WHO COULD ASK FOR ANYTHING MORE? AN ANALYSIS OF RHYTHM

AND DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS AND THEIR PLACE IN THE

COMMUNICATION ARTS OF SPEECH, FORENSICS, AND THEATER

A Thesis

Presented to the

School of Communication

and the

Faculty of the Graduate College

University of Nebraska

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

University of Nebraska at Omaha

by

Kenton Bruce Anderson

May 2004

1

ABSTRACT

WHO COULD ASK FOR ANYTHING MORE? AN ANALYSIS OF RHYTHM

AND DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS AND THEIR PLACE IN THE

COMMUNICATION ARTS OF SPEECH, FORENSICS, AND THEATER

Kenton Bruce Anderson, MA

University of Nebraska, 2004

Thesis Committee Chair: Bruce Johansen, Ph.D.

Advisor: Michael Hilt, Ph.D.

This study argues for the reintroduction of the ancient Greek and Roman

rhetorical focus on developing musical rhythm skills in the education of the public

speaker and orator. It examines the potential for application of the Dalcroze Eurhythmics

pedagogical method in speech communication. It reviews the literature on philosophy,

neurology, communication, rhythm, expressive movement, and education. This includes

a literature review of relevant concepts such as rhythm, delivery, charisma, gesture,

affect, education, hypnosis, propaganda, and paranoia. It explores neurological findings

on music, movement, the brain, and the efficacy of bi-hemispherical, affective,

movement-based, phenomenological, and somatic educational approaches.

The study next establishes the relevance of rhythm in current public speaking

textbooks. It does this via a cursory content analysis of rhythmic constructs in 25 recent

college public speaking textbooks. It then establishes the historical importance of rhythm

in the training of orators. It first looks at the primacy of rhythm in ancient Greek and

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Roman rhetorical theory. A discussion of relevant excerpts from the writings of the

ancient Roman rhetorician Quintilian establishes that the ancient Greek and Roman

rhetoricians placed primary importance on rhythm as a pedagogical tool influencing

structure and delivery in ancient rhetoric.

It then conducts a comprehensive review of the historical influence of the

Dalcroze Eurhythmics pedagogical method on the communication arts. It establishes this

musical movement pedagogy’s importance to 20th and 21st century thought by clarifying

the ties between Emile Jaques-Dalcroze and the leaders of many major historical

developments in the communication arts, as well as education, physical education and

therapy, in the 20th and 21st centuries. It proposes several suggestions for future

pedagogical uses of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the communication arts fields, including a

brief description of musical exercises currently used in arts education and a brief

discussion of proposed exercises specifically applying to speech, forensics, theater, and

oratory.

3

THESIS ACCEPTANCE

Acceptance for the faculty of the Graduate College, University of Nebraska, in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Master’s degree, University of Nebraska at Omaha

Committee

Professor John Hill

Professor Michael Sherer

Ex Officio Professor Robert M. Abramson

Chairperson Professor Bruce Johansen

Date April 29, 2004

4

Music is what happens in the space between the pitches.

--Debussy (Caldwell, 2002 at http://www.jtimothycaldwell.net/resources/correspondence/choral-director.htm)

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I've Got Rhythm

Words by Ira Gershwin, Music by George GershwinWritten in 1930 for the musical "Girl Crazy" starring Ginger Rogers

In this fast and troubled world We sometimes lose our way But I am never lost I feel this way because...

I got rhythm, I got music I got my girl Who could ask for anything more? I've got good times, no more bad times I've got my girl Who could ask for anything more?

Old man trouble (old man trouble) I don't mind him (I don't mind him) You won't find him 'round my door I've got starlight (I've got starlight) I've got sweet dreams (I've got sweet dreams) I've got my girl Who could ask for, who could ask for more?

----- instrumental break -----

Old man trouble (old man trouble) I don't mind him (I don't mind him) You won't find, you're never gonna find him 'round my door Oh, I've got rhythm (hey! I've got rhythm) I've got music (hey! I got music) I got my girl Who could ask for anything more?

In this fast and troubled world

I've got rhythm, I've got rhythm I've got rhythm, I've got rhythm

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I've got rhythm, I've got rhythm {fade} -----

Verse: Days can be sunny, With never a sigh; Dont' need what money Can buy.

Birds in the tree sing Their dayful of song. Why shouldn't we sing Along?

I'm chipper all the day, Happy with my lot. How do I get that way? Look at what I've got:

Refrain: I got rhythm, I got music, I got my man - Who could ask for anything more?

I got daisies, In green pastures, I got my man - Who could ask for anything more?

Old Man Trouble, I don't mind him - You won't find him 'Round my door.

I got starlight, I got sweet dreams, I got my man - Who could ask for anything more - Who could ask for anything more?

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Thesis OutlineI Intro: Epistemology, experience, exploration, evidence, and education

A Need for determining approach to the experience of truth and its understanding.

1 Phenomenological approach to the experience and understanding of reality 2 Analytical approach to the determination of truth

B Statement of communication problem(s) and needs1 Performance expressiveness then and now2 Classroom needs in both public speaking and other fields of

pedagogyII Literature review

A Communication: Public speaking and forensics 1 Gesture2 Charisma—leadership3 Rhythmic movement and ancient rhetorical theory: Primacy of rhythm

in rhetoric and oratoryB Current directions in rhythm, movement and expressiveness

1 Art and philosophy: Epistemology2 Neurology and psychology3 Childhood development4 Education

III Implications and issues raised by detractorsA Hypnosis

1 Therapeutic2 Power3 Neuro-Linguistic Programming4 Mass hypnosis

B Propaganda1 Social Critical Theory2 Power3 Paranoia

C Paranoia1 Music has great power2 But is culture specific (according to literature)

IV Specific purposeA Research questions

1 Is the method relevant to public speaking? Issues raised by lit review. ‘It should by now be obvious that rhythmical movement pedagogy is indeed relevant and most likely crucial, to public speaking education’

2 Are there Eurhythmics-based exercises compatible with public speaking education?

3 Save the research questions for after the communication and expressive movement literature review, so the study will then be able to argue a need based on the results of that review

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4 Is there a method? 5 Are there exercises compatible with public speaking education?

B Hypotheses.V Methodology for current studyVI Content Analysis

A Brief survey of recent texts B Save chart of occurrences for end of paper as Tables 1& 2

VII Historical Analysis A Ancient Greek and Roman rhetorical theory: Primacy of rhythm

B Dalcroze Eurhythmics 1 Its nature

2 Its historical contributions3 Its content (exercises) current and proposed

A Musical, rhythmic movement currently used in musical arts education

(1) Concepts: Philosophical fundamentals of the method(2) Aims(3) Techniques

B Proposed rhythmical movement for speech, forensics, theater Education(1) Current exercises(2) Potential exercises(3) Lesson planning(4) Recommendations for classroom implementation

VIII Conclusion: Synthesize argument (“Where has all the rhythm gone?”) A Results: Review each section

1 Need2 Historical analysis3 Content analysis4 Address propositions (hypotheses)

B Synthesize argument C Restate argument with certainty of some sort

IX Suggestions for future researchA Deeper historical researchB Further consolidation of delivery terminology C Comprehensive integration of rhythmic constructs into future delivery

literature Reviews

E Consistent integration of neurological, epistemological, and psychological Findings into communication literature and praxis

F Empirical studies to test Dalcroze Eurhythmics and other methodologies for Effectiveness in teaching rhythmicality and expressiveness

G Suggestions for teachersX Appendices

9

A EndnotesB Tables

XI References

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Members of my Thesis Acceptance Committee: Chairman, Professor Bruce Johansen, Professor Michael Sherer, Professor John Hill, Ex Officio Member Professor Robert Abramson [Graduate Faculty, The Juilliard School; Director, Dalcroze Summer Institute, The Juilliard School; Professor Emeritus, Phillips Exeter Academy; and Director, Robert Abramson Dalcroze Institute].

All my Professors and friends in the School of Communication.

Dr. Karen Kangas Dwyer; University Library & Staff; Lisa M. H. German; Rikki Renee Willerton; My fellow Graduate Teaching Fellows; Aubrey Nye (NLP) Personal Communication; My Parents: Wendel & Marilyn Anderson; Mr.Timothy Adkins & Mrs. Karen Adkins; Mr. & Mrs. Edgar and Jeannie Sawyer & Helen; Mr. & Mrs. Roger and Nancy Martinson; My Uncle Ray Petersen; Janice Evans and all my apprentices, teachers, and associates in KBA Glassblowing Studios, Ltd.; My students; Lorelei, Amy, and the ladies (The Lotus); Michelle Zacharia; Professor Charles J. Zabrowski and & Ms. Patricia Beedle; Professor Diane Wood; Professor Patrick Murray; Professor Patricia Fleming; Professor Richard White & Ms. Clarinda Karpov; All the scholars, educators, and supporters of the Mary Helen Ehresman Symposium on Education and Creativity for the Research Institute for Integrated Brain Studies (RIIBS); Professor Suzanne Burgoyne; Ms. Louise O’Connor & family; Chino & Goldie; Professor Marlene Yeni-Maitland; Professor Josie Metal-Corbin; Professor Jay Seitz; Professor Scherer (Geneva, Switzerland); my cousin Sue Petersen (KBA Studios, Ltd.); my cousin John Petersen (Arlington Institute & The Futuredition); Aunt Mary Helen Ehresman & family; all my family, including siblings, cousins, aunts and uncles; Joe Palomino Williams Sanchez (Delsarte); Professor J. Timothy Caldwell; Professor Daniel Cataneo; Phyllis Dunne; Tim & Stephanie Loatman; Mrs. Margaret Diamantis; Susan Detlef; Ms. Della Bynam; Mr. & Mrs. William and Mary Applegate; Chris Matt; Ms. Bonnie Jones & Mr. Phil Anderson; Mrs. DeLoris Bedrosky & family; and everyone else I didn’t mention.

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DEDICATED TO THE LATE CONCHITA JOHNSON WHO KNEW ME WELL

ENOUGH TO BELIEVE EVERYTHING I SAID

Lay me down beneaf de willers in de grass,Whah de branch’ll go a-singin as it pass.

An’ w’en I’s a-layin’ low,I kin hyeah it as it go

Singin’, “Sleep my honey, tek yo’ res at las’.”

Lay me nigh to whah hit meks a little pool,An de watah stan’s so quiet lak an cool’

Whah de little birds in spring, Ust to come an’ drink an’ sing,

An’ de chillen waded on dey way to school.

Let me settle w’en my shouldahs draps dey loadNigh enough to hyeah de noises in de road;

Fu’ I t’ink de las’ long res’Gwine to soothe my sperrit bes’

Ef I’s layin’ ‘mong de t’ings I’s allus knowed.--Paul Laurence Dunbar, A Death Song

I know what the caged bird feels, alas! When the sun is bright on the upland slopes:

When the wind stirs soft through the springing grass,And the river flows like a stream of glass;

When the first bird sings and the first bud opes,And the faint perfume from its chalice steals—I know what the caged bird feels!

I know why the caged bird beats his wingTill its blood is red on the cruel bars;

For he must fly back to his perch and clingWhen he fain would be on the bough a-swing;

And a pain still throbs in the old, old scarsAnd they pulse again with a keener sting—I know why he beats his wing!

I know why the caged bird sings, ah me,When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore,--

When he beats his bars and he would be free;It is not a carol of joy or glee,

But a prayer that he sends from his heart’s deep core,But a plea, that upward to Heaven he flings—

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I know why the caged bird sings!--Paul Laurence Dunbar, Sympathy

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BENEDICTION

To some future scholar: May this thesis be the newly discovered cache of gold that you clutch breathlessly to your chest the way I did many of these bibliographical

sources.

“Miracles are to come. With you I leave a remembrance of miracles . . .”

“we’re a mystery which will never happen again, a miracle which has never

happened before--”

“—how fortunate are you and I, whose home is timelessness: we who have

wandered down from fragrant mountains of eternal now”

e. e. cummings

(Pearson & cummings, 1978)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................2

THESIS ACCEPTANCE...............................................................................................................................4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................................11

DEDICATED TO THE LATE CONCHITA JOHNSON WHO KNEW ME WELL ENOUGH TO BELIEVE EVERYTHING I SAID.............................................................................................................12

BENEDICTION............................................................................................................................................14

TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................15

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION: THE FIVE ‘E’S’ OF EPISTEMOLOGY, EXPERIENCE, EXPLORATION, EVIDENCE, AND EDUCATION...............................................................................18

CONCEPTUAL CONTEXT: EXPERIENTIAL KNOWLEDGE..............................................................................18EXALTATION..............................................................................................................................................19APPROACHES TO PERSUASIVENESS............................................................................................................21

Determining the Approach....................................................................................................................23

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RHYTHM IN COMMUNICATION, PHILOSOPHY, NEUROLOGY, EDUCATION, AND EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT LITERATURE......................................................31

CHARISMA: EXPRESSIVENESS, LEADERSHIP AND RHYTHM......................................................................31Measuring Charisma: Concepts...........................................................................................................35Measuring Charisma: Indicators..........................................................................................................36

COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION.............................................................................................................40COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC).....................................................................................43PHILOSOPHY & EPISTEMOLOGY.................................................................................................................45PSYCHOLOGY: FLOW LITERATURE............................................................................................................50NEUROLOGY...............................................................................................................................................52

Toward a Model of Brain Circuitry......................................................................................................64Bi-hemisphericity of Neural Circuitry and Aphasia.............................................................................66Phrasing, Stuttering and Speech...........................................................................................................68Chiropody: The Science and Art of the Hands.....................................................................................76Babbling Canons...................................................................................................................................78

SPEECH, GESTURE, AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF LITERATURE..............................78MEMORY....................................................................................................................................................92EDUCATION: “TALKING DOES NOT TEACH”, SYNCHRONICITY AND FLOW STATES.................................93

Somatic Education: Movement to rhythmic, musical accompaniment................................................94Improvisation and lesson plan theory.................................................................................................103Music Education.................................................................................................................................106The Dance Before: Suggestions for Movement-Based Education.....................................................109Mindful Learning................................................................................................................................123But Can it Work at the College Level?...............................................................................................125

TEACHERS................................................................................................................................................127RELATED THERAPIES (SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION AND MEDICINE).....................................................129WHY YOU MAY NOT HAVE HEARD OF DALCROZE...................................................................................137IMPLEMENTING SOCIAL CRITICAL THEORY LITERATURE: THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN RHYTHM, HYPNOSIS, PROPAGANDA, AND SOCIALIZATION.......................................................................................144

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Hypnosis..............................................................................................................................................149Subliminal Indoctrination...................................................................................................................152Propaganda (or Socialization)...........................................................................................................154

THE SHADOW KNOWS: TOWARD AN ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIAL CRITICAL THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF RHYTHM, HYPNOSIS, PROPAGANDA, AND PARANOIA.............................................155LITERATURE REVIEW OF SOCIAL CRITICAL THEORY, HYPNOSIS, PROPAGANDA, PARANOIA, AND THE MEDIA......................................................................................................................................................155

Hypnosis..............................................................................................................................................155Propaganda and Paranoia.................................................................................................................161Paranoia as Psychosis........................................................................................................................162

APPLYING THEORY..................................................................................................................................163Framing and Agenda Setting..............................................................................................................165Critical Theory and Pedagogy............................................................................................................166Globalization Model...........................................................................................................................171Western Hegemony Model..................................................................................................................172Framing as Propaganda.....................................................................................................................174Mediated Social Behavior Model and Propaganda............................................................................175Charisma and Propaganda.................................................................................................................176Propaganda, Free Speech Myth, and Legal Theory...........................................................................176Dissent and Monster-Making as Propaganda Determiners...............................................................177Framing of Fringe Social Elements....................................................................................................178

SUMMARY OF RHYTHM-RELATED LITERATURE........................................................................................180

CHAPTER III. SPECIFIC PURPOSE....................................................................................................182

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES.................................................................................182

CHAPTER IV. METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................185

CHAPTER V. CONTENT ANALYSIS...................................................................................................187

CHAPTER VI. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS...........................................................................................193

THE PRIMACY OF RHYTHM: ANCIENT RHETORICAL THEORY...........................................193

LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................................................193Emotion and Affect: Emotional Awareness and Communication......................................................193

THE HISTORY OF RHYTHMOS...........................................................................................................195

THE METHOD OF DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS.............................................................................212

WHAT IS RHYTHM?..................................................................................................................................212WHAT IS GOOD RHYTHM?.......................................................................................................................213FORMAL ELEMENTS OF DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS.................................................................................215

Alienation of the Individual from Himself..........................................................................................215Aims.....................................................................................................................................................217

WHY DO I LAUGH?...................................................................................................................................234

OVERVIEW: HISTORICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS...................235

Music (Composing, Conducting, Lyric Opera, Education, Performing, Orchestral)........................237Theater (Stage and Set Design, Costuming, Lighting, Acting Techniques, Directing, Meyerhold, Stanislavsky, Boleslavsky, Grotwski, Strasberg, Clurman, Jacques Isnardon, Reinhard, Craig)......244Dance (Modern Dance, Ballet)..........................................................................................................250Film (Jean Cocteau, Eisenstein, Meyerhold, Grotowski)...................................................................255

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Literature (Kafka, Countess Tolstoy, Upton Sinclair, George Bernard Shaw, Jean Cocteau, Paul Claudel)...............................................................................................................................................256Architecture (Le Corbusier, Tessenow)..............................................................................................258Modern Art (Salzmann, Kandinsky, De Hartmann, Rodin, Bauhaus, Itten).......................................260Athletics and Physical Education (Czech Sokol, Swedish Gymnastics).............................................268Psychology (Gestalt Therapy, Jean Piaget's Theories based on children studied at Maison des Petits School where Dalcroze taught and performed)..................................................................................269

SUMMARY: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS........................................................271

EURHYTHMICS IN THE PUBLIC SPEAKING CLASSROOM........................................................273

Concepts..............................................................................................................................................273Aims.....................................................................................................................................................277Techniques..........................................................................................................................................280Exercises.............................................................................................................................................281Lesson Plans.......................................................................................................................................290Practicing............................................................................................................................................291

CHAPTER VII. IMPLICATIONS (OR CONCLUSIONS)..................................................................293

Where has all the rhythm gone?.........................................................................................................293SUMMARY OF RESEARCH GOALS.............................................................................................................297

CHAPTER VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...................................................................................299

RESULTS...................................................................................................................................................299DISCUSSION..........................................................................................................................................304LIMITATIONS AND VALIDITY...................................................................................................................306

CHAPTER VIII. FUTURE RESEARCH...............................................................................................309

FUTURE RESEARCH..................................................................................................................................309

APPENDICES.............................................................................................................................................313

Author’s Notes:...................................................................................................................................313ENDNOTES................................................................................................................................................314

1. Correlates......................................................................................................................................3142. My Experience...............................................................................................................................314

TABLE 1: RHYTHM OCCURRENCES.................................................................................................326

REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................................328

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CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION: THE FIVE ‘E’S’ OF EPISTEMOLOGY,

EXPERIENCE, EXPLORATION, EVIDENCE, AND EDUCATION

Conceptual Context: Experiential Knowledge

In the Hollywood movie The Sound of Music, Julie Andrews' character stands on

the side of a mountain in the Swiss Alps. The expression on her face is one of exultation

(exuberant joy). She throws out her arms as if to embrace the whole earth and sings the

now famous lines "The Hills are Alive -- with the Sound of Music!" To most of us,

perhaps, this experience of hers appears to merely express the character's great relief, joy,

and gratitude at having escaped her persecutors. Some might even add to this analysis a

bit of excitement and yearning for the future that suddenly appears so rosy, possible, and

even inevitable. Basically it seems a dramatization of the "happily ever after" moment in

most fairy tales.

But it may turn out that this song, this movie, and the lives of its characters

actually tell of a deeper, richer story, a story that is at the root of some of the greatest

artistic developments of our time--perhaps the true story of all the greatest arts

throughout history and prehistory as well. The story is that of eurhythm (good rhythm)--

in particular, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, one of the least understood, yet most influential

movements of our times.

Quite possibly, Ms. Andrews' character's experience wasn't merely that of

exultation - joy, happiness, etc. - but also one of exaltation - the elevation of

consciousness to a different level. A spiritual awakening, if you will. For this was the

researcher's experience during the summer of his exaltation.

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Exaltation

In July and August of 2001, this researcher spent several weeks of intensive

training at the Dalcroze Institute at The Juilliard School, New York City. At the end of

his first week of Dalcroze Eurhythmics teacher training, he boarded a train from

Manhattan to New Jersey. During this hour-long ride, he sat near a window and began

practicing his rhythmic conducting exercises. Using the techniques of nuance awareness-

building developed about a hundred years before by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, he began to

notice an amazing thing. Little by little, more by more, then lots by lots, one hand began

to conduct, or trace, the uneven clatter of the train on its hand-laid, imperfectly connected

tracks. Gradually, he began combining this erratic pattern with his other hand which

began conducting, by way of a contrapunture, the organic lines of the lush natural

growth, topographical landmarks such as hills and valleys, and sporadic man-made

erections.

Lulled by this somewhat hypnotic festival of sound and imagery, and entering

into it profoundly through his physical search for its rhythmic nuances which he was

attempting to capture and portray in his hand--and soon entire body--movement, he thus

entered into a state of exaltation (or spiritual elevation) that he describes as the complete

and utter embodiment of the words to Ms. Andrews' character's song. The very hills

came alive as he watched and measured their rhythms. Or rather, they had probably

always been alive, but suddenly he could SEE their life. Not just their vegetable growth,

but the very movement and energy streams comprising their LIFE-force itself.

Intuitively, he immediately realized that the creators of The Sound of Music were

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actually describing a very specific type of experience of which he had never before had

any concept.

This researcher's was a very visual experience brought about, he is sure, by the

mind-expanding physical, mental, and emotional techniques of the Dalcroze Eurhythmics

classwork. This profound moment was merely the first in a variety of life-changing

experiences that summer and since.

Why tell the scholarly reader of this subjective, biased, unsubstantiated proof of

the researcher's sudden understanding of fundamental human and natural rhythm?

Because the very exercises and classroom work which led the researcher (and others, he

believes) to such exalted states of awareness have also been harnessed over the last

century as the bases for manifold artistic, educational, and therapeutic applications. The

historical contributions of this mind-altering methodology are the subject of this heuristic

paper.

Based in music and the writings of the ancient Greeks, the system of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is built on the attempt to reintroduce emotional expressiveness into

performance. Caldwell (1995) says the purpose of music is to express emotion.

Quintilian (Zucker, 1988) said this is what the Greeks believed the purpose of oratory

was as well. Emotion is a product of motion, or physical movement. (Caldwell, 1995) If

there is no motion in a thing, it is dead. The same argument may then hold for emotion as

well.

Good teachers must model the behavior they wish to see. Giving examples,

definitions, lecturing, and reading are not the same as giving the skills of expressiveness.

20

What many classrooms lack, Dalcroze Eurhythmics teaches. It instills in the body,

through actual classroom exercises, such artistic communication experiences as rhythm,

movement, improvisation, timing, pace, punctuation, phrasing, stopping, starting, pitch,

cadenza, and more.

Jaques-Dalcroze explained that

. . . it trains the powers of apperception and expression in the individual and renders easier the externalization of natural emotions. Experience teaches me that a man is not ready for the specialized study of an art until his character is formed, and his powers of expression developed. (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 35)

In 1931, conductor, teacher, director of the Dalcroze School of Music in New York City,

holder of the Dalcroze Diplome, and Jaques-Dalcroze’s chief assistant in Geneva for

several years, Paul Boepple, talked about Dalcroze Eurhythmics:

There is only one 'speedometer' common to everybody, that is the pulse. Science has proved that without knowing it, we measure the movement of a piece of music or of a dance by the throbs of our heart. Considering, moreover, the time-relations between breathing, walking, running, and the pulse, it becomes at once evident that the human body must be the time meter for all rhythm in art. (Becknell, p. 89)

Jaques-Dalcroze argued that this rhythmic ingredient was the basis for all the arts.

"So we have, as it were, a scale of the arts, with music at its centre and prose-writing and

painting at its two extremes. From end to end of the scale runs the unifying desire for

rhythm." (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, pp. 60-61)

Approaches to Persuasiveness

Throughout the history of rhetorical speech, scholars have pondered what

techniques should be used for greatest persuasiveness. Examining the history of oratory,

21

one is often drawn to the attractive, magnetic personalities of certain leaders. Perhaps

there are quantifiable characteristics in the delivery styles of the more magnetic leaders

that set them apart from their less dynamic peers. The literature on nonverbal behavior

and leadership examines a wide range of concepts and variables as researchers struggle to

formulate theories about these aspects of human behavior. This section examines the

communication literature on emotional communication between leaders and followers.

The study first explores the charismatic aspects of leadership.

After reviewing the concepts used in the communication literature to discuss

leader charisma and emotional expressiveness (or ‘affect’), this researcher will examine

literature in other fields. While expressive rhetorical performance is usually spoken of in

communication literature as ‘charisma,’ in other fields the discussion uses the

terminology of rhythm. Once the findings on expressiveness in these other, analogous

scholarly and scientific fields have been presented, the study will explore the history of

ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric to determine the historical precedent for discussing

oratorical expressiveness.

The ancient Greeks appear to have been the first to consider that persuasiveness

and expressiveness were actually part of the rhythmic elements of performance. Rhythm

was a pedagogical construct of great importance to these ancient rhetoricians.

Specifically, this researcher hopes to find evidence in the ancient writings of the

existence of a pedagogical method for developing emotionally expressive speakers using

rhythmic, musical movement similar to the Eurhythmics techniques developed by Emile

Jaques Dalcroze. While Dalcroze invented neither the term Eurhythmics nor its function

22

as a pedagogical tool, he did create a modern system using his own games, exercises, and

techniques in an attempt to recreate that ancient Greek concept. A description of the

ancient Greek method and of its apparent revival as Dalcroze Eurhythmics will be

presented, followed by a historical analysis of its contributions to the 20th and 21st

centuries. Finally, this researcher will conclude by arguing that a rhythmic movement

pedagogy of somatic education such as Dalcroze Eurhythmics should be introduced into

college public speaking pedagogy.

Determining the Approach

This paper uses two approaches to information gathering and synopsizing.

Phenomenological Approach

One approach this paper uses to begin and which it continues periodically to use

throughout is the phenomenological one of analyzing internal experience. It is hoped that

by describing the subjective experiences of the researcher during the exploration of

rhythmic development, the inner nature of a somatic educational approach such as

Dalcroze Eurhythmics will become more apparent. This approach to knowledge is not a

new one in the history of the world. As Kabbalistic literature puts it:

Something you cannot explain to another person is called nistar, ‘hidden,’ like the taste of food, which is impossible to describe to one who has never tasted it. You cannot express in words exactly what it is—it is hidden. . . .

Whoever delves into mysticism cannot help but stumble, as it is written: ‘This stumbling block is in your hand.’ You cannot grasp these things unless you stumble over them. (Matt, 1997, pp. 162-3)

One ramification of using the researcher’s own experience as evidence is an

alternation between third person and first person narrative style. In general this narrative

23

will use the more “objective” third person style except where it reduces clarity, reduces

immediacy, or leads to confusion. In those cases the researcher will use the first person.

Analytical Approach

This paper reviews how rhythm is discussed in the literature of ancient rhetoric,

philosophy, psychology, neurology, communication, the arts, and movement-based

education. A content analysis is undertaken of rhythmic constructs in 25 recent college

public speaking textbooks. Several research questions and hypotheses will be established.

Methodologies used in the study will be delineated. The study will include a description

of Dalcroze Eurhythmics and a comprehensive analysis of its historical contributions,

based as it is on the emotional expressiveness and persuasion issues raised by the ancient

Greek and Roman rhetoricians. A discussion of the results of the historical and content

analyses will follow. The conclusion will establish an overall perspective on the issues

raised in the study. A recommendation for future research will end the paper.

Purposes

When I ended my first summer studying rhythm and began to teach forensics and

public speaking, I noticed several things. First, the textbook my communication

department used briefly mentioned that some great speakers such as Martin Luther King

used rhythmic delivery. Then it said that the repetition in Martin Luther King’s speeches

was what made them rhythmic. This didn’t make sense to me. Isn’t repetition what leads

to monotony? Surely there must be a quality in his delivery that transformed repetition

from monotony into expressiveness. Rhythm is the quality of the movement, the space

between the beats in movement, and the particular character of the flow. It is not the

24

mere repetition itself. Indeed, repetition is more akin to what rhythmicists call meter or

timing. Put simply, if we have four beats in a measure—or four repetitions of a word or

phrase--that fact just describes meter or timing. Rhythm, however, is the specific quality

of those repetitions (or another delivery aspects) and the space between them. What is

that space between them? It could be sound, silence, or movement—all of which move

through the gravity field surrounding the performer. In fact, it is probably all three. Even

a silent moment contains some sound and some movement, even if it seems insignificant

to the untrained. These are, in all probability, nuances of motion. Rhythm is the study of

those nuances—which lead to emotion.

Another thing I noticed was that the most popular of my first semester student

speakers were extremely expressive, but did not meet the expectations of my

departmental coordinator for exemplary public speaking. One dyad speech presented in

my class made the students, myself, and a review group of my colleagues roar with

laughter, but was then labeled “inappropriate” for use as an example to the students in the

rest of our public speaking classes. When asked what was wrong with the speech, the

coordinator conciliatorily responded: “Well, it was the most expressive speech I’ve

seen!” In ensuing semesters I backed away from encouraging the expressive aspects of

performance and focused on developing structure and content. Eventually this caused me

to lose much of the joy of teaching and, I think, my students to find less joy in their

public speaking as well. Coincidentally, while my student evaluations were never

unacceptable, they were lowest in those semesters when I focused more on teaching

content and structure than teaching expressiveness.

25

The third thing I noticed was that forensics students competing on the local, state,

regional, and national circuits exhibited surprisingly high levels of rhythm and expressive

qualities. These levels were absent from the student performances in our general public

speaking classrooms. The highest winning forensicators (as forensic competitors are

called) had a correspondingly high level of embodied rhythm during performance. In

fact, I perceived a graduated level of performance rhythm the higher their level of

placement in competition. Predictably, those who won at the national level exhibited the

highest levels of integrated body and vocal movement, high in nuance and

expressiveness. Yet I suspect that few of them would have been able to talk fluently

about rhythm if asked about it.

Interestingly, similar concerns and observations have been raised recently in the

speech performance literature. Johnstone (2001) asks: Why does “none of our literature

in the study of public address [do] very much with delivery?” (p. 121) He goes on to

observe that “much of the wooden lecturing that passes for teaching both in high schools

and at colleges and universities bespeaks a general indifference to and underestimation of

the importance of delivery as a factor in communication effectiveness.” (p. 122)

He finds particularly puzzling in the speech and communication disciplines the

‘aversion to a concern with orality, performance, and delivery.” (p. 122) He mentions

that: “Just as with the recent re-naming of our national professional organization from

the Speech Communication Association to the National Communication Association, so

it was with my colleagues: an emphasis on the centrality of orality was thought to be too

narrow, too traditional, too old-fashioned.” (p. 122) He continues:

26

Delivery has long been recognized as one of the most significant elements of the speaker’s art. Aristotle, in the earliest surviving statement about the role of delivery in speech, says that it is “of the greatest importance” (Rhetoric 1403b20), and it receives considerable attention in Hellenistic and Roman treatises on rhetoric. Contemporary speech textbooks, too, generally devote significant space to this aspect of the practice of effective public speaking. Even so, the performance aspect of rhetoric is often ignored in scholarly examinations of public address and in studies of the origins and early development of rhetoric in Greece. (p. 122)

He concludes that:

if we are to understand fully the early development of this art [‘such elements of vocal delivery such as volume, pitch, inflection, timing, and pace’—and I would add gesture, rhythm, and space], we cannot ignore the centrality in it of a concern for delivery. . . . this concern is likely to have been a fundamental part of the logon techne as it was taught and practiced in the 5th century BCE. (p. 138)

Caldwell (1995) also notes that teachers and critics say vocal performances are

today becoming increasingly sterile. They don’t emotionally change or move the

audiences. Year by year audiences are becoming increasingly anesthetized. Johnstone

(2001) notices a similar state of affairs in college public speaking. The present researcher

has also noticed this for much of his life. (For a more complete description of his

subjective observations about the importance of the lack of expressiveness in his life,

please see endnote #2.)

The overall purpose of this research project is to trace the historical influence of

the Eurhythmics system of Swiss pedagogue Emile Jaques-Dalcroze in Education and the

Communication Arts and consider its applicability to the Communication Arts of Speech,

Forensics, and Theater. Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a proprietary method of education

which combines movement, sound, expressiveness, music, games, improvisation, and

solfege. (Solfege is a program of teaching how to read music by identifying notes, tones,

27

counting, tempo, speech melody, phrasing, punctuation stops, etc.) The Eurhythmics

method of combining these techniques was originally created as a music training system.

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze developed his system as a way of helping artists such as

musicians and singers to analyze and perform musical material. Since its inception,

however, this musical pedagogy has been applied to a variety of other fields as well. The

widespread use of Jaques-Dalcroze's concepts by a wide range of researchers, performers,

teachers, and historical figures has not come without a cost. Unfortunately there has been

a lack of attribution and lack of scholarly historical research establishing these

connections. Thus, it may be difficult for current and future generations to understand

and properly give credit to Jaques-Dalcroze for his increasingly wide influence.

The present study will trace the contributions that Jaques-Dalcroze’s system of

Eurhythmics has had on selected historical movements in the time period since its

inception. Historical developments in the communication arts from the late 1800s until

the present will be comprehensively explored and researched in as much depth as

reasonably possible, time and space permitting. This researcher presents relevant

material, some of it perhaps well-hidden or difficult to find, which places Dalcroze

Eurhythmics in its proper place as a leading influence in the history of 20th century

communication arts thought, theory, and pedagogy. Having thus established its

foundation as a premier somatic education method, this researcher also will show the

relevance and applications of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the college communication arts

classrooms of speech, forensics, and theater.

28

This researcher hypothesizes that he will find connections to Dalcroze

Eurhythmics in the major historical streams of 20th century communication arts. Not only

music, but also film, theater, dance, and education show the influence of the training and

development theories of Jaques-Dalcroze. While it may be difficult to conclusively

determine the exact level of his importance in each stream, the research will establish that

overall he had a significant impact on many streams of 20th century thought. The

researcher in the present study will be content with finding any connections—however

tenuous—to major 20th century streams and leave the question of their significance to

later studies. The current study will only establish connections, not decide on their

importance or levels of significance.

How much influence have Jaques-Dalcroze's ideas had on the history of the

communication arts? Indeed, if Dalcroze Eurhythmics were not increasing in popularity,

the question would be to all practical purposes, moot. The fact is that Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is being taught in an ever-increasingly wide range of institutions and its

precepts are being applied to a wider and wider range of fields. Abramson says (1986, p.

68): "Interest in the Jaques-Dalcroze Method is increasingly evident in North America

and around the world. In many ways it represents some of the newest thinking in music

education."

It is thus important to understand as much about this innovative educational

movement as possible. The fact that it may not yet be commonly known or understood

does not mean it has not been important. Surely there are precedents for significant

historically influential movements being for a time totally unknown outside of a small

29

specialized sphere. Consider the theories of Tessla, Einstein, and others before their

importance was carefully noted in history textbooks and taught to succeeding generations

of students. It is just this sort of historical oversight that this researcher seeks to remedy.

30

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RHYTHM IN COMMUNICATION, PHILOSOPHY,

NEUROLOGY, EDUCATION, AND EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT LITERATURE

Much discussion of rhythm or nuanced, expressive performance movement in the

non-music literature is couched in different terminology. In communication literature,

the most closely related concept appears to be that of charisma. The Greek definition of

rhythmos (rhythm) as ‘river’ or ‘flow’ is reflected in psychology writings by theorists and

scholars Gardner and Csikszentmihalyi. They write using terms such as flow, flow states,

and optimal experience. Nowhere, however, in the mainstream literature is there a

comprehensive discussion of rhythm as it specifically pertains to public speaking. The

published literature which does mention rhythm as a construct coalesces around

psychology, neurology, development, perceptual and motor skill, education, music

education, music therapy, and aesthetics. Some types of literature which are not explored

in this review are foreign language dissertations and unavailable or abstracts-only

primary source materials.

Charisma: Expressiveness, Leadership and Rhythm

In order to design better leadership training courses, evaluate and compare leader

performance, and predict behavior or its results, communication researchers have

explored how to analyze the performance of leaders. (Gardner & Avolio, 1998) One of

the important components of leader effectiveness is the ability of leaders to integrate and

express appropriate emotional states during their communication with followers. What

are the emotional states of leaders? Do they or the manipulation of them influence

followers? Is a particular leader sensitive to the emotional states of his or her community

31

of followers? Do the followers feel emotionally bound up in the leader’s vision or deeds?

Is an emotional connection in place between the leader and the followers and does it

influence the leader’s effectiveness rating? To explain the answers to such questions as

these, researchers have created a paradigm for analysis focusing on emotional

expressiveness in leadership behavior using the term charisma. (Deluga, 2001)

The accepted concept describing exceptional emotional leadership is charisma.

First introduced into the literature by Weber in 1925 (Awamleh and Gardner, 1999),

Weber used the term to specifically apply to the behaviors of exceptional--not ordinary--

leaders. He defined charismatic leaders as possessing qualities that followers perceive as

superhuman or exceptional. They inspire their followers and have profound effects upon

them. (Awamleh and Gardner, 1999) This construct called “charisma” was created to

account for the seemingly magical power of personal persuasiveness. This can perhaps

be seen as charisma having an essentially emotive quality, as I will presently discuss.

Later theorists have diluted this construct and robbed it of its descriptive potential. These

theorists have used it to describe everything except the ineffable quality of personal

delivery style that Weber was attempting to describe. (Beyer, 1999)

Friedman, Prince, and DiMatteo’s (1980) study shifted the focus of personal

leader style research to the study of the nonverbal communication of the leaders. The

study holds that much of charisma can be synonymous with external expressiveness.

Interestingly, this study also indicates that the emotional tone of a group will be

determined by the person who scores highest in expressiveness. This, in turn, may help

researchers understand many dynamics in the emotional relationship between leaders and

32

followers. Specifically, if researchers can determine the person with the highest rate of

expressiveness in a group, they will know who controls the emotional tone. Analyzing

interactions between this highly expressive person and the group leader may help

discover how a leader determines the level of expressiveness appropriate to use in a

particular group.

