ARGUMENT 101. What do you think about when you see the word “argument”? 1. Argument attempts to...

ARGUMENT 101ARGUMENT 101

What do you think about when you What do you think about when you see the word “argument”?see the word “argument”?

1.1. Argument attempts to resolve issues Argument attempts to resolve issues between two or more parties.between two or more parties.

2.2. Argument is rational disagreement, but it Argument is rational disagreement, but it can get emotionalcan get emotional

3.3. Argument can result in agreement or Argument can result in agreement or compromise.compromise.

4.4. Argument is angry people yelling at each Argument is angry people yelling at each other.other.

5.5. Argument is standing up for your ideas, Argument is standing up for your ideas, defending them, and minimizing the defending them, and minimizing the opposition by being persuasive.opposition by being persuasive.

What would happen if a society What would happen if a society decided to outlaw all forms of decided to outlaw all forms of

argument?argument?

1.1. Everyone would think the same Everyone would think the same thingthing

2.2. There would not be any progressThere would not be any progress

3.3. There would be no new knowledgeThere would be no new knowledge

4.4. Life would be boringLife would be boring

Definition of Argument Definition of Argument TraditionalTraditional

The goal of argument is to bring about The goal of argument is to bring about a change in an audience’s initial a change in an audience’s initial position on a controversial issue. position on a controversial issue. Depending on the situation and Depending on the situation and audience, at times this goal is audience, at times this goal is achieved by an arguer who presents achieved by an arguer who presents a claim along with reasons and a claim along with reasons and evidence to convince an audience to evidence to convince an audience to agree with the position taken. agree with the position taken.

Examples of Traditional ArgumentExamples of Traditional Argument

Public Debate-candidates for public Public Debate-candidates for public office who want to convince their office who want to convince their audiences to side with them and audiences to side with them and accept their points of view.accept their points of view.

Courtroom argumentCourtroom argument Single perspective argument-one Single perspective argument-one

person develops a perspective and person develops a perspective and argues to convince a mass audience argues to convince a mass audience to agree with it.to agree with it.

One-on-one everyday argumentOne-on-one everyday argument

Definition of Argument Definition of Argument ConsensualConsensual

At other times arguers create the At other times arguers create the possibility of agreement by possibility of agreement by acknowledging different points of acknowledging different points of view and working to identify one view and working to identify one view or a combination of views that view or a combination of views that are acceptable to most or all are acceptable to most or all audience members.audience members.

Examples of Consensual ArgumentExamples of Consensual Argument

Dialectic-two or more people participate as Dialectic-two or more people participate as equals in a dialogue to try and discover equals in a dialogue to try and discover what seems to be the best position on an what seems to be the best position on an issue.issue.

Academic Inquiry-to discover through Academic Inquiry-to discover through reading, discussion and writing, new reading, discussion and writing, new views, new knowledge, and new truths views, new knowledge, and new truths about complex issues.about complex issues.

Negotiation and mediationNegotiation and mediation

Argument vs. PersuasionArgument vs. Persuasion

ARGUMENT is to discover some version ARGUMENT is to discover some version of the truth, using evidence and reason.of the truth, using evidence and reason.

The aim of PERSUASION is to change The aim of PERSUASION is to change the point of view or to move others from the point of view or to move others from conviction to action.conviction to action.

In other words, writers or speakers In other words, writers or speakers argue to discover some truth; they argue to discover some truth; they persuade when they think they know it.persuade when they think they know it.

Argument vs. PersuasionArgument vs. Persuasion

Argument (discover a truth) ConvictionArgument (discover a truth) Conviction

Persuasion (know the truth) ActionPersuasion (know the truth) Action

The basic method that argument of both The basic method that argument of both types employs can be described as:types employs can be described as:

Making a claimMaking a claim —expressing a —expressing a point of view on an issue that is point of view on an issue that is communicated by the arguer andcommunicated by the arguer and

Supporting it with reasons and Supporting it with reasons and evidenceevidence to convince an audience to to convince an audience to change the way its participant think change the way its participant think about the issue.about the issue.

All forms of productive argument All forms of productive argument include these components.include these components.

When Arguments Work BestWhen Arguments Work Best

An IssueAn Issue -an argument needs to have as -an argument needs to have as its central focus an issue that has not yet its central focus an issue that has not yet been settled.been settled.

