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Transcript of Aritoteles - Poetics
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Provided by The Internet Classics Archive.
See bottom for copyright. Available online at
http://classics.mit.edu//Aristotle/poetics.html
Poetics
By Aristotle
Translated by S. . Butcher
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
S"CTI#$ %
Part I
I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various &inds'noting the essential (uality of each' to in(uire into the structure
of the plot as re(uisite to a good poem) into the number and nature
of the parts of *hich a poem is composed) and similarly into *hatever
else falls *ithin the same in(uiry. +ollo*ing' then' the order of
nature' let us begin *ith the principles *hich come first.
"pic poetry and Tragedy' Comedy also and ,ithyrambic poetry' and the
music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms' are all
in their general conception modes of imitation. They differ' ho*ever'
from one another in three respects! the medium' the ob-ects' the manner
or mode of imitation' being in each case distinct.
+or as there are persons *ho' by conscious art or mere habit' imitate
and represent various ob-ects through the medium of color and form'
or again by the voice) so in the arts above mentioned' ta&en as a
*hole' the imitation is produced by rhythm' language' or harmony'
either singly or combined.
Thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre' harmony and rhythm
alone are employed) also in other arts' such as that of the shepherds
pipe' *hich are essentially similar to these. In dancing' rhythm aloneis used *ithout harmony) for even dancing imitates character' emotion'
and action' by rhythmical movement.
There is another art *hich imitates by means of language alone' and
that either in prose or verse! *hich verse' again' may either combine
different meters or consist of but one &ind! but this has hitherto
been *ithout a name. +or there is no common term *e could apply to
the mimes of Sophron and enarchus and the Socratic dialogues on the
one hand) and' on the other' to poetic imitations in iambic' elegiac'
or any similar meter. People do' indeed' add the *ord ma&er or poet
to the name of the meter' and spea& of elegiac poets' or epic 0thatis' he1ameter2 poets' as if it *ere not the imitation that ma&es the
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poet' but the verse that entitles them all to the name. "ven *hen
a treatise on medicine or natural science is brought out in verse'
the name of poet is by custom given to the author) and yet omer and
"mpedocles have nothing in common but the meter' so that it *ould
be right to call the one poet' the other physicist rather than poet.
#n the same principle' even if a *riter in his poetic imitation *ereto combine all meters' as Chaeremon did in his Centaur' *hich is a
medley composed of meters of all &inds' *e should bring him too under
the general term poet.
So much then for these distinctions.
There are' again' some arts *hich employ all the means above mentioned!
namely' rhythm' tune' and meter. Such are ,ithyrambic and $omic poetry'
and also Tragedy and Comedy) but bet*een them originally the difference
is' that in the first t*o cases these means are all employed in combination'
in the latter' no* one means is employed' no* another.
Such' then' are the differences of the arts *ith respect to the medium
of imitation
Part II
Since the ob-ects of imitation are men in action' and these men must
be either of a higher or a lo*er type 0for moral character mainly
ans*ers to these divisions' goodness and badness being the distinguishing
mar&s of moral differences2' it follo*s that *e must represent men
either as better than in real life' or as *orse' or as they are. It
is the same in painting. Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they
are' Pauson as less noble' ,ionysius dre* them true to life.
$o* it is evident that each of the modes of imitation above mentioned
*ill e1hibit these differences' and become a distinct &ind in imitating
ob-ects that are thus distinct. Such diversities may be found even
in dancing' flute!playing' and lyre!playing. So again in language'
*hether prose or verse unaccompanied by music. omer' for e1ample'
ma&es men better than they are) Cleophon as they are) egemon the
Thasian' the inventor of parodies' and $icochares' the author of the
,eiliad' *orse than they are. The same thing holds good of ,ithyrambsand $omes) here too one may portray different types' as Timotheus
and Philo1enus differed in representing their Cyclopes. The same distinction
mar&s off Tragedy from Comedy) for Comedy aims at representing men
as *orse' Tragedy as better than in actual life.
Part III
There is still a third difference! the manner in *hich each of these
ob-ects may be imitated. +or the medium being the same' and the ob-ects
the same' the poet may imitate by narration! in *hich case he can
either ta&e another personality as omer does' or spea& in his o*n person' unchanged! or he may present all his characters as living
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and moving before us.
These' then' as *e said at the beginning' are the three differences
*hich distinguish artistic imitation! the medium' the ob-ects' and
the manner. So that from one point of vie*' Sophocles is an imitator
of the same &ind as omer! for both imitate higher types of character)from another point of vie*' of the same &ind as Aristophanes! for
both imitate persons acting and doing. ence' some say' the name of
drama is given to such poems' as representing action. +or the same
reason the ,orians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy.
The claim to Comedy is put for*ard by the 3egarians! not only by those
of 4reece proper' *ho allege that it originated under their democracy'
but also by the 3egarians of Sicily' for the poet "picharmus' *ho
is much earlier than Chionides and 3agnes' belonged to that country.
Tragedy too is claimed by certain ,orians of the Peloponnese. In each
case they appeal to the evidence of language. The outlying villages'
they say' are by them called &omai' by the Athenians demoi: and theyassume that comedians *ere so named not from &oma5ein' to revel'
but because they *andered from village to village 0&ata &omas2' being
e1cluded contemptuously from the city. They add also that the ,orian
*ord for doing is dran' and the Athenian' prattein.
This may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes
of imitation.
Part I6
Poetry in general seems to have sprung from t*o causes' each of them
lying deep in our nature. +irst' the instinct of imitation is implanted
in man from childhood' one difference bet*een him and other animals
being that he is the most imitative of living creatures' and through
imitation learns his earliest lessons) and no less universal is the
pleasure felt in things imitated. 7e have evidence of this in the
facts of e1perience. #b-ects *hich in themselves *e vie* *ith pain'
*e delight to contemplate *hen reproduced *ith minute fidelity: such
as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies. The cause
of this again is' that to learn gives the liveliest pleasure' not
only to philosophers but to men in general) *hose capacity' ho*ever'of learning is more limited. Thus the reason *hy men en-oy seeing
a li&eness is' that in contemplating it they find themselves learning
or inferring' and saying perhaps' Ah' that is he. +or if you happen
not to have seen the original' the pleasure *ill be due not to the
imitation as such' but to the e1ecution' the coloring' or some such
other cause.
Imitation' then' is one instinct of our nature. $e1t' there is the
instinct for harmony and rhythm' meters being manifestly sections
of rhythm. Persons' therefore' starting *ith this natural gift developed
by degrees their special aptitudes' till their rude improvisationsgave birth to Poetry.
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Poetry no* diverged in t*o directions' according to the individual
character of the *riters. The graver spirits imitated noble actions'
and the actions of good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions
of meaner persons' at first composing satires' as the former did hymns
to the gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical&ind cannot indeed be put do*n to any author earlier than omer) though
many such *riters probably there *ere. But from omer on*ard' instances
can be cited! his o*n 3argites' for e1ample' and other similar compositions.
The appropriate meter *as also here introduced) hence the measure
is still called the iambic or lampooning measure' being that in *hich
people lampooned one another. Thus the older poets *ere distinguished
as *riters of heroic or of lampooning verse.
As' in the serious style' omer is pre!eminent among poets' for he
alone combined dramatic form *ith e1cellence of imitation so he too
first laid do*n the main lines of comedy' by dramati5ing the ludicrousinstead of *riting personal satire. is 3argites bears the same relation
to comedy that the Iliad and #dyssey do to tragedy. But *hen Tragedy
and Comedy came to light' the t*o classes of poets still follo*ed
their natural bent: the lampooners became *riters of Comedy' and the
"pic poets *ere succeeded by Tragedians' since the drama *as a larger
and higher form of art.
7hether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types or not) and
*hether it is to be -udged in itself' or in relation also to the audience!
this raises another (uestion. Be that as it may' Tragedy! as also
Comedy! *as at first mere improvisation. The one originated *ith the
authors of the ,ithyramb' the other *ith those of the phallic songs'
*hich are still in use in many of our cities. Tragedy advanced by
slo* degrees) each ne* element that sho*ed itself *as in turn developed.
aving passed through many changes' it found its natural form' and
there it stopped.
Aeschylus first introduced a second actor) he diminished the importance
of the Chorus' and assigned the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles
raised the number of actors to three' and added scene!painting. 3oreover'
it *as not till late that the short plot *as discarded for one of greater compass' and the grotes(ue diction of the earlier satyric
form for the stately manner of Tragedy. The iambic measure then replaced
the trochaic tetrameter' *hich *as originally employed *hen the poetry
*as of the satyric order' and had greater *ith dancing. #nce dialogue
had come in' $ature herself discovered the appropriate measure. +or
the iambic is' of all measures' the most collo(uial *e see it in the
fact that conversational speech runs into iambic lines more fre(uently
than into any other &ind of verse) rarely into he1ameters' and only
*hen *e drop the collo(uial intonation. The additions to the number
of episodes or acts' and the other accessories of *hich tradition
tells' must be ta&en as already described) for to discuss them indetail *ould' doubtless' be a large underta&ing.