Woodall and Kogler (1982) refined further the study of charisma and leadership

by examining the concept of empathy. Their study aimed at examining how two specific

measures of empathy--predictive and perceived--relate to leadership style. Predictive

empathy is a measure of how well "respondents can predict their partner's attitudinal

viewpoint." (Ibid., p. 801) Perceived empathy describes how empathetic partners rate the

respondents. Woodall and Kogler used their instrument, the Least Preferred Coworker

scale, to determine whether subjects are task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Overall,

they found that the predictive empathy measure significantly predicted leadership style,

but the perceived empathy measure did not. They suggested this indicated that a leader

being perceived as empathetic will not affect his leadership style.

Awamleh and Gardner (1999) examined the interplay of charisma and

effectiveness by discussing three areas: vision content, delivery content, and

organizational performance. Overall, their results showed that delivery significantly

determined followers' perceptions of leadership effectiveness and charisma. In fact, at

times it took precedence over speech content and organizational performance as the

primary determiner of leader effectiveness as indicated by follower perceptions. This

study gave credibility to the need for a search for those elements of delivery that affect

33

follower perceptions. Specifically, Awamleh and Gardner mentioned increased eye

contact, fluency, use of facial expressions and gestures, eloquence, energy, and increased

vocal variety as indicators of leader charisma. Further studies by Holladay and Coombs

(1993, 1994) also indicated these factors are the key variables determining charisma.

Generally, within this field of communication research, the analysis of leader

emotional expressiveness is discussed under the heading of charisma. (Tejeda, 2001)

Researchers who decide either to study the emotional expressiveness of a particular

leader or to conduct a comparative analysis of two or more leaders might first synthesize

the various approaches to this paradigm of charisma. They might then use the

Multifactor Leadership Theory and Questionnaire to explore charisma empirically.

(DeGroot, Kiker, & Cross, 2000)

Many other subsidiary issues are raised once researchers begin to explore the

emotional content of leadership behavior. Some concepts discussed as important

corollaries to charisma are emotion, affect, empathy, emotional intelligence (Sosik &

Dworakivsky, 1998), expressiveness, and vocal inflection. (Hartog & Verburg, 1997)

Emotions in communication can be exhibited, observed, or measured either

intrapersonally within the leaders themselves, externally amongst the followers, or

interpersonally between leaders and followers. When researchers explore how charisma

influences followers (interpersonal communication), they discuss the concepts of

empowerment (Mumford & Van Doom, 2001), rhetoric, style, content (Hartog &

Verburg, 1997), vision and context (Nutt & Backoff, 1997), and image-building.

(Gardner & Avolio, 1998)

34

Tamisari (2000), however, takes the discussion of expressiveness and leadership

to an entirely new level of perception. She examines how communication between leader

and follower occurs as a flow of perceptions, expectations, and demands in between and

throughout the overt or obvious messages. This is a somewhat difficult study for

researchers to analyze or reproduce, dealing as it does with aborigines of Australia. But

her new discovery of an extraordinary mode of nonverbal communication through the

rhythmic elements of expressive dance leads this researcher to postulate that this very

concept of rhythm may be the elemental basis of or key to finally understanding the

complex dialectic between leaders and followers.

Finally, researchers talk of the inner significance or experience of the emotional

states within the leader. They discuss ideas such as rasaesthetics, concurrent articulation,

intrapersonal affect, psychopathology, Machiavellianism, narcissism, and egocentricity

(Deluga, 1997 & 2001); gestalt and movement (McBride, 1998); soulfulness (Briskin &

Peppers, 2001); and rhythm. (Abramson, 1986)

Measuring Charisma: Concepts

Writings by Weber, Beyer, and others have led to some commonly used concepts

describing emotional states in leadership studies. These include social intelligence, affect

(Boal, 2000), vision- or crisis-induced charisma, empathy, cognition (Lord, 2000),

kairotic moments & strategic inflection points (Boal, 2000), emotional capability,

nonverbal expressiveness, and others such as context, transformational, transactional,

charismatic.

35

Measuring Charisma: Indicators

Studies approach measuring charisma from several directions. Researchers speak

of internal states or intrapersonal communication within the leader, externally observable

communication characteristics, and the responses of followers as part of an interpersonal

dynamic or relationship.

Each of these approaches to measurement uses different yardsticks to measure the

pertinent information. Data can be collected from each of these three sources using a

variety of measures. In the intrapersonal realm, researchers speak of the inner workings

of the leader’s mind. Studies take measures—some subjectively determined, others

objectively determined, of his psychopathology, degree of narcissism, egocentricity,

spirituality, or Machiavellianism. Researchers seek a measure of his gestalt or concurrent

articulation, rasaesthetics, emotional capability, or cognition.

In the externally observed behavioral characteristics, researchers speak of

nonverbal expressive behavior, rhetorical devices such as repetition, rhythm, alliteration,

delivery, content, moods, motivations, intentions, emotional capability, style, figurative

language and imagery. Rhythm is the least discussed of all these factors. It may,

however, hold some keys to better exploring, teaching, and explaining charisma--keys

that current researchers miss. In fact, it may actually help researchers come closer to a

synthesis of all three areas of: exploring, teaching, and explaining. Researchers may find

that using a broader paradigm that includes the concept of rhythm gives us a more precise

measure of leader emotional communication than any paradigm currently in place.

36

In the interpersonal realm researchers describe crafting vision, empathy,

empowerment, adaptability, context, kairotic moments, inflection points, emotional

honesty, and rhetoric. (Hartog & Verburg, 1997) All these are measures of how and why

a leader exerts power and influence, commands respect, creates shared visions and goals,

and excites others.

The literature on nonverbal behavior and leadership examines a wide range of

concepts and variables as researchers struggle to formulate theories about these aspects of

human behavior. The focus here is to specifically examine the use of emotional

communication between leaders and followers.

Hecht and Ambady (1999) suggested there is a historical progression in the study

of nonverbal communication within the field of psychology. In the 1950's, nonverbal

communication studies originated as a cross disciplinary study in the fields of psychiatry,

linguistics, and anthropology. During the 1960's and 1970's researchers, authors, and

popular media increased their focus on this subject. By the 1980's psychologists

regularly incorporated discussion of nonverbal communication into their research as well.

(Hecht & Ambady, 1999)

In the 1980's and 1990's the cognitive revolution displaced the focus on nonverbal

communication, but the late 1990's show a resurgence in interest in nonverbal

communication--this time among those who study emotions, psychophysiology, and

personal perception. (Hecht & Ambady, 1999)

Friedman, Prince, and DiMatteo (1980) postulated that emotive expressiveness is

the essential characteristic of those people who are able to move, inspire, or captivate

37

others. Accordingly, they conducted studies which examined such xpressiveness. The

studies examined the connections between expressiveness, interpersonal relations,

personality, and nonverbal communication skills. They asked subjects to measure their

own perceptions of their expressiveness. Then they asked close friends of the subjects to

evaluate the expressiveness of the subjects. This two-part study showed a strong

connection between subjects' own perceptions of their expressiveness and the perceptions

of their friends. In other words, subjects evaluated themselves similarly to how their

friends rated them. This finding supports the idea that people who rank themselves as

more expressive probably are more expressive. (Friedman, et al.)

The concept of rhythm has not, since the time of the ancient rhetoricians, been

commonly found in the leadership studies which use psychological or sociological

approaches. It has been, however, often discussed in the performing arts. (Abramson

and Reiser, 1994) Perhaps the interdisciplinary approach described by Hecht and

Ambady (1999) as forming the origin of the study of nonverbal communication should be

reexamined and new disciplines included. These might include the performance arts,

dance, and music. While this is a big change, it might actually be the culmination of the

very development Hecht and Ambady refer to when they say: "The future of nonverbal

communication may lie where it started, as an interdisciplinary endeavor." (p. 156)

One theorist --from a completely different field--was able to put a finger on the

magical character of the aspect of delivery to which Weber was possibly referring. That

theorist was an actor-musician-teacher in Geneva, Switzerland at the turn of the 20th

century. His name was Emile Jaques-Dalcroze and he was a student of Edouard

38

Claparede at the Institut Jean Jacques Rousseau and a contemporary of Jean Piaget.

(Caldwell, 1995)

The phenomenon which Jaques-Dalcroze (or 'Dalcroze' as he is commonly called

in the United States) explored and taught was the ancient Greek idea of rhythmos or

rhythm. This idea, one which is common to several aboriginal cultures, pertains to the

breakdown into minute awareness of the nuances of movement. While this idea is still

mentioned occasionally in public speaking texts, it is the ancients who most deeply

applied it to public speaking. It remains for modern researchers to reexamine it for

efficacy in modern public speaking education.

This literature review will only briefly mention how the fields of communication,

sociology (Beyer, 1999), psychology (Parry, 1998), etc., differ in their approach to leader

affect, emotion, expressiveness, or delivery. Parry, for instance, (1998), contends that the

qualitative method of exploring charisma is more helpful than the quantitative. This view

is shared by Conger (1998). Beyer argues that discussions of charisma have diluted the

original meaning of the term as used by Weber (Beyer, 1999) The primary purpose of

this literature review is to condense the myriad discussions of charisma within the fields

of communication, psychology, mass media, and leadership into one coherent train of

thought which later research might tie into in a relevant way to measure the emotional

component of leader effectiveness.

The phenomenon of emotional expressiveness, its role in leader effectiveness

ratings and its place in the life of leaders is still not well researched, codified or described

in literature. Some scholars argue that the very paradigm of charisma itself is not yet

39

described well enough or conceptualized fully enough to permit a complete description or

analysis. This lack is especially evident in leadership training. (Conger, 1993) Perhaps a

deeper exploration of the phenomenology of emotional expression by leaders could

include the concept of rhythm, a trainable skill and possibly an observable, quantifiable

variable when carefully operationalized. The literature of neurology more thoroughly

explores rhythm than does the literature of communication. First, however, this study

will look at the applications of rhythm in communication apprehension and computer

mediated communication.

Communication Apprehension

Stage fright is a fear shared by many people. It has been said that this fear is

second only to the fear of death. (Dunne, 1995) In the fields of Dalcroze studies and

music, this phenomenon is also called performance anxiety. It basically consists of fears

and insecurities that a performer has before or during a public performance. (Caldwell,

1995) The communication field refers to the similar state of fear and insecurity of public

speakers, as either speech fright or communication apprehension. (Dwyer, 1998)

Dalcroze has been said by several researchers and practitioners to help with shyness,

nervousness, and fear of performing; thus it would appear to have some value for

communication apprehension as well. An interesting potential application to

communication apprehension amelioration may exist with musical movement learning as

well. According to Beaton (1995), "Singing, chanting, or clapping in large circle groups,

then moving to smaller group exercises helps to reduce a child's anxiety and increase

confidence when it becomes his turn to respond." (Cited in Stansell, 2001) The

40

applicability of these techniques to young adult students remains an avenue for further

research.

Anecdotal evidence presented in the doctoral dissertation of Becknell (1970)

relates that college students in the classroom of Emeritus Professor of Eurhythmics at the

Carnegie Institute of Technology, Henrietta Rosenstrauch, testified they: lost self-

consciousness, respected others' individuality more, relieved mental strain, added interest

and stamina, achieved better control over actions, reduced tension, achieved more

relaxation, sharpened their sense of rhythm, increased their sense of being part of the

larger group, gained assurance, gained physical and intellectual enrichment, gained more

steadiness and precision, released inhibitions, improved their phrasing ability, stimulated

thought and imagination, and induced clear and uncluttered thinking. (Becknell, pp. 145-

6)

The father of an autistic child, a student of Dalcroze Eurhythmics, wrote that after

such Dalcroze training, "Donna was no longer waiting in the school cloakroom for the

teacher or other children to dress her. She no longer feared to attempt a new game or

song nor did she continue to shrink from art materials with which she was unfamiliar."

(Ibid.) Michael MacOwan, head of the Old Vic Dramatic School in London wrote to

Professor Rosenstrauch:

I have always been very puzzled as to what form of physical training is the best suited to dramatic students and it is a great relief to have found someone who has solved the problem as completely as you have done. I really think you have succeeded in showing them how their imaginations and emotions can be given a free physical expression. In their work with me I notice that they are at last beginning to feel and act with their whole bodies… (Becknell, p. 143)

Perhaps the most inspiring note came from the student who said,

41

After one year of Dalcroze Eurhythmics I feel that my self imposed shackles have been loosened, and that the doors to my imprisoned spirit have been opened. For Eurhythmics has taught me a freedom of mind and spirit. . . . This has given me a new incentive, a new kind of courage with which to face life. (Becknell, p. 146)

Dalcroze lessons using positive visualization would seem to be effective in

helping reduce performance anxiety, according to Caldwell (1995). "Performance

anxiety is increased when the singer concentrates on not being nervous or some other

negative outcome, such as forgetting the words. . . .Of course the image grows stronger as

the students try to avoid thinking about the image. This . . . points out the importance of

paying attention to, and concentrating on, what we want to have happen." (Ibid., p. 64)

Caldwell lists six behaviors needed to become efficient learners: attention, concentration,

remembering, reproducing the performance, changing, automating. (Ibid., p. 63) He

explains students also should be encouraged to focus on what worked or didn’t work

during a performance, rather than on evaluating it: (‘good,’ ‘bad,’ etc). This relates to

studies mentioned elsewhere herein which emphasized reducing self criticism,

substituting instead the more neutral process of self-analysis. Performers experience

anxiety when they imagine the worst and then evaluate it, Caldwell says. Teachers

should encourage students to experiment with different solutions. That leads to

independence. Don’t teach students music; teach them how to learn. (Ibid., 1995)

Ultimately, relaxation makes a person more powerful. (Eiffert, 1999, p. 128) Thus, there

are indications that there may be some relevance of rhythmic movement study in the area

of communication apprehension. Further study is recommended.

42

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)

Developments in the CMC field hold some relevance for the study of rhythm.

(Thibeault, 2001) A researcher in Germany (Wachsmuth, 2000) is using the fundamental

role played by rhythm in speech and gesture communication to guide the study of

computer mediated communication. The study proposes a multimodal user interface

which can interpret and represent speech and hand gesture rhythmic information.

Beckstead (2001) states that music has primarily to do with sound, not writing.

Yet the history of music has shown a bias toward learning the complexities of notation

before composition. He suggests that computer mediated technology has been

traditionally regarded as an aid to efficiency, not transformation. He emphasizes the need

to use technology to transform composition and musical practice, rather than make it

merely more efficient. He suggests in higher end technology, computers can compose

using algorhithms and subroutines written by composers. Yet the synthesizers the music

is played on play a discrete product with a resolution that is still not convincing to human

ears. The human performer is still a necessary part of the equation if one wants a musical

product that makes “a single note sound urgent or relaxed, eager or reluctant, hesitant or

self-assured, perhaps happy, sad, elegant, lonely, joyous, regal, questioning, etc.”

(Moore, The dysfunction of MIDI, p. 20 as cited in Beckstead, 2001, p. 47.) He points

out that part of this is due to the fact that musical notes as discrete tones didn’t exist

before computers were programmed with them. Such programmed notes, concretized as

discrete, non-unique tones at a precise frequency are no longer changing interpretations,

43

but fixed in stone. They keep us from truly confronting the mystery of nature’s music.

We are confronting static products of music instead of nature’s mystery of music.

It appears to me that human programming is improvisatory by its nature and its

algorhythms are biologically changeable. All human action is rhythmical, combining

into algorhythms. These are not fixed or eternal, as a machine or electronic synthesizer

whose notes are programmed and fixed. Instead they are ever varying, depending on the

performer and string in the moment of creation. Even the tuner is part of the artistry of

the moment. A machine stays ever constant unless malfunctioning.

Beckstead (2001) concludes that it is less important to determine whether teachers

employ technology in an efficient or a transformative manner than it is to make them and

their students aware of the innate limitations of technology which is biased toward

discrete, mechanical reproduction and away from what I term emotional expressiveness,

nuance, and human eurhythmicity.

It appears to me that there is another question to consider as we prepare to

integrate rhythmic musical exercise such as Dalcroze’s solfege, rhythm, and

improvisation into the classroom. Is there not just a challenge for this researcher to

develop exercises, but also a challenge for teachers to develop their own rhythmicality?

Dalcroze held that you cannot learn it from a book; you must learn it from a qualified

teacher. Can speech teachers be persuaded to embark upon this challenging, expensive,

and time-consuming road to self-improvement, mastery, and potential satisfaction? Can

they transform themselves to become teachers or orators in the classical Greek sense of

rhythmos training or remain tied to the norm of efficiency? Given the need to experience,

44

rather than read about the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method, it would appear reasonable to

think that an interactive computer program or long-distance classroom may be of value.

However, it is questionable, from this researcher’s own experience, whether computer-

mediated music can convey the same sense of rhythm as live instruction. CMC must be

used with awareness that it is based not in the dynamically evolving neural network of

the human mind, but the fixed systems of programming. Lacking the uniquely

developing human neural pathways, it may lack certain elements of expressiveness or

sensitivity to affect that are only felt by humans because of the unique qualities of the

inner experience of body movement. It appears that in order to teach the human, teachers

must focus on unique neural development rather than rote learning or dependence on

errhythmic fixed systems. It is possible, however, that tools, instruments, materials, and

technology can be used expressively as long as the teaching is project-and process-based.

(Thibeault, 2001)

Philosophy & Epistemology

One reason rhythm and Dalcroze Eurhythmics may appear obscure is related to

the issue of epistemology. Originally epistemology was the philosophical study of

knowledge, or ways of knowing. (Durant, 1943) Durant defines epistemology as the

“the logic. . . of understanding . . . i.e., the origin, nature, and validity of knowledge.” (p.

117) In fact, Durant calls it “the great game of epistemology, which in Leibniz, Locke,

Berkeley, Hume and Kant waxed into Three Hundred Years’ War that at once stimulated

and devastated modern philosophy.” (p. 117)

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The Cartesian mind-body dualism is a pre-eminent feature of current philosophy,

according to Davidson, Scherer, and Goldsmith, Eds. (2003) We know we know because

we think we know, or as Descartes’ famous axiom says, “I think therefore I am.”

However, this separation of the two kinds of knowledge is artificial, according to modern

affective psychology, and actually leads to a schism in the consciousness of modern

people. Rather than understand that we understand or ‘know’ the world just as

importantly with our body as with our mind, the old dualism argues for the primacy of

intellect in determining reality. This bias away from bodily experience appears to have

robbed our culture of its birthright--a fundamental, integrated body-mind-spiritual

wholeness.

This study will explore all three of these. An effective way might be through the

phenomenological description of inner experience using metaphor and analogy.

Therefore, this study will explore the researcher’s subjective experience, as well as

analogous developments in related literature, historical analysis, logic, anecdotal

evidence, and the content analysis college textbooks. These results will be interspersed

with the researcher’s own observations about his phenomenology of sensation and

subjective experience, and even a touch of mysticism. These ways of knowing are all

represented in the extant literature on Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

Why does this study include metaphor, analogy, and subjective experience as

evidence along with analytical, theoretical, and historical evidence? If the study were to

only use logical proofs, it would not make sense. This is because sense and emotion are

about sensation and movement. Emotion comes from motion. One cannot feel unless

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one moves. All life moves. Only the dead don’t move. (But their skin may crawl with

the living entities that feed upon it.) The more useful question then becomes: How do

senses compute with the brain to make logical sense? Findings in neurology establish

concrete terms for the experience of integrated body-mind-emotion knowing, but these

won’t make “sense” without experience, analogy, or metaphor. Therefore the subject of

this study will be clearer if all three of these are applied to the discussion.

Rhythm is ultimately the basis of all life. (See Laban, 1926, for clarification.) At

any rate, it is present in all parts or forms of life. It is, therefore, a way to conceptualize

the nuanced movement aspect of anything studied. Any discipline one studies includes

some aspect of movement rhythm or flow. This is true of multiplication tables, nuclear

physics, linguistics, and computer science, to name just a few. Therefore, it makes

complete sense to examine rhythm using a cross-disciplinary approach. The fields of

forensics, theater, and public speaking—or ‘oratory’—seem to be even more obviously

relevant to rhythm. They require movement of every kind, in all parts of the body,

words, subject matter, and performance.

Sensation governs experience. Until one experiences it with one’s body,

persuasion is merely the engagement of the rational mind—not the emotions. Plato

argued for the emotions to be involved. This occurs through movement, he said.

‘Programming’ something in the muscles leaves a lasting impression. That impression

persuades us.

Very little empirical research appears to exist describing the inner experience of

this wholeness or its possible achievement through Dalcroze Eurhythmics. How can one

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describe or argue on paper about something that is based in a physical experience?

Indeed, how can one measure charisma? Yet some evidence of knowledge or proof is

needed of the efficacy, importance, and relevance of this ancient Greek-derived method

of developing expressive performance (eurhythmia) if one is to establish a connection to

current public speaking pedagogy.

Switching the study of ways of knowing from philosophy to the empirical

sciences such as psychology and neurology may offer an interesting frame within which

to view this problem. Durant (1943) recognizes and encourages that epistemology is best

explored as one of the sciences, not as a major component of philosophy, where it leads

to useless speculation. The science of knowing, he says, is more properly the realm of

empirical and theoretical psychology, not the synthesizing, interpretive field of

philosophy. He argues that

epistemology has kidnapped modern philosophy, and well nigh ruined it; [I hope] for the time when the study of the knowledge-process will be recognized as the business of the science of psychology, and when philosophy will again be understood as the synthetic interpretation of all experience rather than the analytic description of the mode and process of experience itself. Analysis belongs to science, and gives us knowledge; philosophy must provide a synthesis for wisdom. (Durant, 1943, p. xvii)

Durant (p. 2) reiterates that: “Science is analytical description, philosophy is synthetic

interpretation.” The true purpose of philosophy is to discuss scientific findings and to put

them into frameworks that contribute to understanding and wisdom. “Science without

philosophy, facts without perspective and valuation, cannot save us from havoc and

despair. Science gives us knowledge, but only philosophy can give us wisdom.” (Ibid.,

p. 3)

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‘Do you know,’ asks Emerson, ‘the secret of the true scholar? In every man there is something wherein I may learn of him; and in this I am his pupil.’ . . . . And we may flatter ourselves with that other thought of Emerson’s, that when genius speaks to us we feel a ghostly reminiscence of having ourselves, in our distant youth, had vaguely this self-same thought which genius now speaks, but which we had not art or courage to clothe with form and utterance. And indeed, great men speak to us only so far as we have ears and souls to hear them; only so far as we have in us the roots, at least, of that which flowers out in them. We too have had the experiences they had, but we did not suck those experiences dry of their secret and subtle meanings: we were not sensitive to the overtones of the reality that hummed about us. Genius hears the overtones, and the music of the spheres; genius knows what Pythagoras meant when he said that philosophy is the highest music. (Ibid., p. 3-4)

Hypothesizing the lack of a college public speaking pedagogy for teaching

expressive delivery, this study will seek to address the pedagogical need for expressive

performance in public speaking and public address or performance by applying the

Eurhythmics approach of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. In order to argue most carefully for its

relevance, the communication construct of charisma was discussed. Here the

epistemology of Eurhythmics has been first framed as distinct from the Cartesian mind-

body split. Instead, Dalcroze argued that the only way we can know truth is to know it

fully by using all three elements—body, mind, and soul (this latter element is a metaphor

pertaining to the ‘heart’ or ‘affect’ or ‘emotion’) simultaneously. Current neurology

(both in the physical and cognitive sciences) makes a similar argument. So, such a way

of knowing is best examined through psychology. These examinations of the

psychological and neurological literature follow. After that will be a discussion of

literature on rhythm, its history, and its connection to music, the arts, medicine &

sciences. Then, a review of classic rhetorical history—specifically Quintilian and

Plato-- will determine rhythm’s relevance and importance in classical rhetoric, and a

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content analysis of current public speaking texts will ascertain its relevance to current

pedagogy. Finally an argument is made, based also on theatrical precedent, for its further

re-integration into the pedagogy of forensics, public speaking, and rhetorical study. One

of the goals of this study is to bring some order to the study of rhythm. To do so, it will

now relate how the field of psychology conceptualizes rhythm: by using the term ‘flow.’

Psychology: Flow Literature

So, what was this researcher’s earlier mentioned experience, really?

Csikszentmihalyi offers one possible answer: an inner state of ‘flow.’ Flow; rhythm;

nuance; joy. This is precisely the state he says we should want our students to be in. But

do we? Dalcroze Eurhythmics, it seems, can help to achieve it.

Embodied rhythm is not an experience of relaxing. It is instead primarily about

actively pushing, forcing, stretching, jumping, leaping, running, walking, and playing—a

complete macro and micro movement extravaganza—within the organizing safety of

musicality. More specifically, it can involve what Csikszentmihalyi (1990) called a flow

state:

Contrary to what we usually believe, moments like these, the best moments in our lives, are not the passive, receptive, relaxing times—although such experiences can also be enjoyable, if we have worked hard to achieve them. The best moments usually occur when a person’s body or mind is stretched to its limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile. Optimal experience is thus something that we make happen. (p. 3)

Csikszentmihalyi mentions that “attention is our most important tool in the task of

improving the quality of experience.” (p. 33) This step may actually lead to autotelic

learning (Ibid., p. 67), in which the activity of learning is enjoyable enough to be its own

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reward. He also says much juvenile delinquency is just the results of a desire for a flow

state. (Ibid., p. 69) He defines alienation as the experience people feel when they are

forced by society to act against their own goals. Alienation is not a result of mere

challenge, however. “The challenges of the activity are what forces [sic] us to

concentrate.” (Ibid., p. 97) Thus, challenge is an essential part of the ‘flow’ experience.

This researcher’s experience of the forces of nature being based in musical rhythm is not

new, according to Csikszentmihalyi. Members of one aboriginal tribe would traditionally

blow on horns for days and nights on end trying to awaken the forest to bring back good

times. Csikszentmihalyi elaborates:

The body is like a probe full of sensitive devices that tries to obtain what information it can from the awesome reaches of space. It is through the body that we are related to one another and to the rest of the world.

* * *Our physical apparatus has evolved so that whenever we use its sensing devices they produce a positive sensation, and the whole organism resonates in harmony. (p. 115- 116) That Dalcroze Eurhythmics provides flow is not surprising: “a broad range of

activities rely on rhythmic or harmonious movement to generate flow. . . . The response

of the body to music is widely practiced as a way of improving the quality of

experience.” (Ibid., p. 99) Memory-building is an element of Dalcroze Eurhythmics,

according to Abramson (1986). It is also characteristic of the state of flow. “All forms of

mental flow depend on memory, either directly or indirectly . . . . it brings order to

consciousness.” (Csikszentmihaly, p. 121) “A mind with some stable content to it is

much richer than one without.” (Ibid., p. 123) One should also develop an ordering

system. “People without an internalized symbolic system can all too easily become

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captives of the media. They are easily manipulated by demagogues, pacified by

entertainers, and exploited by anyone who has something to sell.” (Ibid., p. 128)

Neurology

“Right Now, I Find Neurology More Interesting Than Psychology,” Professor

Abramson

Greater understanding of the possibilities of a musical movement based education

for public speaking may come from examining some of the current neurological research.

Stansell (2001) believes that Gardner's (1999) theory of multiple intelligences, placing

music as it does as a separate domain of intelligence, helps show the benefit that language

learning receives from music. Musically adept people also exhibit greater aptitude in

learning foreign languages because of a greater sensitivity to perception, processing and

copying accents. (Biology, 2000, as cited in Stansell, 2001) Stansell also makes the

point that the emotion present in music "is crucial to communication" and that to some

degree people sing while they talk--since they use a base tone and pitch ranges of at least

three or four above that base pitch and one below it to emphasize. (p. 6)

Green (1999) says the Mozart effect of kids being smarter after listening to

Mozart lasted 10 minutes and hasn’t really been replicated very successfully. Also,

students who took piano lessons performed better on abstract reasoning, but for only one

day. He cites one group of researchers who hypothesize that music “enhance[s] the

cortex’s ability to accomplish pattern development, thus improving other higher brain

functions.” They suggest that as a pre-language, “the response of the cortex to music

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could be the Rosetta stone of neurobiology, the code to unlocking many still-mysterious

secrets of brain activity.” (Ibid., p. 1)

Zatorre (2000) claims that: "General classroom music activities that include

singing and rhythm help enhance the development of auditory discrimination skills,

including integration of letter sounds, syllabification, and pronunciation of words." (p.

109, cited in Stansell, 2001, p. 6) How is this accomplished? Palmer and Kelly (1992)

"suggest songs exaggerate important stress and duration elements, and amplify normal

vocal contours in speech. In this way, they feel music emulates the way care-givers

speak to their children, or motherese, which has been shown to increase their

understanding and acquisition of language." (Cited in Stansell, 2001) Stansell cites

several studies which make clear the role of music "as a facilitator of general knowledge"

and that the musical intelligence connects with "other faculties to aid mental processing."

This skill at connected use of several intelligences improves other cognitive abilities.

(Ibid., p. 7)

Schlaug (2001) discovered that early music training alters the anatomy of the

brain. Such training increases both efficiency and size of the corpus callosum. This is

the bundle of connective nerve fibers between the two brain hemispheres. That, in turn,

increases the coordination between the two hands, speeding communication between the

two sides of the brain. Such complex processing between the two brain hemispheres is

part of "higher order thought." (Stansell, 2001, Internet pagination unclear) So musical-

movement-language learning works because learning is

a function of neural connections in the brain. In language learning, anything that enriches a phrase or word will tag it for memory, etching deeper mental pathways

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for neural circuitry. This is especially true in an active communication context where the learner is formulating hypotheses about meaning. (Stansell, p. 13)

Stansell concludes persuasively that

The researchers in this literature review show conclusively that music and language should be studied together, and have been used together since recorded history. . . . Music's success is due, in part, to primal human abilities. Music is an intelligence stimulating force that codes words with heavy emotional and contextual flags. Music invokes a realistic, meaningful, and cogent environment, enabling students to have positive attitudes, self-perceptions, and cultural appreciation so they can actively process new stimuli and infer rules. The universal element of music can make the artificial classroom environment into a 'real' experience and make new information meaningful, bringing interest and order to a classroom. . . . The evidence in these articles encourages change in curriculum. In some ways, researchers are turning their ears and their theories to the reality that had always been there. Children are drawn to nursery rhymes, rhythmic activities, and play songs as key texts in building concepts of reality. . . . Music is glue . . . and it can be a power, if harnessed, to illuminate horizons of linguistic communication and pedagogy into the next century. (Stansell, p. 14)

Seitz (2000) explains this further by telling how thought is based in the body, not

the mind. He argues that the elegance of the Cartesian duality of body and mind is

outdated. This state of affairs supports ‘the bodily basis of thought.’ (Ibid., p. 1) We use

our bodies to think with. He quotes Einstein as saying he was a visual, muscular learner.

He says: “In terms of development, nonverbal behavior is central to expression and

communication.” (Ibid., p. 4) This state of affairs continues from childhood into

adulthood. Arguments have even been made for the origin of language in gesture. “The

experience of music is an elegant specific example of the body in thought . . .” (Ibid., p.

5) He takes the “embodied mind” (Ibid., p. 6) approach to thought and intelligence.

There is a motor basis of concepts and ideas. He postulates the “central importance of

the body in thought.” (Ibid., p. 6)

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Seitz (2000) also mentions the importance of neural pathways; how their non-

development leads to certain dysfunctions and diseases. Seitz (Ibid., p. 7) synopsizes:

The cerebellum and frontal cortex are connected by neural pathways. These may enable

the use of kinesthesia to manipulate concepts and ideas. When such neural pathways or

“network connections” (Ibid.) are inadequate, the result can be cognitive dysmetria, a

problem that may contribute to schizophrenia and other mental illnesses. Another result

can be “cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome” (Ibid.) which is linked to

agrammaticism (disturbed language development), blunted affect (a personality disorder),

deficits in visuo spatial memory (cognitive disorder) and difficulties in planning and

other executive functions. Disturbances in these pathways result in dementia and

depression (both are cognitive deficits), Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, obsessive-compulsive

behavior, and Gilles de Tourette syndrome (these four are motor deficits). The nervous

system “shape[s] the dynamics of the coupled system of brain, body, and environment.”

(Ibid., p. 10)

Seitz (2000) says the central nervous system is constantly regenerating new neural

connections. The four central cognitive abilities thought of as the body’s basis of thought

are motor logic and organization, kinesthetic memory, and “on-line kinesthetic

awareness.” (Ibid.) These latter two are the components of kinesthesia—the present

awareness of movement, and the remembered awareness of it. Proprioceptors give

knowledge about movement, weight, resistance, and spatiality. Based on empirical

studies by Iverson & Goldin-Meadow (1998), Goldin-Meadow (1997), and Kilian (1999),

he concludes that “gestures may facilitate thought itself.” (p. 18) The nature of

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kinesthetic thinking is one of integrating, orchestrating, selecting, and executing elements

of thinking, movement, senses, and emotions. He says “studies indicate that motion

plays a pivotal role in concept acquisition and guides human and infrahuman primates in

both the categorization of objects and the learning of concepts across the lifespan.”

(Seitz, p.15)

Mengert (September, 2001) says neurologically

we seem to be creatures of habit (habituation is a neural act) and appear to live in loops of repetitive behavior always reverting toward—if not to—the norm. This issue is important for an educational diagnostician to consider. Reversion to habituated behavior is a problem that must be examined prior to any sort of remediation. There needs to be sensitivity to genetic and functional predispositioning that modifies and shapes our language and much of our conscious behaviors. (p. 4)

Neural loops are both associations- and tissue- (cell fiber) based. Loops have neither

beginning nor end. Instead of the limbic system of brain components, memory and

emotions are processed by a set of cells sets and tissues in process. These sensory loops

transmit information to and receive information from the brain—often at the

subconscious level. If the incoming data can be related to data already stored, it is

attended to and processed. If, however, no preexisting data can be found to which it

relates, it dissolves or dissipates. This process occurs as continuous oscillation of the

neurons in a rhythmic pattern at 40-Hertz. Essentially, the whole circuit is vibrating.

Koniari, Predaxxer, and Mellen (2001) hypothesize that the human mind contains

an innate predisposition called the cue abstraction mechanism. During development, it

can be influenced by environmental factors such as experience, training and culture. As

children, musicians and nonmusicians are not qualitatively different in the way they grasp

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the totality of a piece in cognition, merely different in efficiency of the grasping. The

mechanism is modularized during development and experience. Cognitive

predispositions are altered by external influences; this leads to development of specific

brain circuits.

Seitz (2000) goes into more detail as to the nature of the connection between

movement, music and thought.

By sketching out both the 'objective' features (i.e., motor logic, motor organization, kinesthetic awareness, and kinesthetic memory) that are hypothesized to be at the core of cognitive abilities central to human action, and the 'subjective' features--including repleteness (i.e., volume, line, and movement texture), exemplification (i.e., the ability to convey rhythm or shape through movement), expression or representation (i.e., the ability to use one movement to stand in place of another), and composition (i.e., the ability to create a spatial design(s) with the body)--current empirical studies will gain further insight into the relationship of thought and movement. By tracing its ontogeny and the role of expressive and cognitive factors in aesthetic movement, such studies will begin to explicate the role of kinesthetic sense and memory, motor logic, and motor organization in human learning that occurs through the senses, hand, and body.

Thinking is an embodied activity. Although humans may be best characterized as symbol-using organisms, symbol use is structured by action and perceptual systems that occur in both natural environments and artifactual contexts. Indeed, human consciousness may arise not just from some novel feature of human brains, but by way of the body's 'awareness' of itself through its exteroceptive and proprioceptive senses. Indeed, the body structures thought as much as cognition shapes bodily experiences. (Ibid., p. 24)

Literature in the field of the affective sciences (part of the larger fields of

psychology and neurology) explores the connection of the mind and music further.

Oatley (2003), found in Davidson, Scherer, and Goldsmith (2003), says the challenge of

expanding one’s mind is pleasurable. (p.489) Complexity and mystery invites us to

explore. (Ibid., p. 489) This implies a very real similarity between emotion and art. “I

have argued here that the principal difference between art and facial or vocal emotional

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expression is that art has external form and persists in time.” (Ibid., p. 491) How does

music fit in? Wagner said that “music begins where language comes to an end, and that

music is the language of passion.” (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003, p. 503) Jourdain (1998)

mentions “It’s not the waltz’s notes, but rather the relations between those notes that

makes a body want to dance.” (http://www1.dragonet.es/users/markbcki/jourdain.htm,

Internet pagination unclear) He says that by mimicking movement rather than naming it,

music bypasses the verbal stage, creating directness and emotional impact. (Ibid.)

Perhaps this explains the findings of one study in the field of dance therapy. This

study by Ihanus and Rahkov (1985) states that Dalcroze and others were essential to the

development of dance and movement therapy. While empirical studies of dance

therapy’s effects are limited, it appears that dance therapy increases perception of the

physical environment, enhances nonverbal sensitivity to messages, and gives better

understanding of one’s own body. Group dance therapy has been used to treat a wide

range of disorders.

Recent research in neurology (Landau, 1998) is challenging old notions of neuron

growth and development. New emphasis is being given to old notions of environmental

influence on shaping the brain. Scientists are changing their long-held notion that we are

born with all the neurons we will have. New neurons have been found in monkeys and

autopsied cancer patients. Experiments on mice showed that those housed in cages with

more movement toys developed twice as many new neurons as mice in cages without

movement toys. One researcher believes the new neurons are the product of the splitting

of primordial cells, called neural progenitors, not the splitting of mature neurons. He

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theorizes that such research might someday be applied to cultivate neurons to help

patients with such neurodegenerative diseases as Alzheimer’s. This research brings back

to the table the classic doctrine that organisms are created both by genes and

environment.

Schlaug (Landau, 1998) recently discovered that musicians studied displayed a

five percent larger volume of their cerebellum than nonmusicians. He states that

musicians aren’t just born with these brain differences. Repeated and early musical

practice leads to micro and macrostructural changes in the brain—which eventually

become large enough to detect. Music’s power may be great enough to activate damaged

or impaired parts of the brain. Parsons and others (Landau, 1998) have used music to

lead stroke victims to speech recovery by activating specific cognitive and emotional

areas of the brain. Interestingly, another recent development is research being done by

Andersen (Landau, 1998) on monkeys (implanted with electrodes in their brains) to train

them to move objects on a computer screen just by thinking. Ultimately the hope of such

research is to use brain and movement discoveries to design prosthetic limbs which can

respond to brain codes.