An ArguerAn Arguer -a person who is motivated to -a person who is motivated to initiate the argument, to take on the issue, initiate the argument, to take on the issue, to obtain and consider information, and to to obtain and consider information, and to communicate a position to others.communicate a position to others.

An AudienceAn Audience -an audience willing to -an audience willing to listen to or read and consider new views or listen to or read and consider new views or perspectivesperspectives

When Arguments Work BestWhen Arguments Work Best

Common GroundCommon Ground -the establishment of -the establishment of some common ground between the some common ground between the audience and arguer that is relevant to the audience and arguer that is relevant to the issue.issue.

A ForumA Forum -People need forums for an -People need forums for an argument so they can feel creative and argument so they can feel creative and know they will be heard.know they will be heard.

Audience OutcomesAudience Outcomes -successful -successful arguments should produce changes in the arguments should produce changes in the audience.audience.

When Argument FailsWhen Argument Fails

No disagreement or reason to argueNo disagreement or reason to argue - -no arguments can take place when there no arguments can take place when there is no real disagreement.is no real disagreement.

Risky or trivial issuesRisky or trivial issues -Big or risky -Big or risky problems that may call for radical change problems that may call for radical change are difficult to argue.are difficult to argue.

Difficulty in establishing common Difficulty in establishing common groundground

Standoffs or fights which result in Standoffs or fights which result in negative outcomesnegative outcomes

ReviewReview

1.1. What did you think when you What did you think when you encountered the word argument? Has encountered the word argument? Has your opinion changed?your opinion changed?

2.2. What are 3 examples to illustrate the What are 3 examples to illustrate the statement: “Argument is everywhere”statement: “Argument is everywhere”

3.3. Describe a traditional argument and a Describe a traditional argument and a consensual argument.consensual argument.

4.4. What are some conditions necessary for What are some conditions necessary for argument to work best?argument to work best?

5.5. What are some conditions that may What are some conditions that may cause argument to fail?cause argument to fail?

ActivityActivity

In pairs discuss and record In pairs discuss and record characteristics and interests you characteristics and interests you have in common. (5 min)have in common. (5 min)

Combine pairs (4) discuss and record Combine pairs (4) discuss and record interests all have in common (5 min)interests all have in common (5 min)

Each group gives one minute report Each group gives one minute report on what they have in common.on what they have in common.

RHETORICAL RHETORICAL SITUATIONSITUATION

Rhetorical SituationRhetorical Situation TText-the written argument, which has the ext-the written argument, which has the

characteristics you can analyze.characteristics you can analyze. RReader or audience-for the text must care eader or audience-for the text must care

enough to read and pay attention.enough to read and pay attention. AAuthor-writes an argument to convince a uthor-writes an argument to convince a

particular audience.particular audience. CConstraints-includes the people, events, onstraints-includes the people, events,

circumstances that constrain an audience circumstances that constrain an audience to analyze and react in a particular way.to analyze and react in a particular way.

EExigence-part of the situation that signals xigence-part of the situation that signals that something controversial has occurred that something controversial has occurred or is present.or is present.

Use Rhetorical Situation When You Use Rhetorical Situation When You Write an ArgumentWrite an Argument

The context for argument: exigence and constraints that influence both author and audience

You, the author The audienceThe text

Rhetorical Situation as WriterRhetorical Situation as Writer Exigence: What is motivating you to write Exigence: What is motivating you to write

on this issue?on this issue? Reader/Audience: Who is going to Reader/Audience: Who is going to

read/hear this?read/hear this? Constraint: Will your values and attitudes Constraint: Will your values and attitudes

drive you and your opponent apart or will drive you and your opponent apart or will they help you develop common ground?they help you develop common ground?

Author: What do you know? What do you Author: What do you know? What do you need to learn?need to learn?

Text: What should your argument look Text: What should your argument look like?like?

CLAIMSCLAIMS

Types of Claims establishing Types of Claims establishing purpose and organizationpurpose and organization

ClaimClaim

What do you, as the writer, intend to What do you, as the writer, intend to prove?prove?

Synonyms: thesis, controlling idea, Synonyms: thesis, controlling idea, main point, propositionmain point, proposition

The claim is the main point of the The claim is the main point of the argument.argument.

Identifying the claim as soon as Identifying the claim as soon as possible helps you focus on what the possible helps you focus on what the argument is about.argument is about.