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Part 6
Comedy is' as *e have said' an imitation of characters of a lo*er
type! not' ho*ever' in the full sense of the *ord bad' the ludicrous
being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defector ugliness *hich is not painful or destructive. To ta&e an obvious
e1ample' the comic mas& is ugly and distorted' but does not imply
pain.
The successive changes through *hich Tragedy passed' and the authors
of these changes' are *ell &no*n' *hereas Comedy has had no history'
because it *as not at first treated seriously. It *as late before
the Archon granted a comic chorus to a poet) the performers *ere till
then voluntary. Comedy had already ta&en definite shape *hen comic
poets' distinctively so called' are heard of. 7ho furnished it *ith
mas&s' or prologues' or increased the number of actors! these andother similar details remain un&no*n. As for the plot' it came originally
from Sicily) but of Athenian *riters Crates *as the first *ho abandoning
the iambic or lampooning form' generali5ed his themes and plots.
"pic poetry agrees *ith Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in
verse of characters of a higher type. They differ in that "pic poetry
admits but one &ind of meter and is narrative in form. They differ'
again' in their length: for Tragedy endeavors' as far as possible'
to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun' or but slightly
to e1ceed this limit' *hereas the "pic action has no limits of time.
This' then' is a second point of difference) though at first the same
freedom *as admitted in Tragedy as in "pic poetry.
#f their constituent parts some are common to both' some peculiar
to Tragedy: *hoever' therefore &no*s *hat is good or bad Tragedy'
&no*s also about "pic poetry. All the elements of an "pic poem are
found in Tragedy' but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found
in the "pic poem.
Part 6I
#f the poetry *hich imitates in he1ameter verse' and of Comedy' *e
*ill spea& hereafter. 8et us no* discuss Tragedy' resuming its formal
definition' as resulting from *hat has been already said.
Tragedy' then' is an imitation of an action that is serious' complete'
and of a certain magnitude) in language embellished *ith each &ind
of artistic ornament' the several &inds being found in separate parts
of the play) in the form of action' not of narrative) through pity
and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. By language
embellished' I mean language into *hich rhythm' harmony and song
enter. By the several &inds in separate parts' I mean' that some parts are rendered through the medium of verse alone' others again
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*ith the aid of song.
$o* as tragic imitation implies persons acting' it necessarily follo*s
in the first place' that Spectacular e(uipment *ill be a part of Tragedy.
$e1t' Song and ,iction' for these are the media of imitation. By ,iction
I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the *ords: as for Song'it is a term *hose sense every one understands.
Again' Tragedy is the imitation of an action) and an action implies
personal agents' *ho necessarily possess certain distinctive (ualities
both of character and thought) for it is by these that *e (ualify
actions themselves' and these! thought and character! are the t*o
natural causes from *hich actions spring' and on actions again all
success or failure depends. ence' the Plot is the imitation of the
action! for by plot I here mean the arrangement of the incidents.
By Character I mean that in virtue of *hich *e ascribe certain (ualities
to the agents. Thought is re(uired *herever a statement is proved'or' it may be' a general truth enunciated. "very Tragedy' therefore'
must have si1 parts' *hich parts determine its (uality! namely' Plot'
Character' ,iction' Thought' Spectacle' Song. T*o of the parts constitute
the medium of imitation' one the manner' and three the ob-ects of
imitation. And these complete the fist. These elements have been employed'
*e may say' by the poets to a man) in fact' every play contains Spectacular
elements as *ell as Character' Plot' ,iction' Song' and Thought.
But most important of all is the structure of the incidents. +or Tragedy
is an imitation' not of men' but of an action and of life' and life
consists in action' and its end is a mode of action' not a (uality.
$o* character determines mens (ualities' but it is by their actions
that they are happy or the reverse. ,ramatic action' therefore' is
not *ith a vie* to the representation of character: character comes
in as subsidiary to the actions. ence the incidents and the plot
are the end of a tragedy) and the end is the chief thing of all. Again'
*ithout action there cannot be a tragedy) there may be *ithout character.
The tragedies of most of our modern poets fail in the rendering of
character) and of poets in general this is often true. It is the same
in painting) and here lies the difference bet*een 9eu1is and Polygnotus.
Polygnotus delineates character *ell) the style of 9eu1is is devoidof ethical (uality. Again' if you string together a set of speeches
e1pressive of character' and *ell finished in point of diction and
thought' you *ill not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so
*ell as *ith a play *hich' ho*ever deficient in these respects' yet
has a plot and artistically constructed incidents. Besides *hich'
the most po*erful elements of emotional interest in Tragedy! Peripeteia
or eversal of the Situation' and ecognition scenes! are parts of
the plot. A further proof is' that novices in the art attain to finish
of diction and precision of portraiture before they can construct
the plot. It is the same *ith almost all the early poets.
The plot' then' is the first principle' and' as it *ere' the soul
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of a tragedy) Character holds the second place. A similar fact is
seen in painting. The most beautiful colors' laid on confusedly' *ill
not give as much pleasure as the chal& outline of a portrait. Thus
Tragedy is the imitation of an action' and of the agents mainly *ith
a vie* to the action.
Third in order is Thought! that is' the faculty of saying *hat is
possible and pertinent in given circumstances. In the case of oratory'
this is the function of the political art and of the art of rhetoric:
and so indeed the older poets ma&e their characters spea& the language
of civic life) the poets of our time' the language of the rhetoricians.
Character is that *hich reveals moral purpose' sho*ing *hat &ind of
things a man chooses or avoids. Speeches' therefore' *hich do not
ma&e this manifest' or in *hich the spea&er does not choose or avoid
anything *hatever' are not e1pressive of character. Thought' on the
other hand' is found *here something is proved to be or not to be'
or a general ma1im is enunciated.
+ourth among the elements enumerated comes ,iction) by *hich I mean'
as has been already said' the e1pression of the meaning in *ords)
and its essence is the same both in verse and prose.
#f the remaining elements Song holds the chief place among the embellishments
The Spectacle has' indeed' an emotional attraction of its o*n' but'
of all the parts' it is the least artistic' and connected least *ith
the art of poetry. +or the po*er of Tragedy' *e may be sure' is felt
even apart from representation and actors. Besides' the production
of spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage machinist
than on that of the poet.
Part 6II
These principles being established' let us no* discuss the proper
structure of the Plot' since this is the first and most important
thing in Tragedy.
$o*' according to our definition Tragedy is an imitation of an actionthat is complete' and *hole' and of a certain magnitude) for there
may be a *hole that is *anting in magnitude. A *hole is that *hich
has a beginning' a middle' and an end. A beginning is that *hich does
not itself follo* anything by causal necessity' but after *hich something
naturally is or comes to be. An end' on the contrary' is that *hich
itself naturally follo*s some other thing' either by necessity' or
as a rule' but has nothing follo*ing it. A middle is that *hich follo*s
something as some other thing follo*s it. A *ell constructed plot'
therefore' must neither begin nor end at hapha5ard' but conform to
these principles.
Again' a beautiful ob-ect' *hether it be a living organism or any
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*hole composed of parts' must not only have an orderly arrangement
of parts' but must also be of a certain magnitude) for beauty depends
on magnitude and order. ence a very small animal organism cannot
be beautiful) for the vie* of it is confused' the ob-ect being seen
in an almost imperceptible moment of time. $or' again' can one of
vast si5e be beautiful) for as the eye cannot ta&e it all in at once'the unity and sense of the *hole is lost for the spectator) as for
instance if there *ere one a thousand miles long. As' therefore' in
the case of animate bodies and organisms a certain magnitude is necessary'
and a magnitude *hich may be easily embraced in one vie*) so in the
plot' a certain length is necessary' and a length *hich can be easily
embraced by the memory. The limit of length in relation to dramatic
competition and sensuous presentment is no part of artistic theory.
+or had it been the rule for a hundred tragedies to compete together'
the performance *ould have been regulated by the *ater!cloc&! as indeed
*e are told *as formerly done. But the limit as fi1ed by the nature
of the drama itself is this: the greater the length' the more beautiful*ill the piece be by reason of its si5e' provided that the *hole be
perspicuous. And to define the matter roughly' *e may say that the
proper magnitude is comprised *ithin such limits' that the se(uence
of events' according to the la* of probability or necessity' *ill
admit of a change from bad fortune to good' or from good fortune to
bad.
