o o d an d ch i p s w h i ch h av e b eenI eaeh ed to r em o v e t an n i n s h a v e b eenused . Thi s was proba bly the f i rs t spe-c ies in commerc ia l s emi -chemica l pu lps .I n E u r o p e , e s p ec i a l l y i n F r an ce an dI ta ly , the wood of C . sativa i s lmlped.Q u e r cu s . C h es t n u t , o r r ock , o ak ((4.montana) an d s o u t h e r n r ed o ak ~(4.rubra) a r e p u l p ed i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s ,an d p r o b ab l y o t h e r s p ec ie s o f t il e r edo ak g r o u p . I n F r an c e Q. rob~tr islml l) ed . Pe rha ps o ther spec ies o f th i sl a rge and f a r - sprea(1 genus a re used forlmlp ing .

M L V L E STi l ia ceae

C o r ch o r u s . T h e b a s t f ib e r s o f t w o I n -d ian spec ies , C. capsularis an d olitorius,furn i sh t il e ju te f iber o f com merc e . , lu tef iber f rom ju te bu t t s , o ld s acks a nd bag-g ing, and rough t ex t i l e was te has beenu s ed i n c e r t a i n g r ad es o f p ap e r f o r m an yyear s . In f ac t , one grade of board i ss t il l kno wn as ju te , even thou gh i tno longer conta ins ju te f iber .T i l i a . B as s w o o d (T. fflabra) i s p roba-b l y u s ed i n s m a l l am o u n t s m i x ed w i t ho t h e r h a r d w o o d s a s i s w h i t e b a s s w o o d~T. heterophylta) an d i t s v a r i e t y , m i -chauxi. I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r l i n d en(T. europea) e n t e r s p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r ein cen t r a l Europe .

Ma l v a c e a eAbut i lon . T i l e bas t f iber s o f cer t a ins p ec i e s m ay en t e r t h e p ap e r i n d u s t r yf rom the cordage or t ex t i l e indus t r i es .S ida . Th e bas t f iber s o f cer t a in spe-

c ie s n m y en t e r ti m p ap e r i n d u s t w f r o mthe co rdage or t ex t i l e indus t r i es .H ib i scus . Th e bas t f iber o f H. can-y~abinu.s, k n o w n a s k en a f , A m b ar ih em l) an d B i m l i p a t am j u t e , hasb een u s ed l o ca l l y i n I n d i a f o r m ak i n gpaper . I t. has a l so served in the Uni te dS t a te s f o r r o pe p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e a n dposs ib ly in o ther count r i es , en te r ing ve~l ike ly as oh l cordage or rough t ex t i l ew as t e . P e r h ap s o t h e r f i bc r s f r o m t h i sgenus , such as okra (H. esculentus) an drosel le (H. sabdariffa) an d i t s v a r i e t y ,altissima, are used in smal l quant i t i es .U r en a . T h e b a s t f ib e r s o f a r am i n a(U. lobata an d i t s v a r i e t y , sinuata) m a yen t e r t h e p ap e r i n d u s t r y f r o m t h e co r d -age or t ex t i l e indus t r i es .A d an s o n i a . T h e b a s t f i b e r o f t h e b ao -b ab t r e e (A. digitata) o f A f r i c a m a yen t e r t h e i n d u s t r y f r o m t h e co r d ag e o rtex t i l e indus t r i es and i s a l so ex t r ac tedi n T a n g a n y i k a .G o s s y p i u m . T h e seed h a i r , b o t h st ap l e

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PAPERMAKING FIBERS 9

and l in te r s , o f s evera l spec ies and var ie -t i es o f co t ton has been used ex tens ive lyi n t h e p ap e r i n d u s t r y . U n t i l o n l y al i t t l e m o r e t h an a c en t u r y ag o , co t t o nand l inen f iber in the form of o ld r agsw er e t h e p r i m m T s o u r ce s o f r aw m a-te r i a l or p a p e r m a k i n g . T o d a y t h e p r i n-c i p a l u s e o f co t t o n f i b e r i n t h e p ap e ri n d u s t ~ is f o r r ag co n t en t b o n d an ds imi la r g rades , a l though some o ld r agsge t in to roof ing f e l ts . Th e source ofsupply i s o ld r ags or cu t t ings , a l thoughl in te r s ' t r e be ing used to some ex ten t .I n A m er i ca t h e m a i n s p ec i e s i s A m er i -c a n U p l a n d G. hirsutum). S ev e r a lo t h e r co u n t r i e s , e s p ec i a l l y i n E u r o p e ,m ak e f i n e g r ad es o f p ap e r f r o m co t t o nf iber , inc lud ing f i l t e r paper . Th e bas tf iber can be used , and severa l inves t iga-tor s lmve ex t ) e r imented w i th pu lp ing ofthe whole ~ ta lk . I t i~ no t known wh ethe rthis bas t f i l)er is pre sen t ly being t ) roe-essed.

BombacaceaeB o m b ax . S n m l l am o u n t g o es i n t och em i ca l p u l p i n T h a i l an d .C e i b a . T h e f o s s o f k ap o k C. pen-t u~dral en t e r s c e r t a i n g r ad es f r o mwas te sources .