Penhune, Zatorre, and Evans (1998) begin with the premise that rhythms are

temporal patterns. Perceiving and producing them is important for both speech and

music. Positron emission tomography (PET) is used in this study to determine the

location of temporal processing, examining the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and sensory

association areas. Results support the contribution by cerebellar cortex, basal ganglia,

and sensory association areas. Thus all three areas participate. This indicates that a

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number of neural structures participated in the reproduction of rhythms. Rather than the

analogy of a clock, however, the cerebellum is simply presented as a circuitry structure

allowing the sensory system to extract temporal information and allowing the motor

system to decide ways to produce precise rhythm.

Cromie (2002) mentions that researchers such as Tramo at Harvard are exploring

melody, harmony, rhythm, and the affective response to them at the individual brain cell

level. A music professor at Harvard, Shelemay, also mentions the importance of

exploring both the cultural aspects of music and brain function. (Ibid.) Tramo also

believes that music biology can help understand learning, deafness, and personal

improvement. Evidence even shows it can help lower blood pressure and ease pain.

Cromie mentions, however, that there isn’t a music center in the brain. Music perception

comes from interplay of both sides of the brain. And those areas also process other

aspects of sound. The part that controls speech also controls perfect pitch.

Structurally, the brain has several areas that function together in music perception.

The auditory cortex, just above the ears on both sides of the head, processes music and

other sounds which enter the ears. The right cortex is used to perceive pitch and parts of

melody, harmony, timbre, and rhythm. The left cortex processes fast changes of

frequency and intensity of sounds, in both music and in word. At this point, this data has

only been shown in studies with right handed people. Both brain sides, however, are

needed to perceive rhythm fully. The front of the brain holds working memories and it,

too, is used for melody and rhythm perception. (Cromie, 2002) Cromie says

neurologists don’t know yet how the auditory cortex connects with parts of the brain that

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control emotion, but that areas of the brain involving movement light up during music

perception—even when no body parts move. Music is inherently both motor and

auditory. Much body movement—both macro and micro—and thinking about movement

occurs during a normal music perception experience.

The notion of affect is broader than emotion, according to Davidson, et al.(2003)

Cognitive neuroscience is at “the forefront of academic and popular interest.” (Ibid., p.

xiv) “The neural circuitry underlying components of affect largely overlaps, and this

overlap provides important clues for how the processes will interact . . .” (Ibid., p. xv)

The old limbic paradigm of a single part of the brain being dedicated to emotion is giving

way in the literature to a paradigm of various kinds of emotional functioning being

distributed through various brain circuits. No longer does neurology use the concept that

emotions are limbic and cognitions are cortical. The dichotomy of thought and feeling is

anachronistic. Rather, the substrates of the two have considerable overlap in circuitry.

This should lead to a paradigm of greater accuracy and nuance. (Ibid., p. 4)

This has relevance for speech and verbal, nonverbal, and vocal expression of

emotion. “In summary, there is little consensus as to the extent and functional

significance of the localization of decoding affective and nonaffective prosody in

speech.” (Scherer, Johnstone, and Klasmeyer, 2003, p. 450) (Prosody is the study of

versification, metrics, song, and rhyme.) “The analysis of vocal emotion expression is

used increasingly in applied settings, including health psychology, consumer psychology,

speech technology, media psychology, and many other areas in which speech plays a

major role ion daily life.” (Ibid.) “In closing, we want to reiterate the need for a more

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comprehensive model as a grounding for research on the process of the vocal

communication of emotion.” (Ibid., p. 451)

This field’s literature also explores linguistics, language, and emotion. “Prosody

includes stress [see Dalcroze’s rules of nuance], intonation, loudness, pitch, juncture, and

rate of speech.” (Reilly and Seibert, 2003, p. 538) (My assumption here is that

“juncture” refers to what rhetoricians and Dalcrozians call phrasing.) Interestingly, this

concern with language and its relation to music reminds one of an observation made

about child development. “By nature the infant would sing before she speaks—but

because few mothers sing to their babies, this natural response is left dormant and the

child feels awkward or clumsy if he is asked to sing.” (Landis and Carder, 1972, p. 176)

This neurological perspective on the mind-body connectedness of learning as

building neural pathways relates to Dalcroze Eurhythmics because, according to

Rosenblatt (1998), Dalcroze described his work as “a kind of reformatting of the

individual, a neurological rewiring that would increase the accessibility, efficiency, and

convertibility of the body’s potential energy. Eurhythmics, he wrote, was ‘a force

analogous to electricity,’ a means of achieving the reconciliation of the human organism

with ‘the necessities of individual and collective existence.’” (Ibid., p. 47-63, Internet

pagination unclear) "By this I mean wholly instinctive transformation of sound

movements into bodily movements such as my method teaches." (Jaques-Dalcroze,

1913, p. 24) In other words, there is an “old Chinese proverb that states: ‘He who hears,

forgets; he who sees, remembers; but he who does, knows.’” (Landis and Carder, 1972,

p. 177)

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The optimal development of these neural pathways is not a biological given,

Dalcroze says.

There are always children who are not able to sing in time, or even to beat time, to walk in time, or to graduate the strength and rapidity of their movements. Such children are unrhythmic, and it will generally be noticed that these children are stiff and awkward, often also over-excitable. This lack of rhythm is almost like a disease. It is caused by the lack of balance between the mental and physical powers, which results from insufficient co-ordination between the mental picture of a movement and its performance by the body, and these nervous troubles are just as much the cause as the result of such lack of harmony. In some cases the brain gives clear and definite impulses, but the limbs, in themselves healthy, can do nothing because the nervous system is in confusion. In other cases the limbs have lost the power to carry out orders sent by the brain, and the undischarged nerve-impulses disturb the whole nervous system. In other cases again, muscles and nerves are healthy, but insufficient training in rhythm impedes the formation of lasting rhythmic images in the brain. To repeat, the causes of this lack of rhythm all lie in the important but insufficiently recognized psycho-physiological sphere of the co-ordination of brain, nerve-paths and muscles. (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 27-28)

Abramson (1986) shows how these ideas relate to Dalcroze Eurhythmics:

Currently, cognitive psychology (a relatively new branch of the science that studies learning, memory, and the development of successful performance skills) is beginning to test and prove that Jaques-Dalcroze's original guesses, notions, and experiments, begun over eighty [now 100] years ago, are valid and viable. Among his ideas now being proved by scientific experimental evidence are the following:

1. The use of imaginative kinesthesia as proposed and practiced in Eurhythmics. (It is now used in many fields of skill development outside of music.)2. The idea that information, ordination, and classification are best learned, memorized, and retrieved by studying the manner in which they are useful, as proposed and practiced in the Solfege and Solfege-Rhythmique of Jaques-Dalcroze.3. Techniques of heuristic (problem-solving) skills and higher-level thinking characterized by intuitive, inductive, and even illogical thinking. This kind of imaginative thinking is developed by the experimental and creative approaches as proposed and practiced in the Improvisation techniques of Jaques-Dalcroze. (Abramson, 1986, p. 68-69)

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Toward a Model of Brain Circuitry

Halpern (2000) proposes a conceptual framework called “Jacuzzi®” theory to

explain the brain’s neural circuitry. Just as contained water is swirled through such a

whirlpool tub in an endless cycle, so do the neural circuits pulse and swirl, sending

messages back and forth endlessly in a big pool. There appears to be a problem with this

picture of a somewhat amorphous pool of randomly circulating—though somewhat

directed—water when applied to the picture of brain circuitry. It seems to ignore the

regularity of patterning inherent in neural activity. Our circuitry operates within fairly

tiny, linear pathways of tissue. While water is certainly a vehicle for the transport of

these essentially electrical pulses, these appear to be more ephemeral in nature than water

molecules--especially randomly circulating ones lacking inherent certainty, direction, and

purposeful, building movements.

Halpern’s model may seem fairly comprehensive, but what it lacks most is

elegance. My objection to this model, quite frankly, is one of aesthetics. While it may be

true that a whirlpool bathtub—or the rest of my plumbing and sewer system, for that

matter--works like the brain, this is not a picture I want to hold in my brain for long

periods of time. (Although this assertion may fly in the face of the findings {Key,

1973}discussed later herein. Key shows how the media exploits our natural fascination

with scatological functions in order to subliminally induce us to buy products.*)

Certainly I don’t want to hold the picture in my mind long enough to theorize about

possible tie-ins with my own thought. Further, and perhaps more importantly, why

should scholars have to use a name that requires a registered trademark label “®” with it

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in their free-flowing theoretical writings? A better model would be one based on rhythm

or music, given their inherent relationship to neural development and their wide variety

of forms from which to pick. How about “Symphonic” theory, “Improvisational” theory,

or “Jazz” theory? The sound wave pulses of music have a similar ephemeral quality to

them as the neuronal electrically-based pulses, and they carry through the elegance of the

analogy by also suggesting direction, purpose, and the creation of new material, levels of

knowledge and more. For some reason, ‘Symphonic Flow Theory’ has a ring to it as

well.

As great, rhythmic music in a concert hall swells through the room, moving us

with it to altered spheres of movement-based consciousness, it vicariously inspires, lifts,

and forces us to greater heights of mental activity, structure, creation, and organization.

(As it seems to have done for the children in the herein mentioned studies who listened to

Mozart.) It does not merely relax us, clean us, or flush away our bodily refuse—as might

a Jacuzzi®. Of course, this presupposes that the symphonic music one refers to is not the

current trend of emotionless symphony music that Professor Robert M. Abramson refers

to in conversation as “dentist music”—relaxing, non-confrontational sounds that can put

one comfortably to sleep after a stressful day of drilling teeth. **

Interestingly, Mengert (March 23, 2001) mentions his experience of a symphony

as an analogy to one aspect of neural circuitry. This is intuitively more elegant. It

appears to me that, with some effort, a similarly elegant musical metaphor might be

constructed as a model to present the entire current understanding of neurological

functioning. He says, “the brain reacts to experience much as muscles react to exercise.

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Vigorous use promotes substantial gains in maturity and eventual application.” (Ibid.,

September, 2001)

Bi-hemisphericity of Neural Circuitry and Aphasia

As the earlier section of this chapter on neurology showed, the brain and body are

engaged in a constant cycling of electrical impulse neural messages back and forth and

round about between both sides of the brain and throughout the body (including all of its

proprioceptors—the sensor locations in the muscle and skeletal system). This is a bi-

hemispherical interconnection of the two sides of the brain with the rest of the body.

Hemisphericity can accurately be viewed as a “continuous exchange of information

inspired and modified by the environment. . . ” (Ibid., p. 4) In order to process aesthetic

experience, the brain must work in this bi-hemispherical manner.

As a metaphor, neurologists talk of the right brain being more involved with

processing texture, sound, quality, perception, and association. The left, using this same

metaphor, has a strong role in processing organization, linear relationship, decoding,

some kinds of speech and listening, and alliteration. In reality, however, both

hemispheres work together to process all these things. Metaphorically, the right brain

functions are actually the more compelling for humans; yet, in education, the left brain

functions such as lecture and outlining are over-emphasized. Interrogatory-style learning

methods, using questioning rather than rote memorization, actually lead to healthier

cross-hemispherical processing. (Ibid., March 23, 2001)

Boucher, Garcia, Fleurant, and Paradis (2001) show evidence that rhythm, not

tone, is more useful to the memory process in right-handed aphasic patients with left

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hemisphere damage. Their study shows it is easier for such patients to remember phrases

when exercises using rhythm, rather than tone, were used. A study by Grela & Gandour

(1999) explored the rhythm rule to find out where different speech impairments were

located in the brain. Rhythmic disturbances connected to the rule emerged only in

nonfluent aphasic subjects. The study also examined rhythmic disturbances regarding

syllabic stresses which occur in cases of brain damage.

Alcock, Wade, Anslow, and Passingham (2000) conclude that the two sides of the

brain differ in their function in pitch--versus rhythm--production and perception. They

showed that left hemisphere (LH) damaged and motor dysphasic subjects were greatly

impaired on the production and perception of rhythm, though not pitch. Right

hemisphere (RH) damaged subjects were impaired in pitch production and perception—

including both single notes and melodies. It is not clear whether this means that the right

hemisphere damaged patients were not deficient in rhythm. Eiffert (1999) says: “When

both sides of the brain become constructively engaged in the thinking, we refer to the

process as whole-brain thinking. Whole-brain thinking is not a subject most of us have

much experience in practicing.” (p. 59)

Eiffert (1999) also says: “Spatial and kinesthetic activities seem to accentuate

crossover benefits by moving the thinking processes out of the most frequently used areas

of the brain and into areas less utilized. Frequently, this move shifts our thinking into the

physical, intuitive, and/or emotional minds that most people least utilize.” (p. 111)

Rhythmic movement creates more complex brain wiring. (Ibid., p.123) This occurs

because: “Complex movement stimulates complex thinking.” (Ibid.) But it must be

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done freely, rhythmically, and improvisationally for greatest benefit. (Ibid., p. 125)

Fuzzy logic is the ability of brain to associate and connect what seem random information

bits. As opposed to trance states (discussed later herein), it appears that bringing the

mind, body, and feelings together into the same moment in time-space creates meta-

awareness—heightened states of consciousness. (Ibid., p. 137)

Rene Descartes helped shape the Western world view of separating the mind from

the body and spirit (or ‘soul’). Our culture seeks the differences that separate. The

Eastern world view seeks similarities or holons: “From the Greek holos (holistic and

holy), holons are the broad similarities that distinguish the nature of things.” (Eiffert,

1999, p. 151) It is interesting that holiness is a fundamentally Eastern concept, yet it still

has to do with the Greeks. Durant (1965) thinks Plato traveled the known world before

writing his philosophical works; possibly the trip included Egypt, Sicily, Italy, Judea, and

the Ganges. Perhaps Jesus and his group did so as well. A provocative future study

might look at the concept of holiness: its nature and history—secular, religious,

philosophical, physical and neurological.

Phrasing, Stuttering and Speech

German neurologist Ernst Poppel (1985) shows a special application of

neurological research to speech.

In speech we can also observe the organization of units of perception and formulation into periods of circa three seconds duration. When a person speaks, individual consecutive units of utterance also last on the average about three seconds. Each unit of utterance is concluded with a short pause, followed in turn by the next unit. This periodic division in speaking is not, incidentally, occasioned by our need to breathe. For that reason we do not term the pauses that occur at regular intervals breathing pauses, rather more appropriately planning

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pauses, for in these pauses each subsequent unit of utterance is prepared. The pauses belong then properly to each subsequent unit of utterance, not to the preceding one. Of course one observes this periodic structure only in spontaneous speech. When a person reads aloud, the rhythmical pattern is often not discernible, because in reading aloud, the speaker is not obliged mentally to prepare subsequent units of utterance, since he is only repeating what has already been written. [Incidentally, a content analysis of the classic speakers from media history could establish whether this is true of speakers we think of as rhythmic. But the fact remains that issues such as these are issues of rhythm. Delivery as a category must of necessity be broken out into the component of rhythm for the indepth study of such phenomena and their applicability to the training of more effective speakers. How else to incorporate them accurately except through an expansion of our use of rhythm development in text and classroom?] In this case no normal speech rhythm can develop, unless the reader attempts mentally to recreate what has been written. (Ibid, p. 71)

He goes on to show that this experience is universal, regardless of language, culture or

age. (Ibid., p. 72-3) "We conjecture therefore that we are dealing here with a universal

phenomenon, valid for all human beings. Probably there exists a genetic time program

that underlies speech in all languages." (Ibid., p. 73)

Poppel (1985, p.74-5) also notes that, as American scientist J. G. Martin

explained, "the speaking and hearing of a language, during a dialogue, for example, are

dynamically related activities." Listener accommodates to speaker and the two can

synchronize. "The three-second rhythm of speech determines the chronological

adjustment of a rhythm of attention of equivalent duration. . . . We can assume that the

comprehension of language is thereby considerably facilitated." (Ibid., p. 75) He argues

that: "The difficulty of listening to a person stuttering lies presumably in not being able to

correlate one's rhythm of attention to the fragmented rhythm of his speech. A sensible

training in rhetoric would include the development of the periodic structure of speaking,

or, indeed, to begin with, simply making the student conscious of it." (Ibid.) The same is

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true for written poetry. The universality of three second line or phrase lengths is

observed in several studies cited. (Ibid., p. 77)

He adds:

The importance of an integration time of up to circa three seconds also appears when one listens to a vocal artist's delivery of poetry. An examination of recited Goethe poems showed that when fewer syllables appear in a line, the speaker speaks a little more slowly than in lines with more syllables, or that the pauses are extended. There seems, then, to be a natural tendency to exploit the duration of the window of the present of circa three seconds optimally, albeit this natural tendency lies, of necessity, outside any conscious control. (Ibid., p. 81)

Why are these findings about phrase length important? The question of delivery

in any oral art form must take into consideration that the length of phrasing is bounded by

physiological limits. Part of educating the orator is to help her embody time—whether it

is phrase length or phrase rhythmic quality. Gaitella’s (1999) study examines the

distinction in speed between metric rhythm and rhythmic rhythm. I think a better

distinction would be to call them two kinds of movement patterns—metric versus

rhythmic. The study argues that reading is metrical; spontaneous speech is rhythmic.

The difference is between quantifying the temporal continuum and describing the

temporal continuum in terms of perception mechanisms instead. She calls this the

metric/rhythmic opposition in speech production and perception. Which rhythm theory

one uses depends on which dynamic descriptor (metrical or rhythmical) is chosen.

Ockel (2000) argues that the rhythms of written metrical forms (lyrics) are dull

and monotone if meter and content don’t enhance each other. Nuances created by the

intentional manipulation (by the poet) of conflicting rhythmic and metric patterns have a

visual and auditory effect impacting the reader’s comprehension and reaction.

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An empirical study by Salmelin, Schnitzler, Schmitz, and Freund (2000) found

that stutterers initiated motor programs before articulation codes; fluent speakers did the

reverse. They hypothesize a dysfunctional network connecting the two brain

hemispheres in developmental stutterers. These findings are provocative because they

may give relevance to a hypothesis that bi-hemispheric neuronal development exercises

such as those in Dalcroze Eurhythmics may be relevant for stutterers as well. Perhaps

further study could explore whether the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics has any

applications in the remediation of stuttering. Studies cited herein indicate this is true of

dyslexia as well. Remediation would, in all likelihood, hinge on the question of whether

the stuttering is congenital or developmental. It seems reasonable to expect that

developmental stuttering not caused by irreversible neural damage, might be responsive

to the rhythmical music and movement bi-hemispheric neural development tasks used in

Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

One study (Khedr, El-Nasser, Haleem, Bakr, and Trakhan, 2000) of stutterers

used electroencephalography (EEG) to find that EEG rhythms are slower in stutterers

with a brain interhemispheric asymmetry. Fifty-four percent of the stutterers studied had

a pathological EEG rhythm. Sixteen point two percent had epileptic-style activity in the

brain. They propose that stuttering has its basis in an organic cause. As they put it, their

findings indicate that, in stuttering, there may be a role played by an organic

etiopathogenesis. Another way to test for this as a propensity, accident, or reversible

pathology might be testing stutterers for improvement via rhythmic musical exercise such

as Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

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A study by Lauriello, Saltarelli, and Pintus (2000) has as its premise the

understanding that early treatment of stuttering is imperative to prevent future stuttering

dysfluency. The authors develop a three-step protocol for treatment, given the lack of

methods currently available for children ages 3-6. The first step reduces the child’s

tension storage by deconditioning motor expression, slowing rhythms of breath,

movement, and speech, and it improves coordination. The second step counsels parents

on ways to monitor themselves to lessen negative feedback and increase positive

feedback for verbal expressiveness. The third step involves teaching the school teachers

to properly communicate with such children.

Using rhythm to ameliorate stuttering is not new, according to a study by

Packman, Onslow, and Menzies (2000). Rhythm has been explored for centuries as

treatment for stuttering, according to this study. It takes the perspective that reducing the

variability of syllabic stress is the reason that rhythmic speech and legato speech

therapies have been effective.

Bi-hemispheric stimulation has also been used to treat dyslexia, according to

Johansen (1998). Dyslexics struggle with word and syllable recognition, phoneme

coding, and auditory perception of stimuli with rapid change in frequency or rhythm. In

this study, dyslexia was treated with stereophonic sound using custom-made audiotapes

that were listened to by subjects. Subjects showed improvement in language function

after such sounds-based therapy.

Alcock, Passingham, Watkins, and Vargha-Khadem (2000) explored genetic and

rhythmic deficiency. The researchers concluded that the family they studied which had

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an inherited developmental speech-and-language disorder was deficient in both

perception and production of rhythm—both manual and vocal. This timing impairment

was likely the root of their linguistic and oral praxic deficits, not vice versa.

Kent, Kent, Weismer, and Duffy (2000) examined how the brain regulates speech.

Their study of dysarthrias (neural-based speech disorders) gives evidence for a modular

organization of speech motor regulation. The authors propose five areas of consideration

to organize the study of speech motor control. They propose: 1. rhythm as a temporal

substrate which helps organize speech movements; 2. sensory functions; 3. kinematics; 4.

the neural base of coordination; 5. a strategy of compensating, adapting, and

reorganizing speech motor control.

In order, then, for public speaking pedagogy to follow the trends in current

research related to speech, movement, and neuroscience, it seems reasonable to expand

our use of the rhythm construct and reexamine its efficacy in light of these discoveries in

epistemology, psychology, and neurology. This study will presently show this attempt

might be enhanced by further exploring Dalcroze Eurhythmics as a tool for teaching

rhetorical rhythm.

Developing the study and vocabulary of rhythm is also important in other ways.

Considerable confusion exists for the average college student when the word is used.

This is perhaps true of many scholars as well. Does it refer to music, movement, life, or

all of the above? Rhythm is discussed in many ways and seems to be a basic foundation

of neuropsychology. How can we break these ideas down into smaller bites? How can

scholars and students discuss them in coherent, distinct ways? Tying the public speaking

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classroom more closely into the literature of neurology as it explores rhythm

development appears imperative.

At the very least, rhythm is movement: specifically, the qualities of movement.

Emotion, sensation, and perception are also movement-based, according to neuroscience

and to Dalcroze. It seems reasonable to expect that speakers will want to learn to explore

the emotional states of themselves and their audiences. One comprehensive method of

studying movement is that of rhythm--specifically as organized and presented by

Dalcroze Eurhythmics. This appears relevant for the affective side of speech, including

persuasion, interpretive forensics, and other forms of public speaking.

This connection between rhythm and language has been explored in empirical

studies as well as praxis. Through research on rhythm in human infants and monkeys,

Werker & Vouloumanos (2000) show that rhythm is primary in distinguishing families of

languages and provides clues for creating words, phrases, and clauses. They show that

primates and humans both can distinguish languages by their rhythmic structure. They

surmise the difference between the two species might be in humans’ ability to coordinate

auditory discriminations in the service of language acquisition.

Driver (1936, p. 3) mentions: "If we begin to study the natural rhythms of the

body, we find that each is based on a movement of contraction, followed and balanced by

a movement of relaxation . . . . Instances of these are the digestive processes, the systole

and diastole of the heart's action, and the inhalation and exhalation that together make

breathing."

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Apart from these applications unique to the formation of language, phrasing, and

meaning, rhythmic movement has some general characteristics that might be of interest to

researchers in speech performance. Poppel (1985) hypothesizes "that physical activity,

so long as it is not exhausting, effects stimulation of intellectual activity." (p. 175) He

concludes that: "Above all, rhythmical, repetitive movements are advantageous to the

formation of ideas. Talking and writing, after all, are rhythmical motion flows, too, albeit

of lower intensity." (Ibid.) He continues

The gradual formation of ideas in talking, walking, or writing holds, of course, also for the author. It occurs to him that this situation was employed as an instructional method by the Greek philosophers, the so-called peripatetics (from the Greek peripatein, to walk about), above all, by Aristotle, his students, and followers. The Socratic method of instruction through question and answer is likewise characterized by the emergence of new insights through conversation--Socrates’ famous ‘art of midwifery,’ or maieutic. (Ibid., p. 176)

The converse is also true, according to Poppel. Extreme inactivity atrophies the thinking

process, leading to depression, social incompetence, fear, and loss of self-confidence.

"And what does the patient himself say about it? Nothing occurs to him; there is

something that is constantly slipping his mind. His thoughts move only in circles he is

helpless to find a way out of." (Ibid., p. 176) (Coincidentally, as this study will later

show, Dalcroze Eurhythmics gets students up out of their chairs and engages their minds

and bodies in an integrative movement toward thinking or building intelligence.)

Caldwell (2000) says: “On a neurological level, music and movement strengthen

each student’s ability to perceive, process and progress in all areas of their development.”

(p. 1) He continues:

Neurologists are discovering that our work as teachers of music is essential to our students’ intellectual, physical, social, and emotional education,

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and that when music is linked with movement, the brain literally restructures itself. The oldest of the modern music methods, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, is once again coming to the forefront as the simplest, most direct, and most profound tool for a complete education. Complete because Emile Jaques-Dalcroze maintained that a musical education (and any other kind of education) was incomplete that did not educate all the ‘sensibilities’ of the student. All of our knowledge of the world comes through our senses. If the information to be learned is important to us—which means it registers on our emotional radar—we place the emotional ‘stamp’ on it and file it away. Education in any subject that is not perceived by the senses is, by definition, non-sense.

The education Jaques-Dalcroze envisioned was, therefore, holistic and, as research is presently indicating, intuitively based on the way the brain functions. In focusing on the artistic and developmental processes of music education, we address neurological and emotional development, cognitive processes, and humanize and broaden the significance of music to our students, ourselves, our community of parents, and our political and business leaders. (Ibid.)

Chiropody: The Science and Art of the Hands

Hands, Movement, and Gesture

Wilson (1998) says the most needed thing in neurology is a comprehensive

science of hand movements and their uses—including the biomechanical and

neuromuscular aspects of skilled movement. He says we know almost nothing about the

specific movements involved with the hand and its tasks. Wilson goes a step further and

emphasizes the evolutionary importance of the hand to the discussion of brain function,

intelligence, and skill building:

any theory of human intelligence which ignores the interdependence of hand and brain function, the historic origins of that relationship, or the impact of that history on developmental dynamics in modern humans, is grossly misleading and sterile. (p. 7)

Wilson (1998) says, “nuances of meaning not conveyed by speech are

communicated by gesture in every culture and language.” (p. 147) One of the skills

developed in Dalcroze Eurhythmics is chiropody (the art of the hand), according to

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Abramson’s lectures at the Juilliard School Summer Dalcroze Institute. Wilson's point

might be especially significant for understanding the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method. A

more in-depth analysis of neurology, intelligence, evolutionary theory and the hand might

be even more fruitful.

Wilson (1998) argues that the development and usage of the hand has played a

formative role in the evolution and development of the brain. Regarding the importance

of movement to learning language, he says: “none of this neurophysiologic activity can

be related to real language until it gains access to an input-output channel: in-the-body

sensor motor systems for detecting events and generating bodily responses.” (Ibid., p.

188) Neurology supports the important relationship between the mind and body, intellect

and movement. Wilson says that “thought and intellect are the sum total of the

organizing tendency of the child’s entire, rapidly expanding collection of passive and

active interactions with the world via touch, smell, sight, hearing, and kinesthesia.” (p.

195)

So, neurology is making new connections between the hands, rhythm, brain, and

learning. As this study will presently show, these discoveries are bearing out what the

Greeks believed about rhythm and rhetoric millennia ago. What is the field of public

speaking doing to keep up with these discoveries, recognize the primary value of its own

history, and recreate its educational system to better reflect the development of

expressive, effective oratory? Neurological evidence supports the use of musical

movement-based pedagogies. It appears it is time for the communication field to do so as

well.

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Babbling Canons

A study of infants (Ejiri, 1999) suggests that synchronizing vocal sounds with

rhythmic movement prompts infants to canonical babbling. Babies vocalize in canon

after prompting with synchronized vocal and rhythmic action. (Canon is basically the

precise imitation of a specific sound or structure of sound or movement.) An earlier

study by the same researcher (Ejiri, 1998) might be used as evidence that the canon form

later used in music comes from early childhood development. Canonical babbling occurs

as a landmark event in infant vocal development. It appears to coincide with the peak

period of rhythmic activities. This study bears out this appearance. It also suggests that

at this stage of canonical babbling, infants learn motor control based on auditory

feedback about their activities. It connects rhythmic development with canonical

babbling.

These findings are of particular interest to Dalcroze Eurhythmics because two of

the five exercises used throughout the method are canons. (These exercises will be

discussed more completely later in this study.) Beginning with canonical speech and

progressing to canonical singing, improvisation, and even babbling, such exercises are a

familiar and deeply embedded part of the method. The equally strong presence of

canonical behavior in the human psyche from a very early age indicates just how

carefully the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method is based in the most advanced psychological

and neurological fundamentals.

Speech, gesture, and childhood development: An analysis of literature.

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The purpose of this section is to analyze the major studies of speech, gesture, and

child development. Specifically, it will explore findings concerning speech and gesture

in comprehension, memory, and recall. Eight studies approach this area by addressing

very specific, specialized questions about children and adults, gestural and non gestural

information, information perception and processing, and the recall or presentation of

absorbed and remembered information or images. These images are received by subjects

(depending on the study) from verbal cues or nonverbal cues such as pointing,

representational gesture, demonstrating, spatial indication, and redundant gestures.

Gestures are central to human communication (Roth, 2001), yet very few

empirical studies on the topic of gesture and childhood speech development exist in the

communication literature. What communication literature does exist is limited to the area

of speech and hearing research. (Goodell & Studdert-Kennedy, 1993) Most empirical

research of this topic is found in journals in the fields of psychology (Alibali & Goldin-

Meadow, 1993; Thompson & Massaro, 1994), cognitive development (Church, 1999),

child language and development. (Capirci, Iverson, Pizzuto & Volterra, 1996; Kelly,

2001; Kelly & Church, 1998; Morford & Goldin-Meadow, 1992; Schmidt, 1996) Each

of these fields has introduced its own lexicon of terminology, studies, procedures, tests,

indicators, and methods. While none of the studies herein reviewed specifically credits a

particular theory for its approach, presumably the methodological and theoretical

approaches of each field influence the subject matter and approach used in its published

literature.

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Within the research area of speech and gesture in childhood development, several

recurring concerns arise. Researchers try to determine exactly how gesture and speech

are interrelated in childhood development. They conduct experiments which explore how

gesture and speech impact each other and affect comprehension (Morford & Goldin-

Meadow, 1992; Kelly, 2001; Thompson & Massaro, 1994), memory and recall (Kelly &

Church, 1998), vocabulary-building (Schmidt, 1996), and learning performance (Alibali

& Goldin-Meadow, 1993; Church, 1999; Capirci, et al., 1996) in children and adults.

These experiments primarily involve children, but occasionally involve adults as the

researchers attempt to better understand childhood learning by contrasting it with adult

learning.

A chronological examination of the literature illustrates how the field of gesture

and speech in childhood development has evolved. Two of the earliest studies showed

that producing and understanding speech and gesture go hand in hand; however, there is

also a significant occasion when children are unable to correctly integrate these. Morford

and Goldin-Meadow (1992) looked at how children all simultaneously use gesture with

speech and are able to understand gesture—used either with speech or without. Children

understood gestures that were either redundant with or substituted for speech. The

researchers concluded that production and comprehension of speech and gesture are an

integrated system and not distinct modalities that can be completely separated from each

other. Alibali and Goldin-Meadow (1993) discussed the "discordant state” children

exhibit when they are most receptive to instruction. In this state, children use explanatory

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speech and gesture which are simultaneous, yet seemingly unrelated to each other. This

phenomenon the researchers call "mismatch." (Ibid., Internet pagination unclear)

Two later researchers studied how gesture is used by and exhibited to children

differently at various ages. Thompson and Massaro (1994) explores how viewing

gestures is more important for older children's comprehension than younger children's.

Also, Thompson and Massaro note that speech determined comprehension more than

gesture did. Schmidt's (1996) study investigates how speech and simultaneous gesture

are connected. The study explored children and mothers to see at what ages mothers used

gesture with speech most or least frequently. Schmidt found that the more mothers used

gesture, the greater was the children's comprehension and use of words. Interestingly, for

children aged 10 months, mothers used gesture most frequently to name objects. For

later ages, mothers used gesture more often to name actions.

Capirci, et al.(1996) looked at the gesture and speech of Italian children who were

moving from one- into two-word speech. Focusing on the spontaneous performance of

children, the study found two things. First, Italian children commonly use gesture and

gesture-word combinations in the gesture-rich culture of Italy. They also found that

during the four month period from 16 months to 20 months of age, children increased

their use of gesture-word and two-word combinations. The study found that the use of

these combinations could predict total vocal production. They observed that gesture

appears to be a device children use to transition into two-word speech.

Kelly and Church (1998) determine the similarity or difference between ability of

children and that of adults regarding recall of speech and gesture-relayed information.

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They found that when gestures were "representational", both children and adults recalled

information thus presented. However, mismatching gesture with speech (using an

incorrect or incongruous gesture with speech) led to a negative precision of speech recall

for adults. Conversely, this did not hold for children. Children’s recall was unaffected

by mismatching cues.

Church (1999) then examined children to find measures which would predict

learning. The study showed that gesture-speech mismatches were the best of several

possible predictors of increased learning. The other predictors were across-task measure

and within-task measure. This study used Piaget's conservation tasks to measure the

variability in spoken explanations.

Kelly (2001) explored pointing behaviors and indirect requests by mothers of

children. The study mentions how the early development discipline has acknowledged

the important role of gestures and pointing in early learning. The researchers found that

children understand mothers' indirect request on video better if they are accompanied by

gesture. They then generalized this first of three experiments to face-to-face,

participatory interaction as well (in the two additional experiments). They concluded that

researchers should study more than just verbal meaning to determine how children

understand pragmatic processes.

These studies can be grouped according to the type of questions they address,

thematic considerations, the subjects’ ages, and cross-cultural issues. Several studies in

this discussion (Alibali & Goldin-Meadow, 1993; Church, 1999; Kelly & Church, 1998;

Morford & Goldin-Meadow, 1992) address the questions of how gesture and speech

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function as processes inside the child’s body or mind. Another group of studies

questioned how others use gesture with children and how children perceive or reuse

gesture exhibited by others. (Kelly, 2001; Kelly & Church; Morford & Goldin-Meadow;

Schmidt, 1996; Thompson & Massaro, 1994) A third group asked how gesture and

speech use can indicate a child’s learning level or readiness to receive instruction.

(Alibali & Goldin-Meadow; Capirci, et al., 1996; Church; Kelly; Kelly & Church;

Schmidt) One study looked at children’s development in a gesture-rich culture. (Capirci,

et al.) Children in Italy were described in the study.

Thematic considerations also group the studies. A large group of the studies

centered on the concept of “mismatching” gestures and speech. (Alibali & Goldin-

Meadow, 1993; Church, 1999; Kelly & Church, 1998) They explored the nature of

mismatching, its occurrence and its significance. Regarding its significance, they looked

at it relative to recall, prediction of increased learning, and comprehension.

Another theme separating the studies is subjects’ age. Most of the studies

compared different age groups’ usage of gesture and speech. Some compared children of

various ages with each other (Capirci, et al., 1996; Church, 1999; Kelly, 2001; Morford

& Goldin-Meadow, 1992; Schmidt, 1996; Thompson & Massaro, 1994) and others

compared children with adults. (Kelly; Kelly & Church, 1998; Schmidt) One study used

children of one age range only. (Alibali and Goldin-Meadow, 1993)

A final theme that came out of the studies is cross-cultural differences.

Specifically, children in a gesture-rich culture (Italy) were analyzed for gesture usage

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characteristics, frequency, and predictive nature of gesture for learning. (Capirci, et al.,

1996)

Overall, these studies find that children use and understand speech and gesture

differently at each stage of development. Also, children make use of transitional states in

coordinating their speech and gesture. These transitional states predict development and

educational readiness. Adults and children are similar in some ways and different in

other ways. These similarities and differences are most striking in subjects’ use,

understanding, and retention of speech and gestures.

This research has several strengths. The strengths of the area are seen in its

ability to micro-examine significant human behaviors and internal processes. Also, it

draws upon a wide variety of disciplines, asking questions whose answers could impact a

variety of disciplines. Finally, the methods used are varied and empirical, so they seem

to have great reliability and validity.

Several weaknesses limit this research, however. Since these studies approach

questions from disparate perspectives, it can be difficult to limit the approaches to one

common, linear development or concern. Thus, it is difficult to decide which issues are

of priority in the area. However, an argument should probably be made for the primacy

of gesture and speech in early childhood development. If the foregoing studies are seen

to cohere around the themes discussed earlier in this study, a case could be made for a

coherence that may not have hitherto been identified. What are those themes? They are

rhythmic gesture as a rhythmic communicator of affective information.

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While some of the internal mechanisms of speech and gesture are explored, many

are left untouched. One might be interested to more deeply examine the connection of

abstract movement and emotional affect with gesture and speech as well. Further study

could easily include a multitude of new questions about gesture and its significance in the

communication process and in childhood-to-adulthood development.

An additional weakness may be the lack of theoretical approaches which capture

the relevance of the area for the larger field of communication studies. The current

literature mentioned no specific communication theories as models for the experiments or

discussion. In fact, the only theoretical approaches mentioned at all were from the field

of child psychology. Specifically, Piaget's ideas were mentioned as guiding the selection

of instruments used in certain experiments (Church, 1999), and as the basis for some

relevant literature in Alibali and Goldin-Meadow (1993). There appears to be no

literature which discusses the theoretical significance of human gesture in

communication. A future study could address this lack by analyzing the studies using a

common theoretical approach, such as a rhythm-based model.

Regardless of the current lack of theory used in these studies, it appears

reasonable to introduce communication theories into the discussion. The issue of gesture

and speech in child development could be approached using theories from three major

areas of communication theory. These include signs and language theory--including

semantics and nonverbal behavior, cognitive theories of message production, and

message reception and processing--including interpretation and information organization

integration. (For a complete discussion of these theories, see Littlejohn, 2002.)

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Each of these studies or groups of studies could be discussed within one or more

of these theoretical frameworks. Signs and language theory could be used to provide a

general approach to external gestures and speech, setting an agenda for studies to be

proposed. Cognitive theories could examine the internal process occurring during

production and comprehension of gesture and speech. Message reception and processing

could microcosmically investigate the receipt and processing of messages by children.

Specific messages from speech and gestures could be explored to find how the child

processes the speech and gestures she has used and /or comprehended. This would be a

possible direction for future qualitative study.

In a future study, qualitative research also could explore the literature's issues of

epistemology, ontology, and axiology. Once these metatheoretical issues have been

examined, researchers could evaluate the approaches researchers used based on their

theoretical scope, appropriateness, heuristic value, validity, parsimony, and openness.