Part 6III
;nity of plot does not' as some persons thin&' consist in the unity
of the hero. +or infinitely various are the incidents in one mans
life *hich cannot be reduced to unity) and so' too' there are many
actions of one man out of *hich *e cannot ma&e one action. ence the
error' as it appears' of all poets *ho have composed a eracleid'
a Theseid' or other poems of the &ind. They imagine that as eracles
*as one man' the story of eracles must also be a unity. But omer'
as in all else he is of surpassing merit' here too! *hether from art
or natural genius! seems to have happily discerned the truth. In composing
the #dyssey he did not include all the adventures of #dysseus! such
as his *ound on Parnassus' or his feigned madness at the mustering
of the host! incidents bet*een *hich there *as no necessary or probableconnection: but he made the #dyssey' and li&e*ise the Iliad' to center
round an action that in our sense of the *ord is one. As therefore'
in the other imitative arts' the imitation is one *hen the ob-ect
imitated is one' so the plot' being an imitation of an action' must
imitate one action and that a *hole' the structural union of the parts
being such that' if any one of them is displaced or removed' the *hole
*ill be dis-ointed and disturbed. +or a thing *hose presence or absence
ma&es no visible difference' is not an organic part of the *hole.
Part I
It is' moreover' evident from *hat has been said' that it is not the
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function of the poet to relate *hat has happened' but *hat may happen!
*hat is possible according to the la* of probability or necessity.
The poet and the historian differ not by *riting in verse or in prose.
The *or& of erodotus might be put into verse' and it *ould still
be a species of history' *ith meter no less than *ithout it. The true
difference is that one relates *hat has happened' the other *hat mayhappen. Poetry' therefore' is a more philosophical and a higher thing
than history: for poetry tends to e1press the universal' history the
particular. By the universal I mean ho* a person of a certain type
on occasion spea& or act' according to the la* of probability or necessity)
and it is this universality at *hich poetry aims in the names she
attaches to the personages. The particular is! for e1ample! *hat Alcibiades
did or suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here the
poet first constructs the plot on the lines of probability' and then
inserts characteristic names! unli&e the lampooners *ho *rite about
particular individuals. But tragedians still &eep to real names' the
reason being that *hat is possible is credible: *hat has not happened*e do not at once feel sure to be possible) but *hat has happened
is manifestly possible: other*ise it *ould not have happened. Still
there are even some tragedies in *hich there are only one or t*o *ell!&no*n
names' the rest being fictitious. In others' none are *ell &no*n!
as in Agathons Antheus' *here incidents and names ali&e are fictitious'
and yet they give none the less pleasure. 7e must not' therefore'
at all costs &eep to the received legends' *hich are the usual sub-ects
of Tragedy. Indeed' it *ould be absurd to attempt it) for even sub-ects
that are &no*n are &no*n only to a fe*' and yet give pleasure to all.
It clearly follo*s that the poet or ma&er should be the ma&er of
plots rather than of verses) since he is a poet because he imitates'
and *hat he imitates are actions. And even if he chances to ta&e a
historical sub-ect' he is none the less a poet) for there is no reason
*hy some events that have actually happened should not conform to
the la* of the probable and possible' and in virtue of that (uality
in them he is their poet or ma&er.
#f all plots and actions the episodic are the *orst. I call a plot
episodic in *hich the episodes or acts succeed one another *ithout
probable or necessary se(uence. Bad poets compose such pieces by their
o*n fault' good poets' to please the players) for' as they *rite sho* pieces for competition' they stretch the plot beyond its capacity'
and are often forced to brea& the natural continuity.
But again' Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action'
but of events inspiring fear or pity. Such an effect is best produced
*hen the events come on us by surprise) and the effect is heightened
*hen' at the same time' they follo* as cause and effect. The tragic
*onder *ill then be greater than if they happened of themselves or
by accident) for even coincidences are most stri&ing *hen they have
an air of design. 7e may instance the statue of 3itys at Argos' *hich
fell upon his murderer *hile he *as a spectator at a festival' and&illed him. Such events seem not to be due to mere chance. Plots'
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therefore' constructed on these principles are necessarily the best.
Part
Plots are either Simple or Comple1' for the actions in real life'
of *hich the plots are an imitation' obviously sho* a similar distinction.An action *hich is one and continuous in the sense above defined'
I call Simple' *hen the change of fortune ta&es place *ithout eversal
of the Situation and *ithout ecognition
A Comple1 action is one in *hich the change is accompanied by such
eversal' or by ecognition' or by both. These last should arise from
the internal structure of the plot' so that *hat follo*s should be
the necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It ma&es
all the difference *hether any given event is a case of propter hoc
or post hoc.
Part I
eversal of the Situation is a change by *hich the action veers round
to its opposite' sub-ect al*ays to our rule of probability or necessity.
Thus in the #edipus' the messenger comes to cheer #edipus and free
him from his alarms about his mother' but by revealing *ho he is'
he produces the opposite effect. Again in the 8ynceus' 8ynceus is
being led a*ay to his death' and ,anaus goes *ith him' meaning to
slay him) but the outcome of the preceding incidents is that ,anaus
is &illed and 8ynceus saved.
ecognition' as the name indicates' is a change from ignorance to
&no*ledge' producing love or hate bet*een the persons destined by
the poet for good or bad fortune. The best form of recognition is
coincident *ith a eversal of the Situation' as in the #edipus. There
are indeed other forms. "ven inanimate things of the most trivial
&ind may in a sense be ob-ects of recognition. Again' *e may recogni5e
or discover *hether a person has done a thing or not. But the recognition
*hich is most intimately connected *ith the plot and action is' as
*e have said' the recognition of persons. This recognition' combined
*ith eversal' *ill produce either pity or fear) and actions producingthese effects are those *hich' by our definition' Tragedy represents.
3oreover' it is upon such situations that the issues of good or bad
fortune *ill depend. ecognition' then' being bet*een persons' it
may happen that one person only is recogni5ed by the other! *hen the
latter is already &no*n! or it may be necessary that the recognition
should be on both sides. Thus Iphigenia is revealed to #restes by
the sending of the letter) but another act of recognition is re(uired
to ma&e #restes &no*n to Iphigenia.
T*o parts' then' of the Plot! eversal of the Situation and ecognition!
turn upon surprises. A third part is the Scene of Suffering. The Sceneof Suffering is a destructive or painful action' such as death on
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the stage' bodily agony' *ounds' and the li&e.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
S"CTI#$ <
Part II
The parts of Tragedy *hich must be treated as elements of the *hole
have been already mentioned. 7e no* come to the (uantitative parts!
the separate parts into *hich Tragedy is divided! namely' Prologue'
"pisode' "1ode' Choric song) this last being divided into Parode and
Stasimon. These are common to all plays: peculiar to some are the
songs of actors from the stage and the Commoi.
The Prologue is that entire part of a tragedy *hich precedes the Parode
of the Chorus. The "pisode is that entire part of a tragedy *hichis bet*een complete choric songs. The "1ode is that entire part of
a tragedy *hich has no choric song after it. #f the Choric part the
Parode is the first undivided utterance of the Chorus: the Stasimon
is a Choric ode *ithout anapaests or trochaic tetrameters: the Commos
is a -oint lamentation of Chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy
*hich must be treated as elements of the *hole have been already mentioned.
The (uantitative parts! the separate parts into *hich it is divided!
are here enumerated.
Part III
As the se(uel to *hat has already been said' *e must proceed to consider
*hat the poet should aim at' and *hat he should avoid' in constructing
his plots) and by *hat means the specific effect of Tragedy *ill be
produced.
A perfect tragedy should' as *e have seen' be arranged not on the
simple but on the comple1 plan. It should' moreover' imitate actions
*hich e1cite pity and fear' this being the distinctive mar& of tragic
imitation. It follo*s plainly' in the first place' that the change
of fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man broughtfrom prosperity to adversity: for this moves neither pity nor fear)
it merely shoc&s us. $or' again' that of a bad man passing from adversity
to prosperity: for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy)
it possesses no single tragic (uality) it neither satisfies the moral
sense nor calls forth pity or fear. $or' again' should the do*nfall
of the utter villain be e1hibited. A plot of this &ind *ould' doubtless'
satisfy the moral sense' but it *ould inspire neither pity nor fear)
for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune' fear by the misfortune
of a man li&e ourselves. Such an event' therefore' *ill be neither
pitiful nor terrible. There remains' then' the character bet*een these
t*o e1tremes! that of a man *ho is not eminently good and -ust' yet*hose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity' but by
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some error or frailty. e must be one *ho is highly reno*ned and prosperous!
a personage li&e #edipus' Thyestes' or other illustrious men of such
families.
A *ell!constructed plot should' therefore' be single in its issue'
rather than double as some maintain. The change of fortune should be not from bad to good' but' reversely' from good to bad. It should
come about as the result not of vice' but of some great error or frailty'
in a character either such as *e have described' or better rather
than *orse. The practice of the stage bears out our vie*. At first
the poets recounted any legend that came in their *ay. $o*' the best
tragedies are founded on the story of a fe* houses! on the fortunes
of Alcmaeon' #edipus' #restes' 3eleager' Thyestes' Telephus' and those
others *ho have done or suffered something terrible. A tragedy' then'
to be perfect according to the rules of art should be of this construction.
ence they are in error *ho censure "uripides -ust because he follo*s
this principle in his plays' many of *hich end unhappily. It is' as*e have said' the right ending. The best proof is that on the stage
and in dramatic competition' such plays' if *ell *or&ed out' are the
most tragic in effect) and "uripides' faulty though he may be in the
general management of his sub-ect' yet is felt to be the most tragic
of the poets.