EUPHORBIALESEuphorbiaceae

Ricinus . Th e bas t f iber o f the cas torb ean R. communist has been sugges tedas a f i b er s o u r ce b u t ap p a r e n t l y h a s n o tye t gone in to such serv ice .

RUTALESnacardiaceae

S p o n d i a s . S m a l l am o u n t f o r ch em i ca lpu l l ) in Thai l and .Simarubaceae

S i m a r u b a . S m a l l a m o u n t o f m a r u p aIS . amar ( l~ for g roundwood in Braz i l .A i l a n t h u s . T r e e - o f - h e a v e n A..qlandu-Io.sa~ i~ u~ed ocea~ional ly w i th o ther

h a r d w o o d s i n t h i s co u n t r y , an d i s p u l p eda l so in J apan .Rutaceae

Z a n t h o x y l u m . S m a ll a m o u n t o f t e -m a n q u e i r a Z. rhoifolia) i n g r o u n d w o o din Brazi l .J UGLANDALESJuglandaceae

J u g l an s . S m a l l am o u n t s o f b u t t e r n u tJ. cinerea) a r e p u l p ed i n m i x t u r e w i t ho t h e r c en t r a l h a r d w o o d s i n t h e U n i t edSta tes .

C a r y a . S o m e h i ck o r y o r p ecan Caryas p . ) u n d o u b t ed l y en t e r s t h e A m er i cani n d u s t r y , m i x ed w i t h o t h e r c en t r a l h a r d -wo o d s

SAPINDALESSapindaceae

A es cu lu s . Y e l l o w b u ck ey e A. octan-dra) and i t s smal le r as soc ia te , Ohiob u c k e y e A. glabra), a r e p u l p ed i n t h eU n i t ed S t a t e s . P e r h a p s co m m o n h o r s ech es t n u t A. hippocastanum) is used ins o u t h ea s t e r n E u r o p e .

ceraceaeAcer . Wo od of sugar mal )l e A. sac-charum), b l ack m ap l e A. nigrum), sil-v e r m ap l e A. saccharinum) an d r edm a p l e A. rubrum) i s pu lped in theU n i t ed S t a t e s an d p r o b ab l y i n C an ad a .O ther spec ies , among them box e lder (A . egundo), b i g l ea f m ap l e A. macrophgi-lure) a n d s y c a m o r e m a p l e A. pseudo-

platanus), a r e p r o b a b l y p u l p e d o c c a -s i o n a l l y i n m i x t u r e w i t h o t h e r h a r d -woods .Vochys iaceae

V o c h y s ia . S m a l l a m o u n t o f q u a r u b aVochysia sp . ) in g roundwood in Braz i l .GERANIALESLinaceae

L i n u m . T h e b a s t f ib e r o f co m m o n f l axL. vsitati.s.sim~m) has been in paper -

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192 E C O N O M I C B O T N Ymaking for centuries, if not by the an-cient Chinese, then certainly by theArabs. This fiber entered the paper in-dustry for many years only in the formof old rags or textile waste, but recentlythe stra w from linseed flax has beenpulped after passing through breakerroils. The resulting pulp contains notonly bast fiber but shives or hurdsI woody cells of the stalk). The thinpapers are used t)rimarily for cigarcttissue but also for condens er tissue. Thebast fiber alone goes into currency, ragcontent bond, etc. It is used in Fran ce,Germany, Italy, Netherlands, UnitedKingdom, the United States, Canadaand I)robably other countries.

L O G N I L E SOleaceae

Frax inus . Small amoun ts of white ,~shIF. americana), black ash F. nigra)and probat)ly other species enter millswith mixed har(twoo([s in the UnitedStates. Whet her European ash iF. ex-cel.slot) is pulped is not known.

AsclepiadaceaeAsclepia s. The floss ()f com mon milk-weed A. sgriaca) and swami) milkweedtA. incarnata~ has served as a kapok

substitute and may enter the paper in-dust ry as a waste material. The bastfiber from the stalks has been studiedand perhaps could find use in specialties.P O L E M O N I L E SBignoniaceae

Catalpa. Small amounts of catalpaC. speciosa and b~ftnonioides ) arepulped with mixed hardwoods in theUnited States.Jacaranda Small amounts of para-para J. copaia) is used for groundwoodin Brazil.

SolanaceaeSolan um. Bast fiber from the stalk of

the connnon potato plant ~S. tuberosum)

has been studied extensively and mayhave been used in central Europe duringemergencies.

U M B E L L L E SAraliaceae

Didym opanax . Small amount of morototo D. morototoni) is used forgroundwood in Brazil.

Fatsia. This genus includes the Tai-wan plant Y. papyriferae), from whosepith rice pape r is made. The pith iscut spirally with a sharp knife and thestrips hdd side by side, slightly over-lapping. This procedure does not pro-duee paper by our present-day definitionof the term but gives a sheet somewhal~similar to papyrus.