(For a fuller explanation of these issues, see Littlejohn, 2002.)

The literature indicates three other possibilities that could prove interesting to

explore. First, it appears that there are correlations between the ability to gesture, speech,

and intellectual development (memory, recall, comprehension, etc.). Future research

might focus on the educational benefits or drawbacks of gesture training. It might prove

enlightening to explore whether teaching new or additional gestures to children is

associated with enhanced intellectual development. Second, it might be instructive to

explore whether there are other ways gesture can indicate stages of development,

educational readiness, emotional availability or speech expressiveness. In particular, are

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there certain gestures that are used only at particular stages of speech? Is this a

culturally-determined factor or age-determined? Third, studies could examine whether

learned gesturing detracts from speech development in any way. Certainly, speakers

exist whose gesturing is distracting to their audience. Might this in some way be true of

child speech development? Perhaps a focus on gestures could preclude an emphasis on

speech and thus delay it; or we may find that stimulating gesture production without

stimulating speech actually leads to acquired speech regardless of intention. More

research on the production of gestures is the only way to fully answer these provocative

questions.

To advance future research in this area, researchers should conduct more studies

which explore whether stimulating children to produce gesture might lead to accelerated

intellectual growth, development, learning, or speech skills. Longitudinal studies need to

be undertaken to find out if stimulating gesture production is possible, beneficial,

recommended, or, conversely, dangerous. Might there be any developmental,

physiological, or psychological benefits or detriments of stimulating gesture production?

It might be valuable to study more about the power of gesture both as an external

communication tool and a stimulus of internal learning processes.

Finally, it might be informative to study subjects in a wider variety of age groups.

The studies showed significant differences in gesture use and comprehension across age

ranges. These studies focus on a narrow age range of children, so it is difficult, using

these studies, to build a comprehensive picture of speech and gesture development

throughout all ages of childhood. It might also be provocative to examine issues of

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speech and gesture for adults. Perhaps researchers could explore how gestures and

speech coordinate in and reflect stages of adult development as well.

Related Child Development Studies of Rhythm

A study by Goffman (1999) examines the idea that rhythmic motor factors

influence a child’s grasp of language skills. The findings support the notion that

language development in both normally developing children and those with language

impairments is influenced by motor-rhythmic biases. McCathren (2000) showed in one

study with a developmentally delayed child that prelinguistic intervention has been

effective at increasing intentional communication, eye contact, vocalizations with

consonants, conventional gestures, increased symbolic communication, and symbolic

play skills.

A longitudinal study on child development by Gruhn (2001) shows how this

probably works. An environment rich in stimuli helps neuronal connections grow and

develop a network that allows the brain to connect its various areas which specialize in

each aspect processed. Thus, an interconnected representation of incoming information

is formed. Gruhn mentions the large amount of literature on development of music

perception and cognition, motherese, music and language development, infant learning

stages, and cross modal perception. He mentions that Condon (1975, 1977) discovered

infants learn the syntax of their mother tongue through movements they synchronize to

their mother’s voice.

Also, Gruhn (2001) states, literature shows that an exposure to multiple forms of

stimuli—acoustical, visual, haptic, etc. provides the brain enough sense input to develop

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dendrites and axons, which connect the separate neurons and build a cell assembly.

Learning causes changes in cortical activation patterns. Thus, it is a neurological process

of brain development and connecting mental representations. (Ibid.) In fact, a study

found that professional musicians’ auditory cortexes contains 130% more gray matter

than nonmusicians. In musicians who trained early, the corpus callosum connective

tissue is 15% larger. Certain cotex areas are 5% larger in expert musicians than in non

musicians or those with little training. (Hotz, 2002) In his studies of children, Gruhn

used songs, tunes, and patterns to get children to explore space and time. Children

experience these through weight and flow of movement, he says, according to Laban

(1926). Gruhn mentions that early childhood is a time of great neuronal growth and

potential—trillions more synapses are produced in infants, brains than in adults. But he

cautions that research also mentions that one shouldn’t take this as evidence to support

theories that overestimate this critical time period in brain development. In some ways,

this critical learning window can last forever. Early childhood learning is, though,

different from adult learning. His longitudinal study ‘strongly’ supports what Dalcroze,

et al., observed during their teaching experiences. (Gruhn, p.15)

Gruhn (2001) says that cortical areas for movement and voice production do not

overlap, so it’s difficult to find an explanation that is neurologically plausible. However,

evidence exists for the presence of a neurophysiological link connecting the body’s gross

and fine motor movement control and the muscles which are involved in vocal

production. This relates directly to the known operation of a phonological loop in neuro-

linguistics. As children increase control over fine motor actions, their performance of

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pitch and rhythm becomes more accurate, but they must realize that what they hear is

different from what they do and they must correct for that. This is not accurately thought

of as co-active auditory and motor tasks, but rather as an interaction of separate functions

that occurs within the neuron transmitting track that conducts motor control messaging.

Gruhn (2001) stresses that music learning isn’t introduced at a young age to

develop intellect or cognition, but rather to support “human potential and an obvious need

for rhythmic structures and expressive sound.” He concludes that the best way to

develop this potential is by means of informal guidance connecting the experience of

listening and exploring sound with body movement’s use of flow and weight.

Driver (1936) makes a similar point. She says that children of the Dalcroze

Eurhythmics work develop poise, balance, self-control, evenness of temper, and

concentration. She says “These children experience a kind of release; their personalities

throw off their inhibitions and fears; their aptitudes are liberated.” (Ibid., p. v.) Driver

says it isn’t easy to describe the work in words. Photographs are also inadequate, since

they capture only arrested movement, not the flow. The present researcher has noticed

that video and electronic sources aren’t much better unless one conducts along to the

sounds. Driver says the only way to believe it is to see it and that no educator should

overlook such a valuable method for mind and body training. Driver also says

It is still too often taken for granted that body should be trained apart from mind, and mind apart from body. In practice, indeed, one is frequently over-trained while the other is neglected, resulting in the production of intellectuals whose sedentary habits are harmful to the body, and athletes who may be fine animals with minds remaining infantile through lack of development. (Ibid., p. 5)

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While we may not see this as often at the university level, don’t we all have childhood

memories of the ‘mindless jock’ and the ‘uncoordinated nerd’? Incidentally, in order to

correct the problem, a teacher must first identify and embody the rhythm of the child; not

try to get children to first conform to adult’s slower rhythms, according to Driver.

Caldwell (2000) says “our responses to music are physical sensations that are ever

evolving in our bodies, and they begin as we are within the wombs of our mothers as they

respond to music.” (p. 2)

Jaffe, Beebe, Feldstein, Crown, and Jasnow (2001) studied the infant-mother and

infant-stranger rhythmic coupling and bi-directional coordination. They showed that

these predict attachment and cognition, but that for attachment with mothers the outcome

was optimal with a mid-range amount of coordination, while for strangers, a high rate of

coordination was optimal for cognition. I might question whether perhaps this was a

function of thechild having a stronger bond with mother already and whether it required

more rhythm to develop cognition with stranger precisely because the relationship lacked

that attachment. Thus, the rhythm might be a way of forcing attachment or an openness

—perhaps even a form of bonding and trust—that allows the child a greater focus on

cognition. Is this how hypnosis works? The abstract of one study is particularly

provocative. Vandenberg (1999) showed that infants are sophisticated communicators

who use nonverbals and vocals to communicate time, space, and agency—causing

cooperation and action. Infants see people not as manipulatable objects, but as

communicators. As Gardner (1993) said in a related context: “The special genius of

early life consists of brilliant intuitions shrewdly and quickly followed up.” (p. 128)

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Memory

Exploring space is a key element of Dalcroze exercises. It is theorized that the

use of space is part of developing the fullest use of the mind-body connection. Therefore,

studies which explore children’s and adult’s understanding and involvement with space

are of interest to Dalcrozians as well.

Hermer-Vazquez, Spelke, and Katsnelson (1999) examined what factors can limit

adults’ comparatively flexible use of space. Having to mirror verbal speech limits their

flexibility significantly, while mirroring nonverbal rhythmic patterns does not. (Here,

mirroring means precisely imitating certain actions simultaneously with other unrelated,

yet directed actions.) Children and adult rats use only information about the shape

(“geometric information”) of their environment to adapt to it. In general, human adults

orient themselves to space more flexibly than children (and adult rats) except when

mirroring speech. Human adults are, specifically, more flexible because they can use

non-geometrical information about their environment as well as geometric (which

children and rats use). When asked to reorient to space while adding the activity of

mirroring nonverbal rhythms, adults still reacted more flexibly than children or rats.

They were able to re-orientate themselves to space without significantly more difficulty

than when they had no task. However, when they were asked to mirror continuous

human speech while also exploring the space, they experienced a significant difficulty.

(The study used nonverbal mirroring versus verbal mirroring along with exploration of

space.)

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The results suggest that human adults have more difficulty negotiating space

when mirroring speech at the same time, but not when just mirroring nonverbal

movements. The authors suggest that this indicates that the issue is not about the limits

of human working memory or attention. Instead, the experiments reflect human language

characteristics. The results suggest that flexible human spatial memory is limited by

humans’ limited ability to unify diverse sources of data into one mental frame. This

tendency depends on natural language. One application such a study might have on

education is to verify that space and verbal language are interrelated concepts. It would

be informative to use such methods to see if children or adults improved their ability to

combine use of space and simultaneous verbal mirroring after engaging in Dalcroze

exercises. This study appears to indicate one way that bypassing the speech faculty—as

done in Dalcroze Eurhythmics, coincidentally—may work to create more efficient

movement development.

Education: “Talking Does Not Teach”, Synchronicity and Flow States

Carl Jung (Whitmont, 1969) writes of the primacy of synchronicity in the fully

realized human life. One recent morning, I printed off an email from Professor

Abramson recommending that I read The Hand by Frank R. Wilson (1998). Finding the

book at the University of Nebraska at Omaha Library, I began reading it over lunch at a

local Chinese restaurant. The book’s approach immediately clued me to the primacy of

the human hand and movement—not speech—in the human organism. The book

explores, from the first-hand experiences of a prominent neurologist, how the use of the

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hand shapes the brain. While I was realizing this, I simultaneously opened my fortune

cookie and read these words: “Talking does not teach.”

Without hesitation, I saw in my mind the heading for this section—or digression

—of this study. For Dalcrozians, there are few coincidences. Moments in the life of a

Dalcroze student begin to appear as if coordinated by a Movement or Intelligence beyond

one’s own conscious thought. Coincidences serve to reinforce the appropriateness of

one’s chosen direction in life. One appears at times to move in an intellectual state of

flow characterized by intuitive flashes of insight--regardless of the fact that I got in a

minor car accident ten minutes later.

Somatic Education: Movement to rhythmic, musical accompaniment

Another way that such movement and body based learning has been

conceptualized is as somatic learning. Somatic comes from the Greek word for body. It

involves connectedness and empathy—all of which are bodily forms of knowledge. It is

often identified as a female learning mode, as distinct from the male “separate” learning.

(Cheever, 2000) Its epistemological basis is as a form of procedural knowledge. It

involves empathy, the ability to feel the experience of others. It is based on a personal

decision to base knowledge on one’s own experience of others, rather than the voice of

authority. Cheever holds that there are both kinds of learners in both genders. The

Feldenkrais therapy—a movement-based therapy developed subsequently to Dalcroze

Eurhythmics--uses it as part of movement-based awareness education. It builds rapport,

yet means for describing it are insufficiently nuanced and detailed. “When touching I

seek nothing from the person I touch; I only feel what the touched person needs, whether

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he knows it or not, and what I can do at that moment to make the person feel better.”

(Feldenkrais, 1981, p. 3, as cited in Cheever) Feldenkrais conceptualizes his method as

connected knowing versus separate knowing. Another term used for it is somatic

empathy.

Cheever (2000) cites Feldenkrais as saying that emotions are based on voluntary

muscle patterns. These sensory experiences take four steps to fruition: 1. the thalamus

receives the neurological impulse, 2. the impulse travels to: the striated motor system, 3.

the sympathetic nervous system, and, 4. the cortex. In theory, at the motor system it

elicits an involuntary motor reflex and at the cortex it elicits awareness or recognition.

Cheever says it has been proposed that body awareness through movement helps develop

empathy because it generates feelings—which are the stimulation of one’s kinesthesia or

proprioceptive sense. The therapist can then sense the client’s emotions as if they were

her own. Later, she can verbalize them. Cheever lists many other forms of somatic

educational approaches—determined as such by what degree to which they emphasize

the body’s structure and functioning. Cheever’s list includes Alexander Technique,

Aston-Patterning, Body-Mind Centering, Feldenkrais, Hanna Somatic Education,

Rubenfeld Synergy, Rosen Method, Trager Technique, and Rolfing as somatic methods.

To this we might add Dalcroze Eurhythmics and Gestalt therapy. (Dalcroze Society of

America Website, http://www.dalcrozeusa.org/research.html)

In fact, Johnson (1994) attributes to Dalcroze the position as one of the early

pioneers of the somatic movement. Somaticists perceive the body as experienced from

within. They reject the separation of mechanized body from spirit. “The pioneers of

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Somatics introduced to the West an alternative vision of health and the body which

emphasizes an intimate integrity of movement, anatomical structure, intelligence and

spiritual consciousness. These teachers encouraged respect for lived experience and the

wisdom that can be found through ‘attending to’ rather than ‘conquering’ or ‘controlling’

life processes.” (Ibid., p. 26) Somatic approaches are different from non-conventional

methods such as hypnosis because they require a radical and sometimes uncomfortable

shift in the way the body is perceived. The body is seen as the “repository of wisdom and

meaning,” not some source outside the human flesh, movement and experience. (Ibid.)

Cheever (2000) observes that, as we begin the 21st century, our culture exhibits

the signs of disembodiment or disconnection from our bodies. She cites studies which

link this with the feelings of disconnection by our youth—leading to violence, body

piercing, eating disorders, senseless tragedies, and school shootings. She says that Hanna

(1988) mentions that somatic educators are alarmed because postindustrial societies

increasingly suffer from ‘sensor motor amnesia’ which deadens our internal sense of

ourselves in relation to the world. This state of forgetting how certain muscle groups feel

and losing of control over them is learned and can be unlearned. Somatic knowing

returns us to the intimate connection of awareness of our body we experience in the

sensorimotor development stage of the first two years of life.

Cheever (2000) says that Hanna (1988) conducted studies showing “somatics”

works to counteract this disembodiment -- eliminating stress, pain, structural, and

functional problems. Hanna says it can be of significant help in counteracting these

negative influences in modern society. Hanna’s students moved from passivity and

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victimization to an active stance of making choices, taking responsibility, self-care, and

self-empathy. These results agree with Cheever’s observations of her own students in

both academic and nonacademic environments. Somatics helps reduce the mind-body

split and fragmentation which permeates postmodern, disembodied culture because of its

lack of a sense of ‘soma’ or body consciousness. The relationship between somatic

educator and student is greater than the sum of the parts. This appears to me to be

essentially a gestaltic approach, given the definition of gestalt as coming “from the

German word meaning ‘structured entity that is more than . . . its parts.’” (Perls, 1992,

p. 53. Cited in McBride, 1998.) Other aspects of gestalt therapy such as awareness and

the present, experiencing one’s own flow, body work, and phenomenology (McBride) are

also consistent with somatic therapy. This is a way of ameliorating the mind-body split

of the Cartesian dichotomization. (Cheever)

Interestingly, this fragmentation appears to directly correlate with the sense of

alienation that the social critical thinkers discuss in their literature. As this study will

show in a later section, social critical theorists claim that such feelings lead to neurosis,

paranoia and psychosis, among other states. One tragedy of non-somatic education may

be illustrated by the story of this researcher’s Aunt Evelyn Petersen. As a child she was

never able to learn music through formal means. Instead, she sat at the piano, prayed for

God to “give her the gift of music,” and explored various fingerings until she developed

her ‘playing by ear’ skill to the point that she was a renowned, expressive improviser of

religious songs and performed in many religious venues nationwide. Yet she never was

able to read music. Indeed, she decided not to try because somehow she felt that

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traditional methods of piano teaching would rob her of this “God-given talent.” Are non-

somatic teachers perhaps stealing the gifts from somatically-responsive learners?

Young (1992) argues that kinesthesia, the physical sense of musical experience,

must be recognized as equally important to the intellect. It is the vital, missing part of a

holistic response to and engagement with music. She supports an educational approach

which takes its original inspiration from Eurhythmics.

Johnson (1993) describes the purpose of the Dalcroze exercises for singers as not

just physical coordination, but aural and intellectual coordination as well. Choir

members can become so finely attuned to the group that they vibrate empathetically with

each other. The quick response exercises are meant to elicit a state of alertness and

concentration. Dalcroze uses a solfege method of learning Doh-to-Doh scales from C to

C. These end up being the same as modes, but their use enables the musician to develop

an ear for diatonic tonal relationships.

Weidenbach (1997) explains that Goethe held that music should be the center of

education because it connects to all other studies and they are all attainable through using

it. Pestalozzi said that music should be a way to teach children about beauty, that it

strengthens social feeling, and it aids moral development. Montessori also used music as

part of her theory to develop the senses. (Ibid) However, merely making students readers

of music doesn’t necessarily make them understand musicality, according to

Weidenbach. These skills are perhaps tangential to true music learning, she suggests.

Instead, music learning must focus on the expressive aspects, not merely the technical. I

will define musical sounds (or musicality) as those sounds that move us through space,

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time, etc. They mimic the qualities of neuronal elements or perceptions and give us a

vicarious travel experience persuading either our muscles to move or something inside us

to feel moved. If they don’t serve this basic primal need, they are at best merely

technical sounds.

Touch also plays a part in somatic learning. While conducting the content

analysis on rhythm, this researcher noticed that the listed textbooks also included very

few notes about the somatic elements of touch, body movement, affect, kinesthesia, etc.

It appears that from its beginnings as a somatic discipline, rhetoric has digressed to a

point of near complete dissociation with such technique. This is particularly surprising

given no reason in the literature for such a loss. In fact this researcher has only found

two theories for this dearth. First was expressed in the anecdotal observation by his

committee chairman that perhaps rhythmic speech is too hypnotic and the power

hegemony discourages its development.

Another possibility he finds in the literature of Jewish history. Hellenism was a

strong influence on the Jewish culture at the height of Greece’s power. In particular, the

sensualism of the Greek’s interest in the development and appreciation of the human

body was anathema to the Jews of the time. (Tarn, 1961) Their fight against Greek

influence culminated in the heroism of the Macabbean Rebellion, celebrated by

Hanukkah. (Tarn; Dimont, 1962; Grayzel, 1968) Perhaps the early Jewish struggle for

cultural survival or similar attitudes has somehow influenced other parts of Western or

Christian culture or its rhetoric as well. However, both of these ideas are conjectural and

require further study. A more comprehensive content analysis of the textbooks to find

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indicators of affect, touch, and other somatic education elements should give insight in

the future.

Feldenkrais appears to link the neural system of the teacher with the student,

allowing the teacher to sense the neuromotor organization of the student. (Cheever,

2000) It is accomplished by repeating simple, neurodevelopmental movements. Another

important aspect of sensory-motor learning is accepting the uncomfortable feeling of

‘being dumb’ or ‘not knowing.’ Surrendering to that experience and allowing this

‘feeling’ to exist in your awareness appears to be part of the process. Thus, somatic

learning involves a kind of learning that connects the mind with the body through

sensorimotor learning. Such courses are taught in high schools, at Harvard, and at

performing arts schools. (Cheever) Cheever recognizes that there is a “debilitating

prevalence of repetitive stress among musicians.” (p. 20.) She cites one leading somatic

educator, Myers, who calls traditional methods of teaching “production-line” methods

which rely too much on auditory and visual instead of kinesthetic ways of learning.

The trend toward including rhythmic movement in public school music education

goes back to Jaques-Dalcroze and John Dewey’s child-centered approaches to education,

according to Campbell (1991). Campbell also mentions the following two facts. Some

conservative thinkers throughout history have tried to present rhythm as an inherited trait,

unalterable through training. Progressive thinkers dispelled this notion, eventually

promoting its inclusion in elementary music curricula. A study by Blesdell (1992)

compares Laban versus Dalcroze movement instruction in the rhythm development of

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preschool children, also in an attempt to determine the specific effects of somatic

education.

The Dalcroze Eurhythmics methodology was founded on the principles of

pedagogues and psychologists such as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Edouard Claparede,

and Mathis Lussy. (Caldwell, 1995, p.14) Lussy’s contribution was the emphasis on

expressiveness and rhythm; he believed that teachers should teach expressiveness, words,

form and melody simultaneously. Teachers must build in expressiveness as part of the

technique. (http://musikas.net/potfolio/htm/musi/dalcroze.htm accessed 2/28/03) Swiss

psychologist Edouard Claparede, founder of the Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau for child

development, contributed his expertise to make the method systematic and complete.

(Ibid.) Claparede was also a “teacher of Jean Piaget." (Abramson, 1986, p. 35)

Pestalozzi’s work influenced Maria Montessori, John Dewey, and Friedrich Froebel.

(Caldwell, 2000)

Dalcroze Eurhythmic study is founded upon six principles: 1. Human emotions

translating into human motion create the beginning of music; emotions are experienced

physically; 2. We sense them by sensing various muscle contractions and release in our

bodies; 3. Internal emotions are expressed externally as affect using movements,

postures, gestures, and sounds. 4. These can be either automatic, spontaneous, or the

result of thought and will; 5. By breathing, singing, instrument playing motions, internal

emotions become translated into music; and, 6. In music, the human body is trained as

the first instrument. (Caldwell, 1995. As cited in

http://musikus.net/portfolio/htm/musi/dalcroze.htm)

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According to Becknell (1970), professional educators have also endorsed it.

Some of them are: Peter Dykena, Professor Emeritus, Columbia University; Gretchen

Garnett, Western Reserve University; Karl W. Gehrkens, Emeritus Professor, Oberlin

College; Mary Hunter, Past President, Eastern Music Educators Association; Beatrice

Landeck, Little Red School House, New York, Mills College of Education; Joy E.

Lawrence, Roxboro High School; James Mursell, Emeritus Professor, Teachers' College,

Columbia University; and Harry R. Wilson, emeritus Professor, Teachers' College,

Columbia University. (Ibid, pp.134-136)

Landis and Carder (1972) also noted that

the most amazing phase of the progress of the method in Europe, however, is the introduction of Eurhythmics into the department of education in Russia. In a 1921 letter to Jaques-Dalcroze, one of his Russian pupils reported that 'as the central government bans dancing, all dancing is called 'rhythmic gymnastic.' (Ibid., p. 36)

It has been a strong influence in Russia in several ways. Musical movement is used in

kindergartens and in music schools. Students in circus schools are introduced to it as

well. (Revkin, 1984, p. 287)

There are some awarenesses of the method that one intuits. Occasionally, this

researcher’s experience has been that some classroom experiences may seem like a

brutalization of the student: a boot camp of the soul. But in actuality the method is

rational. Breaking down the teachers’ bodily and emotional blocks is the way they

become honest and able to connect with their own emotions and that of their students.

Like the Feldenkrais Method—a rhythmical movement therapy developed after Dalcroze

—movement, touch, and rhythm can have not only a brain or skill building effect, but

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also an incidental therapeutic effect. Perhaps this is precisely because of the reasons

named above.

Improvisation and lesson plan theory

Dalcroze Eurhythmics bases much of its work in improvisation—both by teachers

and students. (Caldwell, 1995) What is improvisation? According to Farber (1991), it is

choosing one’s own material as one goes along. She mentions that this involves choosing

pitches as well as tempo, dynamics, accent, agogics (durations of sounds), nuance,

phrasing, and rhythm. Some people work from a required text or required form, others

from memory and some from sheer whim—albeit educated and refined. She

recommends giving students a range of choice, depending on their comfort level. She

adds “[music] is human utterance—out of and into that particular place in us where

meanings reside that words cannot touch. It is a direct hit on this place of feeling, and

because it has form it permits us to live through feeling-states that we could not sustain

without it.” (Ibid., pp. 30-5) She wants her students to touch its mystery as often as

possible. This contact is paradoxical, she suggests: “the player becomes at one with

music by yielding to it and commanding it at the same time.” (Ibid.)

Improvisation stays within the student’s technical competency and thus

encourages practicing. It can be done with little or no understanding of theory. The

problem with improvisation is also the one it solves: knowledge of structure. This means

knowing when to stop, how to organize, how to create continuity. This you can’t get

from a book. She likens it to glassblowing and says the performer must always stay in

the molten center of the composition—never stepping back to look objectively at the

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piece. Yet an improviser must memorize the structure of the piece. The capacity to do

this starts with the phrase. This is developed by student-teacher improvisatory exchanges

such as question-answer nonverbal, musical duets. Partners watch each other for

emotional cues to play off of and to keep from looking at keyboards for the answers.

This can be in canon or even simultaneous as in real-life conversation. Such a use is an

antiphonal one. It involves developing cadence tones, semicadences, and so on.

Improvisation may seem sloppy, careless, or shallow, but it develops, as all skills should,

to greater mastery and complexity. One way it does so is also requiring structure in the

performance. Alvin and Warwick (1991) define improvisation as spontaneous sounds

and silences created in the overall context of a beginning and an end. That beginning and

end are what make it distinct, as a process, from simply practicing. Improvisation also

teaches its practitioners to think like composers, test their knowledge, and enliven study

time. Jaques-Dalcroze, Farber (1991) says, saw improvisation as the true test of

understanding. It shows the ability to synthesize previous experiences.

Improvisation is important, Goodkind (2001) says, because it has its place in the

stage of precision. Without the romance of improvisation, precision can seem like ‘an

enormous wall rising unexpectedly in the midst of a flowery field.” (p. 21) It buffers the

shock of technicality and right and wrong, while ensuring a deeper understanding and

embodied knowledge of concepts. To me, this appears analogous to the teaching of

rhetorical theory. One professor colleague of mine relates that of all the communication

classes she took as an undergraduate and graduate student, the one that was most

horrifyingly boring was rhetorical theory. Perhaps of them it all, it lacks the most

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connectedness to rhythmical movement and expressiveness. Plato’s point that oratory

can only be attained with rhythmic study may help explain this situation.

Stabley (2001) suggests that children should be stimulated to converse with

music. This should be the same way they use words: “freely, spontaneously, and with

meaning.” (Ibid., p. 1) Allowing them to freely explore instruments will encourage them

to refine their ideas. They’ll do this by repetition of patterns, rhythmic first and melodic

later. It helps them develop harmony and expressiveness. She mentions question and

answer patterns—first in a large group, then individually. Then they will be encouraged

to develop patterns in subsequent exercises. Singing is next, with students improvising

chord-root accompaniments, singing them up and down the scale—as a group first, then

as two opposing groups, singing opposite directions. A further exercise will encourage

them to explore other dynamics of sound—such as tremolo, con legno, knocking on

instruments, etc. Students should not be forced to improvise.

She defines creativity as altering that which is familiar. She says students need

this opportunity in a relaxed setting. She offers lesson plans in use of the tonic note as a

start and stop approach to scales. She advises large motor and nonlocomotor movement,

suggesting that music helps children learn new ways of moving. She cites Weikart

(1995) who says that movement is critical to learning and living in the formative years.

Play is the child’s ‘work’ and it prepares the body for learning. Movement then helps the

body create neural pathways for cognitive development, language acquisition, problem

solving, thinking, planning, recall, and creativity. Kinesthesia is a very strong mode in

childhood learning. (Stabley, 2001)

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Music Education

Jordan-DeCarbo (1997) states that music teachers fall short of their major

objective, that of building sensitivity and literacy in music students. She suggests this is

because teachers do not yet understand the sequence involved. They need to understand

when to teach. This problem is compounded by the fact they struggle to achieve

sequence of learning for students who are mobile, multicultural, multilingual, and who

have their musical reference determined by the mass media. Since both music learning

and language learning have in common aural stimuli, she suggests observing the five

basics stages a child undergoes while developing language skills: 1. listening and

mimetic babbling; 2. speaking words and connecting them with mental pictures; 3. using

short ideas and short sentences; 4. reading and writing words; 5. reading, writing, and

comprehending written sentences and ideas.

She then relates these to the development of what Gordon (1977 & 1980) called

“audiation” and Dalcroze called “inner hearing”—the ability to imagine in one’s mind the

sounds and flow of music. Gordon breaks this process down into: “discrimination

learning” which entails aural/oral, verbal association, partial synthesis, symbolic

association, composite synthesis; and “inference learning” which is comprised of

generalization, creativity and improvisation, and theoretical understanding. Music

learning begins with sound (in combinations or patterns), rote, verbal association,

dialogue, synthesis and recognition measurement, written symbols, and series of patterns.

These are the five levels of discriminative learning. If students exhibit uncertainty, the

teacher goes backward in the sequence and provides more reinforcing activities. The

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three stages of inferential learning can be in any order and can be tested for before a

particular stage or stages of discrimination is mastered. It is important, however, that the

teacher not label what hasn’t yet been heard and not symbolize what hasn’t yet been

labeled. So, the order is: hear, label, symbolize.

Music teachers are looking for alternatives to the way they were taught. (Kay,

2000) Since Gardner’s development of his multiple intelligences theory, a number of

studies have shown that developing musical intelligence is more valuable than previously

thought for developing general intelligence. The evidence now suggests that music-

making may affect the brain’s organization, thus positively impacting achievement in

many disciplines. Kay also states that Dalcroze Eurhythmics offers a sound pedagogical

technique for developing “thinking in music.” (p. 51) Dalcroze Eurhythmics (and other

pedagogies such as Gordon’s, incidentally) views the production of music as central to

understanding it.

Rhythm is an essential part of “neuro-appropriate instruction”. (Mengert,

September, 2001, p. 8) Others are:

Reduced stress in all learning environments Stimulation without threat Easy access to hydration [drinking water] Clearly developed and consistently applied expectations Instruction organized to meet what is already known An intentional rhythm to all presentations Judicious use of repetitions and summaries Ongoing assessment of achievement Careful application of the ‘interrogative forms’ of instruction

Teachers must watch for and examine:

Lack of or incomplete foundation on which to premise ‘new’ instructional presentations

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Lack of vocabulary or lexicon with which to learn and decode material being presented

Speed and rhythm may mismatch that of the learner Lack of or disorganized previous referential experience Organic or emotional stress and suppression

In themselves, teachers must sense whether they:

Have a ‘sensitivity to the burdens of failure’ Have ‘subtle active competitions with winners and losers’ in the classroom Have an ‘understanding of the application of rhythm in instruction’ Depend overly much ‘on order for the appearance of acquisition of

knowledge’ Prepare carefully ‘with individualized learning styles in mind’ and in the

plan (Ibid., p. 10)

To be neuro-appropriate instructors, Mengert (Ibid.) says, teachers also should

understand the concept of the triune brain which postulates that there are three parts and

functions of the human brain: the ancient, reptilian, brain; the paleomammalian brain

(called the limbic system); and the neomammalian brain (also called the new brain). The

learning disorder pediatric dyslexia, for instance, is easily treatable since it is merely the

result of an illusion, misshapen because of the relationship among these three brain

features. (Ibid., p. 12) He also recommends learning about brain hemisphericity since it

helps in understanding dominance profiles (for dominant learning style) and brings

insight and excitement to one’s learning. He makes a somewhat cursory distinction

between schooling and education. My assumption is that the former is the imposition of

institutional goals, the latter reflects the inner process of learning experienced by the

students.

Jordon-DeCarbo (1997) shows that Dalcroze Eurhythmics presents similar ideas.

In fact, Dalby (1999) mentions that, in developing his ideas on rhythm, Gordon drew

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upon Dalcroze’s ideas. Gordon’s method emphasizes developing listening skills before

reading and writing. It uses patterns rather than single note values to teach rhythm and

uses movement to teach note values. In other words, it is easier to remember a tune than

a single note. (Walking is a quarter note, running steps are eighth notes, etc.) Dalby

suggests that American schools have been lacking not teaching, but learning skills. She

proposes the need for a system to eliminate guesswork in teaching—a system such as

Gordon’s which defines where the process is all the time, when teaching should move

forward or backward, and how to reinforce skills at each stage.

The Dance Before: Suggestions for Movement-Based Education

Neill (1990) mentions that elementary schoolchildren love to move. In fact,

childhood development is measured by stages of movement ability. There is an

indissoluble bond between movement and music which is noticed most often in dance,

but which is also present in the lullaby-singing mother rocking her infant to sleep, and

work songs such as sea shanties. Children love to spontaneously invent dance for music

on the radio. Movement is one of the most basic impulses children have. He quotes

musicologist Curt Sachs (1963):

The dance is the mother of the arts. Music and poetry exist in time; painting and architecture in space. But the dance lives at once in time and space. The creator and the thing created, the artist and the work are still one and the same thing. Rhythmical patterns of movement, the plastic sense of space, the vivid representation of a world seen and imagined—these things man creates in his own body in the dance before he uses substance and stone and word to give expression to his inner experiences. (p. 3)

Neill (1990) understands several reasons teachers may be reluctant to use

movement in the classroom. First, teachers are sometimes uncomfortable with it because

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that wasn’t how they were taught. In fact, their teachers may have actually discouraged

extraneous movement. He suggests starting slowly by practicing simple movements, first

in private. Other teachers are uncomfortable with the amount of space and kind of

facilities required. He suggests moving desks and chairs to the side, using hallways, or

swapping rooms with other teachers occasionally.

Some teachers are afraid movement training in the classroom will lead to

discipline problems and inappropriate behavior. He recommends ground rules for

students, such as: no touching people or objects unless told to; stay in areas of classroom

designated as movement space; and stop when directed, properly balanced. Other

teachers think that students get plenty of movement in physical education classes. The

problem is that our culture is increasingly sedentary and children have lost many

opportunities for developing rhythm, coordination and skills in movement. Additionally,

even those students with physical skills need a teacher’s help to apply that skill to

musical, artistic, expressive, emotional development.

For overall teacher development, he suggests several things. Have positive

expectations. Start with nonlocomotor movements that don’t require moving away from

the starting floor space: bend, straighten, twist, swing, sway, push, pull, shake, spread,

etc. Start with arms only, then allow students to find other body parts for each

movement: ‘Try shaking a different body part,’ etc. Then add two parts at once, and so

on. Work from simple to complex. Work in pairs, use mirror games, or create structural

patterns such as rondos and canons.

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Add locomotor movements requiring more space to walk, run, jump, hop, skip,

gallop, slide, or bounce. Insist students vary the speed, direction and levels of movement.

Have them imitate other people, machines, nature. Work with partners on movement

with only the tips of their fingers, elbows, or backs touching, but moving across the

room. Add music under the movement. Have them move as the music directs them to.

Create group circle, machines, etc. Even use folk dances.

Try working in canon. This means the teacher improvises a movement that the

class imitates after a specific interval -- four or eight beats, for instance. The interaction

continues with the teacher inventing new movements continually. Students can also vary

the teacher’s moves. Bouncing balls, jumping ropes, and clapping are all examples of

movements than can be performed with music.

Caldwell (1995) lists

the six basic musical behaviors that musicians must possess in order to study and learn efficiently:

1. Paying Attention2. Turning attention to concentration3) Remembering4) Reproducing the performance5) Changing6) Automating. (p. 63)

Abramson (1986) says: "The combination of Eurhythmics, Solfege, and Improvisation,

now known as the Jaques-Dalcroze Method, has obviously had a profound influence on

educators in general and music educators in particular. His contribution answers the

demand for a child-centered and experiential education such as that proposed by the

American educational theorists John Dewey and Mortimer Adler.” (p. 68) Dalcroze has

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been used with success in kindergarten music learning. (Joseph, 1984) It has also been

successfully used in first grade. (Crumpler, 1983)

According to Eiffert (1999)

Educator Elaine De Beauport has demonstrated remarkable results by teaching math and English students art, dancing, and storytelling. Students in her program showed dramatic improvement in working at their peak abilities as a result of this cross-training process. ‘Children who were flunking math were helped to visualize equations. After taking art courses, they could access numbers through images,’ De Beauport wrote. De Beauport effectively did away with ‘learning disabilities at her school and helped every student work at the top of his or her ability. (p. 110)

What is the importance of having education that uses affect? Tankard (2001)

found that children tended to learn spelling better when rhythmic movement was used

than when neither type of movement was allowed. Russ (1993) mentions that research

shows that: “In essence, children and adults who have access to affect-laden thoughts

and fantasy are more creative than individuals who are less able to access this material.”

(p.14) It also seems to contribute to enhanced cognitive functioning. In essence,

movement leads to emotion, which leads to memory, which leads to creation, which leads

to full employment of the cognitive processes, which results in retention and

performance. “Passion is a major affective ingredient in the creative process for both

artists and scientists.” (Ibid., p. 69) He says “Csikszentmihalyi’s (1991) advice to

teachers was to help the child become absorbed in the task.” (Ibid., p. 94) As mentioned

earlier herein, Csikszentmihalyi’s doctrine of optimal experience and flow states are

relevant to developing creative students and adults. (Ibid., 1993) Incidentally, the

importance of such states in university settings is also high, he mentions. Faculty

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development can be affected by developing states of flow for the teachers as well. (Ibid.,

p. 97)

Speech and rhythm have been tied together in speech remediation and linguistics,

but this new evidence of the value inherent in the study of integrated, nuanced body-mind

movement is reflected in a new emphasis on replacing the older, cruder model of speech

rhythm for one that contains an attention to nuance. Cummins and Port (1998) argue that

phonetics theorists must replace the isochrony model of rhythm used in speech with a

model that sees rhythm as hierarchical and conditioned by function just as occurs in

locomotor coordination. The current isochrony model holds that the rhythm of speech is

accurately conveyed by the notion of equal duration of rhythmic beats. This doesn’t take

into account the true complexity of articulatory vocal movement as having a nuanced

structure based on the flow of movements—which makes each beat or measured bit of

time unique, or at least part of an organic developmental structure. Such a structure is

also true of musical beats, incidentally. Attention to nuances of measure is what gives

music its expressiveness, according to Dalcroze Eurhythmic theory. It appears the

authors of this study are allowing for a similar awareness in speech as well.

Marks (1999), however, argues that the use of stress-timing is useful, despite its

limitations. The link may be mythical, Marks point out, but it can be a useful device in

teaching the English language, regardless of claims that rhythms and timing are

sometimes subjectively evaluated. The technique of stress timing is based in the idea that

music and speech are related in the origin of language.