In the second ran& comes the &ind of tragedy *hich some place first.
8i&e the #dyssey' it has a double thread of plot' and also an opposite
catastrophe for the good and for the bad. It is accounted the best
because of the *ea&ness of the spectators) for the poet is guided
in *hat he *rites by the *ishes of his audience. The pleasure' ho*ever'
thence derived is not the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather
to Comedy' *here those *ho' in the piece' are the deadliest enemies!
li&e #restes and Aegisthus! (uit the stage as friends at the close'
and no one slays or is slain.
Part I6
+ear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means) but they may also
result from the inner structure of the piece' *hich is the better
*ay' and indicates a superior poet. +or the plot ought to be so constructedthat' even *ithout the aid of the eye' he *ho hears the tale told
*ill thrill *ith horror and melt to pity at *hat ta&es Place. This
is the impression *e should receive from hearing the story of the
#edipus. But to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a less
artistic method' and dependent on e1traneous aids. Those *ho employ
spectacular means to create a sense not of the terrible but only of
the monstrous' are strangers to the purpose of Tragedy) for *e must
not demand of Tragedy any and every &ind of pleasure' but only that
*hich is proper to it. And since the pleasure *hich the poet should
afford is that *hich comes from pity and fear through imitation' it
is evident that this (uality must be impressed upon the incidents.
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8et us then determine *hat are the circumstances *hich stri&e us as
terrible or pitiful.
Actions capable of this effect must happen bet*een persons *ho are
either friends or enemies or indifferent to one another. If an enemy
&ills an enemy' there is nothing to e1cite pity either in the actor the intention! e1cept so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful.
So again *ith indifferent persons. But *hen the tragic incident occurs
bet*een those *ho are near or dear to one another! if' for e1ample'
a brother &ills' or intends to &ill' a brother' a son his father'
a mother her son' a son his mother' or any other deed of the &ind
is done! these are the situations to be loo&ed for by the poet. e
may not indeed destroy the frame*or& of the received legends! the
fact' for instance' that Clytemnestra *as slain by #restes and "riphyle
by Alcmaeon! but he ought to sho* of his o*n' and s&ilfully handle
the traditional. material. 8et us e1plain more clearly *hat is meant
by s&ilful handling.
The action may be done consciously and *ith &no*ledge of the persons'
in the manner of the older poets. It is thus too that "uripides ma&es
3edea slay her children. #r' again' the deed of horror may be done'
but done in ignorance' and the tie of &inship or friendship be discovered
after*ards. The #edipus of Sophocles is an e1ample. ere' indeed'
the incident is outside the drama proper) but cases occur *here it
falls *ithin the action of the play: one may cite the Alcmaeon of
Astydamas' or Telegonus in the 7ounded #dysseus. Again' there is a
third case! =to be about to act *ith &no*ledge of the persons and
then not to act. The fourth case> is *hen some one is about to do
an irreparable deed through ignorance' and ma&es the discovery before
it is done. These are the only possible *ays. +or the deed must either
be done or not done! and that *ittingly or un*ittingly. But of all
these *ays' to be about to act &no*ing the persons' and then not to
act' is the *orst. It is shoc&ing *ithout being tragic' for no disaster
follo*s It is' therefore' never' or very rarely' found in poetry.
#ne instance' ho*ever' is in the Antigone' *here aemon threatens
to &ill Creon. The ne1t and better *ay is that the deed should be
perpetrated. Still better' that it should be perpetrated in ignorance'
and the discovery made after*ards. There is then nothing to shoc& us' *hile the discovery produces a startling effect. The last case
is the best' as *hen in the Cresphontes 3erope is about to slay her
son' but' recogni5ing *ho he is' spares his life. So in the Iphigenia'
the sister recogni5es the brother -ust in time. Again in the elle'
the son recogni5es the mother *hen on the point of giving her up.
This' then' is *hy a fe* families only' as has been already observed'
furnish the sub-ects of tragedy. It *as not art' but happy chance'
that led the poets in search of sub-ects to impress the tragic (uality
upon their plots. They are compelled' therefore' to have recourse
to those houses *hose history contains moving incidents li&e these.
"nough has no* been said concerning the structure of the incidents'
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and the right &ind of plot.
Part 6
In respect of Character there are four things to be aimed at. +irst'
and most important' it must be good. $o* any speech or action thatmanifests moral purpose of any &ind *ill be e1pressive of character:
the character *ill be good if the purpose is good. This rule is relative
to each class. "ven a *oman may be good' and also a slave) though
the *oman may be said to be an inferior being' and the slave (uite
*orthless. The second thing to aim at is propriety. There is a type
of manly valor) but valor in a *oman' or unscrupulous cleverness is
inappropriate. Thirdly' character must be true to life: for this is
a distinct thing from goodness and propriety' as here described. The
fourth point is consistency: for though the sub-ect of the imitation'
*ho suggested the type' be inconsistent' still he must be consistently
inconsistent. As an e1ample of motiveless degradation of character'*e have 3enelaus in the #restes) of character indecorous and inappropriate'
the lament of #dysseus in the Scylla' and the speech of 3elanippe)
of inconsistency' the Iphigenia at Aulis! for Iphigenia the suppliant
in no *ay resembles her later self.
As in the structure of the plot' so too in the portraiture of character'
the poet should al*ays aim either at the necessary or the probable.
Thus a person of a given character should spea& or act in a given
*ay' by the rule either of necessity or of probability) -ust as this
event should follo* that by necessary or probable se(uence. It is
therefore evident that the unraveling of the plot' no less than the
complication' must arise out of the plot itself' it must not be brought
about by the ,eus e1 3achina! as in the 3edea' or in the return of
the 4ree&s in the Iliad. The ,eus e1 3achina should be employed only
for events e1ternal to the drama! for antecedent or subse(uent events'
*hich lie beyond the range of human &no*ledge' and *hich re(uire to
be reported or foretold) for to the gods *e ascribe the po*er of seeing
all things. 7ithin the action there must be nothing irrational. If
the irrational cannot be e1cluded' it should be outside the scope
of the tragedy. Such is the irrational element the #edipus of Sophocles.
Again' since Tragedy is an imitation of persons *ho are above the
common level' the e1ample of good portrait painters should be follo*ed.
They' *hile reproducing the distinctive form of the original' ma&e
a li&eness *hich is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the
poet' in representing men *ho are irascible or indolent' or have other
defects of character' should preserve the type and yet ennoble it.
In this *ay Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and omer.
These then are rules the poet should observe. $or should he neglect
those appeals to the senses' *hich' though not among the essentials'
are the concomitants of poetry) for here too there is much room for error. But of this enough has been said in our published treatises.
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Part 6I
7hat ecognition is has been already e1plained. 7e *ill no* enumerate
its &inds.
+irst' the least artistic form' *hich' from poverty of *it' is most
commonly employed! recognition by signs. #f these some are congenital!
such as the spear *hich the earth!born race bear on their bodies'
or the stars introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. #thers are ac(uired
after birth) and of these some are bodily mar&s' as scars) some e1ternal
to&ens' as nec&laces' or the little ar& in the Tyro by *hich the discovery
is effected. "ven these admit of more or less s&ilful treatment. Thus
in the recognition of #dysseus by his scar' the discovery is made
in one *ay by the nurse' in another by the s*ineherds. The use of
to&ens for the e1press purpose of proof! and' indeed' any formal proof
*ith or *ithout to&ens! is a less artistic mode of recognition. A better &ind is that *hich comes about by a turn of incident' as in
the Bath Scene in the #dyssey.
$e1t come the recognitions invented at *ill by the poet' and on that
account *anting in art. +or e1ample' #restes in the Iphigenia reveals
the fact that he is #restes. She' indeed' ma&es herself &no*n by the
letter) but he' by spea&ing himself' and saying *hat the poet' not
*hat the plot re(uires. This' therefore' is nearly allied to the fault
above mentioned! for #restes might as *ell have brought to&ens *ith
him. Another similar instance is the voice of the shuttle in the
Tereus of Sophocles.
The third &ind depends on memory *hen the sight of some ob-ect a*a&ens
a feeling: as in the Cyprians of ,icaeogenes' *here the hero brea&s
into tears on seeing the picture) or again in the 8ay of Alcinous'
*here #dysseus' hearing the minstrel play the lyre' recalls the past
and *eeps) and hence the recognition.