BibliographyInnmncrable references to studies onfibrous materials for papermaking haveappeared in the technical literature. So

have many notes on various fibers u~edcommercially in various parts of tileworld. It wouhl be impossible to listthe artieIes consulted during or prior tothe writing of this brief article. Instead,the att entio n of those interested is calledto the following bibliographic material.American Paper and Pulp Association. Thedictionary of paper, including pulps, boards,paper properties and related papermakingterms. 2nd ed. The Association, 1951.Bulletin of The Institute of Paper Chemistry.Library Notes. Appleton, Wisconsin. Pub-

lished monthly, 1930 to date.FAO. Tropical woods and agricultural resi-dues as sources of pulp. 1951.FA0. Raw materials for more paper. 1953.FAO. World pulp and paper resources andprospects. 1954.Isenberg, I. H. Pulpwoods of United Statesand Canada. 2nd ed. The Inst itute of PaperChemistry, 1951.Weber, W. B., and Weiner, J. Bibliography ofpapermaking, 1953. Published by TAPPI,i55 E. 44th Street, New York 17, New York.Weiner. J. Bibliography of papermaking, 1954.Published by TAPPI. 155 E. 44th Street,New York 17. New York.West, C. J. Bibliography of papermaking,

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PAPERMAKING FIBERS 1931900-1928. 1928-1935. Lockwood Trade Jour-nal Co., Inc.West, C. J., and Weber, W.B. Bibliography ofpapermaking. 1952. Published by TAPPI,155 E. 44t,h Street. New York 17. New York.Bibliography of papermaking, 1936-

1945, 1946-1950. 1950-1951. Published byTAPPI, 155 East 44th Street, New York 17,New York.Papermaking materials. TA PP I Bib-liographic Series No. 23. Lockwood TradeJournal Co., Inc., 1928.

U t i l i z a t i o n A b s t r a c t sCatt ail s. The four species of cattail nativeto the United States have long been utilizedin handicraft enterprises but have not yet

undergone extensive commercial exploitation,despite potentialit ies in that direction. Muchof the estimated 140,000 square miles ofswamp land in this country is dominated bythese phmts.The American Indian made floor nmtsfrom the leaves, and used the leaves andleaf sheaths :is caulking nmterial; todayseveral large companies manufacture rushseats for chairs from the leaves, and nearlyall water-tight wooden barrels are caulkedwith leaf sheaths of one of the species, Tl jphaglauca.Three parts of the phmts have been usedas food--the pollen, to prepare cake orbread, two dozen tails yichlin~ sufficientflour for a small cake; the rhizomes, roasted,raw or dried and ground into a meal; andthe young shoots, eaten by the Americanhnlian and the Cossacks of the Don Valley.Modern attempts to exploig cattail inFrance, Germany and the U.S.A. have beenconcerned with utilizing the plants as substi-lutes for cotton, wool and jute; in the manu -facture of paper and ethyl alcohol; and as asource of buoyant material, the fluff, to beused in life jackets and as sound-proofingand heat-insulating material.The seeds contain about 18% oil, some70% of which is linolenie add . It mig ht beemployed as a drying oil and possibly as anedible oil. The poten tial annu m yield ofapprox imately half a billion pounds of cat-tail spikes in the United States, could furnishtwo hundred million pounds of seed which,in turn , could supp ly 34,000,000 pounds ofoil and 166,000,000 pounds of extracted meal.Lack of mechanical means of harvest and

the all-important economic factors, whichdetermine tim feasibility of developing somany new phmt products, have so far de-layed commercial exploitation of these pro-lifie plan ts. (L. C. Marsh and E. Reed,Gard. Jour . N. Y . Bot . Gard. 5($t : II~,.10:;.5; Chemurgic Digest 1./t(3): 9. 1055).

Es se nt ia l Oils. Worhl production of es-sential oils according to phmt families andgenera, in 1947-4S was:ronn siymnospermsConiferae (ill-, pine) .. . .. .. . .. 250 000(cedar) . . . . . . . . . . . . 200AngiospermsMonocotyledons

G,'amineae (citronella, lemon-graas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,200DicotyledonsLauraceae (camphor, cinna-mon, rosewood, sassafras) .. 5 400La bi at ae (lavender, pepper-mint) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 5 0 0Rutaeeae (citrus) .. . .. .. .. .. 1,900Myrtaeeae (eucalyptus) ..... 1 800Magnoliaeeae (star anise) ... 500Umbelliferae (anise, coriander) 300Geraniaeeae (geranium) . . . . . 130Anonaeeae (eananga, ylangylang) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65(W. Treibs, Per f. Ess. Oil Re v. /~6(7) : 222.195a).

Ott o of Roses . This perfume, obtainedfrom Rosa damascena and R. alba, is an im-portant product of Bulgaria where it is steamdistilled from the blossoms. Form erly pro-duced in primitive stills of 120-liter daily ca-pacity, it is now produced in install ations of5,000-liter outp ut. (N. Nokolov, Am . Pe r f .Ess. Oil Re v. 66 (I ) : 2;3, 2/+ I9.55).