ART APPRECIATION

Tara Justin

PGIDS

Pearl Academy

2014-2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to everyone at Pearl

Academy who provided me the opportunity to conduct and complete this

report.

A special gratitude I give to our tutor, Ms.Suhasini Taneja, who provided

us an insight into the ancient art period and taught us art.

I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role

of Ms.Harroop Grang, in coordinating the work especially in making this

report.

Faculty’s signature Student’s signature

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Topic Pages Topic Pages

Executive Summary 1 Futurism 41

Mesopotamian civilization

3 Dadaism 41

Egyptian civilization 9 Surrealism 43

Greek civilization 15 Minimalism 44

Roman civilization 21 Impressionism 45

Renaissance 28 Pop Art 46

Baroque 30 Op Art 49

Rococo 31 Art Deco 50

Romanticism 33 Art Nouveau 51

Realism 35 Hinduism 53

Modern Art 37 Limitations

68

Fauvism 38 Conclusion 69

Cubism 39 Bibliography 70

Expressionism 40

List of Images

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Image no. Page no. Image no.

Page no.

Image no.

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1,2 4 29 20 53,54 35

3,4 5 30,31 23 55 36

5,6 6 32 24 56,57 37

7 7 33 25 58,59 38

8,9 8 34,35 26 60,61 39

10,11 10 36,37 27 62,63 40

12,13,14,15 11 38,39 28 64,65 41

16,17,18,19 12 40,41 29 66,67,68 42

20,21 13 42,43,44 30 69,70 43

22,23 14 45 31 71,72 44

24 16 46,47,48 32 73,74,75,76 45

25 18 49,50 33 77,78 46

26,27,28 19 51,52 34 79 47

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Image no. Page no. Image no.

Page no.

80 48 112,113,114 62

81,82,83 49 115,116,117 63

84,85,86 50 118,119,120 64

87,88,89 51 121, 122 65

90,91 52 123,124,125 66

92 54 126,127,128 67

93,94 55

95,96,97 56

98, 99, 100 57

101, 102, 103 58

104,105,106 59

107,108,109 60

110, 111 61

Executive summary Ancient Civilization study is a basic subject in the social studies

curriculum. The subject is challenging because it embraces humanity in

general, and not just one nation or cultural tradition.

Civilization refers to the process of a society developing into a

centralized, urbanized, stratified structure.

The 4 main civilizations are Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek and

Roman.

Basic understanding of the principles of Art, graphics and design in

architecture are required to sensitize people to develop insights and

interpretations for Aesthetics, Architecture & Environment.

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ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

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Mesopotamian

Civilization

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• Mesopotamia ("land of rivers") is a name for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system

• The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire.

• It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.

• Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthians.

Fig 2.One of 18 Statues of Gudea www.wikipedia.org

Fig 1. Alabaster with shell eyes (2750-2600 BC) www.wikipedia.org

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Religion Believed that the world was a flat disc surrounded by a huge, holed space, and

above that, heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and

that the universe was born from this enormous sea.

Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the

goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god.

Fig 3. Ziggurats www.wikipedia.org

Fig 4. The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800 BC

www.wikipedia.org

5

Burials • In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves

under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets.

• Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel.

Fig 6. A pit grave in the necropolis www.wikipedia.org

Fig 5. Life and Death in Nabada www.wikipedia.org

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Art • The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt

as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia

• The main emphasis was on various, fortunately very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay

• Brick is the dominant material

Fig 7. One of two figures of the Ram in a Thicket(2600-2400 BC) www.wikipedia.org

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Government Believed kings and queens were descended from the City of Gods, but,

unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods.

When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces.

They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes.

Fig 8. King Sargon II (right) and his crown

prince Sennacherib (left) on a relief www.livius.org

Fig 9. Stela of Ur-Nammu www.factsanddetails.com

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Egyptian civilization

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• Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River

• It is one of six civilizations globally to arise independently. • Coalesced around 3150 BC • The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to

the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture.

Government and Economy • The pharaoh was the absolute monarch. • Barter system initially and later coinage. • Farmers made up the bulk of the population.

Introduction

Fig 10. Pharaoh www.wikipedia.org

Fig 11.Nakht tomb relief www.wikipedia.org

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Architecture Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried and kiln-baked bricks, fine sandstone, limestone and granite.

Fig 12. The Great Pyramids of Giza www.wikipedia.com

Fig 15.Temple of Kom Ombo www.wikipedia.com

Fig 14.Temple of Edfu www.wikipedia.com Fig 13.Temple of Taffeh

www.wikipedia.com

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Daily life Great value on hygiene and appearance

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land.