The fourth &ind is by process of reasoning. Thus in the Choephori:
Some one resembling me has come: no one resembles me but #restes:
therefore #restes has come. Such too is the discovery made by Iphigeniain the play of Polyidus the Sophist. It *as a natural reflection for
#restes to ma&e' So I too must die at the altar li&e my sister.
So' again' in the Tydeus of Theodectes' the father says' I came to
find my son' and I lose my o*n life. So too in the Phineidae: the
*omen' on seeing the place' inferred their fate! ere *e are doomed
to die' for here *e *ere cast forth. Again' there is a composite
&ind of recognition involving false inference on the part of one of
the characters' as in the #dysseus ,isguised as a 3essenger. A said
=that no one else *as able to bend the bo*) ... hence B 0the disguised
#dysseus2 imagined that A *ould> recogni5e the bo* *hich' in fact'
he had not seen) and to bring about a recognition by this means! thee1pectation that A *ould recogni5e the bo*! is false inference.
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But' of all recognitions' the best is that *hich arises from the incidents
themselves' *here the startling discovery is made by natural means.
Such is that in the #edipus of Sophocles' and in the Iphigenia) for
it *as natural that Iphigenia should *ish to dispatch a letter. These
recognitions alone dispense *ith the artificial aid of to&ens or amulets. $e1t come the recognitions by process of reasoning.
Part 6II
In constructing the plot and *or&ing it out *ith the proper diction'
the poet should place the scene' as far as possible' before his eyes.
In this *ay' seeing everything *ith the utmost vividness' as if he
*ere a spectator of the action' he *ill discover *hat is in &eeping
*ith it' and be most unli&ely to overloo& inconsistencies. The need
of such a rule is sho*n by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus
*as on his *ay from the temple. This fact escaped the observationof one *ho did not see the situation. #n the stage' ho*ever' the Piece
failed' the audience being offended at the oversight.
Again' the poet should *or& out his play' to the best of his po*er'
*ith appropriate gestures) for those *ho feel emotion are most convincing
through natural sympathy *ith the characters they represent) and one
*ho is agitated storms' one *ho is angry rages' *ith the most lifeli&e
reality. ence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain
of madness. In the one case a man can ta&e the mould of any character)
in the other' he is lifted out of his proper self.
As for the story' *hether the poet ta&es it ready made or constructs
it for himself' he should first s&etch its general outline' and then
fill in the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan may be
illustrated by the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed) she disappears
mysteriously from the eyes of those *ho sacrificed her) she is transported
to another country' *here the custom is to offer up an strangers to
the goddess. To this ministry she is appointed. Some time later her
o*n brother chances to arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason
ordered him to go there' is outside the general plan of the play.
The purpose' again' of his coming is outside the action proper. o*ever'he comes' he is sei5ed' and' *hen on the point of being sacrificed'
reveals *ho he is. The mode of recognition may be either that of "uripides
or of Polyidus' in *hose play he e1claims very naturally: So it *as
not my sister only' but I too' *ho *as doomed to be sacrificed) and
by that remar& he is saved.
After this' the names being once given' it remains to fill in the
episodes. 7e must see that they are relevant to the action. In the
case of #restes' for e1ample' there is the madness *hich led to his
capture' and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In
the drama' the episodes are short' but it is these that give e1tensionto "pic poetry. Thus the story of the #dyssey can be stated briefly.
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A certain man is absent from home for many years) he is -ealously
*atched by Poseidon' and left desolate. 3ean*hile his home is in a
*retched plight! suitors are *asting his substance and plotting against
his son. At length' tempest!tost' he himself arrives) he ma&es certain
persons ac(uainted *ith him) he attac&s the suitors *ith his o*n hand'
and is himself preserved *hile he destroys them. This is the essenceof the plot) the rest is episode.
Part 6III
"very tragedy falls into t*o parts! Complication and ;nraveling or
,enouement. Incidents e1traneous to the action are fre(uently combined
*ith a portion of the action proper' to form the Complication) the
rest is the ;nraveling. By the Complication I mean all that e1tends
from the beginning of the action to the part *hich mar&s the turning!point
to good or bad fortune. The ;nraveling is that *hich e1tends from
the beginning of the change to the end. Thus' in the 8ynceus of Theodectes'the Complication consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama'
the sei5ure of the child' and then again ... =the ;nraveling> e1tends
from the accusation of murder to
There are four &inds of Tragedy: the Comple1' depending entirely on
eversal of the Situation and ecognition) the Pathetic 0*here the
motive is passion2! such as the tragedies on A-a1 and I1ion) the "thical
0*here the motives are ethical2! such as the Phthiotides and the Peleus.
The fourth &ind is the Simple. =7e here e1clude the purely spectacular
element>' e1emplified by the Phorcides' the Prometheus' and scenes
laid in ades. The poet should endeavor' if possible' to combine all
poetic elements) or failing that' the greatest number and those the
most important) the more so' in face of the caviling criticism of
the day. +or *hereas there have hitherto been good poets' each in
his o*n branch' the critics no* e1pect one man to surpass all others
in their several lines of e1cellence.
In spea&ing of a tragedy as the same or different' the best test to
ta&e is the plot. Identity e1ists *here the Complication and ;nraveling
are the same. 3any poets tie the ¬ *ell' but unravel it Both arts'
ho*ever' should al*ays be mastered.
Again' the poet should remember *hat has been often said' and not
ma&e an "pic structure into a tragedy! by an "pic structure I mean
one *ith a multiplicity of plots! as if' for instance' you *ere to
ma&e a tragedy out of the entire story of the Iliad. In the "pic poem'
o*ing to its length' each part assumes its proper magnitude. In the
drama the result is far from ans*ering to the poets e1pectation.
The proof is that the poets *ho have dramati5ed the *hole story of
the +all of Troy' instead of selecting portions' li&e "uripides) or
*ho have ta&en the *hole tale of $iobe' and not a part of her story'
li&e Aeschylus' either fail utterly or meet *ith poor success on thestage. "ven Agathon has been &no*n to fail from this one defect. In
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his eversals of the Situation' ho*ever' he sho*s a marvelous s&ill
in the effort to hit the popular taste! to produce a tragic effect
that satisfies the moral sense. This effect is produced *hen the clever
rogue' li&e Sisyphus' is out*itted' or the brave villain defeated.
Such an event is probable in Agathons sense of the *ord: is probable'
he says' that many things should happen contrary to probability.
The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors) it should
be an integral part of the *hole' and share in the action' in the
manner not of "uripides but of Sophocles. As for the later poets'
their choral songs pertain as little to the sub-ect of the piece as
to that of any other tragedy. They are' therefore' sung as mere interludes!
a practice first begun by Agathon. ?et *hat difference is there bet*een
introducing such choral interludes' and transferring a speech' or
even a *hole act' from one play to another.
Part I
It remains to spea& of ,iction and Thought' the other parts of Tragedy
having been already discussed. concerning Thought' *e may assume *hat
is said in the hetoric' to *hich in(uiry the sub-ect more strictly
belongs. ;nder Thought is included every effect *hich has to be produced
by speech' the subdivisions being: proof and refutation) the e1citation
of the feelings' such as pity' fear' anger' and the li&e) the suggestion
of importance or its opposite. $o*' it is evident that the dramatic
incidents must be treated from the same points of vie* as the dramatic
speeches' *hen the ob-ect is to evo&e the sense of pity' fear' importance'
or probability. The only difference is that the incidents should spea&
for themselves *ithout verbal e1position) *hile effects aimed at in
should be produced by the spea&er' and as a result of the speech.
+or *hat *ere the business of a spea&er' if the Thought *ere revealed
(uite apart from *hat he says@
$e1t' as regards ,iction. #ne branch of the in(uiry treats of the
3odes of ;tterance. But this province of &no*ledge belongs to the
art of ,elivery and to the masters of that science. It includes' for
instance! *hat is a command' a prayer' a statement' a threat' a (uestion'
an ans*er' and so forth. To &no* or not to &no* these things involvesno serious censure upon the poets art. +or *ho can admit the fault
imputed to omer by Protagoras! that in the *ords' Sing' goddess'
of the *rath' he gives a command under the idea that he utters a prayer@
+or to tell some one to do a thing or not to do it is' he says' a
command. 7e may' therefore' pass this over as an in(uiry that belongs
to another art' not to poetry.
Part
8anguage in general includes the follo*ing parts: 8etter' Syllable'
Connecting 7ord' $oun' 6erb' Inflection or Case' Sentence or Phrase.
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A 8etter is an indivisible sound' yet not every such sound' but only
one *hich can form part of a group of sounds. +or even brutes utter
indivisible sounds' none of *hich I call a letter. The sound I mean
may be either a vo*el' a semivo*el' or a mute. A vo*el is that *hich
*ithout impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound. A semivo*el
that *hich *ith such impact has an audible sound' as S and . A mute'that *hich *ith such impact has by itself no sound' but -oined to
a vo*el sound becomes audible' as 4 and ,. These are distinguished
according to the form assumed by the mouth and the place *here they
are produced) according as they are aspirated or smooth' long or short)
as they are acute' grave' or of an intermediate tone) *hich in(uiry
belongs in detail to the *riters on meter.