Types of Claims: Establishing Types of Claims: Establishing Purpose and OrganizationPurpose and Organization

Claims of Fact Claims of Fact Claims of Definition Claims of Definition Claims of CauseClaims of Cause Claims of Value Claims of Value Claims of PolicyClaims of Policy

Claims of FactClaims of Fact

Answers the questions: Did it Answers the questions: Did it happen? Does it exist?happen? Does it exist?

Can be an apparent statement of Can be an apparent statement of fact, not everyone may not agree.fact, not everyone may not agree.

These facts need to be proven as These facts need to be proven as either absolutely true in order for either absolutely true in order for audience acceptance.audience acceptance.

ExamplesExamples

Women are as effective as men in combatWomen are as effective as men in combat The ozone layer is becoming depletedThe ozone layer is becoming depleted Big foot existsBig foot exists Men need women to civilize themMen need women to civilize them

““It may turn out that the “digital divide”—It may turn out that the “digital divide”—one of the most fashionable political one of the most fashionable political slogans or recent years—is largely fiction.”slogans or recent years—is largely fiction.”

NewsweekNewsweek, March 25, 2002, March 25, 2002

Organization for Claims of FactOrganization for Claims of Fact Chronological order: traces what has Chronological order: traces what has

occurred over a period, usually in the occurred over a period, usually in the order in which it occurred, can be used to order in which it occurred, can be used to develop claims of factdevelop claims of fact

Claim with reasons may used to organize a Claim with reasons may used to organize a fact paperfact paper

The claim of fact itself is often stated near The claim of fact itself is often stated near the beginning of the argument unless the beginning of the argument unless there is a psychological advantage for there is a psychological advantage for stating it at the end.stating it at the end.

Most authors make claims a fact clear Most authors make claims a fact clear from the onset from the onset

Factual support is appropriate for Factual support is appropriate for claims of factclaims of fact

Support includes:Support includes:• FactsFacts• StatisticsStatistics• Real examplesReal examples• Quotations from reliable sourcesQuotations from reliable sources• When reliable authorities are used, When reliable authorities are used,

the quotations are usually based the quotations are usually based on fact and less on opinionon fact and less on opinion

Claims of DefinitionClaims of Definition

Answers the questions: What is it? Answers the questions: What is it? How should we define it?How should we define it?

Entire arguments can center around Entire arguments can center around the definition of a term.the definition of a term.

Definition is also used as a type of Definition is also used as a type of support, often at the beginning , to support, often at the beginning , to establish the meaning of one or more establish the meaning of one or more key terms.key terms.

ExampleExample

““The debate is solely about The debate is solely about biomedical cloning for lifesaving biomedical cloning for lifesaving medical research.”medical research.”

New York TimesNew York Times op-ed, April 25, 2002 op-ed, April 25, 2002

Organization for Claims of Organization for Claims of DefinitionDefinition

Compare and contrast—two or more Compare and contrast—two or more aspects are compared and contrasted aspects are compared and contrasted throughout the essay.throughout the essay.

Topical Organization—several qualities, Topical Organization—several qualities, characteristics, or features of the word or characteristics, or features of the word or concept are identified and explained.concept are identified and explained.

Main types of support are references to Main types of support are references to reliable authorities and accepted sources reliable authorities and accepted sources to establish clear definitions and to establish clear definitions and meanings.meanings.

Claims of CauseClaims of Cause

Answers the questions: What caused Answers the questions: What caused it? Or, what are its effects?it? Or, what are its effects?

People often disagree about what People often disagree about what causes something to happen, and causes something to happen, and they disagree about the effectsthey disagree about the effects

ExamplesExamples Overeating Overeating causescauses diseases and early diseases and early

deathdeath A healthy economy A healthy economy causescauses people to have people to have

faith in their political leadersfaith in their political leaders Sending infants to daycare Sending infants to daycare resultsresults in in

psychological problems later in lifepsychological problems later in life

The important issue, then, it whether The important issue, then, it whether antidepressants truly worsen the potential antidepressants truly worsen the potential for suicide.for suicide.

New York TimesNew York Times, May 25, 2004, May 25, 2004

Organization for Claims of CauseOrganization for Claims of Cause

Describe the cause and then the effectsDescribe the cause and then the effects Effects may be described and then the Effects may be described and then the

cause or causescause or causes Support for establishing cause-and-effect Support for establishing cause-and-effect

relationship is:relationship is:• Factual data including real examples Factual data including real examples

and statisticsand statistics• Signs of certain causes and effects can Signs of certain causes and effects can

also be usedalso be used

Claims of ValueClaims of Value

Answers the questions: It is good or bad? Answers the questions: It is good or bad? What criteria will help us decide?What criteria will help us decide?