Music and dance were popular entertainments

Leisure activities include games and music, Senet, Mehen, wrestling, Juggling and ball games . Wealthy members enjoyed hunting and boating

Fig 17.Lower-class ancient Egyptian occupations. www.wikipedia.org

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Art Artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute

Art forms are characterized by regularity and detailed depiction of gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature

Fig 21. The Bust of Nefertiti, by the sculptor Thutmose, www.wikipedia.org

Fig 20. Ka statue www.wikipedia.org

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Burial customs .

Immortality after death. Buried their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which

involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin.

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased.

Fig 22. Anubis attending to a mummy www.wikipedia.org

Fig 23. Golden Burial Mask Of Tut www.wikipedia.org 14

GREEK CIVILIZATION

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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. AD 600).

Fig 24. God of the sea, Poseidon, circa 475 BC. www.historymuseum.ca

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Politics and Society • The major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political

system were firstly, its fragmentary nature and secondly the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea.

• Only free, land owning, native-born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state.

• People could change classes if they made more money. • Between forty and eighty per cent of the population

of Classical Athens were slaves who had no political rights or power.

• For most of Greek history, education was private. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.

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Religion and Mythology • Greek mythology consists of stories belonging to the ancient

Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their religious practices.

• The main Greek gods were the twelve Olympians, Zeus, his wife Hera, Poseidon, Ares,Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Demeter, and Dionysus.

Fig 25. The Temple of Hera at Selinunte, Sicily www.wikipedia.org

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Sculpture

Fig 28. www.wikipedia.org Fig 26.

www.wikipedia.org

Fig 27. www.wikipedia.org

Archaic

Classical Hellenistic

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Greek Architecture

Fig 29 20

ROMAN CIVILIZATION 21

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• Ancient Rome began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC.

• It is so old, it is today known as 'the eternal city'.

• Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants and covering 6.5 million square kms during its height between the first and second centuries AD

Roman Architecture

• Arches and domes

• Cement was the most important feature.

Fig 30. The Colosseum in Rome, Italy www.wikipedia.org

Fig 31. The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium.It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome to this day. www.wikipedia.org

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Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on the surfaces of floors and other architectural features such as walls, vaulted ceilings, and columns. The most common form is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass.

Fig 32. The Triumph of Neptune floor mosaic from Africa www.wikipedia.org

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Arches

Fig 33. www.cbcurtis.net

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Portraiture

Imperial portrait sculptures may model the head as mature, even craggy, atop a nude or semi-nude body that is smooth and youthful with perfect musculature.

Fig 35. circa 130 AD: the empress Vibia Sabina www.wikipedia.org

Fig 34. Augustus of Prima Porta www.wikipedia.org

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Fig 36. Bust of Caligula www.thewhatofart.files.wordpress.com

Fig 37. Claudius www.birrenshistoricgroup.org

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Renaissance • The Renaissance (French:Renaissance "re-birth", Italian: "to be reborn") was a

cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe.

• The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry.

Fig 38. David, by Michelangelo www.wikipedia.org

Fig 39. Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci (1st century BC) www.wikipedia.org

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• Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art

• Many of the Renaissance's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized

many works of Renaissance art.

Fig 40. The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo www.wikipedia.org

Fig 41. Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci www.wikipedia.org

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Baroque • The Baroque is often thought of as a period of artistic style that used exaggerated

motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music.

• The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe. • The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Catholic Church,

which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant Reformation, that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement.

Fig 42. The Triumph of the Immaculate by Paolo de Matteis www.wikipedia.org

Fig 43. Bernini's Ecstasy of St. Teresa www.wikipedia.org

Fig 44. Stanislas Kostka on his deathbed by Pierre Le Gros the Younger www.wikipedia.org

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Rococo • Rococo or "Late Baroque”, is an 18th-century artistic movement and style, affecting many

aspects of the arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music, and theatre.

• It developed in the early 18th century in Paris, France as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry, and strict regulations of the Baroque, especially of the Palace of Versailles.

• Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, and gold. Unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes.

• The interior decoration of Rococo rooms was designed as a total work of art with elegant and ornate furniture, small sculptures, ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings. The Rococo was also important in theatre.

Fig 45. The Rococo Basilica at Ottobeuren

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Fig 46. Pilgrimage on the Isle of Cythera (1717) by Antoine Watteau www.wikipedia.org

Fig 47. Jean-Honoré Fragonard, The Swing, 1767 www.wikipedia.org

Fig 48. Rococo mirror and stuccowork in Schloss Ludwigsburg www.wikipedia.org

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Romanticism • Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in

Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.

• Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature.

• In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape painting.

