Arguments based on consequences

• We have a serious problem.• There are these options: A, B,

C.• The consequences of doing A

are bad.• The consequences of doing B

are bad.• The consequences of doing C

are good.• Therefore, we should do C.

Act Utilitarianism

• One ought to do the action which will create more social utility than any alternative possible action.

• Social utility: overall balance of negative and positive utility, over long term, for all concerned.

• Decision procedure:– List all concerned– Consider all alternatives– Calculate the overall utility of

each alternative for all concerned

Utilitarians differ about:• What counts as utility

– happiness– pleasure– well-being– preferences– mixed bag of goods

• Who should be counted– all humans– some humans– all sentient creatures– all creatures

Some problems• Measurement

– How do we measure utility?– Average or total?– How can we predict

consequences?• Problems of implementation

– What do we do when we’re in a hurry?

– What do we teach our children?• Fairness

– What if the optimal action results in inequality or unfairness?

Rule Utilitarianism

• Do the action which is in accord with the rule which would, if generally followed, create more social utility than any alternative rule.

• Decision procedure:– List possible rules.– Consider the consequences of

adoption of each rule.– Select the rule with the most

utility.– Apply the rule.

Rules

• Rules must be general enough to cover similar cases and

• Specific enough to give us some guidance about what to do.

• Precise enough to rule out obvious counter-examples– E.g. “It’s wrong to kill.” is too

broad. What about self-defense?– “It’s wrong to kill an innocent

person.”

RU and choosing rules

• The RU looks at all the rules for a particular issue and asks which rule, if generally followed, would result in the best consequences.