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In a related study, based on empirical testing, McConnell (2000) mentions that

teachers with rhythm training will potentially be in a better position to support the efforts

of remedial tutors in the classroom. This study defines language as meaning, message and

movement. This movement is made up of several different kinds of flow: historical,

technical, contrastive, and emotional. This last type is both the most fascinating and the

most frustrating because you can only see it in the effects which qualified orators bring

out. Emotive flow is also connected to repetition, as when used in advertising, politics,

and therapy. I think of it as ‘flow-atory.’

Integrating and modulating affective material shows the existence of an

integrative cognitive structure which leads to critical thinking and evaluating skill

development. (Russ, 1993) “A child loses up to 75 percent of his or her creativity

between the ages of five and seven. By the time adults are 40, most are expressing less

than two percent of the measurable creativity they demonstrated as young children.

Thus, the ability must be reawakened and trained, with encouragement and practice

uncommon to most of us.” (Eiffert, 1999, p. 15) Both Russ and Csikszentmihalyi call

for an interdisciplinary approach to creativity and affect. (Russ, p. 108)

Philosopher and education theorist Alfred North Whitehead reiterated such ideas

when he said: “In teaching you will come to grief as soon as you forget that your pupils

have bodies,” and: “Above all things, we must beware of what I will call ‘inert ideas’—

that is to say, ideas that are merely received into the mind without being utilized, or

tested, or thrown into combinations.” (Goodkin, 2001, p. 24)

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While it is apparent the term “Eurhythmics” isn’t used extensively in general

education today, strands of it have found homes in many focal areas of education,

including special, gifted, and elementary education. Columbia Education Professor Karl

Gehrkens wrote: “But the man who has gone farther than any one else working this idea

of physical response to rhythm into a system is Jaques-Dalcroze and Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is recognized the world over as the most complete method of developing the

rhythmic sense that has ever been devised.” (Landis & Carder, 1972, p. 35) If John

Dewey was perchance at Hellerau or any other Dalcroze conference, for instance, a future

study could explore whether or to what extent his style, innovations, or beliefs reflect

what he heard there.

It appears that Dalcroze can help develop personality by imagination and

creativity, temperament and psychological development by allowing freedom of

expression, and intelligence by strengthening concentration abilities, listening and

musical analysis. Also, it appears to dissipate aggression, destructive emotions, tensions,

pressures and promotes socially acceptable behavior, attention, interest, and relaxation.

Physically, it develops coordination – in large and small muscle movement as well as the

eye-hand-body coordination needed for other subjects such as reading. (Landis &

Carder, 1972, p. 120) It stresses analysis and even develops eye movement training (left-

to-right, for instance), and association of sounds and symbols. (Ibid., p. 121) Empirical

studies support these claims. A Spanish-language study (De los Angeles Bermell, 2000)

found that children’s attention improved after the experience of Dalcroze education.

Farnsworth (1933) showed Dalcroze has been used to develop mastery of cross rhythms.

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A ‘new’ method is presented in this study. It is a Gestalt method which does not need

counting or drills.

Hopefully, the discussion of somatic education in this present thesis integrates

testimonial and broad-based results of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. This is a heuristic study.

As such, the intent of the study is to explore the method’s results, not advocate it without

reservation. In fact, some reservations voiced by other researchers will be explored later

in this study. Additionally, it is the combination of an innovative teacher and

methodology which helps kids break through. Movement must get translated; this is not

mainstream art education. This type of movement is creative; where it leads is to a

combination of direct (teacher-centered, call-response) education and strategy (young

children, modules, stations, Montessori, et al.) education. These elements reflect the

notion that the human organism has affinity for and is attracted to creative expression that

leads to learning for children. This is reflected in the fact that the “Fame” school and

others appear to be designed around themes like the arts and at-risk kids. Charter schools

also show some evidence that people are reaching into the creative arts bag. (Gratto,

2002; Leonard, 2002; Hartocollis, 2001; Riccio, 2001; New York Amsterdam News,

03/29/2001; Education USA, 12/25/2000)

This thesis does not argue for the reinstatement of the educational movement of

the 1960’s and 1970’s called “patterning.” (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1982, p.

810). That is a “controversial” approach to special education which formed the

historical basis of early special education interventions. (Silver, 1987, p. 499) This

physical therapy-style method developed by Doman and Delacato involves stimulating

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brain damaged patients to active or passive movements such as crawling, walking, and

other bi-hemispheric limb movement. (Cohen, Birch, and Taft, 1970) That research

appears to have focused on fixing brains which had been injured or developmentally

impaired (Ibid.), while Dalcroze Eurhythmics focuses on attaining maximum

development for each student’s body and brain—not the repair of actual damaged tissue

or correction of damaged underlying neurological structures.

Jean Jacques Rousseau’s book on child education, Emile, ou de l’education, was

the inspiration for generations of educators in the modern era after 1762, according to the

internet source at http://www.socsci.kun.nl/ped/whp/histeduc/clough/gben005.html.

(One can perhaps safely assume that, as a Pestalozzi teacher, Dalcroze’s mother named

him after the title of Rousseau’s book.) Rousseau held that men were by nature good but

that society corrupts them. He emphasized nature and the natural way of doing things.

Childhood is different from adulthood and should be given freedom and nurture. He thus

proposed child-centered learning. Teachers should motivate children by natural curiosity,

not by force. The teacher should interfere as little as possible with child’s development,

using informal education outside of school in the natural world whenever possible. One

should also involve parents in education—they are nature’s choice to educate children.

Finally, one ought to rely on natural punishments to teach morality, not rules or teacher

punishment. (http://www.people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/romantics.html &

http://www.irdp.ch/math-eco/articles/pestaloz.htm)

Pestalozzi was more concrete than Rousseau. He tried to find the balance

between the individual’s freedom and responsibility to society.

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(http://infed.org/thinkers/et-pest.htm) This internet source cites Kilpatrick (1951) on the

six principles of Pestalozzi.

1. Personality is sacred. This constitutes the ‘inner dignity of each individual for the young as truly as for the adult.’

2. As ‘a little seed. . . contains the design of the tree’, so in each child is the promise of his potentiality. ‘The educator only takes care that no untoward influence shall disturb nature’s march of developments’.

3. Love of those we would educate is ‘the sole and everlasting foundation ‘ in which to work. ‘Without love, neither the physical not [sic] the intellectual powers will develop naturally’. So kindness ruled in Pestalozzi’s schools: he abolished flogging—much to the amazement of outsiders.

4. To get rid of the ‘verbosity’ of meaningless words Pestalozzi developed his doctrine of Anschauung – direct concrete observation, often inadequately called ‘sense perception’ or ‘object lessons’. No word was to be used for any purpose until adequate Anschauung had preceded. The thing or distinction must be felt or observed in the concrete. Pestalozzi’s followers developed various sayings from this: from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract.

5. To perfect the perception got by the Anschauung [about] the thing that must be named, an appropriate action must follow. ‘A man learns by action… have done with [mere] words!’ ‘Life shapes us and the life that shapes us is not a matter of words but action.’

6. Out of this demand for action came an emphasis on repetition – not blind repetition, but repetition of action following the Anschauung.

7. Pestalozzi’s form of schooling appealed to Gandhi, being as it was self-supporting and free from state interference.

Albert Einstein was a strong believer in the methods of Pestalozzi. As Gardner

(1993) describes, Einstein failed to achieve significant academic success until after he

attended the Pestalozzi-based school at Aarau, Switzerland. Einstein himself credited

this school with being a major influence on him and a source of his success because of its

humane teachers, inspirational hands-on methods, and supportive environment.

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Interestingly, Einstein’s sister, Maja Einstein, married the son of a teacher from Aarau.

She married Paul, son of Jost Winteller. (Ibid.) Gardner makes the case that Einstein

was learning disabled: he used symbols to describe his work and spoke little. This school

turned him around, according to Gardner (p. 92). The school encouraged hands-on

learning and theoretical science, anschauung—visual understanding, and idiosyncratic

curiosity, rather than external authority. This school allowed him to explore his own

talents, but after reviewing the preceding neurology literature, one wonders if it also

changed his brain. Could it perhaps have influenced the development of more neural

pathways, leading to greater brain weight or greater intelligence? This is an interesting

connection between Albert Einstein and the school at Aarau. The connection between

Einstein’s intellectual success and Pestalozzian, somatic education methods

unquestionably deserves future study.

Pestalozzi was a direct influence on Froebel, who attended Pestalozzi’s school at

Yverdon from 1808 to 1810. (http://www.froebelweb.org/web3000.html) Froebel

refined and made even more practical Pestalozzi’s theories by focusing on the mother’s

instinctive knowledge of how to teach and then refining it. Froebel developed

Pestalozzi’s concept of action more broadly into not just labor, but creative activity of all

kinds.

This same source claims that no man has exerted a more positive, life-giving force

on the present than Froebel.

(http://www.socsci.kun.nl/ped/whp/histeduc/clough/gben005.html) His system of

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education through play had a far-reaching influence, though in its purest form it is

impractical for modern industrial society. (Ibid.)

As mentioned earlier, Goodkind (2001, pp. 17-24) quotes Alfred North

Whitehead (1929): ‘In teaching you will come to grief as soon as you forget that your

pupils have bodies;’ and, Whitehead said: ‘Above all things, we must beware of what I

will call ‘inert ideas’—that is to say, ideas that are merely received into the mind without

being utilized, or tested, or thrown into combination.” (Ibid., Internet pagination unclear)

How does this work? Levinowitz (2001) asserts we have lost “our tribal music—the folk

music of our people.” She further asserts that “music is as much a basic life skill as

walking or talking, notwithstanding the causal link between music training and spatial

reasoning in young children.” (Ibid., pp. 40-44) Caldwell (1995, p. 4) says “we come

into this world ‘wired’ for music but our environment and educational systems break the

aural-physical-emotional-intellectual connections in many of us.”

Goodkind (2001) makes the point that Alfred North Whitehead’s ideas on

education are born out by Orff and Dalcrozian strands of education. Whitehead builds

his ideas around a child’s need for romance, precision, and generalization. Whitehead’s

theory in action calls for discovery, curious thoughts, questions, seeking answers, and

devising new experiments for children to hear, see, and experience for themselves.

Goodkind reminds the reader that precision without romance is useless. He paraphrases

Whitehead, “a merely technically accomplished musician is the most useless bore on

God’s earth.” (Ibid., Internet pagination unclear) We might say the same of public

speakers. “For music [and speech] to truly flower, it must draw water up from the fertile

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soil of romance.” Technique and imagination are both servants of “thoughtful, soulful,

and heartfelt musical expression . . . the apex of the artistic journey.” (Ibid.)

Caldwell (2000) says

There is no other music education method that is so broad in its foundations or scope of applications. By ‘applications’ I mean that Eurhythmics ideas are used by music teachers of all ages and in teaching all instruments; by music therapists working with all levels of disabilities; by teachers working with caregivers of very young children, and by teachers of performance as they prepare the next generation of performers. Eurhythmics concepts are compatible with the most recent neurological research, and that research continues to validate what Eurhythmics teachers have long maintained: movement is essential to learning. (p.1, 2)

The power of kinesthesia is not news to teachers of the lower elementary grades and pre-school because they have used movement activities in music lessons and non-music classes for some time. However, as the students reach the upper elementary grades and beyond, there seems to be a feeling among educators that movement is no longer appropriate. The perception is that the students should be able to sit motionless for extended periods of time and that rhythmic movement, and certainly dance-like movements, should ‘cease and desist.’ However, research continues to indicate that students of all ages should constantly be engaged in learning through movement regardless of the subject being studied. (p. 2-3)

Caldwell (1995) reminds us that Dalcroze taught that people can make a gesture for every

sound and a sound for every gesture: “Neurologists are now telling us that movement is

essential to learning because 1) we experience all emotions physically, 2) all learning has

an emotional component that can be quickly accessed through movement.” (p. 6)

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a system of musical education which focuses on

rhythm as the foundation of musical skills and development. Practitioners emphasize

movement, internal rhythmic awareness, and emotional expressiveness. Techniques used

to teach the method are games, improvisation, movement, vocal exercises, etc. Focus is

given to breaking old habits and developing new ones. The goal is to develop complete

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bodily awareness and bring rhythmic influence to bear as an aid to concentration,

integration and musical memory. Exercises which teach self control, excitation and

inhibition are also used extensively. Throughout is a feeling of fun, joy, and freedom.

Yet, Landis and Carder (1972) emphasize:

The end results of Dalcroze exposure go beyond its musical implications. The activities can contribute to a child's total personality by encouraging imagination and creative response. Eurhythmics offers a variety of ways for a child to express himself freely and, therefore, can influence his temperament and his psychological development. By strengthening his powers of concentration and his listening ability, as well as his ability to make musical analysis, Dalcroze develops a child's intelligence. Listening skills, which demand concentration, play a paramount role in the growth of the child, since he must be able to listen and hear discriminately before he can act positively.

There are other benefits to be derived from eurhythmics. The experience of participating in this type of class-situation helps the child adjust to other social and group situations. A great deal of aggression and destructive emotion can be safely expressed in socially acceptable patterns. The activities that develop from eurhythmics help to relieve tensions and pressures that occur throughout a school day. Relaxation, which is very necessary to gain the attention and interest of children, makes it possible to develop other areas of learning. . . .

There would be many advantages to incorporating Dalcroze study into nursery schools and kindergartens across our country. Children would be much better prepared to enter their general academic studies as well as more advanced music studies. We are told by psychologists and educators that children with poor muscular coordination are slow learners. Dalcroze Eurhythmics demands and develops coordination and encourages mastery of large muscle movements. It stresses smooth body movement, a foundation for success in other physical activities. It develops eye-hand-body coordination necessary in other academic, subjects, such as reading. Good listening habits, powers of concentration, and the experience of being in an organized class situation would help all students follow teachers' directions and learn the role of a pupil. Through eurhythmics, children learn to associate sounds and symbols and to train their eyes to follow from left to right. The understanding of patterns (meter) that is developed in Dalcroze Eurhythmics can be of value in later studies of math. The ability to analyze is stressed in eurhythmics. (p. 120)

Another incidental benefit Dalcroze Eurhythmics offers is mentioned by Abramson

(1986): "Jaques-Dalcroze proved in his studies with children that perfect pitch can be

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acquired if instruction begins early enough and before a child begins the study of an

instrument." (p. 52)

Mindful Learning

This somatic education system of teaching is an example of what has been called

"mindful learning." Strahan (1997) mentions that:

Studies of school improvement have emphasized that teachers need to experience new practices, not just hear about them. (Elmore, Peterson, and McCarthy, 1996) Teaching practices are not likely to change unless teachers are exposed to 'what teaching actually looks like when it is done differently' and to 'someone who could help them understand the difference between what they are doing and what they aspire to do' (p. 241).

A combination of strategies is called for in a mindful learning program: logical, artistic,

linguistic, musical, and movement. (Strahan, p. 128-9)

Learning through art, movement, and music may be even more powerful if students can use these experiences as a basis for speaking, writing, and reading with greater sophistication. This need for 'articulation' suggests a learning cycle based on 'experiencing, expressing, and explaining.' Students might first experience learning through varied media, using their talents in art, music, movement, and reflection to process information and generate personal connections. Teachers might then encourage them to express their ideas through conversation, brainstorming, and listing activities. Once they have given voice to their ideas, students might be ready to explain their learning through reading comprehension and composition. (Strahan, 1997, p. 59)

This current method of mindful learning seems, as does Dalcroze Eurhythmics, to

reaffirm what the ancient rhetoricians believed.

Mindful learning (Strahan, 1997) is a way of teaching to all the multiple

intelligences. As Gardner discusses, students each exhibit different learning preferences.

These can be one or a combination of the following: linguistic, logical-mathematical,

spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intra-personal, inter-personal (Strahan, p. 42-43) He

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also postulates the existence of an eighth, that of the naturalist (Strahan, p. 44) (Through

its exercises and emphasis on multiple stimuli, the Dalcroze method also guides students

to developing each of their intelligences more fully. Thus it also appears to be a way of

teaching to all the multiple intelligences.) Gardner postulates three key elements to apply

multiple intelligences. (Strahan, p. 46) These are: "1. the cultivation of desired

capabilities, 2. approaching a concept, subject matter, or discipline in a variety of ways,

and 3. the personalization of education." (Ibid.) The Dalcroze method appears to meet

these three requirements. Further empirical study is necessary to establish this, however.

According to Campbell (1997), Plato said about music that it ‘is a more potent

instrument than any other for education.’ (p. 10) Campbell says that musically trained

children scored 80% higher than their classmates on spatial intelligence. This

intelligence later becomes the ability for complex math and engineering. Parents observe

not only these higher scores, but also observe more organization and discipline in kids’

approach to learning overall. She says it is reported that children respond to music even

before birth. She says many consider Jaques-Dalcroze to be the father of modern music

education. His concepts center on the body as an instrument. She quotes Parker at the

Longy School of Music who says this theatrical and playful approach nourishes the

creativity of both students and teachers while building awareness of phrasing, notation,

pitch, harmony. She mentions that Orff uses the rhythms of speech such as in word

patterns and rhymes. Perhaps Orff’s method may also be relevant to the public speaking

classroom since it already uses speech as it basis. The Suzuki method for string

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instruments also teaches music by imitation first, then teaches the symbols for the sounds

produced, she says.

The activity of embodied learning (cognition) can be approached on several

fronts. Activities by or in various parts of the body have been studied with a view to how

they contribute to learning, performance, intelligence, etc. Wilson (1998) does so by

exploring the evolution and heuristic evolution of human beings vis-à-vis the

development of hand and movements. Perhaps empirical studies can examine manual

intelligence as a predictor and creator of public speaking skills. Other interesting studies

might include other approaches to parts of the body. But overall these new studies

indicate a provocative closeness between body movement and communication skills. My

purpose in this study is to suggest that these studies indicate the value of teaching

movement as a way to increase either communication intelligence or speech skills.

Empirical research may indicate that this is indeed so. Thus, it seems a necessity to

examine movement’s place in the speech communication skill-building pedagogy.

But Can it Work at the College Level?

The results of Dalcroze Eurhythmics classrooms in public speaking at the college

level have not been studied in empirical tests. However, one indication that the

introduction of rhythm (music and movement) development techniques might be

productive on the college level is the strong evidence of their usefulness in the lower

grades. Stansell (2001, p. 2) cites Sedar's (1997) study which found "that arts and subject

areas, traditionally disconnected, were moving towards 'integration,' 'multidisciplinary' or

'multiple intelligence' perspectives, or 'whole language' initiatives." There appears to be

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an emerging support for using movement and music in the classroom. He cites

experimental articles which illustrate improved performance in reading, creativity, and

maturity due to mime, song reading, dance, and music instruction.

Stansell's (2001) study presents Del Campo's (1997) claim that information in a

conversation is 15% verbal language, 70% body language, and 15% tone, or the 'musical'

side of speech. The implication is that body language and movement and musical aspects

of speech are vastly more important than words. Stansell (p. 4) continues:

I affirm that the influence of music in healing, philosophy, and teaching are supported by childhood development sequences and innate abilities . . . . This sense of unity is what Plato affirmed music could give. . . . I will turn . . . to neurological evidence of music's effect on the mind. Modern studies show how the mind develops musical aptitudes, and how intelligence research has revolutionized teaching.

For ESL students, a study by Wilcox (1995, p. ii) showed that music improves

"pronunciation memory through 'organizational framework, linear time order, lowering

affective barriers, repetition, residual learning, expectation, anticipation of patterns,

resolution cues, schema or gestalt cues, and anchors for memory.’'' (Cited in Stansell, p.

12) Songs can help teach or review grammar structures, according to Whittaker (1981).

Stansell says that other researchers make this point even more clearly.

Australian musicologists MacArthur and Trojer (1985) claim that because music and language share essential qualities of rhythm, pitch, timbre, and dynamics; methods for teaching each of them, Orff and SGAV, could work together to teach them both. Its goals are similar to those of Dalcroze eurhythmics [sic]: to help learners develop auditory memory, intonation, rhythm, pitch, gesture, body movements, and mime. Elements of this blended methodology are as follows: (a) presentation of whole, then explanation of parts; (b) communication through sound, gesture, and movement; (c) no previous knowledge necessary; (d) abstract concepts are demonstrated more than explained; (e) progression at own rate and in own direction; (f) learners create material based on hypothesis testing; (g) group participation encourages learner-to-learner interaction; (h) focus on cognition,

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auditory awareness and aural memory; (i) emotionally charged, uninhibited, confidence-building setting; (j) and repetition and question and answer techniques. (Stansell, p. 13)

Another reason Dalcroze Eurhythmics may be effective for college students is

shown by the results of a study on metacognition. Metacognition is defined as thinking

about thinking. That is one of the precepts of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. The student

becomes part of the teaching. She is directed to think about her own learning and find

ways she can learn better. This study by Egan (1995) found that such metacognition is

actually effective on the college level. Egan sought in the study to find out how she

might improve her students’ learning by using metacognition. Private university music

students enrolled in eurhythmics, solfege, and music theory participated. The study

found that students benefited from individual instruction in metacognitive strategies such

as previewing new material, monitoring their level of attention, effective time use, and

test planning—basically, all forms of self-analysis. These results also held true for

students who were instructed to monitor, evaluate, and modify their learning strategies

based on their learning mode preference (visual, auditory, kinesthetic). It appears from

the results of this study that metacognition (also an essential element of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics) has value at the college level.

Teachers

Teachers who wish to incorporate rhythmical awareness in their students may be

hesitant at first, so Dalby (1999) recommends an incremental approach, gradually

introducing musical and rhythmic elements. He breaks Gordon’s approach into several

stages: ‘testing the water’ with singing, phrasing, postponing reading, teaching familiar

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tunes by ear; ‘knee deep’ skills such as establishing tonality and rhythmic context,

teaching the bass lines by singing, playing, audiating, dueting, and more, and

internalizing rhythm through movement; the ‘wet to the waist’ stage of using tonal

patterns to establish intonation, verbal association with solfege syllables (Do-re-mi-fa-so-

la-ti-do) or Gordon’s syllables; the ‘totally immersed’ stage comprised of tonal sequence

building of scales, keys, and modes, the tonic pattern function of keys in scales, the

reading of rhythmic patterns before individual notes (helps establish context), order

learning first from quarter notes, then eighth notes (walking, running), and introducing

divisions, elongations, rests and more in order of difficulty.

Finally, and most difficult perhaps, teach students to recognize, rather than

decode, notation. Having them recognize tonal and rhythmic patterns even though they

don’t know the names or labels helps students learn syllables for the patterns as they are

ready. As one pair of researchers points out:

Jaques-Dalcroze (1920/1965, 59-60), like Dewey, emphasized that students should not be taught concepts and rules before they have an experience of the facts behind them, and that the students should be taught to know themselves and to use all of their faculties. For both Dewey and Jaques-Dalcroze, knowledge should not be separated from doing similarly as theory should not be separated from practice (see also, Dewey 1984, 148-149). (Juntunen & Westerlund, 2001) 

The researchers elaborate: “By searching for a closer connection between body

and mind Jaques-Dalcroze thus seemed to have similar goals as Dewey.”

(http://fier.com/papers/juntunen_digging.htm accessed 3/29/04)

Another group of literature of potential relevance regarding the college classroom,

but not extensively reviewed for this thesis, is teacher immediacy, which focuses on

“verbal and nonverbal communication such as smiles, head nods, use of inclusive

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language, and eye contact.” (Sensenbaugh, R., 1995) Given the inclusion of each of

these as integral parts of Dalcroze Eurhythmics training, it would be interesting to

explore Dalcroze techniques within the frame of teacher immediacy.

Some teachers may object to this thesis because it throws their world into

disorder, implying as it does the complete rethinking of curricula and classroom

activities. Unfortunately, this is likely true of any newly developing pedagogy. Perhaps,

however, the benefit to the student is potentially more valuable than the inconvenience to

the teacher. At any rate, small steps can be taken initially.

Related Therapies (Special Needs Education and Medicine)

Education is not the only place Dalcroze Eurhythmics has been applied and

shown effective. These rhythmic techniques are now used in a wide variety of disciplines

and fields. Dalcroze Eurhythmics-style exercises are even applied by teachers and

therapists in the areas of medical therapy. They have been adapted for special education

for mentally retarded persons, sufferers from nervous disorders, and schools for the blind

and the deaf. (Becknell, 1970; Heidenreich, 1979) Dalcroze work is “recommended for

exceptional children: for the talented because it is rich in opportunities for creative and

artistic expression, and for the handicapped because it goes to the unconscious level of

emotional response and provides for the education of feeling.” (Landis and Carder, 1972,

p. 28-9) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze worked with blind and other handicapped students as

well as gifted students. One of his books contains an entire chapter on exercises for the

blind, developing awareness of space and unseen objects. (Ibid.) Swaiko (1974) showed

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that Eurhythmics can play a valuable role in a curriculum for deaf children. Fell (1965)

recommends it for the “mentally subnormal.” (p. xi)

Beginning with early very positive responses by European doctors at Hellerau,

medicine and Dalcroze have become inextricably connected. As Revkin (1984) notes:

One demonstration for a group of over six hundred doctors proved very advantageous for Dalcroze and Gymnastic Rhythmics. The doctors were in Dresden for a medical conference and were invited to Hellerau to determine if Gymnastic Rhythmics had a debilitating effect on children’s health. They conducted an examination of heartbeats and respiration before and after the exercises. Their general findings were so favorable that they suggested that Gymnastic Rhythmics be introduced in all the public schools. Their attestations were widely quoted especially when Dalcroze again returned to Geneva and attempted to introduce Gymnastic Rhythmics in the elementary schools there. (p. 258)

Since that time, however, Dalcroze-Eurhythmics has been therapeutically used by

nurses, doctors, and researchers in many specialties. (One of many such studies is

Heidenreich (1979).

Where are its most contemporary applications and strands seen today? Music and

rhythmic movement has been used to work with autistic children. “Music therapy cannot

cure such conditions as autism and mental handicap but it can alleviate the negative

behaviors when the child is involved in interactive music-making with the therapist.”

(Alvin & Warwick, 1991, p. viii) Language is difficult for the autist, according to the

same researchers. (Ibid.) They say music is attractive to the autist because it bypasses

language. Also, it functions as a pathway to the experience of emotions and feeling,

something that the state of autism, by its nature as a type of psychosis, precludes. In

autism, communication and emotional maturity are gravely impaired. The study used

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musical creativity and improvisation to develop auditory, visual, and tactile perception

along with motor control and use of space.

It is being used in palliative care for terminally ill patients and for

developmentally or emotionally handicapped children.

(http://www.dalcrozeusa.org/research.htm accessed 2/28/03)

An English-language abstract of a study written in Afrikaans (Wium, 1993) mentions

that, in addition to its applications to musical education, Dalcroze has other, incidental

advantages. It integrates cognitive, affective, and psychomotor behavior; develops

imagination and creativity; strengthens concentration; improves memory; develops space

perception; develops self-confidence and self-image; and is learning by enjoyable

activities. The study mentions also that the method is used in remedial education and

therapy. Its applications in so many therapeutic fields bears light on these early

comments by Driver (1936): "Illness and disease come to individuals when their rhythms

have been deranged. . . ." (p. 3)

Rhythmic therapy has been explored for stutterers as well. (American Speech-

Language-Hearing- Association, 1994) Given the anecdotal evidence of such performers

as country singer Mel Tillis, stuttering symptoms can disappear while singing.

(http://www.countrystars.com/legends/bios/tillis_m.html) One stutterer this researcher

interviewed (Johansen, 2002) said he wondered whether his stuttering had something to

do with the errhythmia of his movement, though he attributed its beginnings to a verbally

abusive primary school teacher who ridiculed him as he struggled to pronounce a word.

Dr. R. M. Abramson personally told this researcher that at parties he is often seated next

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to stutterers because he is able to work rhythmically with them to ameliorate their

symptoms.

Geriatric patients are another group on which rhythmic therapies have been found

effective, according to Liederman (1967) and Heidenreich (1979).

Foundation Centrum ’45, a Netherlands organization, has been established to

combat post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and, more specifically, for the treatment of

and research into the consequences of organized violence. It also offers music and

movement therapy. Its website says movement therapies help the patient cope with

tension and tense situations and that music therapy has the agenda of restoring the

balance between tension and relaxation, letting go of emotions and holding on to them,

self-regulation, concentration, self-control, reducing fear, trust, and self-confidence.

(www.centrum45.n1/ukdef1.htm) Another website mentions that Foundation Centrum

’45 is the Dutch “national centre for medical-psychological treatment for members of the

resistance and victims from World War II.”

(http://play.psych.mun.ca/~dhart/trauma_net/violence.html)

Results of studies on adults treated for depressive syndromes with Dalcroze

Eurhythmics show that this activity corrects mental states, improves psychomotor

activity, and improves complex reactivity. It had lasting effects for endogenous

depression, but not for psychogenous depression. (Rajewski, Walczak, & Fellman, 1981)

Feldmann (1970) recommends Dalcroze Eurhythmics as a psychomotor

rehabilitation therapy. Feldmann’s study mentioned that Dalcroze Eurhythmics uses

music to study and imitate models and recognize body space, time space, and field space.

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All of these elements are basics of grapholexical learning and conceptual thinking. By so

redeveloping motricity, children develop wider intellectual control and socialization.

Feldmann emphasizes that one shouldn’t test socially deprived kids by static tests such as

mental level or intellectual ability. Instead they must only be tested with dynamic tests

measuring their learning capacity—specifically measuring their psychomotor potential

and the plasticity of their neurological substratum. Children who are unathletic, lack

rhythm or have problems with coordination can be helped by Eurhythmics, according to

Kelly (1999). She ties childhood awkwardness to a lack of rhythm and says even those

so handicapped as to possess a sort of bodily dyslexia can be helped by Eurhythmics.

Even silly games like potato sack races can teach rhythm. Brown, Sherrill, & Gench

(1981) showed Dalcroze to be effective in improving perceptual-motor development in

children aged four to six. Positive changes occurred in motor, auditory, and language

aspects. One study conducted in England mentions Dalcroze as an approach which

“enhance[s] a child’s coordination and perceptual skills.” (Addy, 1996)

A study by Cortes, Fiore, Megna, Ferrari, and Megna (2001) showed rhythm,

breathing, swallowing, articulation, and other related exercises allowed a Parkinson’s

patient to compensate for re-emergent adolescent stammering. These activities made his

language comprehensible. The patient was able to make the strategies automatic and thus

useful for everyday life. Jourdain (1997) describes how music and rhythm help the

Parkinson’s patient achieve smooth movements.

. . . it is easy to see how music momentarily reassembles the shattered motor system of Parkinson’s patients. . . . by transporting the brain to a higher than normal level of integration. Music establishes flow in the brain, at once enlivening and coordinating the brain’s activities, bringing its anticipations into

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step. By so doing, music provides a stream of intention to which a Parkinson’s patient can entrain his or her motions. . . . [There is a] ‘kinetic melody’ that plays out in all our bodies as we move about the world and to which Parkinson’s patients have been struck deaf. Music briefly restores that melody, at least for those sorts of activities that are themselves flowing and ‘musical.’ (p. 302)

Jourdain (1997) goes on to say this is true of all of us as well. This explains why

some subjects who had recently listened to Mozart did better on some reasoning tests

than those who listened to no music or to pop music. He also mentions that music

organizes the brain. Movement and emotion are linked as far back as the ancient Greeks,

he says. Emotion comes from the Latin ex movere, to “move away.” (Ibid., p. 311) He

also talks of the importance of music and rhythm to trance and possession. (Ibid., p. 328)

In Frego’s (1995) study, Dalcroze Eurhythmics was used to treat AIDS patients.

The results suggest it helps facilitate creative coping with pain and apprehension, as well

as providing a safe, supportive group environment which is necessary for facing the

future. Subjects showed improvement in memory, use of space, relaxation, and a self-

perception of improvement in balance and energy as well. Frego (1995) explains that

Eurhythmics uses relaxation exercises which are based in conscious control and

manipulation of the functions normally handled by the subconscious nervous system.

The exercises were both reduction of stress (through economically focusing movement

energy) and relaxation techniques -- with or without music.

A study by Brick (1973) proposes using Dalcroze Eurhythmics to help teach

speech and audition to hearing-impaired youth. It claims that Dalcroze increases the

child’s awareness of the pleasure of sounds. Creative movement, vibration, vocalization,

sound perception, and simple orchestration are used in the method. Special attention is

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paid to the effect of various age levels on the child’s interest and natural tendencies.

Another study proposes Eurhythmics as an approach for early training of the nervous

system in children. (Boyarsky, 1989)

Hyperkinetic dysphonia is another disorder that is treated in part by rhythmic

exercise dealing with space-time. (Lauriello, Saltarelli, & Pintus, 1999) Characteristics

of this disorder are aggressiveness, hyperactivity, clashing personality, incorrect vocals

(too intense; too fast), and chronic respiratory inflammation.

Major auditory agnosia is another disorder treated in part by bodily rhythm-based

phonological approach. (Poupet & Vannier, 1998) The subject in this study exhibited

symptoms such as near-psychotic lack of facial expression and interpersonal contact and

poor oral comprehension. The treatment approach resulted in her being integrated part-

time into classroom.

Cromie (2002) notes some additional areas where practical applications for music

or rhythm exist. Blood pressure can be lowered with music. Dyslexics have also

reportedly been helped to read better by playing a musical ‘quick response’ game. This

is, as mentioned elsewhere in this study, a classic Dalcroze exercise. Premature babies in

intensive care units with soft music in the background gain weight faster and leave

sooner. Music can calm Alzheimer’s patients, reducing confusion and disagreements.

Music increases oxygen consumption efficiency and reduces blood pressure. It even

helps the heart muscle work better. Anecdotal evidence abounds on athletes using music

for better performance. Tramo (Cromie, 2002) believes that dance and music precedes

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language, evolutionarily. He says neurologists still don’t know if musical practice helps

people master math or reading, however.

The Russians have also had success "using Eurhythmics in psychiatric hospitals,

schools for the physically handicapped and schools for the blind.” (Revkin, 1984, p. 287)

Revkin briefly mentions its success with retarded children. (Ibid., p. 416)

Becknell describes how it has been adapted for work with not only these three

groups but also those suffering from nervous disorders. (Becknell, 1970, p. 36) He notes

further that it is used at the New York Institute for the Education of the Blind. (Ibid., p.

44) And, "in Spain and Italy testimonials have been sent from every conservatory.

[Dalcroze Eurhythmics] is taught in the Schools of Education for Blind Children, where it

has had great success, in France, England, and America." (Ibid, pp. 54-55)

Dalcroze Eurhythmics has other educational applications besides music. As the

following team of music scholars put it:

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a logical place for a potential musician to begin, but it is not intended only for those who will pursue music seriously. The end results of Dalcroze exposure go beyond its musical implications. The activities can contribute to a child's total personality by encouraging imagination and creative response. Eurhythmics offers a variety of ways for a child to express himself freely and, therefore, can influence his temperament and his psychological development. (Landis and Carder, 1972, p. 120)

Why might it be that these therapeutic uses of Dalcroze Eurhythmics are

successful? A study of mothers and their deaf-blind children shows an interesting

connection between music structures and bonding. (Hauge & Tonsberg, 1996) This

study of congenitally deaf-blind children argues that the temporal organization of patterns

of dynamic togetherness are reflected in musical qualities, terms, and the improvisatory

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approach. It postulates that interaction rhythms may help find meaningful togetherness

with congenitally deaf-blind children, no matter what sensory modality is used. Musical

parameters are essential for mother child interaction at the micro-level, say the authors.

In deaf-blind children, music appears to work as an organizing tool. Interactive rhythms

are part of the search for entry into togetherness, regardless of what senses the child uses.

More research in the area of related applications of Dalcroze Eurhythmics could

bring to light some interesting developments in both the 20th and 21st centuries. The more

recent developments are presently being published in German and French language

journals, so access to them by American researchers is limited.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics has long been recognized as valuable when used in

education--even the education of gifted and special needs persons. This study has now

shown that its therapeutic applications have also been widespread. It might be

informative to do a separate study delineating exactly how much influence this methods

has had on such therapies and how fully they are being used today. It appears the sound

of truly expressive music might not only soothe the savage beast, but heal the ravaged

body—and mind.

Why you may not have heard of Dalcroze

Perhaps Jaques-Dalcroze, as the culminating thinker of a seminal stream of Swiss

psychological and pedagogical thought, had not just a tangentially significant, but a

revolutionary influence on the 20th century. Further research may find that his thought set

the philosophical tone for important changes occurring in most, if not all, of the

historically important developments in 20th century culture. Possibly many of the

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developments of his time which emphasize movement and rhythmic education can be

traced to Jaques-Dalcroze's influence on Western thought and culture. Research suggests

that, at the very least, his influence was more widespread than standard history texts

describe. The list of attendees and students of Dalcroze reads like a Who’s Who of

Modernism. (Theatron, 2003)

Jaques-Dalcroze's school and thought had already become so influential that the

1913 festival of his pre-World War I school at Hellerau, Germany, was attended by five

thousand persons, including such notables as Constantin Stanislavski, founder of The

Method for actors, and English writer George Bernard Shaw. His influence, through

these and other students, may span disciplines such as art, dance, science, psychology,

theater, medicine, etc. The investigation and analysis of his precise relationship to some

of these streams of thought, disciplines of study, and leaders of major movements is one

subject of this study. Unfortunately, the outbreaks of the first and second world wars

diminished the spread of his fame, so that today, while his theories have affected a

multitude of disciplines, few people know his name.

Boyer (2001) says Dalcroze is curiously underrepresented in current song

catalogs. He describes him as Franco-Swiss and calls him “this curiously well-known yet

unknown pedagogue.” (p. 1) This section addresses the question of why, if it has

positive potential, Dalcroze Eurhythmics hasn’t received mainstream attention. There are

several reasons for this. Probably the most relevant reason that Dalcroze’s name isn’t

widely known in the United States is because of Switzerland’s neutrality during the two

World Wars. (Revkin, 1984) Dalcroze was forced to leave his famous Hellerau,

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Germany, institute at the outbreak of World War I and return to Geneva, Switzerland.

There he established his Institut Jaques-Dalcroze, which still oversees the certification of

teachers of the method today. He was not able to travel and promote his method during

the two wars, so, while his name is well-known in Switzerland and parts of Europe, the

rest of the world has heard very little of him. (Ibid.) Due to political events in Germany

after 1914, Jaques-Dalcroze remained in Switzerland (where he had been vacationing)

during the First World War. Subsequently, notes Caldwell (1995), his influence outside

Switzerland was limited, specifically because Switzerland was isolated from the rest of

the word by World War I and World War II. (Caldwell, 1995, p. 14) He didn't stop his

work while in Switzerland. Eventually, when he was seventy, former students gave him

a birthday book containing 10,500 signatures of his students and former students from

forty-six nations.