Fig 49. Thomas Jones(1774)The Bard www.wikipedia.org

Fig 50. Joseph Karl Stieler (1820) Ludwig van Beethoven www.wikipedia.org

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• Several romantic authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, based their writings on the supernatural/occult and human psychology.

Fig 51. Henry Wallis (1856) The Death of Chatterton www.wikipedia.org

Fig 52. Lord Byron (1827)Death of Sardanapalus www.wikipedia.org

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Realism • Realism (or naturalism) in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. • Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the accurate depiction of lifeforms, perspective, and the details of light and colour. • The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, after the 1848 Revolution. The realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century.

Fig 53. Gustave Courbet(1854) Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet www.wikipedia.org

Fig 54. Simon Bening (1550).Woodcutting, miniature from a set of Labours of the Months www.wikipedia.org

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• The accurate depiction of landscape in painting had also been developing in Early Netherlandish and Renaissance painting, and was then brought to a very high level in 17th-century Dutch Golden Age painting, with very subtle techniques for depicting a range of weather conditions and degrees of natural light.

Fig 55. Turin-Milan Hours (1425)Baptism of Christ www.wikipedia.org

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Modern Art • Modern art includes artistic works produced during the period extending

roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era.

• The term is usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation.

• Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about the nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. More recent artistic production is often called Contemporary art or Post-modern art.

Among the movements which flowered in the first decade of the 20th century were Fauvism, Cubism, Expressionism, and Futurism.

Fig 56. Édouard Manet(1863) The Luncheon on the Grass www.wikipedia.org

Fig 57. Paul Cézanne (1898–1905) The Large Bathers www.wikipedia.org

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Fauvism • Fauvism is the style of les Fauves (French for "the wild beasts"), a loose group of early twentieth-century Modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities and strong color over the representational or realistic values retained by Impressionism. While Fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910, the movement as such lasted only a few years, 1904–1908, and had three exhibitions. • The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain

Fig 58. Henri Matisse (1906) Portrait of Madame Matisse (The Green Stripe) www.wikipedia.org

Fig 59. André Derain( 1906)Charing Cross Bridge, London www.wikipedia.org

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Cubism • Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized

European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century.

• The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay,Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris.

• In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form—instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.

Fig 60. Georges Braque.(1910) Violin and Candlestick www.wikipedia.org

Fig 61. Pablo Picasso (1907) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon www.wikipedia.org

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Expressionism • Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating

in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas.

• Expressionist artists sought to express meaning or emotional experience rather than physical reality.

• Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War. It remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a wide range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film and music.

• The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism and other artistic styles such as Naturalism and Impressionism.

Fig 62. Edvard Munch.(1893) The Scream www.wikipedia.org

Fig 63. Franz Marc (1911) The Large Blue Horses www.wikipedia.org

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Futurism • Futurism was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early

20th century. It emphasized and glorified themes associated with contemporary concepts of the future, including speed, technology, youth and violence, and objects such as the car, the aeroplane and the industrial city.

• The Futurists practised in every medium of art, including painting, sculpture, ceramics, graphic design, industrial design, interior design, urban design, theatre, film, fashion, textiles, literature, music, architecture and even gastronomy.

• Its members aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past, to glorify modernity. Important works include its seminal piece of the literature, Marinetti's Manifesto of Futurism, as well as Boccioni's sculpture, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, and Balla's painting, Abstract Speed + Sound (pictured).

• Futurism influenced art movements such as Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree, Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism.

Fig 64. Giacomo Balla(1913–1914)Abstract Speed + Sound www.wikipedia.org

Fig 65. Umberto Boccioni(1910)The City Rises www.wikipedia.org

Fig 68. Duchamp (1917) The Fountain www.peterandjoan.edu

Dadaism • Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th

century. • Dada activities included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of

art/literary journals; passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media.

• It was a protest against the barbarism of the war and an oppressive intelluctual rigidity in both art and and everyday society.

• Its works were characterized by a deliberate irrationality and the rejection of the prevailing standards of art.

Fig 66. Joan Miro. Harlequin's Carnival www.miro.net

Fig 67. Marcel Duchamp (1919) L H O O Q www.gwu.edu 42

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Surrealism • Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its

visual artworks and writings. • The aim was to "resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality."

Artists painted unnerving, illogical scenes with photographic precision, created strange creatures from everyday objects and developed painting techniques that allowed the unconscious to express itself and/or an idea/concept.

• Surrealist works feature the element of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions and non sequitur.

• Leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement.

• Developed out of the Dada activities during World War I and the most important center of the movement was Paris.