A Syllable is a nonsignificant sound' composed of a mute and a vo*el:
for 4 *ithout A is a syllable' as also *ith A! 4A. But the investigation
of these differences belongs also to metrical science.
A Connecting 7ord is a nonsignificant sound' *hich neither causes
nor hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound) it
may be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence. #r' a
nonsignificant sound' *hich out of several sounds' each of them significant'
is capable of forming one significant sound! as amphi' peri' and the
li&e. #r' a nonsignificant sound' *hich mar&s the beginning' end'
or division of a sentence) such' ho*ever' that it cannot correctly
stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence! as men' etoi' de.
A $oun is a composite significant sound' not mar&ing time' of *hich
no part is in itself significant: for in double or compound *ords
*e do not employ the separate parts as if each *ere in itself significant.
Thus in Theodorus' god!given' the doron or gift is not in itself
significant.
A 6erb is a composite significant sound' mar&ing time' in *hich' as
in the noun' no part is in itself significant. +or man or *hite
does not e1press the idea of *hen) but he *al&s or he has *al&ed
does connote time' present or past.
Inflection belongs both to the noun and verb' and e1presses either the relation of' to' or the li&e) or that of number' *hether one
or many' as man or men) or the modes or tones in actual delivery'
e.g.' a (uestion or a command. ,id he go@ and go are verbal inflections
of this &ind.
A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound' some at least
of *hose parts are in themselves significant) for not every such group
of *ords consists of verbs and nouns! the definition of man' for
e1ample! but it may dispense even *ith the verb. Still it *ill al*ays
have some significant part' as in *al&ing' or Cleon son of Cleon.
A sentence or phrase may form a unity in t*o *ays! either as signifyingone thing' or as consisting of several parts lin&ed together. Thus
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the Iliad is one by the lin&ing together of parts' the definition
of man by the unity of the thing signified.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
S"CTI#$
Part I
7ords are of t*o &inds' simple and double. By simple I mean those
composed of nonsignificant elements' such as ge' earth. By double
or compound' those composed either of a significant and nonsignificant
element 0though *ithin the *hole *ord no element is significant2'
or of elements that are both significant. A *ord may li&e*ise be triple'
(uadruple' or multiple in form' li&e so many 3assilian e1pressions'
e.g.' ermo!caico!1anthus =*ho prayed to +ather 9eus>.
"very *ord is either current' or strange' or metaphorical' or ornamental'
or ne*ly!coined' or lengthened' or contracted' or altered.
By a current or proper *ord I mean one *hich is in general use among
a people) by a strange *ord' one *hich is in use in another country.
Plainly' therefore' the same *ord may be at once strange and current'
but not in relation to the same people. The *ord sigynon' lance'
is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a strange one.
3etaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either
from genus to species' or from species to genus' or from species to
species' or by analogy' that is' proportion. Thus from genus to species'
as: There lies my ship) for lying at anchor is a species of lying.
+rom species to genus' as: 6erily ten thousand noble deeds hath #dysseus
*rought) for ten thousand is a species of large number' and is here
used for a large number generally. +rom species to species' as: 7ith
blade of bron5e dre* a*ay the life' and Cleft the *ater *ith the
vessel of unyielding bron5e. ere arusai' to dra* a*ay is used
for tamein' to cleave' and tamein' again for arusai! each being
a species of ta&ing a*ay. Analogy or proportion is *hen the second
term is to the first as the fourth to the third. 7e may then use thefourth for the second' or the second for the fourth. Sometimes too
*e (ualify the metaphor by adding the term to *hich the proper *ord
is relative. Thus the cup is to ,ionysus as the shield to Ares. The
cup may' therefore' be called the shield of ,ionysus' and the shield
the cup of Ares. #r' again' as old age is to life' so is evening
to day. "vening may therefore be called' the old age of the day'
and old age' the evening of life' or' in the phrase of "mpedocles'
lifes setting sun. +or some of the terms of the proportion there
is at times no *ord in e1istence) still the metaphor may be used.
+or instance' to scatter seed is called so*ing: but the action of
the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this process bearsto the sun the same relation as so*ing to the seed. ence the e1pression
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of the poet so*ing the god!created light. There is another *ay in
*hich this &ind of metaphor may be employed. 7e may apply an alien
term' and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes) as
if *e *ere to call the shield' not the cup of Ares' but the *ineless
cup.
A ne*ly!coined *ord is one *hich has never been even in local use'
but is adopted by the poet himself. Some such *ords there appear to
be: as ernyges' sprouters' for &erata' horns) and areter' supplicator'
for hiereus' priest.
A *ord is lengthened *hen its o*n vo*el is e1changed for a longer
one' or *hen a syllable is inserted. A *ord is contracted *hen some
part of it is removed. Instances of lengthening are: poleos for poleos'
Peleiadeo for Peleidou) of contraction: &ri' do' and ops' as in mia
ginetai amphoteron ops' the appearance of both is one.
An altered *ord is one in *hich part of the ordinary form is left
unchanged' and part is recast: as in de1iteron &ata ma5on' on the
right breast' de1iteron is for de1ion.
$ouns in themselves are either masculine' feminine' or neuter. 3asculine
are such as end in $' ' S' or in some letter compounded *ith S! these
being t*o' PS and . +eminine' such as end in vo*els that are al*ays
long' namely " and #' and! of vo*els that admit of lengthening! those
in A. Thus the number of letters in *hich nouns masculine and feminine
end is the same) for PS and are e(uivalent to endings in S. $o noun
ends in a mute or a vo*el short by nature. Three only end in I! meli'
honey) &ommi' gum) peperi' pepper) five end in ;. $euter nouns
end in these t*o latter vo*els) also in $ and S.
Part II
The perfection of style is to be clear *ithout being mean. The clearest
style is that *hich uses only current or proper *ords) at the same
time it is mean! *itness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus.
That diction' on the other hand' is lofty and raised above the commonplace
*hich employs unusual *ords. By unusual' I mean strange 0or rare2*ords' metaphorical' lengthened! anything' in short' that differs
from the normal idiom. ?et a style *holly composed of such *ords is
either a riddle or a -argon) a riddle' if it consists of metaphors)
a -argon' if it consists of strange 0or rare2 *ords. +or the essence
of a riddle is to e1press true facts under impossible combinations.
$o* this cannot be done by any arrangement of ordinary *ords' but
by the use of metaphor it can. Such is the riddle: A man I sa* *ho
on another man had glued the bron5e by aid of fire' and others of
the same &ind. A diction that is made up of strange 0or rare2 terms
is a -argon. A certain infusion' therefore' of these elements is necessary
to style) for the strange 0or rare2 *ord' the metaphorical' the ornamental'and the other &inds above mentioned' *ill raise it above the commonplace
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and mean' *hile the use of proper *ords *ill ma&e it perspicuous.
But nothing contributes more to produce a cleanness of diction that
is remote from commonness than the lengthening' contraction' and alteration
of *ords. +or by deviating in e1ceptional cases from the normal idiom'
the language *ill gain distinction) *hile' at the same time' the partial
conformity *ith usage *ill give perspicuity. The critics' therefore'are in error *ho censure these licenses of speech' and hold the author
up to ridicule. Thus "ucleides' the elder' declared that it *ould
be an easy matter to be a poet if you might lengthen syllables at
*ill. e caricatured the practice in the very form of his diction'
as in the verse:
"picharen eidon 3arathonade badi5onta'
I sa* "pichares *al&ing to 3arathon'
or'
ou& an geramenos ton e&einou elleboron.
$ot if you desire his hellebore.
To employ such license at all obtrusively is' no doubt' grotes(ue)
but in any mode of poetic diction there must be moderation. "ven metaphors'
strange 0or rare2 *ords' or any similar forms of speech' *ould produce
the li&e effect if used *ithout propriety and *ith the e1press purpose
of being ludicrous. o* great a difference is made by the appropriate
use of lengthening' may be seen in "pic poetry by the insertion of
ordinary forms in the verse. So' again' if *e ta&e a strange 0or rare2
*ord' a metaphor' or any similar mode of e1pression' and replace it
by the current or proper term' the truth of our observation *ill be
manifest. +or e1ample' Aeschylus and "uripides each composed the same
iambic line. But the alteration of a single *ord by "uripides' *ho
employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary one' ma&es one verse
appear beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes
says:
phagedaina dhe mou sar&as esthiei podos.
The tumor *hich is eating the flesh of my foot.
"uripides substitutes thoinatai' feasts on' for esthiei' feeds
on. Again' in the line'
nun de meon oligos te &ai outidanos &ai aei&es'
?et a small man' *orthless and unseemly'
the difference *ill be felt if *e substitute the common *ords'
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nun de meon mi&ros te &ai astheni&os &ai aeides.