After 1915, when it was introduced into the United States, Dalcroze began

influencing public school music education. But public schools could provide neither the

time nor the space for it, though they did adapt some of its elements to the classrooms.

(Landis and Carder, 1972, p. 33) Caldwell (1995) elaborates:

After the introduction of eurhythmics into the United States about 1915, Dalcroze's ideas began to influence public school music here. Those who insisted that the method be used in pure form and in its entirety found that the public schools could not provide time or space for it. Other teachers adapted some of the procedures to the needs of their classes. Still others learned specific ideas or instructional devices and began to use them without knowing their source. For example, the use of walking and running movements to represent quarter and eighth note values became fairly widespread in the United States. (p. 14) A second reason Dalcroze is relatively unknown in the United States is, because it

is a proprietary approach controlled by the Institut Jaques-Dalcroze in Geneva,

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Switzerland requirements for certification are stringent. It can take years of training at

each of the three levels. The least stringent requirements are for the Certificate level,

which assumes proficiency to teach at the preschool and primary grade level. The second

level, that of the License, requires proficiency to teach through the high school level. The

third, highest level, the Diplome, is held by only about fifty people world-wide.

(According to personal remarks made by Professor Robert M. Abramson to this

researcher.) At this level of proficiency, the results of the method can be phenomenal.

This researcher has watched Diplome holder Abramson quickly control and focus a

newly acquired classroom of preschool children with various learning and behavioral

dysfunctions in such a way that the children’s regular caregivers were astounded,

according to the looks on their faces and comments they made after the demonstration.

He has felt the hair on the back of his neck rise as the method was employed by that same

expert to teach an adult in a master class setting.

Jaques-Dalcroze believed the method can only be effective when used by the very

highly trained, almost magical people it produces. His assessment must be taken

seriously because, as Columbia Education Professor Karl Gehrkens wrote in 1934: ". . .

the man who has gone farther than any one else working this idea of physical response to

rhythm into a system is Jaques-Dalcroze and Dalcroze Eurhythmics is recognized the

world over as the most complete method of developing the rhythmic sense that has ever

been devised." (Landis and Carder, 1970, p. 35)

Dalcroze emphasized that one can’t learn eurhythmics from a book. He believed

that: "eurhythmics cannot be learned exclusively from books. . . . the realization that

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students failed to hear in their minds the sounds represented by musical notation

convinced him that intellectual study of music is inadequate." (Ibid., p.31) He stated that

without ". . . the special training upon which I lay stress . . . I deny absolutely that anyone

has the right to pass a definite judgement [sic] on my meaning; for one does not learn to

ride by reading a book on horsemanship, and eurhythmics are above all a matter of

personal experience." (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 19) Besides, “since teaching and

studying music through movement has to be experienced to be understood and

appreciated, it is often hard to put into words; so there is relatively little literature on the

subject at present.” (Caldwell, 1995, p. 6)

Some may object to this tightly held certification privilege retained by the Institut

Jaques-Dalcroze in Geneva, Switzerland. Is there a paradox between the proprietary

nature of Dalcroze certification and the supposed freedom of thought the method

enhances? Is it empowering others or controlling them? Do not the best ideas usually

make their way into the public domain? This researcher would guess this latter question

is best answered “not necessarily.” It seems more likely that a developer of a system

doesn’t usually give it away if she can find a way to make money by holding it

proprietarily. The methods of Montessori, Orff, Kodaly, Suzuki, Gestalt, Rolfing, and

Jungian analysis appear to be just a few examples of methods whose development is

overseen by organizations that set standards for certification. According to a lecture this

researcher attended given by glassblower Phil Teefy at Hot Glass Horizons in Corning,

New York in 1999, even the manufacturers of bifocals had to pay a royalty to Ben

Franklin’s family for more than 100 years. In fact, it may well be that only systems that

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are proprietary last. Of course, one can teach rhythm without such certification, but

someone doing so ought not to call oneself a Dalcroze Eurhythmics teacher.

Training also can be relatively expensive. It is taught at some of the most

prestigious schools, conservatories and private academies in Europe, Asia, and the United

States. There are some scholarships available through the Dalcroze Society of America,

however. (This researcher was fortunate enough to be awarded one of these for a small

portion of his studies.)

Finally, as Dale (1998) says: “Of all music teaching methods, the Dalcroze

approach is probably the most nebulous to define. That’s because it lives in the teachers

themselves.” (p. 1) Dale describes the three essential pedagogical principles underlying

Dalcroze. First, listening introduces the sounds of the discipline of music into the theory-

learning. We learn by hearing, not by reading music. Second, never start with theory.

Start with the product itself.

A good Eurhythmics teacher never introduces a musical idea in notation and then attempts to explain it verbally. Instead, a series of exercises, developing logically from the known to the unknown, leads the students through a total experience of a particular concept to the point that they have mastered it in hearing and performance. Then and only then, the teacher links the students’ understanding to notation, theory, analysis, and performance. This process ensures that the concept holds deep musical meaning from the start, rather than beginning with a purely intellectual view and somehow tacking on musicianship later. (p. 2-3)

The third pedagogical principle is that three forms of improvisation are used. The

teacher improvises at the piano to give impetus for the students’ activity. The students

improvise with movement, singing, and instruments. This ensures students have deeply

grasped and absorbed concepts, reducing the need for rote, non-affective memorization

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techniques. The teacher also improvises pedagogically. By understanding the

fundamental philosophical methods behind her teaching, she can change lesson plans,

exercises, and music at a moment’s notice in order to facilitate optimum learning. Dale

mentions it is in accord with “the work of Dewey, Bruner, and much contemporary

educational theory.” (p. 4)

Dale (1998) also mentions that Dalcroze is less known and implemented than

other methods because those things that make it valuable also limit its use commercially

and in regular school programs. It provides “deep results” rather than “quick results” (p.

6) Also, since the method works from the inside out, it’s not easy to see inner progress.

[Thus, there is a need for research practitioners to relate the phenomenological aspect as I

have attempted to in this thesis.] Also, it appears that it is easier for people to get excited

seeing a performance on stage than merely hearing about the students’ improved abilities

to hear, read, understand and improvise. (p. 6) Another reason it isn’t as commercial as

other methods is the time-consuming process of teacher training. “The challenge is not

one that can be met by all teachers, even after years of study.” (p. 7) The piano

improvisation requirements frighten many teachers. Realistically, however, the training

process helps the teachers in the discovery of these skills. All these aspects that limit its

commercial appeal are the things that give freedom and inspiration for the teacher. Dale

says that, as a teacher, this gives her teaching joy, spontaneity, creativity, and flexibility.

It’s really “a lifelong journey toward musical insight and personal development.” (p. 7)

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Regardless of how one acquires prowess in teaching rhythm—whether through

teacher training, musicianship, or certification by the Dalcroze Eurhythmics institutions,

it is perhaps most important to remember these words of Durant (1943) who cautions:

Let us not, then, be ashamed of teaching the people. Those jealous ones who would guard their knowledge from the world have only themselves to blame if their exclusiveness and their barbarous terminology have led the world to seek in books, in lectures, and in adult education, the instruction which they themselves have failed to give. Let them be grateful that their halting efforts are aided by amateurs who love life enough to let it humanize their teaching. Perhaps each kind of teacher can be of aid to the other: the cautious scholar to check our enthusiasm with accuracy, and the enthusiast to pour warmth and blood into the fruits of scholarship. Between us we might build up . . . an audience fit to listen to geniuses, and therefore ready to produce them. (p. x)

Implementing social critical theory literature: The connections between rhythm, hypnosis, propaganda, and socialization

How powerful is rhythm for persuasion? The ancient Greeks declared it an

imperative, as this study will show. This study has so far shown that the premises of

Dalcroze Eurhythmics are compatible with the most recent findings in neuroscience and

other related fields. It has shown that its goals and reputed effects are to create

integrated, creative, physically and emotionally healthy artistic individuals who can think

for themselves in emotionally and socially integrated, yet independent ways. This study

wouldn’t be complete without noting that, of the many sources found, two sources do not

see it as a purely positive influence on the human race. These two writers do not see

Dalcroze Eurhythmics as innocuous. Instead, they propose that it is linked to hypnosis,

propaganda, paranoia, Nazism, paganism, and Satanism. Thus, this comprehensive

literature review on rhythm and Dalcroze Eurhythmics will also include discussions of

hypnosis, mass hypnosis, Nazism, propaganda, and paranoia. Given the nature of

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paganism and Satanism as religions, it hardly seems appropriate to discuss them here,

regardless of the truth or untruth of such allegations.

Golston’s (1996) argument takes the following outline. The late 1800’s and early

1900’s were a time of great interest in the phenomenon and uses of rhythm. He cites one

1913 source as saying: “The subject of rhythm has been carried over into many fields

both inside and outside of the science of psychology: within, it has been related to

attention, work, fatigue, temporal estimation, affection, and melody; without, it is

frequently mentioned in connection with music, literature, biology, geology, gymnastics,

physiology, and pedagogy.” (Ruckmich, 1913, p. 304, as cited in Golston, 1996, p. 1) He

states that Ruckmich’s article made a call for a general study of rhythm in all the

sciences. This call was echoed during that era by many theorists of other nationalities as

well. Because of its interdisciplinary nature, Golston calls it an “ideological incubator”

whose ideas can traverse the boundaries of disciplines. (Ibid.)

Golston (Ibid.) does not see this “incubator,” as he puts it, as a positive addition to

science. Instead he proceeds to

establish a narrative of incubational links between developments in the study of rhythm in the fields of psychology, physiology, musicology, eugenics, genetics, the science of work, pedagogy, aesthetics, and political propaganda, and will examine how these studies intersect with one another to produce a complex equation involving rhythm, pulse, blood, genetics, music, and the organized modern state and its subjects: after becoming an object of inquiry in psychology, physiology, and musicology early in the century, rhythm is ‘carried over’ into studies of genetics and eugenics, while at the same time playing an important role in theories of work and child-rearing. Ultimately enlisted in Fascist discourse, it is employed as a tool of propaganda for the construction of genetically encoded subject-bodies, as well as the body of the states, itself conceived of as a complex array of interpenetrating personal, physiological, biological, racial, industrial, psychological, and historical rhythms. (p. 1-2)

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Later in his essay, Golston introduces rhythm’s place in the creation of paranoia. He

says: “Rhythm is the omnipresent measure, informing and fusing substance and time,

from which each body and event is knit; it is at once component and tool, a fact which

will eventually generate a virulent species of paranoia. . . .” (Ibid. Internet pagination

unclear.) This occurs, he infers, because such a permeating and insidious force would

then appear (to such paranoid persons) to take away the individual’s control over body

and mind. (Ibid.) He also cites Dalcroze’s own writings as lending themselves to racist

interpretation and crowd control. He then implies racism in the works of Jung, W. B.

Yeats, and Ezra Pound. (Ibid.) He claims that: “One of the most important uses of

rhythm is as a means of making propaganda more distinct or clear. . .” (Ibid., p. 15)

Finally, he mentions that rhythm has a hypnotic danger.

The capacity of rhythm to effect a totalitarian permeation of territory resonates with the Fascist program; rhythm indeed occupies organisms, and in fact preoccupies them in that it inheres in them a priori, - as a necessary formal component – and in fact structures, interweaves, and organizes them in time and space. But it may also be used as a colonizing or otherwise invasive force upon them, in which case rhythm preoccupies the organism by hypnotizing or automatizing it. (Ibid., p. 16)

Establishing the veracity, exaggeration, or alarmism of Golston’s claims is beyond the

scope of the present thesis. However, as a first step to framing rhythm as a proper subject

of further study in the communication field—with all that field’s permutations--this

section will examine the literature on the various claims and concepts he raises.

The second writer, a reviewer, says that Guilbert (accessed 3/29/04) expresses

reservations about Dalcroze Eurhythmics and its connection to Mary Wigman, Laban,

neo-paganism, Jung, the Ascona, Switzerland, vegetarian-nudist colony, and mass ritual.

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(Anonymous reviewer of Mme. Laure Guilbert’s book in French language: Danser avec

le IIIeme Reich. Last accessed 3/29/04 at

http://auguste.vestris.free.fr/Essays/Laban.html) Given the anonymous nature of the

review, it hardly seems appropriate to delve into its validity. However, the original book

might be useful for future study. Some of the purported quotations are provocative. This

study will quote some here, but will be unable to verify them or their purported

translation without access to the book itself.

The reviewer implies that this book exposes Laban as part of the Nazi war

machine until he couldn’t get along with its leaders. Unfortunately, the reviewer’s

attitude, while perhaps religiously earnest (he or she claims to be Jewish), appears

flippant and careless of details and scholarship. He spells Dalcroze’s first name as

“Eugene.” This review cannot be taken very seriously, it seems, but the book it discusses

may be of relevance to a later study.

These two Internet sources (purportedly based in academia) take issue with the

image of Dalcroze as harmless. One (Golston, 1996) links it to Nazism, mass hypnosis,

and worse (“Fascism” & “Satanism”). This seems to be largely an ideologically-based

paper, with little bibliographical citation. The second source of criticism of the

movement-based body development of Dalcroze and Laban methods links it, via Laban,

to Nazism, Freemasonry, Rosicrucianism, nudism, and fascism. The Internet source

accessed purports to be a review of a French book by Laure Guilbert, “a French art

historian, who teaches at the University of Metz, and has carried out research for the Cité

de la Musique and the Centre national de la Danse. An Internet search reveals that she

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was recently appointed as an executive to the Publications Department of the Théâtre

national de l'Opéra, the French National Theatre.” (Ibid., Internet pagination unclear.)

One is simply staggered, and I do mean staggered, by the bone-grinding research that has gone into Danser avec le IIIème Reich. It represents ten year's work in the libraries and archives of Europe and abroad, including, importantly, the ex-Soviet Bloc. The Index to Sources and Bibliography alone covers some thirty pages, and there are several hundred footnotes. Mlle. Guilbert has searched the Archives at Berlin, at Potsdam, at Dresden, Leipzig, Tel Aviv, Munich, Florence, Cologne, she has interviewed survivors worldwide, and dug up lost film footage. (Ibid., Last accessed 3/29/04 at http://auguste.vestris.free.fr/Essays/Laban.html)

The original work by the French woman appears to be full of in-depth

scholarship. The review itself, however, is unattributed, inflammatory, and appears to be

concerned as much with the purported Dalcroze-Wigman-Laban ties to hedonism, heresy,

and Jung as to Nazism. The unnamed author of the review spends a time discussing the

Anscona ‘vegetarian,’ ‘nudist’ colony allegedly run by Carl Jung, choreographed by

Laban, and attended by Wigman.

The next group of literature explored will pertain to the issue of using rhythm for

either hypnosis of individuals in the clinical setting or so-called mass hypnosis.

According to Golston (1996):

Bolton suggests that eventually [rhythm’s] ‘series of pulses’ will be measurable into ‘units of consciousness’; ultimately, then, the study of rhythm may lead to successful methods of mind control, for if the rhythms of the attention can be calculated and consciousness itself quantified into measurable units, new sciences of hypnosis, manipulation, and management may be made possible. The phenomenon of "grouping," as a matter of fact, occurs as the primary function of the periodicity of attention.

* * *

The presence of rhythms in speech and attention may thus be used to stimulate the conscious evolution of the mind, programs for which will be articulated by theorists down the line. The political uses of rhythm as an agent of social control

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are suggested in [Bolton’s rubric entitled:] "The Emotional Effects of Rhythm upon Savages and Children." Bolton describes the [supposed] "emotional effect which rhythms produce upon certain classes of people, savages and children," as made manifest by involuntary muscular reactions. (Internet pagination unclear.)

While the theory and practice of Dalcroze Eurhythmics is not focused specifically

upon politics or trance terminology, several correlations, hypotheses, and frameworks can

perhaps be tentatively made. These may be examined in several distinctive directions.

First, terms must be conceptualized, defined and applied to the theory. Second, we must

delve further into the theory and practice of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Third, we must

address the use and abuse of trance. Fourth, we can review the politics of the U. S. vis-à-

vis the war in Iraq. Fifth, it will be instructive to examine the uses of trance states as a

way of influencing public opinion. Sixth, we can explore the historical dimension of

rhythm, trance, politics, leadership and power. Finally, we can conclude with a

condensation, summarization, and discussion of the unique place of rhythm in the

charisma of leaders.

Hypnosis

In a classic medical text on hypnotherapy, Elman (1954) defines hypnotism as

“every bypass of the critical faculty and the implanting of selective thinking.” (Ibid., p.

16) “Hypnosis is a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human is bypassed,

and selective thinking established.” (Ibid., p. 26) “Selective thinking is whatever you

believe wholeheartedly.” (Ibid., p. 27) Significantly, hypnotism is a state of mind or a

mood—not a condition. Although he admits this may be a semantic distinction, it serves

to underscore how simple it is for people’s states of mind to change and hypnotism be

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effected. (Ibid., p. 26) The critical faculty is the one which passes judgment; it

distinguishes one concept from another—light-dark, hot-cold, etc. If doubt or fear is

allowed back in, the effect vanishes. (Ibid., 27) He recommends hypnotism and

autosuggestion for stage fright as well. Writers in the field of clinical hypnosis

acknowledge its profound role in influencing both individuals and the masses. Elman

reminds the reader:

You cannot impart a suggestion unless the subject is willing to take take it. At all times and in all degrees of hypnosis, the subject has complete power of selectivity. He therefore reacts only to suggestions that are reasonable and pleasing to him. . . . And odd or not, it seemed reasonable and pleasing to the subject or he would have rejected the suggestions. (Ibid., p. X)

He continues to describe the hypnotic experience of the subject:

. . . he is in control of all his faculties except one. He can hear, see, feel, smell, taste, speak. . . . The single exception to this control is what I call the critical faculty. If you give him a suggestion which pleases him and which seems emotionally and morally reasonable to him, he will accept it despite the fact that under ordinary circumstances he might consider it an impossible suggestion. (Ibid., p. XI)

“There is no such thing as not being hypnotizable.” (Ibid., p. XI)

Certainly, rhythm can be used to induce trance states—especially for stage shows.

(Ibid., p. 24) But so can a limitless number of techniques. In fact, there is no way you

cannot hypnotize someone once you understand how to use the power of suggestion.

(Ibid., p. XII) Another similarity between hypnosis and Dalcroze is the importance of

experience in educating the teacher. “I insist that my students learn by watching and

doing, rather than by only listening to lectures or reading unsubstantiated theories.”

(Ibid., p. XV) At any rate, fixating the discussion of rhythm on its hypnotic uses doesn’t

necessarily clarify rhythm’s nature. If anything, it probably only serves to perpetuate the

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myth that hypnotism is dangerous. Elman says: “there is a great deal of misinformation

about what has been written about hypnosis.” (Ibid., p. XII) He elaborates:

Since selectivity prevails in the hypnotic state, and the law of self-preservation will not let a subject accept a harmful suggestion, no one has ever been injured by hypnosis. Numerous hypotheses have been formulated to the effect that a subject might be induced to hurt himself, knowingly or unknowingly, or might be ‘fooled’ into committing a crime. Yet there is no case on record of any such happening. We have conducted thousands of tests, and in all cases, one of two things happen when an improper suggestion is given: The subject either rejects the suggestion or completely terminates the trance state. (Ibid., p. XII)

Another medical textbook on hypnosis (Cooke & Van Voght, 1965) mentions that

hypnosis cannot best be called a sleep state. A plausible theory is that the trance state “is

a condition where the ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’ have been separated or

disassociated.” (Ibid., p. 53) This is plausible because during the preliminary induction

step, the therapist reduces distraction by focusing the subject’s senses into a narrow field

of thought. But this dichotomy of conscious and subconscious is merely a construct. In

real life, the two aspects of the mind are not separate. Presently, we don’t know what

hypnotic trance is, just some of how it works. (Ibid.) Dalcroze Eurhythmics, on the other

hand, as this study will presently show, appears to be a combination of both states—a

bringing forward into consciousness of the subconscious ‘stream of consciousness.’***

Cooke and Van Voght (Ibid.) give an outline of the possible physiological process

underlying the hypnotic trance state:

our emotions seem to be the product of the predominantly thalamic regions of the brain, in which lie the reactions of identification and of the automatic responses of the mind. The function of discrimination seems to be restricted to the predominantly cortical areas. All psychotherapy is directed toward integrating the emotional and intellectual reactions of the individual to reality. . . . The one point on which all the schools [of psychology] seem to agree is that the patient must obtain an emotional (that is, thalamic) reaction before permanent beneficial

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changes can be achieved. Patterns of reaction must be altered. Hypnosis offers us a method of inhibiting the critical cortical activity while the desired emotional reaction is skillfully evoked. (pp. 54-5)

However, Elman’s (1964) distinction between hypnotic trance and hypnotic coma

(the “Esdaile state”) seems the more helpful for the present discussion. Both are simply

degrees of relaxation and suggestibility. The first is various stages of relaxation which

still allow the patient to engage in external, physical movement. The second is the

catatonic state of total euphoria which prevents the patient from choosing to engage in

physical movement. This state has been used to induce non-chemical anesthesia for

thousand of surgeries. (Ibid.) “The person in hypnosis. . . has greater awareness than the

person not in hypnosis.” (Ibid., p. 62-63) The five physical characteristics of the person

in hypnotic trance are: body warmth, eyelid fluttering, increase of lacrimation (watering

of the eyes), reddening of the whites of the eyes, eyeballs rolling up into the head.

Without them, it is impossible to achieve hypnotism. (Ibid., p.30) Without testing the

masses of people for these physical effects, it would be difficult to determine whether

true hypnotism occurred during historically notorious political regimes such as Hitler

Nazi Germany. Given the military test referred to herein, mass hypnosis is no doubt

possible, but it would seem more useful to explore political influence as either

propaganda or subliminal indoctrination. The following two sections will briefly outline

those two areas of exploration.

Subliminal Indoctrination

Some scholars may wonder if this almost hypnotic quality of rhythm-based

rhetoric leads automatically to demagoguery, fascism, or irresponsible leadership.

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Perhaps the easiest response is to reply that even fire can be misused, but that doesn’t

mean we shouldn’t use it. Without the technology that its exploration brings, we would

still be living in the Stone Age. (Elman, 1964) Also, for developing the hypnotic

qualities of performance, musicians refer to 'entrainment,' or getting everyone ‘on the

same wavelength.’ (Elder, M.-S., 1997) (Hetherington, C. R., 1995) (Thaut, M.H.;

Kenyon, G.P.; Schauer, M.L.; McIntosh, G.C., 1999) The Mesmer (Franz Johann)

technique of mesmerism was an early kind of hypnosis—though misunderstood by

himself and medical community. (http://www.german-way.com/german/famous2html)

While it is no doubt true that music has been, and is still used for subliminal

influences by hegemonic forces (McLuhan, 1972), Dalcroze Eurhythmics is less certainly

a tool of hegemonic forces. On the contrary, rather than promoting a sublimated

subconscious level of activity, Dalcroze Eurhythmics seeks to make subconscious

processes more conscious. Having more power over one’s thinking would seem to lead

to more independence from such outside forces, not less. Indeed, the experience of

Dalcroze and many of his teachers at the Hellerau Institute gives weight to such an

argument. Dalcroze engaged in a political protest which prevented his return to pre-Nazi

Germany during World War I. His teachers and associates went even further. Not only

did certain Dalcrozians exhibit great independence by founding some of the 20th century’s

greatest historical movements, they also resisted the Nazification of the method when

Hitler later rose to power. (http://www.deheap.com/biographical.htm) These appear to

be the actions of independent thinkers, not subjects or purveyors of hypnotic trance,

propaganda, or subliminal indoctrination.

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Propaganda (or Socialization)

Miller (1997) says that socialization is “the process of learning to adapt and

conform to a living environment.” She goes on to say that historically, music has been a

tool used in that process. She mentions Lull’s (1985) findings that illiterate populations

communicated using music to convey utilitarian data about law, history, medicine, and

cosmology. (Ibid.) Miller also mentions that as a creative art form, music should be

studied from a variety of viewpoints. She later mentions that what makes a musical

composition unique is the character created by the composer’s choices of note and rest

combinations that please her. Such decisions give syntactic structure to a piece, shaping

its melody, rhythm, and chord selection. This syntax design is used by the composer to

express meaning. Semiotic study then becomes relevant as it is used to analyze symbolic

pieces of a message as part of a unity or whole. Music composition can be analyzed for

its messages using this approach of semiotics for clarifying the syntactic structure or

order and organization of the melodic and rhythm components. (Ibid.) Studies on mass

hypnosis and subliminal indoctrination mention music and rhythm as well. (McLuhan,

1972) Even scholars in Hitler’s Germany thought rhythm influential for influencing the

masses, according to Golston (1996). The concepts of socialization and propaganda are

far too intertwined to be separated here, but the literature on propaganda will be

delineated in this section of this study. This study cannot explore all the avenues of

political research, but it will show that Dalcroze Eurhythmics appears to have a prejudice

against Fascist dictatorships and mindless propaganda. Its disciples suffered under and

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fought Nazism and totalitarian regimes. (Theatron, 2002) (Center for White Rose Studies

at http://www.deheap.com/biographical.htm, last accessed 4/18/2004.)

The Shadow Knows: Toward an Analysis of the Social Critical Theoretical

Underpinnings of Rhythm, Hypnosis, Propaganda, and Paranoia

“Who knows what evil lurks in the hearts of men?” The old radio drama answers

this question with the response: “The Shadow knows.” (www.shadowradio.org) Yet who

or what might “the shadow” truly be? Antonio Gramsci uses social critical theory

(based in Marxism) to help conceptualize the place of propaganda in the survival of the

state. (Durham and Kellner, 2001) But audiences do not always accept the dominant

message in cultural texts. Instead, they sometimes offer their own, surprising,

interpretations. This section of the study will use a social critical approach to explore

how such interpretations may also function as paranoid delusions or psychosis when so

labeled by the dominant social group or framed by the dominant media elite. Analysis

will also consider the possible social benefits of such paranoia and tolerance of its

presence.

Literature Review of Social Critical Theory, Hypnosis, Propaganda, Paranoia, and

the Media

Hypnosis

Initially, it is vital that we explore the terminology used in the study of trance,

politics, and Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Unfortunately, there is some ambiguity, overlap, and

possible confusion amongst the terms used in each discipline. First, in trance literature,

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we soon find other terms used to describe the state of altered consciousness presumably

signified by the term trance. Researchers use various terms, few of which are defined or

clarified fully enough to distinguish one from another. Common terms such as power of

suggestion, therapeutic suggestion, altered states of awareness, meditation, self-hypnosis,

relaxation, alteration of experience, cerebral awareness, social communication, vigilance

task, breathing rhythm, psychological correlates, poetry inducing trance, animal

magnetism and trance, directed reverie, hypnotic suggestion, anesthesia, entrancing

storytelling, possession trance, social communication, hypnotically altered perception

qualities, madness, and mass psychology, all appear in the trance literature. This is a

primarily hypnosis-derived literature, although neurology, psychology and psychiatry

studies are also represented.

Terms discussed in hypnosis and political literature include crowds,

psychoanalysis, mimesis, affect, sense, nonsense, gestalt, dominator trance (sexuality),

poetic metrics, waking and hypnotic states, psychobio-energetic trance (athletics),

relaxation at the process of heterotraining (athletics), and verbal-music psycho regulation

(athletics). A small section of literature also mentions the current trend in music called

trance.

In communication and mass media literature, terms such as charisma, propaganda,

framing, and agenda-setting predominate in discussions about leadership influence.

Rhythm is seldom mentioned until one explores the literature of rhetorical studies. At

that point, delivery techniques such as the inner experience of rhythm or the physical

manifestation of movement-derived rhythm are subsumed under the discussion of

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rhythmic techniques or indicators such as repetition, phrasing, emphasis, affect,

emotional builds, etc.

So, the literature offers no clear-cut choice of terminology to use when discussing

trance effects in mass media or political situations. For this reason, the use of rhythmic

terms such as derived from the study of music and Dalcroze Eurhythmics may be as

legitimate as any other, providing such terms meet the criteria of clarity, simplicity,

elegance, helpfulness, and tendency toward helping create a body of literature.

An effort should be made to define or conceptualize trance. We should then

ascertain how this relates to mass hypnosis or mass psychology. We can then explore

how leaders during the war in Iraq used, abused, or avoided exploiting such states of

mind.

The earliest literature available on politics and hypnosis hypothesizes the use of

hypnosis during warfare and discusses Hitler as a mass hypnotist. (Estabrooks, 1943)

Interestingly, another early source explores the possible effects that therapeutic hypnotic

suggestions given to Hitler (during psychiatric treatment after suffering mustard gas

injuries when a corporal in World War I) may have had on historical developments

during the rise and fall of the Third Reich. (Post, 1998) Given this early use of the terms

mass hypnosis and mass hypnotist, these terms will probably be more acceptable than

trance—at least initially.

In fact, the supposed dangers of hypnosis were early emphasized by the Journal of

the National Medical Association. Kritzer (1946) presents hypnosis as making its

patients more highly suggestible, opening them up to the personal psychic influence of

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the hypnotist, stopping their willpower, and taking away their self-reliance and

discrimination. [See the previous section for a discussion based in modern medical

hypnosis textbooks, which refute these claims.] All these things degrade the patient. He

counsels to avoid the mass hypnosis which promotes totalitarianism, demagoguery,

religious revivalism and salesmanship. Instead, people must practice sober and

independent thinking.

Mass hypnosis also has a good side, according to an early psychiatry study.

Using mass hypnosis on actively disturbed psychotic naval patients gave many subjects

symptomatic relief by performing as a kind of therapeutic relaxation. (Schmidhofer,

1952)

The beneficial side of hypnosis notwithstanding, another study discusses the

dangers of hypnosis and shows how they can lead to mass psychological phenomena.

Meerloo (1962) describes hypnosis as: often coercive, making solving transference

difficult, it can be contagious in groups, it can create a passivity toward life, it can break

down ego defenses, and it may cause individual psychosis to become collective, leading

to chaos or worse. Meerloo holds that all hypnotic procedure results in increased

dependency need. [Modern hypnosis literature refutes these claims as well. See Elman,

1964 & Cooke and Van Voght, 1965.]

These therapeutic or psychological effects are not just imaginary, according to

early studies. Dynes (1932) shows a definite respiratory and cardiac distinction between

the hypnotic “trance” state and a normal waking state. Given this early use of trance

terminology, it seems reasonable to define trance, then, as the state of consciousness

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experienced under hypnosis. Further, another early study (Jeanmaire, 1949) likens the

trance state experienced under certain rhythmic, musical influences as being a religious

practice in Northern Africa. Jeanmaire suggests the trance state corresponds to the

ancient Greek notion of catharsis—a self cleansing through dramatic, emotional

expression.

Other sources discuss rhythm in connection with hypnosis. (Barolin, 1966;

Koestler, 1989) But most of the literature discusses the close connection between music,

trance, and hypnosis. (Zeuch, 2002; Freeman, 2000; Hutson, 1999; Feiler, 1999; Diment,

Walker, and Hammer, 1981; Badia & Carlos, 2002)

We’ve seen, then, some early conceptions of the dangers of trance abuse. Also

we’ve seen some therapeutic uses in self-healing, relaxation, and mitigation of psychotic

symptoms. These include anesthesia, mediation, religious and cathartic purgation.

However, the identification of abuses is probably most significant for the current study.

One Dalcroze specialist, Seitz (2003), talks of the wartime uses of propaganda. Other

scholars talk of framing and agenda setting as models for discussing trance states or mass

hypnosis in times of war. As one anonymous source reportedly said, ‘In times of war, the

first casualty is Truth.’

All institutions, governments and non-governments, manipulate the truth for their institutional reasons, just as people do for their individual reasons. Propaganda serves covert uses—you want to neutralize discussion, you want everybody to be on the same page and not question anything. (Jay Seitz{2003, The Washington Post, p. A18 as quoted in http://www.york.cuny.edu/~seitz/communitarianism.html accessed 4/3/2003)

In the U. S., the question becomes: How has the war machine (or the nation’s

“war effort” as it may sometimes be called) used trance or mass hypnosis to influence the

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people? If we use Snyder and Shor’s (1983) discussion of the trance-inducing qualities

of poetry, trance inductive performance is characterized by freedom from abruptness,

regular, soothing rhythm, refrain and frequent repetition, ornamentation of rhythm to fix

attention, vague imagery, and fatiguing obscurities. How many of these characterize the

Bush Administration’s war rhetoric? G. W. Bush's constant refrain of “Dead or Alive”,

calls for God to “Bless America,” and other repeated phrases certainly fit the bill.

Vagueness is also evident in the folksy imagery and lackadaisical delivery style.

However, his style is abrupt and at times staccato, so that is not purely according to

Snyder and Shor’s formula.

Certainly the use of 24/7 news coverage serves the repetitive function of hypnosis

as well. Some people were so entranced, they stayed up all night to watch developments.

This certainly qualifies as trance, I would think.

Ultimately, war rhetoric fits the description of shared historical group fantasies.

These are certainly symptomatic of a group trance state. (DeMause, 1979) Hitler used

more dynamic movement than Bush, but both appear to share an increased totalitarian

focus over their predecessors. Further study of fascist attempts versus democratic

attempts might prove fruitful as well.

While exploration of trance states is interesting and may prove instructive, the

current literature focuses on agenda setting, framing, and social critical approaches to

explain the persuasive effects of politicians and the hegemonic elite which backs their

efforts. Another area of relevance might be the literature of monster-making. This

explores the function of the media in creating and destroying monsters. Usually, these

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are persons who dissent or deviate from the norm and must be publicly destroyed in order

to help society purge itself and forgive its members while exhorting them subconsciously

to change their ways.

Of interest to the question of paranoia, propaganda, hypnosis, rhythm, and mass

media might be the writings of Foucault. He appears to tie the stages of development of

the language of history into: first, battles, kings and institutions; then, the economy; then,

affect; and, eventually, truth. As he puts it: “Soon they’ll understand that the history of

the West cannot be disassociated from the way in which ‘truth’ is produced and inscribes

its effects.” (Flynn, 1991, p. 173) In a larger sense, there appears to be a connection in

Foucault’s ideas between body, affect, propaganda, and truth.

Propaganda and Paranoia

Defining propaganda is an inexact science. Several models have been offered.

The original use of the term propaganda derives from the creation by the Catholic Church

of an official office for propagating the faith. (Finch, 2000) For the purposes of this

study, that offered by Foley (1996) is particularly relevant. Propaganda is called "mass

education [which] persuades people to accept changes that are contrary to their interests."

Whether one includes the acculturation of new members, the culturing of current

members or the reduction of dissent, its functions are fundamental. Regardless of

whether one defines propaganda as a negative force or a positive one, few would disagree

that propaganda has an important place in civilized society. But at what cost does this

redirection (or absorption) of members’ subconscious counter-analysis and potential

dissent occur? Is it possible that using subconscious and non-aboveboard persuasion

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tactics, practitioners actually can cause problems rather than merely solve them? This

study examines the hypothetical possibility that propagandizing does, itself, lead to

paranoia and revolutionary thought.

Paranoia as Psychosis

Ellin (2001) describes the place of fear in urbanization. Bragg (2002) explores

the place of non-critical, non-distanced participation in media rather than critical analysis.

Skirrow, Jones, Griffiths and Kaney (2002) explore the impact of media content on the

content of hallucinations of ICU patients. Do psychotic delusions reflect the media

experienced by the patient? Yes, according to this study. There is a direct relationship

between media experienced and content of psychotic episodes.

As mentioned above, the 1940’s radio program “The Shadow” speculated: “The

Shadow knows.” (www.shadowradio.org) The study herein offers the possibility that the

‘shadow’ or subconscious ‘sides’ of human psyches might know when they are being

propagandized. This subconscious realization could very well be the cause of paranoia

and conspiracy theory-type responses to acculturation attempts by the dominant media

and hegemonic elites.

In another study, Verbeke and Kenhove (2002) explore how emotional stability

relates to attitude and susceptibility to influence. They assess subjects of pro-corporate

propaganda during an image crisis. They recommend that during such a crisis,

communicators focus attention on lower emotional stability groups. Scharrer (2001)

explores how media affect and are affected by cultural and social climates. Potts and

Sanchez (1994) discuss how TV affects viewers. They show that an emotional impact

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exists. Relevant communication affects moods. It influences depressed people positively

and negatively, depending on whether it is has escapist or depressing content.

Applying Theory

Using a social critical approach, this study will critically analyze writings which

explore how the concepts of paranoia and propaganda may be related to each other and to

the mass media, either causally or thematically.1 Karl Marx identifies some of the

abstract ideas generated and perpetuated by the ruling elites. His ideas have formed the

foundations of modern social critical theory, a widely accepted method of analyzing the

inner workings of Western culture. (Durham and Kellner, 2001, pp. 39-42) Antonio

Gramsci (Ibid., pp. 43-47) details how these ideas are used by the elite to dominate the

subservient class. Benjamin (Ibid., pp. 48-70) describes art’s task of developing a

demand which can only be satisfied later. This appears to introduce the function of

propaganda as helping develop a consumerist society. Horkheimer and Adorno (Ibid.,

pp. 71-101) develop this theme further, theorizing the close connection between

consumerism, art, propaganda, and persuasion. Consumers are compelled to buy

products even though they “see through them.” (Ibid., p. 101) Habermas (Ibid., pp.102-

107) explores the application of these ideas to public relations as well.

These theorists attempt to make sense out of the driving forces or “ideology”

behind the actions of the “power elites.” They argue there are hidden elites with covert

agendas at work guiding, manipulating, and exploiting society. An example might be the

networking on interlocking corporate (and/or nonprofit) boards. This appears to build on

the theoretical premises of C. Wright Mills. Mills held that top social, economic, and

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political decisions in the United States are made by tightly formed groups of men from

top levels of corporations, government, and the military. These groups of men overlap

each other and interconnect, forming an all-pervasive power elite. (Douty, 1968) While

these theorists are well-respected scholars in many cases, others—particularly

laypersons--who make the same theoretical leaps are often called paranoid. Why are

scholars often praised for proposing ideas for which the masses are condemned? While

the difference may be in the skill of argumentation, it may also be in their respective

places in the social economic hierarchy itself. This may be an interesting research

avenue. Are the words of dissenting scholars more acceptable than dissenting working

class thinkers? Marx’s writings might criticize such a reality. This is an especially

interesting question given the argument made by Noam Chomsky (Lieber, 1975, p. 179)

that a new ‘mandarin’ class has arisen amongst the academic community. These

‘mandarins’ propose that there need not be any objective criticism of the distribution of

wealth and power in Western society because all such problems are basically managerial

and can be resolved by behavior technology and neutral scholarship. (Ibid.)