Fig 69. Max Ernst. (1921)The Elephant Celebes www.wikipedia.org

Fig 70. Woman with Her Throat Cut (1932) www.wikipedia.org

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Minimalism • Minimalism in the arts began in post–World War II Western Art, most strongly with

American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.

• Minimalism in music features repetition and iteration such as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich,Philip Glass, and John Adams.

• Minimalist architecture became popular in the late 1980s in London and New York, where architects and fashion designers worked together in the boutiques to achieve simplicity, using white elements, cold lighting, large space with minimum objects and furniture.

Fig 71. The reconstruction of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.German Pavilion ,Barcelona www.wikipedia.org

Fig 72. Yves Klein, (1962)Monochrome painting www.wikipedia.org

Impressionism • Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-

based artists. • Impressionist painting characteristics include relatively small, thin, yet visible brush

strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles.

Fig 73. Claude Monet.(1890–1891)Haystacks(sunset) www.wikipedia.org

Fig 74. Édouard Manet.The Luncheon on the Grass www.wikipedia.org

Fig 75. Camille Pissarro.(1901)Hay Harvest at Éragny www.wikipedia.org

Fig 76. Edgar Degas.(1878)Dancer with a Bouquet of Flowers www.wikipedia.org

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Pop-Art • Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and in the late

1950s in the United States. • Challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular culture such as

advertising, news, etc. • Material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, and/or

combined with unrelated material.

Fig 77. Richard Hamilton's collage Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing?(1956) www.wikipedia.org

Fig 78. Andy Warhol(1964)Campbell's Tomato Juice Box www.wikipedia.org

• Employs aspects of mass culture, such as advertising, comic books and mundane

cultural objects. It is widely interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism, as well as an expansion upon them.

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• Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of Post-modern Art themselves.

United Kingdom: The Independent Group • The Independent Group (IG), founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to

the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and critics who were challenging prevailing modernist approaches to culture as well as traditional views of Fine Art.

• The group discussions centered on popular culture implications from such elements as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology.

Fig 79. Eduardo Paolozzi. (1947)I was a Rich Man's Plaything www.wikipedia.org

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United States Although Pop Art began in the late 1950s, Pop Art in America was given its greatest impetus during the 1960s. Two important painters in the establishment of America's pop art vocabulary were Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg.

Fig 80. Roy Lichtenstein.(1963).Drowning Girl www.wikipedia.org

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Op-Art • Op art, also known as optical art, is a style of visual art that makes use of optical

illusions. • Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in black and

white. When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibrations, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping.

• Op Art (a term coined in 1964 by Time magazine) is a form of abstract art (specifically non-objective art) which relies on optical illusions in order to fool the eye of the viewer.

Fig 81. Bridget Riley (1961). Movement in Squares www.wikipedia.org

Fig 82. Richard Anuszkiewicz.(1965). Intrinsic Harmony www.wikipedia.org

Fig 83. An optical illusion by the Hungarian-born artist Victor Vasarely in Pécs. www.wikipedia.org

Art Deco • It is a visual arts design style that first appeared in France after World War I and began

flourishing internationally in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s.

• Simple, clean shapes with streamlined look; rich colours, bold geometric shapes and lavish ornamentation.

• Sleek and anti traditional elegance that symbolized wealth and sophistication.

Fig 84. Armand-Albert Rateau.(1920–22) Art Deco bathroom design www.britannica.com

Fig 86. William Van Alen (1928-1930). Chrysler Building in New York City www.wikipedia.org

Fig 85. Erté.(1924) Afternoon dress of black and white satin www.britannica.com

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Art Nouveau • Art Nouveau was a movement that swept through the decorative arts and architecture

in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• It was inspired by natural forms and structures, not only in flowers and plants, but also in curved lines. Architects tried to harmonize with the natural environment.

Fig 87. François-Raoul Larche . Table Lamp by in gilt bronze, with the dancer Loïe Fuller as model www.wikipedia.org

Fig 88. Bruno. (1900)Art Nouveau interior at the Paris Universal Exhibition . Möhring www.wikipedia.org

Fig 89. Antoni Gaudí and Josep Maria Jujol (1877).The Casa Batlló www.wikipedia.org

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Art Nouveau

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Fig 90. Alphonse Mucha www.wikiart.org

Fig 91. Architect Victor Horta's Tassel House stairway in Brussels www.wikipedia.org

Hinduism

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Fig 92. Mohenjo Daro. The dancing girl www.wikipedia.org

Harappan Civilization

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• The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.

• The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.

• Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.

Manuscripts

Fig 94. Ashtasahashirika Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom)(12th century) www.c1.staticflickr.com

• Palm-leaf manuscript was a durable instrument for communicating Indian religious thought for over 2,000 years. The manuscript was intended to preserve and disseminate Indian sacred texts in the service of religion, as well as the great literary epics.