?et a little fello*' *ea& and ugly.
#r' if for the line'
diphron aei&elion &atatheis oligen te trape5an'
Setting an unseemly couch and a meager table'
*e read'
diphron mochtheron &atatheis mi&ran te trape5an.
Setting a *retched couch and a puny table.
#r' for eiones booosin' the sea shores roar' eiones &ra5ousin'the sea shores screech.
Again' Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using phrases *hich
no one *ould employ in ordinary speech: for e1ample' domaton apo'
from the house a*ay' instead of apo domaton' a*ay from the house)
sethen' ego de nin' to thee' and I to him) Achilleos peri' Achilles
about' instead of peri Achilleos' about Achilles) and the li&e.
It is precisely because such phrases are not part of the current idiom
that they give distinction to the style. This' ho*ever' he failed
to see.
It is a great matter to observe propriety in these several modes of
e1pression' as also in compound *ords' strange 0or rare2 *ords' and
so forth. But the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor.
This alone cannot be imparted by another) it is the mar& of genius'
for to ma&e good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances.
#f the various &inds of *ords' the compound are best adapted to dithyrambs'
rare *ords to heroic poetry' metaphors to iambic. In heroic poetry'
indeed' all these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse'
*hich reproduces' as far as may be' familiar speech' the most appropriate*ords are those *hich are found even in prose. These are the current
or proper' the metaphorical' the ornamental.
Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of action this may suffice.
Part III
As to that poetic imitation *hich is narrative in form and employs
a single meter' the plot manifestly ought' as in a tragedy' to be
constructed on dramatic principles. It should have for its sub-ect
a single action' *hole and complete' *ith a beginning' a middle' andan end. It *ill thus resemble a living organism in all its unity'
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and produce the pleasure proper to it. It *ill differ in structure
from historical compositions' *hich of necessity present not a single
action' but a single period' and all that happened *ithin that period
to one person or to many' little connected together as the events
may be. +or as the sea!fight at Salamis and the battle *ith the Carthaginians
in Sicily too& place at the same time' but did not tend to any oneresult' so in the se(uence of events' one thing sometimes follo*s
another' and yet no single result is thereby produced. Such is the
practice' *e may say' of most poets. ere again' then' as has been
already observed' the transcendent e1cellence of omer is manifest.
e never attempts to ma&e the *hole *ar of Troy the sub-ect of his
poem' though that *ar had a beginning and an end. It *ould have been
too vast a theme' and not easily embraced in a single vie*. If' again'
he had &ept it *ithin moderate limits' it must have been over!complicated
by the variety of the incidents. As it is' he detaches a single portion'
and admits as episodes many events from the general story of the *ar!
such as the Catalogue of the ships and others! thus diversifying the poem. All other poets ta&e a single hero' a single period' or an action
single indeed' but *ith a multiplicity of parts. Thus did the author
of the Cypria and of the 8ittle Iliad. +or this reason the Iliad and
the #dyssey each furnish the sub-ect of one tragedy' or' at most'
of t*o) *hile the Cypria supplies materials for many' and the 8ittle
Iliad for eight! the A*ard of the Arms' the Philoctetes' the $eoptolemus'
the "urypylus' the 3endicant #dysseus' the 8aconian 7omen' the +all
of Ilium' the ,eparture of the +leet.
Part I6
Again' "pic poetry must have as many &inds as Tragedy: it must be
simple' or comple1' or ethical'or pathetic. The parts also' *ith
the e1ception of song and spectacle' are the same) for it re(uires
eversals of the Situation' ecognitions' and Scenes of Suffering.
3oreover' the thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all these
respects omer is our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of
his poems has a t*ofold character. The Iliad is at once simple and
pathetic' and the #dyssey comple1 0for ecognition scenes run through
it2' and at the same time ethical. 3oreover' in diction and thought
they are supreme.
"pic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on *hich it is constructed'
and in its meter. As regards scale or length' *e have already laid
do*n an ade(uate limit: the beginning and the end must be capable
of being brought *ithin a single vie*. This condition *ill be satisfied
by poems on a smaller scale than the old epics' and ans*ering in length
to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting.
"pic poetry has' ho*ever' a great! a special! capacity for enlarging
its dimensions' and *e can see the reason. In Tragedy *e cannot imitate
several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time) *e mustconfine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part ta&en by
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the players. But in "pic poetry' o*ing to the narrative form' many
events simultaneously transacted can be presented) and these' if relevant
to the sub-ect' add mass and dignity to the poem. The "pic has here
an advantage' and one that conduces to grandeur of effect' to diverting
the mind of the hearer' and relieving the story *ith varying episodes.
+or sameness of incident soon produces satiety' and ma&es tragediesfail on the stage.
As for the meter' the heroic measure has proved its fitness by he1ameter
test of e1perience. If a narrative poem in any other meter or in many
meters *ere no* composed' it *ould be found incongruous. +or of all
measures the heroic is the stateliest and the most massive) and hence
it most readily admits rare *ords and metaphors' *hich is another
point in *hich the narrative form of imitation stands alone. #n the
other hand' the iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring measures'
the latter being a&in to dancing' the former e1pressive of action.
Still more absurd *ould it be to mi1 together different meters' as*as done by Chaeremon. ence no one has ever composed a poem on a
great scale in any other than heroic verse. $ature herself' as *e
have said' teaches the choice of the proper measure.
omer' admirable in all respects' has the special merit of being the
only poet *ho rightly appreciates the part he should ta&e himself.
The poet should spea& as little as possible in his o*n person' for
it is not this that ma&es him an imitator. #ther poets appear themselves
upon the scene throughout' and imitate but little and rarely. omer'
after a fe* prefatory *ords' at once brings in a man' or *oman' or
other personage) none of them *anting in characteristic (ualities'
but each *ith a character of his o*n.
The element of the *onderful is re(uired in Tragedy. The irrational'
on *hich the *onderful depends for its chief effects' has *ider scope
in "pic poetry' because there the person acting is not seen. Thus'
the pursuit of ector *ould be ludicrous if placed upon the stage!
the 4ree&s standing still and not -oining in the pursuit' and Achilles
*aving them bac&. But in the "pic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed.
$o* the *onderful is pleasing' as may be inferred from the fact that
every one tells a story *ith some addition of his &no*ing that hishearers li&e it. It is omer *ho has chiefly taught other poets the
art of telling lies s&ilfully. The secret of it lies in a fallacy
+or' assuming that if one thing is or becomes' a second is or becomes'
men imagine that' if the second is' the first li&e*ise is or becomes.
But this is a false inference. ence' *here the first thing is untrue'
it is (uite unnecessary' provided the second be true' to add that
the first is or has become. +or the mind' &no*ing the second to be
true' falsely infers the truth of the first. There is an e1ample of
this in the Bath Scene of the #dyssey.
Accordingly' the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to improbable possibilities. The tragic plot must not be composed of irrational
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parts. "verything irrational should' if possible' be e1cluded) or'
at all events' it should lie outside the action of the play 0as' in
the #edipus' the heros ignorance as to the manner of 8aius death2)
not *ithin the drama! as in the "lectra' the messengers account of
the Pythian games) or' as in the 3ysians' the man *ho has come from
Tegea to 3ysia and is still speechless. The plea that other*ise the plot *ould have been ruined' is ridiculous) such a plot should not
in the first instance be constructed. But once the irrational has
been introduced and an air of li&elihood imparted to it' *e must accept
it in spite of the absurdity. Ta&e even the irrational incidents in
the #dyssey' *here #dysseus is left upon the shore of Ithaca. o*
intolerable even these might have been *ould be apparent if an inferior
poet *ere to treat the sub-ect. As it is' the absurdity is veiled
by the poetic charm *ith *hich the poet invests it.
The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action' *here
there is no e1pression of character or thought. +or' conversely' character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over!brilliant
Part 6
7ith respect to critical difficulties and their solutions' the number
and nature of the sources from *hich they may be dra*n may be thus
e1hibited.
The poet being an imitator' li&e a painter or any other artist' must
of necessity imitate one of three ob-ects! things as they *ere or
are' things as they are said or thought to be' or things as they ought
to be. The vehicle of e1pression is language! either current terms
or' it may be' rare *ords or metaphors. There are also many modifications
of language' *hich *e concede to the poets. Add to this' that the
standard of correctness is not the same in poetry and politics' any
more than in poetry and any other art. 7ithin the art of poetry itself
there are t*o &inds of faults! those *hich touch its essence' and
those *hich are accidental. If a poet has chosen to imitate something'
=but has imitated it incorrectly> through *ant of capacity' the error
is inherent in the poetry. But if the failure is due to a *rong choice!
if he has represented a horse as thro*ing out both his off legs atonce' or introduced technical inaccuracies in medicine' for e1ample'
or in any other art! the error is not essential to the poetry. These
are the points of vie* from *hich *e should consider and ans*er the
ob-ections raised by the critics.