Tracy (2001) uses political economy theory to examine the alternative media,

dominant power relations, and ideological constructs developing out of these relations.

Harmony is a contested term and alternative media is important. Message resistance is

also explored.

Several additional theoretical approaches are explored in Anderson and Bushman

(2002). Domain specific theories of aggression such as Cognitive Neoassociation

Theory, Social Learning Theory, Script Theory, Excitation Transfer Theory, Social

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Interaction Theory are applied to aggression. The General Aggression Model is also

explained. Social influence behavior is explored as well.

Framing and Agenda Setting

Ryan (2001) deals with framing, agenda setting, and propaganda. The study

shows how a social movement’s political goals are advanced through the news media.

Lipschultz and Hilt (1999) explore the influence of the social construction of reality on

public opinion. Framing and agenda setting begin as rather neutral theories, but they may

be applied to a critical notion of propaganda. Consonant media messages may, in effect,

produce a propaganda effect. (Noelle-Neumann, 1991)

Another avenue to explore propaganda and agenda setting is through the

discourse of fear. (Altheide, 2002) Emphasizing danger and risk escalates a feeling in

the populace of fear and threat from and to children. These feelings of fear can then lead

to legitimizing more social control. The study seeks a better understanding of the process

of establishing fear as a means of social control. It shows that the use of fear increased in

the media from 1987 to 1996 and that the fear included children and the spaces they

occupy. [Coincidentally, this period of time also corresponds to the post-Reagan era of

American political life.] The fear has also become more generalized and more pervasive

and seeks to legitimize social controls which would conceivably protect children or

protect society from children.

An Israeli study (Cohen, 1999) explored why people like or accept viewed

images. Viewer preferences appear to be related more to character attributes than viewer

attributes. Lind (2001) talks about agenda-setting versus profit and social responsibility.

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The study also explores public dissatisfaction with the media. One aspect of propaganda

is proselytizing the social agenda. Smith (2000) outlines a particular variation of

propaganda: the use of charismatic communication to influence, persuade, and coerce.

Smith shows the correlation between charisma, salvation narratives, and simple binary

thematic constructs of good versus evil. Hill and Zillman (1999) examine how exposure

to the Oprah show leads Americans to be more lenient toward criminals. Agenda-setting

is thus seen in talk shows as well as news programs.

Television addiction also seems to correlate with certain psychological factors.

(McIlwraith, 1998) Abelman (1995) looks for the correlation between comprehension of

temporal sequencing and a child’s level of giftedness and learning ability. Another study

seeks to understand the impact of picture motion itself on viewers. (Detenber, Simons, &

Bennett, 1998) Lang and Dhillon (1995) examine the effects of both valence and arousal

on viewer memory for TV messages. They show that controlling how negative or

positive a message is leads to predictable memory levels. Positive arousing messages are

remembered more than negative arousing messages. Memory of calm messages falls

between the two.

Critical Theory and Pedagogy

Critical theorists also explore the socialization processes and the methods of

instilling group values. (McLaughlin, 2001) Gur-Ze’ev (1998) discusses the education

process itself in detail, arguing for the establishment of an alternative critical education as

a form of counter education. This would take the form of a nonrepressive critical

pedagogy which challenges the various forms of ‘normalizing’ education—including

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current critical pedagogies. Gur-Ze’ev’s form of education would be based on a negative

utopianism rather than a positive utopianism. Gur-Ze’ev argues that positive utopianism

is always in danger of leading to dogmatism or violence. Even Marcuse’s brand of

positive utopianism involves a transcendentalism which precludes its subjects or students

from understanding the truth. Instead, they and their teachers are manipulated by

historical forces which are not understood until their final unfolding.

According to Gur-Ze’ev (Ibid.), current critical pedagogy has as its basis the

commitment to change power structures, decipher the power relations, and challenge the

violence of groups which contributes to the current order of things. However, it is

impotent because it refuses theory or elitist overtones. It proposes an optimism which

presupposes an actual potential for true emancipation. Instead, Gur-Ze’ev states this is

naïve. It doesn’t take into consideration the true capacity of the Western system for

“shaping the collective consciousness.” This is a sort of “camouflaged game of being

that hides itself from human beings.” (Ibid.)

One example of this capacity is described by Cone. (1998-9) The CIA admitted

its establishment and involvement in Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty during the

Cold War. Due to a collusion between the U. S. media and the CIA, this complicity is

still largely unknown by the public. This collusion involved the documented use of

national media leaders, reporters, and journalists in knowingly working for the CIA to

promote its agenda and run these two media outlets. The CIA and its media allies

"presume they have a right to withhold information and deceive the public. It is a

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presumption which so far remains largely unchallenged by news media." (Cone, p. 7,

Internet pagination)

This is by no means the only covert governmental manipulation of the media.

Using research based on declassified government documents, Parry-Giles (1996)

describes the Truman and Eisenhower administrations' covert manipulation of the news.

Through passage of an act creating the only American peacetime propaganda program,

Truman was able to create media myths and institute an American ideology in both

foreign media spheres and domestic ones. Eisenhower followed Truman's

accomplishments with his own "camouflaged" propaganda strategies for influencing

domestic audiences. This involved a complex web of complicity and passivity on the

part of the media. (Ibid.)

According to Parry-Giles (Ibid.) a new counter education must arise which will

negate the existing power games even when they are called emancipation by their

defenders. Subjects must be educated to fully understand the innermost workings of the

hegemonic education already in place and revolt against the current deception. Subjects

must develop their “competence to demystify reality” and reconstruct the once-known

human potential for cooperation. (Ibid.)

Just what are some of these methods of media manipulation? One writer

discusses how media's misrepresentations are not all innocent error. (Parenti, 1997)

Instead, he holds, the media is selective. The principle of selectivity exhibited is not

random, but recurrent. It favors management over labor, corporations over critics,

affluent over low income, officialdom over protesters, two-party over third party leftists,

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privatization and free market over public sector development, Western dominance over

revolution in Third World countries, national security policy over its critics, and

conservative media figures over populist ones such as Nader. Such built in biases reflect

the interests of the dominant elite and its ideology, seldom causing trouble for the power

holders--including media owners or advertisers. This model is consistent with social

critical thinkers such as Marx and Gramsci. (Durham and Kellner, 2001)

Judging the continued relevance of propaganda, its study, and its terminology

might be difficult; however, indications are that its relevance continues. A recent

Cincinnati Post article quotes Dr. Jay Seitz, a scholar on wartime use of propaganda, as

saying that these psychological aspects of war could be just as important as the military

aspects. Seitz states that propaganda's purpose is to humanize war. (Dobbin, 2003)

At the level where corporate interests and media interests converge, Schiller

(1993) discusses the hegemony of the international media industries. He shows the

impact of transnational economic interests in the globalization of the media. He shows

how corporate control using various stratagems leads to silencing of public debate and

the decline of opposing international voices.

Social critical theory is used to conceptualize recent protest waves in Western

Europe. (Barker and Dale, 1998) The authors argue that while unionism may be on the

decline, dissatisfaction and protest are not. Through “institutionalization,” the unions

have been absorbed into the dominant hegemony and no longer serve their constituency.

A trend toward collective bargaining and increasingly successful attacks from employers

and government caused the vision, ideology and influence of the unions to be weakened.

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Additionally, the academics in that study have seen the weakening as a sign of a new

paradigm shift away from the existence of a labor class toward the domination of

employment by a white collar, non-labor “middle class.” Barker and Dale argue that

there still is a labor class; it is made up of the white collar and the blue collar workers.

Both remain alienated. They foresee the European protest waves as the possible

beginning of a renewed protest against failed pacification, subterfuge, and continued

exploitation of the working classes by the employing elites. (Ibid.)

One issue Foley raises--that of educating the masses--is dealt with extensively by

Gur-Ze'ev (1998). Gur-Ze'ev theorizes a new social critical pedagogy which is not based

on the positive utopianism inherent in thinkers from Marx to Marcuse. Instead, education

must be critical, yet based on a negative utopianism. This is a counter education which

will not necessarily change the world, but may achieve transcendence from it.

Throughout its description, its nature is still presupposed as a social critical approach to

education. (Gur-Ze'ev, 1998)

McLaren (1991) takes this discussion of critical pedagogy further and argues for

the embodiment of education. Theory, words, and other abstractions aren't enough. "As

educators, we need to push and strain the boundaries that hold us conceptually captive to

reading the world through words alone; we need to read the world as well through our

situatedness in a sea of emotions and desires and through our location as body/subjects

and as spiritual beings." Thus the world of abstractions is only a fragment of reality. We

must not alienate ourselves from our physical essence while we seek spiritual fulfillment.

McLaren's words strike resonance. In fact, this researcher is reminded of the response by

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Candide to the philosophizing of Dr. Pangloss: "That's true enough, but we must go work

in the garden.” (Voltaire, 1947)

Globalization Model

Another issue in mass media is the propaganda of globalization. According to

Hafez (1999), the notion of a linear process of media globalization has been called into

question. Arguments against the reality of such a development have been the growth of

national media markets and the information gaps between countries at various stages of

economic development. Hafez argues that a further indication of the lack of true

globalization is the system of foreign reporting. It is neither globalist nor objective in its

outlook. Instead it is largely nationalist and thus particularist. This would have to

change to a new 'global-local nexis' before it could truly be called globalization. Such a

nexis must be accomplished with a series of reforms within the media itself, including a

code of ethics, increased professional dialogue, and the creation of a journalistic crisis

management. (Ibid.)

Some scholars refer to globalization and the role of the mass media in 'educating'

the public. Using social critical theory as his model, Foley (1996) discusses the

importance and function of public education in political economy--in particular, the mass

media's role in "mass education (more accurately called propaganda) [which] persuades

people to accept changes that are contrary to their interests." (Ibid., p. 38) He looks at

three periods of crisis which necessitated the reeducation of the American people in the

virtues of capitalism. His definition of propaganda may indeed be a useful one in

designing a future model.

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This globalization model in use among propaganda researchers might also be

framed as the myth of globalization. While the myth part of this term appears to be an

original creation of this researcher, the globalization concept permeates the literature on

propaganda. One example is Howard and Gill (2001). They explore how the media's

education of children leads children to think of themselves--not only as citizens of their

country but also as citizens of the world. The media they examine is in this case the

"mass media, mass communication and the Internet." (Ibid., p. 87)

Western Hegemony Model

Regarding globalization and the international hegemony of Western interests

enabled by Western mass media, there are indications that some nations or regions are

beginning to reject the influence. Kieh, Jr. (1992) explores the history of Western

cultural imperialism in Africa and the resistance to its continuation. He argues that the

major Western Powers have maintained cultural hegemony in Africa using a four part

web of socialization agents. These are education, ideology, culture, and the mass media.

The African resistance to this development has come from five directions. The first is the

action radical regimes have taken to supplant the Western superstructures with

indigenous ones. Second, the liberated Christian churches have in mass numbers severed

their patron-client relationship with their source churches in the Western world. Third,

mass-based groups which focus on reviving indigenous traditions have proliferated.

Fourth, radical African intellectuals have emerged who question the Western influence.

Having often been trained in Western countries, they have first hand knowledge of the

West's weaknesses. Finally, there has emerged a recurrent contradiction amongst the

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Western Powers regarding their foreign policies toward the African states. Africans are

becoming aware of a Western propensity to talk democracy and support tyranny. (Ibid.)

This is not the only region to reject what it understands as Western hegemony.

Ackerman (2001) discusses the intense hatred by the Palestinians of the U. S. Media.

Palestinian scholars cite the Western media's general tendency to ignore the United

Nations' condemnation of the Israeli occupation. Instead, the Western media frames the

occupation--which is illegal under the Geneva Convention and which the UN Security

Council resolutions have repeatedly condemned and from which demanded Israel's

withdrawal--not as imperialist invasion and illegal occupation, but as "settlements" in a

"disputed" area. The Palestinians are likewise seen not as the Kuwaitis--as heroic

resisters to foreign domination and as "an occupied but still unconquered nation." Rather

they are framed as retaliators, attackers, and ambushers. (Ackerman, 2001)

Significantly, in describing the etiology (or, more specifically, the pathogenesis) of

‘9/11,’ Noam Chomsky describes the situation similarly. (Chomsky, 2003) Interestingly,

he makes a similar case regarding the illegality of America’s involvement in Vietnam.

(Lieber, 1975, pp. 178-9)

Of course, the hegemonization of the non-Western world is not without its

“success stories.” Taiwan, for example, has integrated Western style “reforms” rapidly

into its post World War II development. (Chun, 2000) Yet Chun argues that even

Taiwan's rapid adoption of such social changes doesn't necessarily signal the free

acceptance of democracy. Instead, Taiwan's rapid change and successful implementation

of Western style culture, politics, and economy are the results of the propagandizing and

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suppressive efforts by the state regime whose goal it was to achieve hegemony and

undermine support for the old guard and an extremist ethnic nativism. (Ibid.)

Not all discussions of propaganda involve the hegemonic influence of the West--

at least not overtly. Schlecht (1995) discusses how the media and official cultural

institutions subsumed the Brazilian grafite art, in the process changing it from being a

protest movement to a mainstream art movement due a discarded and meaningless

historical artifact. The only influence of the West in this development was its donation of

some of its expatriate grafite artists from New York and its exploitation by the Brazilian

media and cultural establishment as arbiters and judges of the worthiness of this art

movement during its ascension.

But how useful is this emphasis on hegemony? Madeja (1995) shows how the

understanding of how institutions maintain power by controlling power can be directly

applied to the problems facing the survival of the arts. Purveyors and creators of arts

must take control of the dissemination of works so that the arts retain their relevance,

freshness, and benefits--not to mention their power. (Ibid.)

Framing as Propaganda

In terms of framing, another region is discussed in the literature as showing

evidence of "mass media propaganda." (Oberschall, 2000, p.) Recent developments in

Yugoslavia illustrate how elite contention and mass media propaganda led to the

wakening of a dormant "crisis frame," suppression of a "normal" frame, and the spread of

insecurity and fear. Oberschall explains how this led to the success of ethnic

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manipulation, people believing falsehoods, people voting for nationalists, a purging of

moderates, and the killing of innocent civilians by men in militias.

Framing theory thus enters into the current picture of propaganda research. As

Noakes (2000) explains, in the 1990's, frame analysis became a dominant approach to

studying social movements. In particular, the FBI framed the communist threat in

Hollywood during the 1940s by constructing and promoting official frames and collective

action frames. (Ibid.)

Mediated Social Behavior Model and Propaganda

Another theoretical approach to propaganda is linked with mediated social

behavior --behavior connected with reception of media images. (Olivier, 2000) This

discussion forms a tentative link between propaganda and paranoia as a form of

psychosis. Olivier argues that modern culture weakens the distinction between images

and reality. This creates "hyperreality." He utilizes Freud's theory to show how this

becomes wish fulfillment, which can have real--and sometimes destructive--social

effects. According to Freud, wish fulfillment is a part of psychosis--a separation from

objective reality. According to Olivier, this leads to a danger opposite to what Freud

spoke of as repression. Instead, today's society faces the danger of a lack of repression or

a sort of "repressive desublimation." (Ibid., Internet pagination unclear) Instead of the

quite useful sublimation of repressed urges into socially acceptable behavior, such urges

are freely expressed and acted upon. This threatens the very basis of civilization. Of

course, he mentions Adorno's analysis which shows that Freud's socially useful

repression is part of fascism. Ultimately, however, it is Freud's argument that such

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psychosis destroys society which alarms Olivier most. Thus, it appears to Olivier that it

is more important to preserve the current civilization, rather than destroy it, as Adorno--

or at any rate Marx--would urge. (Durham and Kellner, 2001, pp. 40-41) In this

discussion, the place of psychosis becomes relevant as a focal aspect of paranoia.

Hopefully a future comprehensive study will develop a deeper connection between

psychosis and socially useful sublimation.

Charisma and Propaganda

Another approach to propaganda would be to examine its heroic purveyers: the

charismatic leaders who speak for the hegemonic elite. Smith (2000) explains the

cultural structures that must be in operation for society to give the attribute of charisma to

religious and political leaders. Smith points out that Weber uses the term of charisma to

describe unique individuals. But Weber's followers have expanded the definition to

include almost any successful leader to some degree. This leaves the distinction

practically useless and the model reductionist. Instead, truly charismatic leaders offer

some sort of salvation ingredient in their message or delivery. In addition, Smith argues,

the charismatic leader also confronts evils of one kind or another. In this context, he

applies his model to Hitler, M. L. King, Jr., and Churchill. He concludes that it is the

social milieu and expectation that determines charisma.

Propaganda, Free Speech Myth, and Legal Theory

Amidst all this talk of theory, the world of law emerges into the discussion.

Krotoszynski, Jr. (2000) in his analysis of writings on dissent, the First Amendment, and

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free speech, argues that "[t]hose who begin coercive elimination of dissent soon find

themselves exterminating dissenters." (p. 1613) Thus the issue of dissent and its

suppression through manipulation or propaganda has chilling ramifications. Whether we

approve of a group of individual dissenters’ position, the freedom to dissent and be free

from suppression of one's beliefs is primary, he argues, to the formation and sustenance

of a true democratic, free society. Otherwise, marginal groups as different from each

other as militias (Clarke, 1997) and Lubavitchers (Feldman, 2003) may equally be looked

at with suspicion and distrust and subjected to suppression.

Krotoszynski, Jr. (2000) concludes with a quote from Justice Jackson:

Struggles to coerce uniformity of sentiment in support of some end thought essential to their time and country have been waged by many good as well as evil men …. Ultimate futility of such attempts to compel coherence is the lesson of every such effort …. It seems trite but necessary to say that the First Amendment to our Constitution was designed to avoid these ends by avoiding these beginnings. (Internet pagination unclear.)

Dissent and Monster-Making as Propaganda Determiners

Within the politics of dissent there exist various ways of conceptualizing and

disposing of dissent and deviancy. In particular cases, the model of monster-making is

seen to conceptualize the need for a society, in order to define its norm, to create or

identify 'monsters' or deviants whose actions, thoughts, or beliefs can be vilified, their

existence nullified, and the society purged or healed. (Ingebretsen, 1998) This model is

an ancient one and predicts the media's need for and treatment of such criminal figures as

O.J. Simpson, Jeffrey Dahmer, Susan Smith, Willie Horton, Andrew Cunanan, and Father

Porter. The media doesn't attempt so much to adhere to a truthful portrayal of such

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figures as much as a symbolic one with its roots in our common ritual of the horror or

monster story which is important not for what it says about the monster, but what it says

about the society it lives and dies in. This researcher considers an interesting path to

explore with this model might be the corollary to the monster--the martyr. Those

deviants who cannot for whatever idealized reasons be monsterized and eliminated must

be sanctified and massacred or martyred.

Freilich, Pienik, and Howard (2001) study the historical development of the

militia movement in the United States. They show a long history of the movement and a

somewhat shallow portrayal by the media. They use five analytic categories to define the

subject (ideology, motivation, mobilization, organization, and ritual). They show how

the militia movement embodies a distrust of centralized authority and the establishment.

They discuss the militia’s systems of organization, ritual displays, forerunners, and anti-

Semitism.

Noam Chomsky expresses many dissident views which explore the interplay

between communication, propaganda, world views, and thought control. (Kingsnorth,

2002) Chomsky believes that an information elite exists which is comprised of media

and the intellectual elite. It is so cut off from the people that the majority voice is never

heard.

Framing of Fringe Social Elements

On a nationalist front, the issues of militia building emerge. Once portrayed by

the media and our Founding Fathers as a necessary protection against tyranny, well-

armed militias are increasingly framed as filled with crackpots and extremists. (Clarke,

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1997) Richard Abanes (Ibid.) responds that Clarker's comments serve "as a perfect

illustration for one of my assertions: i.e., that many individuals in the Patriot Movement

are so consumed by anti-government sentiment, anger, frustration, and paranoia that they

lack the ability to rationally and objectively view themselves or their movement." (Ibid.)

This example of dissenters being labeled paranoid shows the tendency people have to

label the enemy and seek to subjugate the “monster.” (Ibid.)

Related to this issue is the use of pejorative, value-laden, semi-religious terms by

mass media to negatively frame fringe or minority religious movements. One such

instance is the use of the terms "brainwashing" and "cult" to describe religions in

ascendance or engaged in proselytizing. This is examined by Richardson (1996). For

reasons of hegemony and service to the dominant elites, superstitious prejudices of the

populace are pandered to by the mass media which, first in America, and now

increasingly world-wide, have developed terms that have no empirical basis in fact to

frame certain religions and movements. The media, ‘deprogrammers,’ and the legal

profession have, since the trial of Patty Hearst, used terms such as brainwashing to frame

their stories, actions, and defenses. Yet academics and psychological professionals alike

have reiterated their disavowal of such terms. Recently, some courts are finally

expressing objections and even harsh criticism of those who use such terms to frame legal

defenses, media coverage, or authoritarian behaviors such as kidnapping and forced

"treatment." (Ibid.) Such framing is at the crux of some of the issues raised by the title of

this study.

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The implications of this study are considerable. It appears the field of propaganda

studies is not fully coordinated and theoretically described. The reasons for this are

unclear, but the fact it may be so is extremely surprising. Ultimately, this researcher can

do little better than to end this section with the words of Marshall McLuhan: “As Zeus

said to Narcissus: ‘Watch yourself.’” (Key, 1973, p. xviii)

Summary of rhythm-related literature

So, whether described phenomenologically as flow or neurologically as neuron-

building, rhythm may be the very same thing—just from different perspectives. In the

communication field, both descriptions have relevance—one as researchers seek to

understand it, the other as teachers try to explain or train it. Another, analogous,

advantage of this rhythmic rhetorical training is its possible enabling of ‘flow,’ or optimal

creative experience. Interestingly, as this study will presently show, this is also what the

Greeks claimed for it. There is probably no need to make rhythmic public speaking a

mandatory or required class. By merely making it an elective offering, it may help

students who want to achieve the very best in rhetorical accomplishment.

This researcher finds that the most important element for entry into another’s

rhythm is mimesis—in Dalcroze, students conduct each other’s movement. So,

essentially, did Feldenkrais in his method. When one does that mimesis well and deeply,

one can see or feel that other’s need or inner nature. Interesting, then, isn’t it, that this

researcher’s subjective experience, growing as it did, out of mimesis, showed him a deep,

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rich vision of the reality of another entity outside himself: Nature? The question that

cannot be answered conclusively here is: Was that truth?

As the Kabbalah relates, when engaged in contemplating the unknowable, one

must be careful not to drown.

If you dare to contemplate that to which thought cannot expand and ascend, you will not escape one of two consequences. From forcing thought to grasp that which cannot be comprehended, your soul will ascend, be severed, and return to her root, or else your mind will become confused. (Matt, 1997, p. 130)

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CHAPTER III. SPECIFIC PURPOSE

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

The foregoing literature raises many provocative issues for discussion. Its perusal

leads to the following research questions and hypotheses for the present study.

RQ1: What is the quality of charisma that makes a leader more or less compelling to

followers?

RQ2: Is the concept of charisma large enough to incorporate the hypnotic delivery

quality of extremely influential leaders? Or will the introduction of additional concepts

such as rhythm or hypnosis become necessary in order to fully explore extremely

charismatic leader influence over followers?

RQ3: What is rhythm?

RQ4: What is the deepest nature of rhythm in speech delivery? Is it produced by the

initial bodily movement flow? What parts of the body? What other kinds of movement

enter into the production of states of flow or rhythmic delivery?

RQ5: What is movement? Is movement being taught in Speech, Forensics, and Theater?

What part does movement play in the development of rhythmic public speaking skills?

RQ6: Does rhythm have any relevance in the modern public speaking classroom or

curriculum?

RQ7: How often is rhythm listed in college-level beginning public speaking texts as

important for great speakers, speeches, or speech?

RQ8: How is rhythm (as correctly defined) important to exemplary public speaking?

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RQ9: Are there any neurological foundations for using rhythmic movement as a

teaching tool?

RQ10: Are there any educational or pedagogical foundations for using rhythmic

movement as a teaching tool?

RQ11: Is there historical precedent for inclusion of rhythm education within the

education of orators?

RQ12: Is there an established pedagogy and curriculum that can be utilized to teach

rhythm and emotional expressiveness?

RQ13: What historical connections are there to Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the

communication arts fields which are analogous to public speaking such as: Theater,

Literature, Film, Dance, Music, and Education?

RQ14: Are there any significant criticisms of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the literature?

RQ15: Is there validity to criticisms that Dalcroze Eurhythmics could lead to mass

hypnosis or propagandizing by irresponsible leaders? Are these critics merely expressing

paranoid delusions?

RQ16: How does Social Critical Theory help explain the connection between the

concepts of propaganda and paranoia?

RQ17: Using constructs from Social Critical Theory, might we accurately define some

occurrences of paranoia as ‘behavior, suspicions, ideas or thoughts which are criticized or

condemned by the dominant cultural, intellectual, therapeutic or political elite?’

H1: Charisma is the accepted construct in communication literature which discusses

emotionally expressive leaders.

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H2: Research in neurology indicates there are biological foundations for using rhythmic

movement as a teaching tool.

H3: Research in education indicates there are pedagogical foundations for using

rhythmic movement as a teaching tool.

H4: Modern college speaking texts include the concept of rhythm in tables of contents,

glossaries, or indexes.

H5: Orator training using rhythmos was a concept central to ancient Greek and Roman

rhetoric.

H6: The concepts embodied in the construct of rhythmos are similar to those discussed

in public speaking texts today.

H7: The rhythm construct offers a unified model for handling of disparate terminology

of delivery.

H8: The historically established pedagogy of Dalcroze Eurhythmics with its curriculum

of musical, movement-based exercises has been used to teach rhythm and emotional

expressiveness.

H9: Eurhythmics offers a relevant addition to discussion of delivery techniques used in

current college texts.

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CHAPTER IV. METHODOLOGY

In order to fully explore the thesis that Dalcroze Eurhythmics can be integrated as

a vital part of the public speaking classroom, the present multidisciplinary, heuristic, and

qualitative study uses three methods. First it presents a literature review of relevant

studies in areas pertaining to rhythm. Literature has also been presented which offers

neurological insights into movement-based rhythmic education. These ideas are

triangulated, compared, critiqued and categorized in a framework to clarify the issues

raised herein by the research questions.

A cursory content analysis of twenty recent college public speaking textbooks is

presented following the literature review part of this study. That analysis will explore the

table of contents, glossary, and index of each textbook, searching for indicator words

delineating rhythmic concepts. Analysis will determine whether the words ‘rhythm,’

‘rhythmos,’ or ‘flow’ occur in the tables of contents, glossaries, or indexes of these

textbooks. These instances will be quantified, analyzed, and discussed to discover the

possible relevance of rhythmic training in college speech class textbooks. The

occurrence of these words will be offered as evidence of their relevance for modern

college public speaking pedagogy. The relevance of rhythm as a college level topic for

the public speaking classroom will be established if one or more of these books list it. Its

importance will be established by the accompanying historical analysis of ancient

rhetoric and 20th century movements and thought.

Thirdly, this study uses historical analysis. This researcher examined historical

documents, books, personal journals, phenomenological experience in the field, personal

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conversations, and internet sources. This literature, conversation, experience, and

electronic media is the product of disinterested scholars as well as Dalcroze Eurhythmics

founders, practitioners, teachers, students, critics, supporters and theorists. Historical

analysis first explores the ancient Greek use of music and rhythm to teach oratory; then it

will explore Dalcroze Eurhythmics. The forthcoming historical analysis part of the study

will be an effort to determine the scope of Jaques-Dalcroze’s influence on several major

20th century movements and streams of thought. By applying these three progressively

more specific approaches, the researcher hopes to show Dalcroze Eurhythmics’ scientific,

pedagogical, and artistic foundations; its relevance to recent college public speaking

textbooks (which discuss rhythm as a part of public speaking today); the historical

contributions of the ancient Greek eurhythmics to ancient oratorical training; as well as

Dalcroze Eurhythmics’ contributions to many 20th century and 21st century developments

in a variety of fields. All these elements will be presented as evidence for the importance

of including some form of Eurhythmics training in college public speaking classrooms

and textbooks.

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CHAPTER V. CONTENT ANALYSIS

Neira (1999-2000) lists rhythm as an important element of elocution. Other

important elements include enunciation, diction, articulation, modulation, pauses, and

silence. This indicates that rhythm is a relevant element of the current pedagogy of

public speaker training. The following content analysis of twenty recent public speaking

texts will determine whether Neira’s observation has any merit for public speaking

college textbooks.

The use of content analysis data for this present study is to count the number of

occurrences of the terms ‘rhythm,’ ‘rhythmos,’ or ‘flow in the analyzed textbooks. This

we can do by listing the books and counting the number of times these rhythm words are

listed in three places: indexes, contents, glossary. If the statement can be made that

rhythm is mentioned in some, we may safely conclude it appears relevant to the

discipline. It remains for future studies and discussions to determine how important the

element of rhythm is in each textbook.

This study will first list all books in a table with results of the occurrences of the

word rhythm (or its linguistic correlates ‘rhythmos’ and ‘flow’) in columns. One column

will contain instances of the word rhythm; two other columns will list occurrences of the

other related words. Interestingly, gesture, delivery, voice and other expressive and

emotionally important words may exist in these works, but cannot be included in present

study, due to space limits. However, it would be instructive, for a further study, to

determine if the issues of rhythm have been subsumed under the heading(s) of different

categories such as these. More importantly, then, the question would then be asked

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whether public speaking teachers are teaching all these delivery techniques most

efficiently if they do not incorporate a technique for exploring rhythm.

The researcher has chosen to conduct a content analysis of the tables of contents,

glossaries, and indexes of 20 recent college-level public speaking textbooks. This list

was generated as part of the textbook selection process for the current school year at this

researcher’s Midwestern, metropolitan university. If the terms 'rhythm,' 'rhythmos' or

'flow', are found in any of these locations in one or more texts, the conclusion can

reasonably be drawn that there is some relevance for the study of rhythm in current

college-level public speaking textbooks and classrooms. Data gathered from the tables of

contents, glossaries, and indexes of these 20 recent college public speaking textbooks will

be analyzed. Occurrences of the words ‘rhythm,’ ‘rhythmos,’ and ‘flow’ will be

tabulated and listed book by book. (See Appendix I.) Based on the occurrences in such

textbooks, it should be reasonable to assume whether or not the discussion of rhythm is

relevant to college public speaking pedagogy.

Given the stated limits of this study, there is no way to definitively establish

whether current textbooks devote as much space or attention to rhythm as did ancient

rhetoricians. It remains for future studies to determine whether this is so. The Table

found as Appendix I lists all the examined textbooks in one column, with the number of

occurrence of the word ‘rhythm’ (or related terms ‘rhythmos’ and ‘flow’) in the second

column.

The results of the study are as follows. Seven textbooks were found to list at least

one of the words ‘rhythm,’ ‘rhythmos,’ or ‘flow’ in their tables of contents, glossaries, or

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indexes. Thirteen textbooks were found to not include these words in the tables of

contents, glossaries, or indexes. Thus, slightly over one-third of the books included at

least one occurrence of these words in the tables of contents, glossaries, or indexes.

Nearly two-third of the textbooks did not include these words in their tables of contents,

glossaries, or indexes. The total number of occurrences was 36. The number of

inclusions in each text ranged from one to sixteen, with the mode being 3 (sometimes

indicating rhythm is only discussed in one actual place within the general text of the

book, but that destination is listed once each in the table of contents, glossary, and index).

The mean was 1.8 (perhaps a not very useful figure since so many of the books did not

have any occurrences). These occurrences indicate that rhythm is still a relevant

construct for public speaking research, classroom pedagogy, and textbooks.

Given the importance the ancient rhetoricians placed on rhythm (shown in the

next chapter of the present study), it is interesting that there are so few instances of

rhythm in the tables of contents, glossaries, or indexes of these modern textbooks. Many

of the books have none at all. Therefore, the study raises some additional questions. If

rhythm is not discussed in texts, why is it not? Is the category of rhythm less important

to modern rhetoricians than to ancient rhetoricians? If the category of rhythm was

important to ancient rhetoricians, why is it not as important to these modern rhetoricians?

Are these textbooks deficient in an essential part of oratory or rhetorical theory and

practice? A further study might explore questions such as these. This study has argued

that Dalcroze Eurhythmics shows promise as a pedagogical aid for teaching rhythmic

delivery.

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Has rhythm been combined with other categories such as delivery, gesture, or

body language and thus hidden from this researcher because of the chosen method of

researching it? If the category of rhythm has been subsumed in other categories, why?

Do these other categories such as gesture, delivery, and voice deal completely enough

with the issue of rhythm in these texts; or are these textbooks perhaps deficient in an

essential part of oratory/rhetorical theory and practice? Has rhythm been largely

eliminated from modern public speaking curricula? If so, why has it been eliminated? Is

this because of expediency, prejudice, unfamiliarity or lack of teaching expertise? Are

there certain factors which influence the number of occurrences found by this study? Do

such factors as the length of book, sales figures, emotional expressiveness in the writing

style, level of competitive achievement at national forensics tournaments (of the students

reading, teachers requiring, professors writing, or departments using the text) correlate

significantly with the number of occurrences of the words ‘rhythm,’ ‘rhythmos’ or

‘flow?’

The occurrence of ‘rhythm’ as a category in these modern college textbooks is

perhaps small overall. But how often do other expressiveness-building elements that

both the ancient rhetoricians and the Dalcroze Eurhythmics literature discuss as part of

rhythm occur? Dalcroze Eurhythmics deals extensively with developing one's

understanding of touch, time, space, hand and body expressive movement, and vocal

development. Therefore, research may need to examine the areas of haptics, chronemics,

gesture, and delivery to see if they can be addressed by a rhythmic pedagogy. A further

study needs to explore questions such as these. Unfortunately, the empirical data is as yet

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undeveloped formally. Future empirical studies could perhaps develop instruments for

measuring the influence of rhythmic training on each of these skill areas.

As this study will presently show, the historical uses of rhythmic education for

oratory certainly existed as far back as the ancient Greeks. More recent systems such as

Dalcroze Eurhythmics show a continued interest and application of such methods. The

question of the efficacy of rhythm for public speaking education is probably best

answered using empirical tests in both classrooms and laboratory settings. However, in

order to reexamine its potential for the modern public speaking classroom and textbook,

it was important to first determine its relevance. Specifically, this study has looked for

indications in current college textbooks that the issue of rhythm in oratory is still

discussed therein. Such inclusion indicate that it is still a relevant construct for public

speaking textbooks and, by implication, classroom pedagogy.

Does the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method offer advantages over current methods

used to teach these delivery techniques? We cannot know from the results of the present

content analysis, but indications are that it might, given its basis in ancient Greek

performance training, its importance in other arts, and its importance in the development

of modern science and performance. Further empirical and longitudinal studies are

necessary to determine its applications and long range effects.

This study briefly explores, but does not dwell unduly upon, these issues and

other Dalcroze-related therapies, their results, and the promise they hold for future

developments in musicality, rhythm, expressiveness, and healing. The study’s main

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purpose will be a discussion of the almost unknown historical impact of Jaques-Dalcroze

across so many disciplines. The following chapter explores this impact in detail.

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CHAPTER VI. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS

THE PRIMACY OF RHYTHM: ANCIENT RHETORICAL THEORY

Literature Review

Emotion and Affect: Emotional Awareness and Communication

In Caldwell (1992), Abramson relates that feelings on the inside are emotions;

feelings on the outside are motions. When a performer creates very good motion in her

rhythm, she creates emotion in her audience. Phonomimesis is the combining of sound

and gesture coming from inner emotion.

The ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians established the need to teach orators

both rhythm and emotional expressiveness. (Zucker, 1988; Anderson, 2004) According

to ancient Roman rhetorician Marcus Fabius Quintilian, the Greeks considered the

teaching of music and rhythm to be indispensable in educating the orator. Rhythm is part

of music study, but it is distinct from melody. It is based less on the sound than on the

movement.

Music has two modes of expression in the voice and in the body; for both voice and body require to be controlled by appropriate rules. Aristoxenus divides music, in so far as it concerns the voice, into rhythm and melody, the one consisting in measure, the latter in sound and song. Now I ask you whether it is not absolutely necessary for the orator to be acquainted with all these methods of expression which are concerned firstly with gesture, secondly with the arrangement of words and thirdly with the inflexions of the voice, of which a great variety are required in pleading. . . . But eloquence does vary both tone and rhythm, expressing sublime thoughts with elevation, pleasing thoughts with sweetness, and ordinary with gentle utterance, and in every expression of its art is in sympathy with the emotions of which it is the mouthpiece. It is by the raising, lowering, or inflexion of the voice that the orator stirs the emotions of his hearers, and the measure, if I may repeat the term, of voice or phrase differs according as we wish to rouse the indignation or the pity of the judge. For, as we know,

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different emotions are roused even by the various musical instruments, which are incapable of reproducing speech. [Note how significant rhythm is to eloquence.] Further[,] the motion of the body must be suitable and becoming, or as the Greeks call it eurhythmic, and this can only be secured by the study of music. This is a most important department of eloquence, and will receive separate treatment in this work [see Quintilian Book XI. chap. iii]. (Zucker, 1988, from Quintilian, Book I. x. 21-27)

These words establish several things. First, Quintilian finds that it is necessary

for the orator to be concerned with the emotional impact of his voice and body; second,

that the musical elements of the voice stir the emotions; third, that the concept of

eurhythmia or good rhythm—suitable and becoming body motion—was a ‘most

important’ part of eloquent oratory, and fourth, that Quintilian believed this good rhythm

was only achievable through music study.

But this study has shown that out of 20 recent college public speaking textbooks,

the tables of contents, glossaries or indexes of only 7 contained either the words

‘rhythm,’ ‘rhythmos,’ or ‘flow.’ If these findings indicate the state of current public

speaking textbooks in general, one wonders what the implications are for developing the

emotional expressiveness of current college oratory students.

As a forensics competitor in the past and a forensics judge for the past several

years, this researcher noted that the winners of the events were usually those competitors

who were most rhythmic and least errhythmic or arhythmic. Yet in his years as forensics

teacher and coach, the researcher has never found a textbook which presents a pedagogy

for developing such rhythm or emotional expressiveness. Current educational research

indicates, however, that there is a trend toward integrating music and movement in the

classroom. (Strahan, 1997) This has been shown in the lower grades so far, but perhaps

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there are some similarities between younger students and college freshmen. Given the

importance of rhythmic, emotional expressiveness to the early rhetoricians and its

perceived high incidence among competitive college forensics winners, might it not be

worth further consideration? The Dalcroze Eurhythmics method is a way to awaken

awareness of emotional states, embody them, and communicate them to one’s audience.