Aims at establishing whether the item Aims at establishing whether the item being discussed is good or bad, valuable being discussed is good or bad, valuable or not valuable, desirable or not desirable.or not valuable, desirable or not desirable.

It is often necessary to establish goodness It is often necessary to establish goodness or badness and apply them to the subject or badness and apply them to the subject to show why something should be to show why something should be considered good or bad.considered good or bad.

ExamplesExamples

Private schools vs. public schoolsPrivate schools vs. public schools Dogs make the best petsDogs make the best pets Science fiction novels are more Science fiction novels are more

interesting than romance novelsinteresting than romance novels Computers are a valuable addition to Computers are a valuable addition to

modern societymodern society Viewing television is a wasteful Viewing television is a wasteful

activityactivity

Detroit is a town of engineers, and Detroit is a town of engineers, and engineers like to believe that there is engineers like to believe that there is some connection between the some connection between the success of a vehicle and its technical success of a vehicle and its technical merits.merits.

The New YorkerThe New Yorker, January 12, 2004, January 12, 2004

Organization of Claims of ValueOrganization of Claims of Value Applied criteria: criteria for evaluation are Applied criteria: criteria for evaluation are

established and then applied to the established and then applied to the subject at hand.subject at hand.

Make the claim and add a list of reasons Make the claim and add a list of reasons why it is good or bad.why it is good or bad.

Appeals to values—the arguer appeals to Appeals to values—the arguer appeals to what the audience is expected to value. what the audience is expected to value.

A sense of common, shared system of A sense of common, shared system of values between the arguer and audience values between the arguer and audience is important for the argument to be is important for the argument to be convincing.convincing.

Support for Claims of ValueSupport for Claims of Value Motivational appeals that suggest what Motivational appeals that suggest what

the audience wants are also important for the audience wants are also important for the argument to be convincing.the argument to be convincing.

People place value on things they work to People place value on things they work to achieveachieve

Quotations from authorities who are Quotations from authorities who are admired help establish judgments of good admired help establish judgments of good or bador bad

Examples can be used to establish that Examples can be used to establish that something is good or badsomething is good or bad

Definitions are used to clarify the criteriaDefinitions are used to clarify the criteria

Claims of PolicyClaims of Policy

Answer the questions: What should Answer the questions: What should we do about it? What should be our we do about it? What should be our future course of action?future course of action?

Describes a problem and then Describes a problem and then suggests ways to solve itsuggests ways to solve it

Deciding what to do in the face of Deciding what to do in the face of problems has always been one of the problems has always been one of the major purposes of argument.major purposes of argument.

ExamplesExamples

We should stop spending so much on We should stop spending so much on wars and start spending more on wars and start spending more on educationeducation

Every person in the United States Every person in the United States should have access to health careshould have access to health care

Low income families should receive Low income families should receive health care from the governmenthealth care from the government

““It would benefit every man, It would benefit every man, woman, and child in this country, woman, and child in this country, and it would hurt no one, to and it would hurt no one, to demolish prisons and replace demolish prisons and replace them with much smaller, locked, them with much smaller, locked, secure residential schools and secure residential schools and colleges in which the residents colleges in which the residents could acquire as much education could acquire as much education a their intelligence and curiosity a their intelligence and curiosity would permit.”would permit.”

Chronicle of Higher Education, October 16, 1978.Chronicle of Higher Education, October 16, 1978.

Organization for Claims of PolicyOrganization for Claims of Policy

Problem-solution—the problem is Problem-solution—the problem is first described in detail that the first described in detail that the audience will want a solution. Then audience will want a solution. Then the solution is spelled out.the solution is spelled out.

SupportSupport Data and statisticsData and statistics Moral and common sense appealsMoral and common sense appeals Motivational appeals-the audience needs to be Motivational appeals-the audience needs to be

motivated to think or act in a different waymotivated to think or act in a different way Appeals to values-the audience becomes Appeals to values-the audience becomes

convinced it should follow a policy to achieve convinced it should follow a policy to achieve important valuesimportant values

Comparisons to what other groups have doneComparisons to what other groups have done Quotations from authoritiesQuotations from authorities Cause to establish origin of the problem and Cause to establish origin of the problem and

definition used to clarify itdefinition used to clarify it Examples can be useful to show extent of the Examples can be useful to show extent of the

problem and how things might turn out if problem and how things might turn out if acceptedaccepted

PROOFPROOFSupporting the ClaimSupporting the Claim

Traditional Categories of ProofTraditional Categories of Proof

Aristotle’s Aristotle’s RhetoricRhetoric, written , written somewhere between 360 and 334 somewhere between 360 and 334 B.C., is a key text in the history of B.C., is a key text in the history of argument.argument.