+irst as to matters *hich concern the poets o*n art. If he describes
the impossible' he is guilty of an error) but the error may be -ustified'
if the end of the art be thereby attained 0the end being that already
mentioned2! if' that is' the effect of this or any other part of the
poem is thus rendered more stri&ing. A case in point is the pursuit
of ector. if' ho*ever' the end might have been as *ell' or better'attained *ithout violating the special rules of the poetic art' the
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error is not -ustified: for every &ind of error should' if possible'
be avoided.
Again' does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art' or some
accident of it@ +or e1ample' not to &no* that a hind has no horns
is a less serious matter than to paint it inartistically.
+urther' if it be ob-ected that the description is not true to fact'
the poet may perhaps reply' But the ob-ects are as they ought to
be) -ust as Sophocles said that he dre* men as they ought to be)
"uripides' as they are. In this *ay the ob-ection may be met. If'
ho*ever' the representation be of neither &ind' the poet may ans*er'
This is ho* men say the thing is. applies to tales about the gods.
It may *ell be that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet
true to fact: they are' very possibly' *hat enophanes says of them.
But anyho*' this is *hat is said. Again' a description may be no
better than the fact: Still' it *as the fact) as in the passageabout the arms: ;pright upon their butt!ends stood the spears. This
*as the custom then' as it no* is among the Illyrians.
Again' in e1amining *hether *hat has been said or done by some one
is poetically right or not' *e must not loo& merely to the particular
act or saying' and as& *hether it is poetically good or bad. 7e must
also consider by *hom it is said or done' to *hom' *hen' by *hat means'
or for *hat end) *hether' for instance' it be to secure a greater
good' or avert a greater evil.
#ther difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of language.
7e may note a rare *ord' as in oureas men proton' the mules first
=he &illed>' *here the poet perhaps employs oureas not in the sense
of mules' but of sentinels. So' again' of ,olon: ill!favored indeed
he *as to loo& upon. It is not meant that his body *as ill!shaped
but that his face *as ugly) for the Cretans use the *ord eueides'
*ell!flavored to denote a fair face. Again' 5oroteron de &eraie'
mi1 the drin& livelier does not mean mi1 it stronger as for hard
drin&ers' but mi1 it (uic&er.
Sometimes an e1pression is metaphorical' as $o* all gods and men*ere sleeping through the night' *hile at the same time the poet
says: #ften indeed as he turned his ga5e to the Tro-an plain' he
marveled at the sound of flutes and pipes. All is here used metaphorically
for many' all being a species of many. So in the verse' alone she
hath no part... ' oie' alone is metaphorical) for the best &no*n
may be called the only one.
Again' the solution may depend upon accent or breathing. Thus ippias
of Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines' didomen 0didomen2
de hoi' and to men hou 0ou2 &ataputhetai ombro.
#r again' the (uestion may be solved by punctuation' as in "mpedocles:
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#f a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to be immortal'
and things unmi1ed before mi1ed.
#r again' by ambiguity of meaning' as paroche&en de pleo nu1' *here
the *ord pleo is ambiguous.
#r by the usage of language. Thus any mi1ed drin& is called oinos'
*ine. ence 4anymede is said to pour the *ine to 9eus' though
the gods do not drin& *ine. So too *or&ers in iron are called chal&eas'
or *or&ers in bron5e. This' ho*ever' may also be ta&en as a metaphor.
Again' *hen a *ord seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning'
*e should consider ho* many senses it may bear in the particular passage.
+or e1ample: there *as stayed the spear of bron5e! *e should as&
in ho* many *ays *e may ta&e being chec&ed there. The true mode
of interpretation is the precise opposite of *hat 4laucon mentions.
Critics' he says' -ump at certain groundless conclusions) they passadverse -udgement and then proceed to reason on it) and' assuming
that the poet has said *hatever they happen to thin&' find fault if
a thing is inconsistent *ith their o*n fancy.
The (uestion about Icarius has been treated in this fashion. The critics
imagine he *as a 8acedaemonian. They thin& it strange' therefore'
that Telemachus should not have met him *hen he *ent to 8acedaemon.
But the Cephallenian story may perhaps be the true one. They allege
that #dysseus too& a *ife from among themselves' and that her father
*as Icadius' not Icarius. It is merely a mista&e' then' that gives
plausibility to the ob-ection.
In general' the impossible must be -ustified by reference to artistic
re(uirements' or to the higher reality' or to received opinion. 7ith
respect to the re(uirements of art' a probable impossibility is to
be preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible. Again' it may
be impossible that there should be men such as 9eu1is painted. ?es'
*e say' but the impossible is the higher thing) for the ideal type
must surpass the realty. To -ustify the irrational' *e appeal to
*hat is commonly said to be. In addition to *hich' *e urge that the
irrational sometimes does not violate reason) -ust as it is probablethat a thing may happen contrary to probability.
Things that sound contradictory should be e1amined by the same rules
as in dialectical refutation! *hether the same thing is meant' in
the same relation' and in the same sense. 7e should therefore solve
the (uestion by reference to *hat the poet says himself' or to *hat
is tacitly assumed by a person of intelligence.
The element of the irrational' and' similarly' depravity of character'
are -ustly censured *hen there is no inner necessity for introducing
them. Such is the irrational element in the introduction of Aegeus by "uripides and the badness of 3enelaus in the #restes.
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Thus' there are five sources from *hich critical ob-ections are dra*n.
Things are censured either as impossible' or irrational' or morally
hurtful' or contradictory' or contrary to artistic correctness. The
ans*ers should be sought under the t*elve heads above mentioned.
Part 6I
The (uestion may be raised *hether the "pic or Tragic mode of imitation
is the higher. If the more refined art is the higher' and the more
refined in every case is that *hich appeals to the better sort of
audience' the art *hich imitates anything and everything is manifestly
most unrefined. The audience is supposed to be too dull to comprehend
unless something of their o*n is thro*n by the performers' *ho therefore
indulge in restless movements. Bad flute!players t*ist and t*irl'
if they have to represent the (uoit!thro*' or hustle the coryphaeus
*hen they perform the Scylla. Tragedy' it is said' has this same defect.7e may compare the opinion that the older actors entertained of their
successors. 3ynniscus used to call Callippides ape on account of
the e1travagance of his action' and the same vie* *as held of Pindarus.
Tragic art' then' as a *hole' stands to "pic in the same relation
as the younger to the elder actors. So *e are told that "pic poetry
is addressed to a cultivated audience' *ho do not need gesture) Tragedy'
to an inferior public. Being then unrefined' it is evidently the lo*er
of the t*o.
$o*' in the first place' this censure attaches not to the poetic but
to the histrionic art) for gesticulation may be e(ually overdone in
epic recitation' as by Sosistratus' or in lyrical competition' as
by 3nasitheus the #puntian. $e1t' all action is not to be condemned!
any more than all dancing! but only that of bad performers. Such *as
the fault found in Callippides' as also in others of our o*n day'
*ho are censured for representing degraded *omen. Again' Tragedy li&e
"pic poetry produces its effect even *ithout action) it reveals its
po*er by mere reading. If' then' in all other respects it is superior'
this fault' *e say' is not inherent in it.
And superior it is' because it has an the epic elements! it may evenuse the epic meter! *ith the music and spectacular effects as important
accessories) and these produce the most vivid of pleasures. +urther'
it has vividness of impression in reading as *ell as in representation.
3oreover' the art attains its end *ithin narro*er limits for the concentrated
effect is more pleasurable than one *hich is spread over a long time
and so diluted. 7hat' for e1ample' *ould be the effect of the #edipus
of Sophocles' if it *ere cast into a form as long as the Iliad@ #nce
more' the "pic imitation has less unity) as is sho*n by this' that
any "pic poem *ill furnish sub-ects for several tragedies. Thus if
the story adopted by the poet has a strict unity' it must either be
concisely told and appear truncated) or' if it conforms to the "piccanon of length' it must seem *ea& and *atery. =Such length implies
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some loss of unity'> if' I mean' the poem is constructed out of several
actions' li&e the Iliad and the #dyssey' *hich have many such parts'
each *ith a certain magnitude of its o*n. ?et these poems are as perfect
as possible in structure) each is' in the highest degree attainable'
an imitation of a single action.
If' then' tragedy is superior to epic poetry in all these respects'
and' moreover' fulfills its specific function better as an art! for
each art ought to produce' not any chance pleasure' but the pleasure
proper to it' as already stated! it plainly follo*s that tragedy is
the higher art' as attaining its end more perfectly.
Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and "pic poetry in general)
their several &inds and parts' *ith the number of each and their differences)
the causes that ma&e a poem good or bad) the ob-ections of the critics
and the ans*ers to these ob-ections....
T" "$,
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