• The earliest Jain illuminated manuscripts are inscribed and painted on prepared palm-leaves and bound with cords passing through holes in the folios.

Fig 93. Page from a Kalpasutra manuscript (late 15th - early 16th century) www.vam.ac.uk

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Temples

Fig 95. Meenakshi Amman temple, Madurai www.wikipedia.org

Fig 96. Jagannath Temple, Puri, Orissa www.wikipedia.org

Fig 97. Vaitheeswaran Koil, Tamil Nadu www.wikipedia.org

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Mauryan Empire

• The Empire was founded in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India

Fig 98. Ashoka Pillar (250 BCE) www.wikipedia.org

Fig 99. Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. (3rd century BCE) www.wikipedia.org

Fig 100. Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh www.wikipedia.org

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Gupta Empire

• An ancient Indian empire, founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, which existed from approximately 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent.

• Magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings • Inspired by Buddhism

Fig 101. A Terracotta relief panel of a meditating Buddha www.wikipedia.org

Fig 102. Rock-cut temples at Ellora www.wikipedia.org

Fig 103. Khajuraho temples www.wikipedia.org

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Fig 104. Gandharva (right) with an Apsara (10th century) www.wikipedia.org

• In Hinduism, the Gandharvas are male nature spirits, husbands of the Apsaras. Some are part animal, usually a bird or horse. They have superb musical skills.

• Gandhara art, style of Buddhist visual art that developed in what is now northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century ce.

• Mathura art, style of Buddhist visual art that flourished in the trading and pilgrimage centre of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India, from the 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD. Images were made in the mottled red sandstone

Gandharas, Gandharvas and

Madhuras

Fig 105. Buddha statue, in the Gandhara style(2nd century) www.britannica.com

Fig 106. Loving Couple or Mithuna Clay Sculpture in Madhura style(1st-2nd Century) www.blogspot.com 59

Mughal Miniatures

• The Mughal vision of art depicted India and Islam in an Indian idiom.

• They were the art of elite in medieval India.

Fig 107. Mughal Emperor Babur (1483-1530) www.indiapicks.com

Fig 108. Mughal Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) www.indiapicks.com

Fig 109. Wine and Verses (1620 A.D) www.indiapicks.com

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Rajput Miniatures

• Depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna’s life, beautiful landscapes, and humans.

• Brushes used were very fine.

Fig 110. Nihâl Chand.(18th-century)Rajput painting www.wikipedia.org

Fig 111. Rajput miniature painting of mythical bird. (early 19th c) www.mughalart.net

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Deccani Miniatures • The style is a sensitive, highly integrated blend of indigenous and foreign

art forms. • Deccani colours are rich and luminous, and much use is made of gold and

white.

Fig 112. Deccani miniature (mid-18th century) www.britannica.com

Fig 113. Sultan Abdulla Qutb Shah(circa 1940 A.D) www.indiapicks.com

Fig 114. Chand Bibi (c.1800) www.wikipedia.org

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Pahari miniatures

• Known for their soft touch, serenity, lyricism, spontaneity, inherent symbolism, superb sense of composition, minute details and a deep feeling for human emotions

• Originated from the lower Himalayan hills and the plains of Punjab from the early 17th to mid-19th century.

Fig 115. Basohli.(1730 A.D) Krishna dallying with Gopis www.indiapicks.com

Fig 116. Radha celebrating Holi (1788). www.wikipedia.org

Fig 117. Sudama bows at the glimpse of Krishna's golden palace in Dwarka. (1775-1790) www.wikipedia.org

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British Architecture in India

• The British who left a lasting impact on the India architecture. • Followed various architectural styles within India like Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English

Renaissance and Victorian.

Fig 118. St Andrew’s. (1818) www.victorianweb.org

Fig 119. St Philomena's Church (1930s). www.victorianweb.org

Fig 120. The Gateway of India (December 1924) www.trails.com

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Fig 121. Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus(1878) www.housing.com

Fig 122. Prince of Wales Museum(1905) www.mumbailocal.net

Indian Artists

Fig 123. Tagore performing the title role in Valmiki Pratibha (1881) www.wikipedia.org

Fig 124. Shakuntala www.wikipedia.org

Fig 125. Saraswati www.wikipedia.org

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Islamic Art and Architecture

• Focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy • The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the

Fort.

Fig 126. Taj Mahal, Agra www.wikipedia.org

Fig 127. The Haji Ali Dargah, Mumbai. www.wikipedia.org

Fig 128. Qutab Minar(1230 A.D.) www.indiapicks.com

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Limitations

• Researching was time consuming because of the large volume

of data.