He goes into detail about broad He goes into detail about broad categories of proof that can be used categories of proof that can be used to establish the probability of the to establish the probability of the claim.claim.


Aristotle distinguishes between Aristotle distinguishes between proofs that can be produced and laid proofs that can be produced and laid on the table like a murder weapon, on the table like a murder weapon, fingerprints, or a written contract and fingerprints, or a written contract and proofs that are invented and proofs that are invented and represent the creative thinking and represent the creative thinking and insights of clever intelligent people.insights of clever intelligent people.

He divides the second category into He divides the second category into three subcategories.three subcategories.


Logical Proofs—logosLogical Proofs—logos

Proof that establishes ethosProof that establishes ethos

Emotional Proof—pathosEmotional Proof—pathos

Types of Logical Proof: LogosTypes of Logical Proof: Logos Argument from SignArgument from Sign A specific visible sign is sometimes used to A specific visible sign is sometimes used to

prove a claim.prove a claim. A sign can prove with certaintyA sign can prove with certainty Someone breaks out with chicken pox and Someone breaks out with chicken pox and

the claim is that the person with chicken the claim is that the person with chicken poxpox

A sign can prove the probability of a claimA sign can prove the probability of a claim A race riot, is probably the sign of the A race riot, is probably the sign of the

claim people think they are treated claim people think they are treated unfairlyunfairly

Types of Logical Proof: LogosTypes of Logical Proof: Logos

Argument from InductionArgument from Induction Provides a number of examples and draws Provides a number of examples and draws

a claim in the form of a conclusion.a claim in the form of a conclusion. Also called argument from generalization Also called argument from generalization

or argument from exampleor argument from example An inductive argument uses examples to An inductive argument uses examples to

lead into a claim or generalization about lead into a claim or generalization about the examples.the examples.


Argument from DeductionArgument from Deduction A deductive argument leads from a A deductive argument leads from a

general principle, applies it to an general principle, applies it to an example or specific case, which is example or specific case, which is described in the support and draws a described in the support and draws a conclusion which is the claim.conclusion which is the claim.


Argument from CauseArgument from Cause Places the subject of the argument in Places the subject of the argument in

a cause-and-effect relationship to a cause-and-effect relationship to show that it is either the cause of an show that it is either the cause of an effect or the effect of a cause.effect or the effect of a cause.

Can serve as an organizational Can serve as an organizational patternpattern

Historians frequently use argument Historians frequently use argument from cause.from cause.


Argument from Historical, Literal, or Argument from Historical, Literal, or Figurative AnalogyFigurative Analogy

Explore similarities and differences Explore similarities and differences between items in the same general between items in the same general categorycategory

We interpret what we do no know in We interpret what we do no know in light of what we do know.light of what we do know.

Types of Logical Proof: LogosTypes of Logical Proof: Logos Historical analogies explain what is going Historical analogies explain what is going

on now in terms of what went on in similar on now in terms of what went on in similar cases in the past. Future outcomes are cases in the past. Future outcomes are often projected from past casesoften projected from past cases

Literal analogies compare tow items in the Literal analogies compare tow items in the same category—what happened in one same category—what happened in one case will happen in the other.case will happen in the other.

Figurative analogies compare items from Figurative analogies compare items from two different categories, as in metaphor, two different categories, as in metaphor, are usually spelled out in more detail than are usually spelled out in more detail than in a metaphor. Effective only when used in a metaphor. Effective only when used to identify real qualities.to identify real qualities.

Types of Logical Proof: LogosTypes of Logical Proof: Logos Argument from DefinitionArgument from Definition Definition is extremely important in an Definition is extremely important in an

argument.argument. It is very difficult to argue about anything It is very difficult to argue about anything

unless there is general agreement about unless there is general agreement about the meanings of key terms.the meanings of key terms.

This is especially true when they are part This is especially true when they are part of claim.of claim.