• Many a times getting the timeline of a particular art movement

was difficult.

• Different sources gave different information on the same topic.

So there was difficulty in choosing the right one.

• Referencing every image was not an easy job as there were so

many of them.

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Conclusion

Learning the history of art and the eras has been very thrilling.

We explored the story of how humans have behaved, thought,

and interacted across the ages and also the appreciation of

architectural and interior design forms through the centuries and

its applications in the modern context. We have understood the

historical aspects of Art and Design.

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43. . Bernini's Ecstasy of St. Teresa. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque#mediaviewer/File:Estasi_di_Santa_Teresa.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 44. Pierre Le Gros the Younger. Stanislas Kostka on his deathbed. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque#mediaviewer/File:Pierre_Le_Gros_(II)_-_The_Death_of StStanislas_Kostka_-_WGA12562.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 45. The Rococo Basilica at Ottobeuren. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo#mediaviewer/File:BasilikaOttobeurenHauptschiff02.JPG [Accessed 6 December 2014] 46. Antoine Watteau (1717) Pilgrimage on the Isle of Cythera. Available at :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo#mediaviewer/File:L%27Embarquement_pour_Cythere,_by_Antoine_Watteau,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 47. Jean-Honoré Fragonard(1767) The Swing .Available at :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo#mediaviewer/File:Fragonard_-_swing.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 48. Rococo mirror and stuccowork in Schloss Ludwigsburg. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo#mediaviewer/File:Ludwigsbg_mirror.JPG [Accessed 6 December 2014] 49. Thomas Jones(1774)The Bard. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism#mediaviewer/File:The_Bard_(1774).jpeg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 50. Joseph Karl Stieler (1820) Ludwig van Beethoven. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism#mediaviewer/File:Beethoven.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 51. Henry Wallis (1856) The Death of Chatterton. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism#mediaviewer/File:Chatterton.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 74

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52. Lord Byron (1827)Death of Sardanapalus. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism#mediaviewer/File:Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_(1827).jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 53. Gustave Courbet(1854) Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)#mediaviewer/File:Gustave_Courbet_010.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 54. Simon Bening (1550).Woodcutting, miniature from a set of Labours of the Months. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)#mediaviewer/File:Simon_Bening_(Flemish_-_Gathering_Twigs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 55. Turin-Milan Hours (1425)Baptism of Christ Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)#mediaviewer/File:Eyckbaptism.png [Accessed 6 December 2014] 56. Édouard Manet(1863)The Luncheon on the Grass. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art#mediaviewer/File:Edouard_Manet_-_Luncheon_on_the_Grass_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 57. Paul Cézanne (1898–1905)The Large Bathers. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art#mediaviewer/File:Paul_C%C3%A9zanne_047.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 58. Henri Matisse (1906) Portrait of Madame Matisse (The Green Stripe). Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauvism#mediaviewer/File:Matisse_-_Green_Line.jpeg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 59. André Derain( 1906)Charing Cross Bridge, London. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauvism#mediaviewer/File:Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png [Accessed 6 December 2014] 60. Georges Braque.(1910) Violin and Candlestick. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism#mediaviewer/File:Violin_and_Candlestick.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014]

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61. Pablo Picasso (1907)Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art#mediaviewer/File:Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 62. Edvard Munch.(1893) The Scream. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art#mediaviewer/File:The_Scream.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 63. Franz Marc (1911) The Large Blue Horses. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionism#mediaviewer/File:Franz_Marc_005.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 64. Giacomo Balla(1913–1914)Abstract Speed + Sound. Available at : http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/GBallaArt.jpg/300px-GBallaArt.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 65. Umberto Boccioni(1910)The City Rises. Available at : http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Umberto_Boccioni_001.jpg/300px-Umberto_Boccioni_001.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 66. Joan Miro. Harlequin's Carnival. Available at : http://www.joan-miro.net/images/paintings/harlequins-carnival.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 67. Marcel Duchamp (1919) L H O O Q. Available at : http://docs.law.gwu.edu/facweb/claw/Lhooq1.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 68. Duchamp (1917) The Fountain. Available at: http://peterandjoan.blogs.wm.edu/files/2008/10/duchamp_fountain.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 69. Max Ernst. (1921)The Elephant Celebes. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism#mediaviewer/File:The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014]

70. Woman with Her Throat Cut (1932). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism#mediaviewer/File:%27Woman_with_Her_Throat_Cut%27,_a_flor_piece_by_Giacometti,_1932_(cast_1949),_Museum_of_Modern_Art,_(New_York_City).jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 71. The reconstruction of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. German Pavilion. Barcelona. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalism#mediaviewer/File:Barcelona_Pavilion.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 72. Yves Klein, (1962)Monochrome painting. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalism#mediaviewer/File:IKB_191.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014] 73. Claude Monet.(1890–1891)Haystacks(sunset). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism#mediaviewer/File:Claude_Monet_-_Graystaks_I.JPG[Accessed 7 December 2014] 74. Édouard Manet.The Luncheon on the Grass .Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism#mediaviewer/File:Edouard_Manet_-_Luncheon_on_the_Grass_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 75. Camille Pissarro.(1901)Hay Harvest at Éragny. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism#mediaviewer/File:Hay_Harvest_at_%C3%89ragny,_1901,_Camille_Pissarro.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014] 76. Edgar Degas.(1878)Dancer with a Bouquet of Flowers. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism#mediaviewer/File:Edgar_Germain_Hilaire_Degas_069.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 77. Richard Hamilton's collage (1956).Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_art#mediaviewer/File:Hamilton-appealing2.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014]

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78. Andy Warhol(1964)Campbell's Tomato Juice Box. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_art#mediaviewer/File:Campbell%27s_Tomato_Juice_Box._1964._Synthetic_polymer_paint_and_silkscreen_ink_on_wood.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 79. Eduardo Paolozzi. (1947)I was a Rich Man's Plaything. Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_art#mediaviewer/File:I_was_a_Rich_Man%27s_Plaything_1947.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 80. Roy Lichtenstein.(1963).Drowning Girl. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_art#mediaviewer/File:Roy_Lichtenstein_Drowning_Girl.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 81. Bridget Riley (1961). Movement in Squares. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_art#mediaviewer/File:Riley,_Movement_in_Squares.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 82. Richard Anuszkiewicz.(1965). Intrinsic Harmony. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_art#mediaviewer/File:Intrinsic-Harmony.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 83. Victor Vasarely . An optical illusion .Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_art#mediaviewer/File:Hungary_pecs_-_vasarely0.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 84. Armand-Albert Rateau.(1920–22) Art Deco bathroom design. Available at:http://media-3.web.britannica.com/eb-media/12/42812-004-F240D41D.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 85. Erté.(1924) Afternoon dress of black and white satin. Available at: http://media-1.web.britannica.com/eb-media/53/24553-004-D4D43D2C.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014]

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86. William Van Alen (1928-1930). Chrysler Building in New York City. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco#mediaviewer/File:Chrysler_Building_spire,_Manhattan,_by_Carol_Highsmith_(LOC_highsm.04444).png[Accessed 7 December 2014] 87. François-Raoul Larche . Table Lamp by in gilt bronze, with the dancer Loïe Fuller as model. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveau#mediaviewer/File:Tischlampe_Schleiert%C3%A4nzerin_BNM.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 88. Bruno. (1900)Art Nouveau interior at the Paris Universal Exhibition . Möhring. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveau#mediaviewer/File:Traubensaal.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 89. Antoni Gaudí and Josep Maria Jujol (1877).The Casa Batlló. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveau#mediaviewer/File:CasaBatllo_0170.JPG[Accessed 7 December 2014] 90. Alphonse Mucha.Available at: http://uploads0.wikiart.org/images/alphonse-mucha/poetry.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 91. Victor Horta. Tassel House stairway . Brussels. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Tassel#mediaviewer/File:Tassel_House_stairway.JPG [Accessed 7 December 2014] 92. Mohenjo Daro. The dancing girl. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#mediaviewer/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014] 93. Page from a Kalpasutra manuscript (late 15th - early 16th century). Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/j/jainism_illuminated_manuscripts-and-jain-paintings/[Accessed 7 December 2014] 94. Ashtasahashirika Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom)(12th century) Available at: https://c1.staticflickr.com/3/2505/3761344049_f135886e79_z.jpg?zz=1[Accessed 7 December 2014]

95. Meenakshi Amman temple, Madurai. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_Hindu_temples#mediaviewer/File:Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 96. Jagannath Temple, Puri, Orissa. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_Hindu_temples#mediaviewer/File:Temple-Jagannath.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 97. Vaitheeswaran Koil, Tamil Nadu. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_Hindu_temples#mediaviewer/File:Vaitheeswaran_temple.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 98. Ashoka Pillar (250 BCE). Available at: ttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire#mediaviewer/File:Sarnath_Lion_Capital_of_Ashoka.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 99. Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. (3rd century BCE). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire#mediaviewer/File:CunninghamMauryan.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 100. Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh. Available at: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQWYJYYlCz1sdeWUxhZVyTxpLdYot3bBi5ec98rXGhAtQQyY1j3[Accessed 7 December 2014] 101. A Terracotta relief panel of a meditating Buddha. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire#mediaviewer/File:WLA_vanda_Buddha_from_the_basement_of_a_stupa.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 102. Rock-cut temples at Ellora. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire#mediaviewer/File:Ellora_cave16_001.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014] 103. Khajuraho temples. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khajuraho_Group_of_Monuments#mediaviewer/File:Khajuraho-Lakshmana_Temple_erotic_detal1.JPG[Accessed 7 December 2014]