Sometimes an entire argument is based on Sometimes an entire argument is based on the audience’s acceptance of a certain the audience’s acceptance of a certain meaning of a key term.meaning of a key term.


Argument from StatisticsArgument from Statistics Statistics describe relationships among Statistics describe relationships among

data, people, occurrences, and events in data, people, occurrences, and events in the real world, only they do so the real world, only they do so quantitatively.quantitatively.

Modern readers have considerable faith in Modern readers have considerable faith in numbers and statistics.numbers and statistics.

Read statistical proofs carefully to Read statistical proofs carefully to determine where they came from and how determine where they came from and how reliable, accurate, and relevant they are.reliable, accurate, and relevant they are.

Proof that Builds Credibility: Proof that Builds Credibility: EthosEthos

The materials provided in an The materials provided in an argument that help the audience argument that help the audience gain a favorable impression of the gain a favorable impression of the arguer or the authorities and experts arguer or the authorities and experts the arguer cites or quotes help the arguer cites or quotes help create ethos or the create ethos or the credibilitycredibility of the of the author.author.

The other way is to quote others or The other way is to quote others or to use arguments from authority.to use arguments from authority.

Argument from AuthorityArgument from Authority

We are usually inclined to accept the We are usually inclined to accept the opinions and factual evidence of opinions and factual evidence of people who are authorities or experts people who are authorities or experts in their fields.in their fields.

Authors sometimes establish their Authors sometimes establish their own credentials by making own credentials by making references to various types of past references to various types of past experiences that qualify them to experiences that qualify them to write about their subject.write about their subject.

Types of Emotional Proof:Types of Emotional Proof:PathosPathos

Emotional proofs are appropriate in Emotional proofs are appropriate in argument when the subject itself is argument when the subject itself is emotional and when it creates strong emotional and when it creates strong feelings in both the writer and the reader.feelings in both the writer and the reader.

Types of emotional proof focus on Types of emotional proof focus on motivation (what people want) and on motivation (what people want) and on values (what we consider good or bad, values (what we consider good or bad, favorable or unfavorable, acceptable or favorable or unfavorable, acceptable or unacceptable.unacceptable.


Motivational ProofsMotivational Proofs• Some proofs appeal explicitly to what all Some proofs appeal explicitly to what all

audiences are supposed to wantaudiences are supposed to want• Authors sometimes appeal to the Authors sometimes appeal to the

opposites of these needs and values to opposites of these needs and values to motivate people to change their motivate people to change their behavior.behavior.

• The purpose of motivational proof is to The purpose of motivational proof is to urge the audience to take prescribed urge the audience to take prescribed steps to meet an identifiable need.steps to meet an identifiable need.


Value ProofsValue Proofs• Some proofs appeal to what all Some proofs appeal to what all

audiences are expected to value such as audiences are expected to value such as fairness, reliability, honesty, loyalty, fairness, reliability, honesty, loyalty, patriotism, dependability, creativity, patriotism, dependability, creativity, equality and devotion to duty.equality and devotion to duty.

• For example the author that argues for For example the author that argues for policies and laws that protect the policies and laws that protect the environment is assuming you (the environment is assuming you (the audience) values the environment.audience) values the environment.

FallaciesFallacies

Authors sometimes resort to using Authors sometimes resort to using misleading evidence and faulty reasoning misleading evidence and faulty reasoning when they try to be convincing.when they try to be convincing.

Fallacies can seem convincing when they Fallacies can seem convincing when they appear to support what the audience appear to support what the audience already believes or wants to believe.already believes or wants to believe.

When you are tempted to believe an When you are tempted to believe an argument that does not seem logical argument that does not seem logical consider why you are tempted to believe consider why you are tempted to believe it.it.

FallaciesFallacies

Recognize a fallacy by asking:Recognize a fallacy by asking:• Is this material relevant?Is this material relevant?• Is it adequate?Is it adequate?• It is true or is it distorted?It is true or is it distorted?• Is it oversimplified or exaggerated?Is it oversimplified or exaggerated?• Does it support the claim?Does it support the claim?

FallaciesFallacies

Avoid quoting sources that contain Avoid quoting sources that contain fallaciesfallacies

Avoid using them in your own writingAvoid using them in your own writing Fallacies in your own writing, Fallacies in your own writing,

whether created by you or by the whether created by you or by the authors you choose to quote, weaken authors you choose to quote, weaken your argument and damage your your argument and damage your ethosethos..

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