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104. Gandharv with an Apsara (10th century). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharva#mediaviewer/File:Apsara_Gandharva_Dancer_Pedestal_Tra_Kieu.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 105. Buddha statue, in the Gandhara style(2nd century). Available at: http://media-3.web.britannica.com/eb-media/50/136650-004-71C0ADC6.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 106. Loving Couple or Mithuna Clay Sculpture in Madhura style(1st-2nd Century). Available at: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qApVdwPbhKM/T0P3Q81D2yI/AAAAAAAAOxI/cPTgmIhFHTw/s1600/Loving-Couple-or-Mithuna-Clay-Sculpture---Mathura%252C-North-India-Kushan-Period-1st-2nd-Century.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014] 107. Mughal Emperor Babur. (1483-1530). Available at: http://indiapicks.com/Indianart/Images_MP/Mughal_Babur.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 108. Mughal Emperor Akbar(1556-1605). Available at: http://indiapicks.com/Indianart/Images_MP/Mughal_Akbar.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 109. Wine and Verses (1620 A.D). Available at: http://indiapicks.com/Indianart/Images_MP/Mughal_Wine_and_Verses.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 110. Nihâl Chand. (18th-century) Rajput painting. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajput_painting#mediaviewer/File:Nih%C3%A2l_Chand_001.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 111. Rajput miniature painting of mythical bird. (early 19th c). Available at: http://www.mughalart.net/uploads/1/6/7/1/16716552/6118226.jpg?679[Accessed 7 December 2014] 112. Deccani miniature (mid-18th century). Available at: http://media-1.web.britannica.com/eb-media/88/7988-004-ABC200BB.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 113. Sultan Abdulla Qutb Shah(circa 1940 A.D). Available at: http://indiapicks.com/Indianart/Images_MP/Bijapur_Abdulla_Qutb_Shah.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014]

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114. Chand Bibi (c.1800). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chand_Bibi#mediaviewer/File:Chandbibi1800.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 115. Basohli.(1730 A.D).Krishna dallying with Gopis. Available at : http://indiapicks.com/Indianart/Images_MP/Basohli_Krishna_Gopikas.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 116. Radha celebrating Holi (1788). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahari_painting#mediaviewer/File:Radha_celebrating_Holi,_c1788.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014] 117. Sudama bows at the glimpse of Krishna's golden palace in Dwarka. (1775-1790) Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paharipainting#mediaviewer/File:Sudama_bows_at_the_glimpse_of_Krishna%27s_golden_palace_in_Dwarka._ca_1775-1790_painting.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 118. St Andrew’s. (1818). Available at: http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/38.html[Accessed 7 December 2014] 119. St Philomena's Church (1930s). Available at: http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/25.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 120. The Gateway of India (December 1924). Available at: http://cdn-www.trails.com/imagecache/articles/295x195/british-architectural-monuments-india-295x195.png [Accessed 7 December 2014] 121. Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus(1878). Available at: https://housing.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/700px-Victoria_Terminus_Mumbai.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 122. Prince of Wales Museum(1905). Available at: http://www.mumbailocal.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Prince-of-Wales-Museum-Mumbai-1.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014]

123. Tagore performing the title role in Valmiki Pratibha. (1881). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RabindranathTagore#mediaviewer/File:Valmiki_Pratibha_Indira_Devi_%26_Rabindranath_Tagore.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 124. Shakuntala. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raja_Ravi_Varma#mediaviewer/File:Ravi_Varma-Shakuntala_columbia.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 125. Saraswati. Available at: ttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raja_Ravi_Varma#mediaviewer/File:Saraswati.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 126. Taj Mahal, Agra. Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Taj_Mahal_Sunset_Edit1.jpg/1280px-Taj_Mahal_Sunset_Edit1.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 127. The Haji Ali Dargah, Mumbai. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture#mediaviewer/File:Hajiali.jpg[Accessed 7 December 2014] 128. Qutab Minar(1230 A.D.) Available at: http://indiapicks.com/annapurna/Q_Qutab_Minar.jpg [Accessed 7 December 2014]

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