(Abramson, 2003) It is in this focus that this researcher sees a great potential for the

public speaking classroom.

One objection to this argument might be: But the teacher’s job isn’t to do all this;

it’s to teach public speaking. It’s that simple. Ah, but that teacher’s job is most

accurately ‘to teach the very finest public speaking,’ is it not? Are public speaking

teachers doing their job? The earlier sections of this study have shown that, in order to

teach most effectively, related education literature and research shows that one needs to

incorporate affect, movement, cross-hemispheric training, etc. (Eiffert, 1999)

THE HISTORY OF RHYTHMOS

This section will contain a comprehensive review of literature which pertains to

the three issues raised by the hypotheses herein. Of first importance is the historical

discussion of rhythm. The study will first look comprehensively at the beliefs held by

ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians on the centrality of the notion of rhythm as a

central construct in the study of persuasion. The first section of this chapter is an

historical analysis of the use of rhythm in ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric and modern

Dalcroze Eurhythmics. A discussion of comprehensive ‘rhythm’ excerpts from the

writings of the ancient Roman rhetorician Quintilian and other researchers indicates that

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the ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians placed primary importance on rhythm as a

pedagogical tool influencing structure and delivery in ancient rhetoric.

A comprehensive historical analysis of the Dalcroze Eurhythmics teaching

method is subsequently included. The researcher mentions the importance of further

empirical research to determine the possible applications of this classroom teaching

method as an adjunct to current public speaking texts.

The first, critical, issue to be resolved in this study is to define the phenomenon

called rhythm. The term rhythm comes from the ancient Greek word rhythmos meaning

'flow.' Emile Jaques-Dalcroze clarified the term to refer to the "varieties of flow through

time and space." (Caldwell, 1992) Every movement, he believed, had a correct structure

composed of: 1) the moment of preparation (anacrusis); 2) the moment of strike (crusis);

and 3) the moment of rest following the strike (metacrusis). Another moment--more or

less articulated, depending on the particular choice of movement, occurs after the

metacrusis and leads into the anacrusis. It is called 4) the stretching metacrusis. For

human movement to be its most natural, pleasant, expressive, and comfortable, all these

moments of nuance must be present in each movement. Movements have an organic

structure to them. Humans must observe this natural flow for their movements to be rich,

safe, and healthy. (Ibid.)

The study will now look at beliefs held by ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians

on the centrality of the notion of rhythm as a construct in the study of persuasive oratory.

Second, the literature pertaining to the development, nature, and history of Dalcroze

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Eurhythmics will be summarized, exploring its significance in many 20th century strains

of thought.

Music, Rhythm, and Language in Ancient Culture

In his Laws, Aristotle says:

The nature of music is not easy to determine, neither is the profit which we derive from a knowledge of it. Is it, perhaps, for the sake of play . . . and recreation that we might desire music as we desire sleep and drink, which are likewise neither important in themselves nor serious . . . but pleasant and potent to dispel care? Certain it is that many use music in this way and to these three--music, drink, and sleep--add dancing. Or should we say rather that music conduces to virtue in so far as, like gymnastics, it makes the body fit, breeds a certain ethos and enables us to enjoy things in a proper way? Or lastly . . . may it not contribute to mental recreation and to understanding. . ? (Huizinga, 1950, p. 160-1)

Aristotle also says

'Nowadays. . . most people practice music for pleasure, but the ancients gave it a place in education . . . because Nature requires us not only to be able to work well but also to idle well . . .' (Ibid., p.160-161)

Music also had, according to Aristotle, a place as a mimetic art, meant to arouse

passions--either noble or base. It even has an ethical significance. (Ibid., p. 163) The

term Eurhythmics was coined to commemorate the fact that it is

the rediscovery of an old secret. . . .Plato . . .has said that the whole of a man's life stands in need of a right rhythm: and it is natural to see some kinship between this Platonic attitude and the claim of Dalcroze that his discovery is not a mere refinement of dancing, nor an improved method of music-teaching, but a principle that must have effect upon every part of life. (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 5)

Interestingly, the quote from Plato given in support of this claim "Pas gar o bios

tou anthropou eurythnias te kai euarmostias deitai" (Ibid.) contains a bit more, according

to Professor Charles J. Zabrowski, Chairman of Classics at Gettysburg College. In

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addition to the life of Man needing good rhythm, it also needs the proper or right control

of it. This additional need is signified by the word euarmostias which Zabrowski

translates as “right arrangement/governance/direction/ or control.” (Personal telephone

conversation, Zabrowski, 2/27/04)

Sadler says, in his Introduction to Dalcroze's book on Eurhythmics (published at

the time of the Hellerau Institute near Dresden, Germany), that "Jaques-Dalcroze has re-

opened a door which has long been closed. He has rediscovered one of the secrets of

Greek education." (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 11) A previous movement by Humboldt to

reintroduce Hellenism failed, according to Sadler, because the schools thus created

were not Greek in spirit and they ignored the training of the body . . . . It was not the power of Greek art that he brought into the schools but, in most cases, merely the philological study of a second dead language. The cause of his failure was that he had not discovered the educational method which could effectively secure his purpose. He had assumed that, in order to introduce the Greek spirit into education, it was sufficient to insist upon the linguistic and literary study of Greek. (Ibid, p. 12)

Later Humboldt added physical exercises, but "they were divorced from the

artistic influences of the Greek gymnastic." (Ibid.) Sadler also states that in Humboldt's

schools, "the spring of artistic training has not been touched. The divorce between

intellectual discipline and artistic influence . . . is complete." (Ibid.)

A conviction that there is an error has led in Germany, as in England and America, to an increased attention to drawing and to attempts to interest children in good pictures. But there is still (except in the case of vocal music and a little drawing) an unbridged gap between the intellectual and the artistic work of the schools.

J-D's experience suggests the possibility of a much closer combination of these two elements, both in elementary and in secondary education. His teaching requires from the pupils a sustained and careful attention, is in short a severe (though not exhausting) intellectual exercise; while at the same time it trains the sense of form and rhythm, the capacity to analyse [sic] musical structure, and the

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power of expressing rhythm through harmonious movement. It is thus a synthesis of educational influence, artistic and intellectual. Its educational value for young children, its applicability to their needs, the pleasure which they take in the exercises, have been conclusively proved. And in the possibility of this widely extended use of the method lies perhaps the chief, though far indeed from the only, educational significance of what is now being done at Hellerau. (Ibid., p. 14)

There is a "mythic connection between the four elements of melody,

movement, language, and memory. In the Western cultural tradition, music was linked to

memory from the beginning of theatrical performance in Greece." (Stansell, 2001, p. 2)

This developed into dramatic sophistication within the performance of annual rituals. On

stage for these annual rituals were brought the nine muses. They brought "music,

language, choreography, and rhythmic dance into the original, less dramatic religious and

civic performances." (Stansell, 2001, p. 3)

A comprehensive literature review by Stansell (2001) shows the

interconnectedness and importance of music and education in classical times, and in the

development of communication, the intellect, and language. The Greek concept

mousikas foreshadowed the term eurhythmics. "Everything that the muses inspired,

which included epic, lyric, sacred, and love poetry, comedy, tragedy, choral song and

dance, history, and astronomy was, to the Greeks, mousikas." (Ibid., p. 3) Sedar (1997)

described it further. "'What they called 'music' was an intimate union or melody, verse,

and dance, so that the particular emotional meaning of the rhythm and tune employed

was brought out into perfect lucidity by the accompanying words and gestures. In this

description there is not a categorical distinction between music, movement, and the

word." (cited from Stansell, originally cited in Broudy, 1990, p. 166)

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Other researchers quote Plato (as the intellectual founder of the Western

tradition): “mousikas should be used functionally (as well as to move the spirit) in

learning such subjects as mathematics.” (Whittaker, p. 4, as cited by Stansell, p. 3)

Beaton (1995, p. 28) similarly quotes Plato: “For rhythm and harmony penetrate deeply

into the mind, and have a most powerful effect on it and, if education is good, bring

balance and fairness.” (as cited by Stansell, p. 3) Stansell's own assertion is possibly the

clearest of all references to the value of Plato's musical education:

The concept of integrating arts with the sciences and humanities entered the classroom over two thousand years ago. We are only now grasping towards the scope of Plato's assertion, which called for a curriculum where music and language were only two of the subjects that could overlap. Many math teachers today would cringe at the idea of using music to teach fractions and rations, but it is not only possible, it is effective. (Ibid.) In addition to the emotional awareness-building applications specific to oratory,

rhythmic movement has some other characteristics that might be of interest to researchers

in general speech performance and classroom pedagogy. Poppel (1985, p.175) concludes

that: "Above all, rhythmical, repetitive movements are advantageous to the formation of

ideas. Talking and writing, after all, are rhythmical motion flows, too, albeit of lower

intensity." He hypothesizes "that physical activity, so long as it is not exhausting, effects

stimulation of intellectual activity." (Ibid., p. 175) He concludes: "The gradual

formation of ideas in talking, walking, or writing holds, of course, also for the author. It

occurs to him that this situation was employed as instructional method by the Greek

philosophers, the so-called peripatetics (from the Greek peripatein, to walk about), above

all, by Aristotle, his students, and followers." (Ibid., p. 176)

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The converse is also true, according to Poppel. Extreme inactivity atrophies the

thinking process, leading to depression, social incompetence, fear, loss of self-

confidence. "And what does the patient himself say about it? Nothing occurs to him;

there is something that is constantly slipping his mind. His thoughts move only in circles

he is helpless to find a way out of." (Ibid.)

In ancient Greece, math was taught through music. So was oratory. The

flowering of the artistic, philosophical, and scientific development of the ancient Greeks

was so profound that we still use their ideas to structure our thought and practices today.

Perhaps it is time to reconsider using rhythmic methods for teaching oratory as well.

The question of how the ancients actually regarded rhythm has been briefly

addressed in several sources. These include Jaques-Dalcroze (1913) and Johnstone

(2001). A preliminary study was also undertaken by Zucker (1988). In Zucker’s (1988)

compilation of historical sources of music and rhythm theory (perused in the private

library of Professor Robert M. Abramson: Graduate Faculty Member of the Juilliard

School; Director of the Summer Dalcroze Institute, The Juilliard School; Phillips Exeter

Academy; and Founding Director of the Robert M. Abramson Dalcroze Academy),

Zucker quotes from, among others, Grove's Dictionary of Music and first century Roman

rhetorician Quintilian. Quintilian explores ancient Greek and Roman oratory with an

emphasis on the importance of rhythm. The present study conducts a more

comprehensive exploration of this question.

In Book I. x. 4-5, Marcus Aurelius Quintilian states, "I reply, and Cicero

frequently makes the same remark in his Orator, that I am not describing any orator who

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actually exists or has existed, but have in my mind's eye an ideal orator, perfect down to

the smallest detail." (Zucker, 1988) He continues, "the teacher pf geometry, music or

other subjects which I would class with these, will not be able to create the perfect orator.

. . but none the less these arts will assist in his perfection. (Ibid., I. x. 6) "Shall we marvel

then, if oratory, the highest gift of providence to man, needs the assistance of many arts,

which although they do not reveal or intrude themselves in actual speaking, supply

hidden forces and make their silent presence felt?" (Ibid., I. x. 7) In deciding the

importance of music and rhythm upon oratory, we can do little better than consider

Quintilian's words on that very topic. To the objection that

'Their contribution is but small.' Yes, but we shall never attain completeness, if minor details be lacking. And it will be agreed that though our idea of perfection may dwell on a height that is hard to gain, it is our duty to teach all we know, that achievement may at least come somewhat nearer the goal. But why should our courage fail? The perfect orator is not contrary to the laws of nature, and it is cowardly to despair of anything that is within the bounds of possibility. (I. x. 8) For myself I should be ready to accept the verdict of antiquity. Who is ignorant of the fact that music, of which I will speak first, was in ancient times the object not merely of intense study but of veneration. . . (Ibid., I. x. 9)

. . . whereby the supreme poet manifests most clearly that music is united with the knowledge even of things divine. If this be admitted, music will be a necessity even for an orator, since those fields of knowledge, which were annexed by philosophy on their abandonment by oratory, once were ours and without the knowledge of all such things there can be no perfect eloquence. (Ibid., I. x. 11)

. . .the armies of Sparta were fired to martial ardour by the strains of music. And what else is the function of the horns and trumpets attached to our legions? . . . It was not therefore without reason that Plato regarded the knowledge of music as necessary to his ideal statesman or politician, as he calls him; while the leaders even of that school, which in other respects is the strictest and most severe of all schools of philosophy [Stoicism], held that the wise man might well devote some of his attention to such studies. Lycurgis himself, the founder of the stern laws of Sparta, approved of the training supplied by music. Indeed nature itself seems to

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have given music as a boon to lighten the strain of labour: even the rower in the galleys is cheered to effort by song. (Ibid., I. x. 14-16)

So far I have attempted merely to sound the praises of the noblest of arts without bringing it into connection with the education of an orator. I will therefore pass by the fact that the art of letters and that of music were once united: indeed Archytas and Euenus held that the former was subordinate to the latter, while we know that the same instructors were employed for the teaching of both. . . (Ibid., I. x. 17-18)

. . . there was actually a proverb among the Greeks, that the uneducated were far from the company of the Muses and Graces. But let us discuss the advantages which our future orator may reasonably expect to derive from the study of Music.

Music has two modes of expression in the voice and in the body; for both voice and body require to be controlled by appropriate rules. Aristoxenus divides music, in so far as it concerns the voice, into rhythm and melody, the one consisting in measure, the latter in sound and song. Now I ask you whether it is not absolutely necessary for the orator to be acquainted with all these methods of expression which are concerned firstly with gesture, secondly with the arrangement of words and thirdly with the inflexions of the voice, of which a great variety are required in pleading. . . . But eloquence does vary both tone and rhythm, expressing sublime thoughts with elevation, pleasing thoughts with sweetness, and ordinary with gentle utterance, and in every expression of its art is in sympathy with the emotions of which it is the mouthpiece. It is by the raising, lowering, or inflexion of the voice that the orator stirs the emotions of his hearers, and the measure, if I may repeat the term, of voice or phrase differs according as we wish to rouse the indignation or the pity of the judge. For, as we know, different emotions are roused even by the various musical instruments, which are incapable of reproducing speech. [Get ready for noting how significant rhythm is to eloquence] Further the motion of the body must be suitable and becoming, or as the Greeks call it eurhythmic, and this can only be secured by the study of music. This is a most important department of eloquence, and will receive separate treatment in this work [see Book XI. chap. iii.]. (Ibid., I. x. 21-27)

Quintilian continues, I

. . . will content myself by citing the example of Gaius Gracchus, the leading orator of his age, who during his speeches had a musician standing behind him with a pitchpipe, or tonarion as the Greeks call it, whose duty it was to give him the tones in which his voice was to be pitched. . . . I should like . . . to remove all doubts as to the value of music. . . . [Most] will at any rate admit that the poets should be read by our future orator. But can they be read without some knowledge of music? . . . If there were anything novel in my insistence on the study of music, I should have to treat the matter at greater length. [See the New

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York Public Schools recent decisions to eliminate music from the curriculum.] But . . . it would be a mistake to seem to cast any doubt upon its value by showing an excessive zeal in its defence[sic]. . . . I refer to the music of old which was employed to sing the praises of brave men and was sung by the brave themselves. I will have none of your psalteries and viols, that are unfit even for the use of a modest girl. Give me the knowledge of the principles of music, which have power to excite or assuage the emotions of mankind. (Ibid., I. x. 27-32)

Whereupon he mentions some famous examples of how music was used to calm people,

madden them, or lull them to sleep. He concludes with the question, ". . . how can my

critics for all their prejudice fail to agree that music is a necessary element in the

education of an orator?" (Ibid., I. x. 33)

Speech students are without a doubt capable, after 18 or more years of life, of

arguing passionately or telling dramatically compelling stories to their friends. When the

tables are turned, however, and they are required to speak before strangers, this is usually

not the case. Therefore, it is a provocative idea that perhaps the same problem Jaques-

Dalcroze found in music relates to a problem in speech. Perhaps, then, the solutions may

be related. Perhaps similar exercises and approaches will work to develop delivery skills

and rhythm in public speakers. The idea is a provocative one, but potentially valuable.

In Book VI. ii. 6-7 Quintilian continues telling about the importance of emotions:

. . .when the judge has been really moved by the orator he reveals his feelings while he is still sitting and listening to the case. When those tears, which are the aim of most perorations, well froth from his eyes, is he not giving his verdict for all to see? It is to this, therefore, that the orator must devote all his powers. . . . Without this all else is bare and meagre, weak and devoid of charm. For it is in its power over the emotions that the life and soul of oratory is to be found. (Ibid.)

How does the orator achieve this power? Quintilian discusses emotions in terms of ethos

and pathos, both of which are ranges of necessary emotions for an orator to possess and

carefully craft a skill at expressing. Then he continues:

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The prime essential for stirring the emotions of others is, in my opinion, first to feel those emotions oneself. . . . Consequently, if we wish to give our words the appearance of sincerity, we must assimilate ourselves to the emotions of those who are genuinely so affected, and our eloquence must spring from the same feeling that we desire to produce in the mind of the judge. . . . Accordingly, the first essential is that those feelings should prevail with us that we wish to prevail with the judge, and that we should be moved ourselves before we attempt to move others. But how are we to generate these emotions in ourselves, since emotion is not in our own power? (Ibid., VI. ii. 8-24)

Quintilian then shows how the Greeks used word pictures, vivid language (which he calls

phantasias and visions), music, and rhythm to achieve this power.

It was the undoubted custom of the Pythagoreans, when they awoke from slumber, to rouse their souls with the music of the lyre, that they might be more alert for action, [Imagine that—in an 8:00 AM public speaking class, the teacher would start by playing the piano!] and before they retired to rest, to soothe their minds by melodies from the same instrument, in order that all restlessness of thought might be lulled to orderly repose. But if there is such secret power in rhythm and melody alone, this power is found at its strongest in eloquence. . .( Ibid., IX. iv. 13). . . dialogues and letters do not demand continual hiatus between vowels or absence of rhythm, but on the other hand they have not the flow or the compactness of other styles . . . . Again in legal cases of minor importance a similar simplicity will be found to be most becoming, a simplicity, that is to say, that does not dispense with rhythm altogether, but uses rhythms of a different kind, conceals them and employs a certain secrecy in their construction. (20-1). . . in all artistic structures there are three necessary qualities, order, connexion [sic] and rhythm. (Ibid., IX. iv. 22)

All this sounds very much like the mimesis of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. The

Dalcroze system was created for precisely the purpose mentioned by Quintilian—of

developing the power of emotion--through action, metaphor, music, and rhythm. Its

system of movement, emotion, and musicality focuses precisely on developing these

skills. It is just such attention to rhythms that has led to modern strides of discovery in so

many art fields and more recently in the sciences as well.

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Darwin (Wade, 2003) suggested that early humans used music and rhythm to try

to charm each other—before they ever acquired speech capabilities. He continues: “It

could be that the brain perceives music with the same circuits it uses to hear and analyze

human speech, and that it thrills to its cadences with centers designed to mediate other

kinds of pleasure.” (Ibid., p. 1)

Researchers at Duke University have decided that the reason we like the tonal

structure of music is that it approximates the tonal structure of human speech. That

makes it sound more familiar and natural. (Wade, 2003) Hauser of Harvard and

McDermott of M.I.T. say that there is little evidence that a separate neural circuitry exists

in the brain for music. (Ibid.)

All combination, arrangement and connexion [sic] of words involves either rhythms . . . or metres, that is, a certain measure. Now though both rhythm and metre consist of feet, they differ in more than one respect. For In the first place rhythm consists of certain lengths of time, while metre is determined by the order in which these lengths are arranged. . . . There are also the following differences, that rhythm has unlimited space over which it may range, whereas the spaces of metre are confined, and that, whereas metre has certain definite cadences, rhythm may run on as it commenced until it reaches the point of metabole, or transition to another type of rhythm; further, metre is concerned with words alone, while rhythm extends also to the motion of the body. (Zucker, 1988, Quintilian, Book IX. Iv. 45-51)

Interestingly, the “Great Communicator,” United States President Ronald Reagan,

attributed much of his success in public speaking to the training he received in cadence

and phrasing. (Reagan, 1990) Are public speaking classrooms teaching it today?

Dalcroze addresses these issues with very specific techniques. Quintilian adds force to

his argument by quoting Cicero, who speaks of the great Greek orator, Demosthenes:

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In prose the rhythm should be more definite and obvious to all. Consequently, it depends on feet, by which I mean metrical feet, which occur in oratory to such an extent that we often let slip verses of every kind without being conscious of the fact, while everything written in prose can be shown by analysis to consist of short lines of verse of certain kinds or sections of the same. . . . Cicero, indeed, frequently asserts that the whole art of prose-structure consists in rhythm and is consequently censured by some critics on the ground that he would fetter our style by the laws of rhythm. . . . Among others they attack Cicero's statement that the thunderbolts of Demosthenes would not have such force but for the rhythm with which they are whirled and sped upon their way. . . . For rhythms have, as I have said, no fixed limit or variety of structure, but run on with the same rise and fall till they reach their end, and the style of oratory will not stoop to be measured by the beat of the foot or fingers. This fact is clearly understood by Cicero, who frequently shows that the sense in which he desires that prose should be rhythmical is rather that it should not lack rhythm, a deficiency which would stamp the author as a man of no taste or refinement, than that it should be tied by definite rhythmical laws, like poetry . . . . and what name is there more suitable than rhythm, that is to say, the rhythm of oratory. . . ? For my own part . . . I ask my reader, whenever I speak of the rhythm of artistic structure (as I have done on every occasion), to understand that I refer to the rhythm of oratory, not of verse. (Zucker, 1988, Book IX. iv. 45-57)

Incidentally, Quintilian relates the story of how Demosthenes, when asked what the first

priority of successful oratory was, replied ‘Delivery!’ Then Demosthenes added, ‘And

make it numbers two and three as well!’ (Zucker, 1988)

There is a fine distinction made by Dalcroze Eurhythmics which may clarify these

points about rhythm and meter. Regularly measured feet are a characteristic of meter, but

rhythm is ANY variety of flow, regular or not. So rhythm is a larger category than

merely meter or metrical feet. Its measurement can be discussed as feet, but they may be

any shape or size feet, not merely the formally recognized, regular feet. Every movement

in nature has a rhythmic flow, but it is not necessarily a poetic foot pattern. In fact, it

more likely is not. The man walking on the sidewalk in front of you has a rhythm to his

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walk, but is it iambic? Trochaic? Any other named pattern? Not likely. Yet it is

reproducible. When recreated perfectly, it can also become compelling to an audience.

Quintilian says:

My purpose in discussing this topic at length is not to lead the orator to enfeeble his style by pedantic measurement of feet and weighting of syllables: for oratory should possess a vigorous flow, and such solicitude is worthy only of a wretched pedant, absorbed in trivial detail . . . [who] will have no time for more important considerations. . . . his passions will cool and his energy be wasted. . . . Prose structure, of course, existed before rhythms were discovered in it, just as poetry was originally the outcome of a natural impulse and was created by the instinctive feeling of the ear for quantity and the observation of time and rhythm, while the discovery of feet came later. Consequently assiduous practice in writing will be sufficient to enable us to produce similar rhythmical effects when speaking extempore. (Ibid., IX. iv. 112-115)For there are various ways in which the judge's mind may be prepared . . . . And as all these methods are different by nature, so each requires a different rhythmical treatment. (Ibid., IX. iv. 133) The analysis of rhythm leads to much deep analysis of nature--if explored so with the whole body. . . .

Celsus insists that there is a special form of rhythmical structure which produces a particularly stately effect: I do not know to what he refers and, if I did, should not teach it, since it must inevitably be slow and flat, that is to say unless this quality is derived from the words and thoughts expressed. If it is to be sought for its own sake, independent of such considerations, I cannot sufficiently condemn it. . . . [O]ur rhythm must be designed to suit our delivery . . . . But the motions of the body also have their own appropriate rhythms, while the musical theory of rhythm determines the value of metrical feet no less for dancing than for tunes. Again, do we not adapt our voice and gesture to the nature of the themes on which we are speaking? (137-139)I am not, however, surprised that Latin writers have paid more attention to rhythmical structure than the Athenians, since Latin words possess less correctness and charm. (145)To sum up then, artistic structure must be decorous, pleasing and varied. It consists of three parts, order, connexion and rhythm. . . . Above all it is necessary to conceal the care expended upon it so that our rhythms may seem to possess a spontaneous flow, not to have been the result of elaborate search or compulsion. (147)

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Rhythm should be discussed in beginning public speaking texts as a subject for

further refinement--given its ancient tradition in rhetorical history. But better, according

to precedent in music developed by Dalcroze, might be to introduce it co-lingually with

other delivery techniques. For a technique it becomes during the study of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics. Its early and co-important use in the classroom offers relief from tedium,

greater thinking ability, and more persuasive art.

Movement training for orators has an ancient history rooted in dance as military

training. (Ibid., I. xi. 18) "Cicero in his third book of his de Oratore quotes the words of

Crassus, in which he lays down the principle that the orator 'should learn to move body in

a bold and manly fashion derived not from actors or the stage, but from martial and even

gymnastic exercises.' And such a method of training has persisted uncensured to our own

time." (Ibid., I. xi. 18-19)

How important is delivery? It is the three most important parts of oratory,

according to Demosthenes. Yet some public speaking classes appear to teach substance,

structure, and terminology first. What rationale or historical precedent do they have for

so doing? It seems that Quintilian is discussing here rhythm as a subset of delivery, not

vice-versa. Quintilian does, however, distinguish delivery from gesture. Delivery, he

says, relates to the voice; gesture relates to actions the orator takes.

Delivery is often styled action. But the first is derived from the voice, the second from the gesture. For Cicero in one passage speaks of action as being a form of speech, and in another as being a kind of physical eloquence. None the less, he divides action into two elements, which are the same as the elements of delivery, namely voice and movement. Therefore, it matters not which term we employ. But the thing itself has an extraordinarily powerful effect in oratory. For the nature of the speech that we have composed within our minds is not so

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important as the manner in which we produce it, since the emotion of each member of our audience will depend on the impression made upon his hearing. . . . All emotional appeals will inevitably fall flat, unless they are given the fire that voice, look, and the whole carriage of the body can give them. . . . For my part I would not hesitate to assert that a mediocre speech supported by all the power of delivery will be more impressive than the best speech unaccompanied by such power. It was for this reason that Demosthenes, when asked what was the most important thing in oratory, gave the palm to delivery and assigned it second and third place as well, until the questioner ceased to trouble him. We are therefore almost justified in concluding that he regarded it not merely as the first, but as the only virtue of oratory. (Ibid., XI. iii. 1-7)

Incidentally, adds Quintilian, Demosthenes studied delivery with an actor. (Ibid., 7)

Cicero likewise regards action as the supreme element of oratory. He records that Gnaeus Lentulus acquired a greater reputation by his delivery than by his actual eloquence. . . (8) And, indeed, since words in themselves count for much and the voice adds a force of its own to the matter of which it speaks, while gesture and motion are full of significance, we may be sure of finding something like perfection when all these qualities are combined. (9) All delivery, as I have already said, is concerned with two different things, namely, voice and gesture, of which the one appeals to the eye and the other to the ear, the two senses by which all emotion reaches the souls. But the voice has the first claim on our attention, since even our gesture is adapted to suit it. (Ibid., XI. iii. 14)

This researcher has a suspicion that voice, too, may be undertrained in today’s beginning

public speaking text and classroom. That remains a subject of future study.

Another researcher, Grace V. Wilson, music supervisor of the school system of

Wichita, Kansas, "traced the present recognition of the importance of rhythm back to the

early Greeks, for whom rhythmic movement of the body was an important facet of

education. Miss Wilson felt that bodily expression had become a lost art with the demise

of the teachings of the Greeks until the time of Dalcroze when 'response of the whole

organism' again became an important element." (Becknell, 1970, p. 98)

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It appears to this researcher that an important distinction is between nuanced (or

“musical”) rhythmic movement (whether that is nonverbal or verbal), and repetition (or

other devices commonly labeled as rhythm). No matter how often a word or phrase is

repeated, if the qualities of flow between the sounds, words, and phrases aren’t nuanced

and eurhythmic--what Dalcrozians term “musical”—it isn’t a useful rhythmic device.

One can see by this that it’s not because Martin Luther King repeated words and phrases

in his speeches that made them rhythmic speeches, it’s how he did so.

So the history and literature of rhetoric shows the use of rhythmical, expressive

devices by classical orators. However, it isn’t the devices that make the rhythm, but the

expressive use of breath, bodily tension, and “flow” that make the devices rhythmical.

The Greeks didn’t just teach these devices, they taught ‘mousike’, the ancient music-

movement-based rhythm development which must inform such devices for them to be

truly rhythmic and expressive. (Goodkind, 2001; Zabrowski, 2001) Greek ‘mousike,’

(the combined use of gymnastike, grammatike, and mousike, according to Zabrowski) to

educate, seems personified in Dalcroze Eurhythmics training, not in such mechanical

devices—secondarily important as they may be. Zabrowski explains: “In more

public . . . performance in which the citizen would take part, training in ‘mousike’, with

its rhythmic movements, would ‘harmonize’ well with the training in ‘gymnastike’, the

whole being directed toward the proper ‘arete’ or excellence of the citizen.” (p. 6, Orig.

mss.) Zabrowski also notes that Plato mentions in the Politics that “mousike is not just

for entertainment, but a leisured activity for the citizens, and also a means of character

building in the young, who will become those citizens.” (Ibid.) It is for this and the other

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reasons mentioned above that it is necessary to incorporate an expressiveness-building,

musical, movement pedagogy in college and university public speaking and rhetorical

training.

THE METHOD OF DALCROZE EURHYTHMICS

In the following section, the literature pertaining to the nature, development, and

history of Dalcroze Eurhythmics will be summarized, exploring its significance in many

20th century strains of thought. How does the Dalcroze method convey this rhythmic

virtuosity to the student? This section will first explore the nature of good rhythm, and

then look at specifically how Dalcroze Eurhythmics helps students to achieve it.

What is Rhythm?

Just what exactly is this phenomenon called rhythm and what sorts of exercises or

experience lead to its expression or understanding? The term comes from the Greek

word rhythmos, meaning flow. Jaques-Dalcroze used it to refer to the "varieties of flow

through time and space." (Caldwell, 1992) Caldwell (1995) clarifies rhythm. It is not

just smooth flowing sounds; that is New Age music: “no tension . . . and is designed to

reduce conflict . . . . bland, colorless, pleasant, and easily forgettable.” (p.71)

Miller (1997) defines rhythm quite similarly as “movement in time and . . . the

organization of that movement.” (p. 78) She says that music is communication that is

sent and received on the levels of the physical, the cognitive, and the emotional. Music is

a language in its own right—one that communicates the entire range of human

experience. Miller reiterates a call for a concrete understanding in communication

research of non-traditional communication forms such as music.

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Driver (1936) says rhythm is not timing, nor is it meter. It “is that ceaseless, ever-

varying movement of an intangible force interwoven with all that can be comprised in the

word ‘LIFE’.” (p. v.) Driver gives an expressive description of rhythm, saying that it has

three parts: effort, fruition, and rest. She explains that all body rhythms have a

movement of contraction, followed by relaxation—this is true of everything from the

heart and breath to the digestion. Driver mentions that rhythm activates each person

according to his own body’s peculiarities, so it leads to individuality and unique

differences between people. These give life its variety. Without them, people would be a

monotonous regiment. rhythm is as necessary for proper functioning as reason or good

appendages. Preserving rhythm into adult life frees one from nervous disorders and leads

to happiness. Because it is a joyful process, there is learning. It offers freedom through

individuality, yet social orderliness and cooperation because of self-control learned. She

mentions that: “Rhythm is fundamental to technique of all the arts.” (Ibid., p. 4) It is a

physical education that integrates body, mind, intelligence, and imagination. Rhythm is

instinctive. It is a kind of “compromise between force and resistance.” (Jaques-

Dalcroze, 1994, p. 2)

What is Good Rhythm?

At this point, the more analytical, concrete thinkers might wonder about this

phenomenon called eurhythmia or “good rhythm” as Emile Jaques-Dalcroze defines it

and what sorts of ancient Greek-based (based in classical orator training as we saw in the

previous section) exercises and experience did he develop which can lead to its

expression or understanding? The term comes from the Greek words eu, meaning

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‘good,’ and rhythmos, meaning ‘flow.’ Caldwell (1995, p. 32) defines it further: “It is

the movement felt by the performer and subconsciously perceived by the audience but is

not visible to the audience.”

Every movement, Dalcroze believed, had a correct structure composed of: 1) the

moment of preparation (anacrusis); 2) the moment of strike (crusis); and 3) the moment

of rest following the strike (metacrusis). Another moment--more or less articulated,

depending on the particular choice of movement, occurs after the metacrusis and leads

into the anacrusis. It is called the stretching metacrusis. This is consistent with

neurological understandings of movement. Wilson (1998) describes the stages

essentially the same way. For human movement to be its most natural, pleasant,

expressive, and comfortable, all these moments of nuance must be present in each

movement. Movements have an organic structure to them. Humans must observe this

natural flow for their movements to be rich, safe, and healthy. (Caldwell, 1992)

Such eurhythm is essential for creating good art as well. This researcher

conceptualizes art as the creative expression of emotion for the purpose of

communication with others in such a way as to enable them to achieve a transcendent

state of awareness of another's emotions. Emotion may be defined as the inner awareness

or outer expression of movement of all kinds.

One of the most marked tendencies of modern aesthetic theory is to break down the barriers that convention has erected between the various arts. The truth is coming to be realized that the essential factor of poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture and music is really of the same quality, and that one art does not differ from another in anything but the method of its expression and the conditions connected with that method.

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This common basis to the arts is more easily admitted than defined, but one important element in it--perhaps the only element that can be given a name--is rhythm. Rhythm of bodily movement, the dance, is the earliest form of artistic expression known. . . . (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 60-61)

Words with the music soon follow, and from these beginnings--probably war-songs or religious chants--come song-poems and ultimately poetry as we know it to-day. The still more modern development of prose-writing, in the stylistic sense, is merely a step further.

The development on the other side follows a somewhat similar line. The rhythm of the dancing figure is reproduced in rude sculpture and bas-relief, and then in painting.

So we have, as it were, a scale of the arts, with music at its centre and prose-writing and painting at its two extremes. From end to end of the scale runs the unifying desire for rhythm. (Ibid.)

Formal Elements of Dalcroze Eurhythmics

Alienation of the Individual from Himself

About a hundred years ago, Swiss musician, actor, and teacher Emile Jacques-

Dalcroze looked around him and concluded that artists in his society were losing their

artistic expressiveness. (Becknell, 1970, p. 14) He observed that these artists were

increasingly less able to embody the true emotional character of the times and that the

general public was less emotionally involved as well. Looking for ways to jump-start the

performance artists of his time, he decided that part of their problem was due to the

mechanistic nature of human movements--a problem that had arisen as part of the

Industrial Age. Coincidentally, Foucault (discussed elsewhere in this study), a later

intellectual, appears to focus on the same problem. Foucault writes in the social critical

arena in reaction to the mechanized, industrial changes of the 20th century. Further

research is necessary to determine if Foucault’s work was informed by the work of

Jaques-Dalcroze. Interestingly enough, it is in the realm of the social critical thinkers that

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we find some early reflections on this problem and its implications for the future of many

fields—including education.

This mechanistic or robotic tendency of human movement Jaques-Dalcroze

labeled errhythmia. (Abramson & Reiser, 2000, p. 6) Movements could be ‘correct,’

precise, and accurate, but still not expressive of the true human emotional reality.

Another problem he noted was a tendency for inappropriate movements or spasticity.

(Ibid) Some people tended to act with erratic, emotionally inappropriate movements that

appeared disjointed, odd, or completely uncoordinated. In fact, he found that this

problem of spasticity was directly related to the lack of coordination between the mind,

emotions, and muscles of the human body. He called this condition arrhythmia. (Ibid.)

But what of those rare and great persons or performers who ably integrated their

truthful emotional expressiveness with a grace of movement and an appropriate context?

Like the finest animals in nature, these humans were superbly aligned physically,

emotionally, sensually, and mentally. Examples were rare, but included some of the

great artists of his day, prodigies, geniuses of various kinds, and the most beautifully

expressive people from all fields of endeavor. They possessed a sort of rhythmic

awareness of themselves that surpassed the increasingly non-rhythmic norm of his time.

This condition, he decided, was the most natural, expressive, artistic, and wholly

human one. As noted earlier, he called it eurhythmia (Ibid.), from the Greek words for

“good rhythm.” Through subsequent years of study and experimentation in pre-World

War I Germany and in Switzerland, he discovered techniques could be taught and learned

which would help performers to reconnect with their expressive 'side' and develop such

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good rhythm. His program including rhythmic movement to music, dancing, solfege (ear

and voice training), exercises, improvisation, and games.

His schools in Germany and later in Switzerland have influenced countless other

thinkers, performers, artists, teachers, and theorists. Stanislavsky, Kodaly, Orff, and

many others studied his principles. It is argued that his principles influenced the

formation of Gestalt Theory, The Stanislavsky Method, The Bauhaus School in Germany

(with its traditions of Modernism, Expressivism, and Modern Art), Modern Dance, and

much more. The purpose of this paper is a discussion of the almost unknown historical

impact of Jaques-Dalcroze across so many disciplines and the potential for its use for

rhythm training in the public speaking classroom.

Aims

Recent writings in Dalcroze Eurhythmics clarify the aims and claims of the

method. In the Newsletter 11 of the Robert M. Abramson Dalcroze Institute, Professor

Abramson describes the aims of the method. (2004) He also quotes Dr. William Bauer

from the Music Department of Staten Island University on some characteristics of and

issues explored in the method. Some relevant concepts for public speaking might be

inner-beat impulse, diagnostic assessment in real time (DART), use of personal space,

transfer of weight, handling of balance and momentum, muscular coordination, dramatic

character of tempos, subtle variations of the same, physicalization of same, conscious

awareness of unconscious activity or movement, and developing a sophisticated teacher

evaluative frame of reference. (Ibid.)

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Abramson mentions that Dalcroze's exercises, techniques, and philosophies were

not created in a vacuum. "He consulted with the leading proponents of his day." (Ibid, p.

9) This method is meant "for the development of rhythmic instinct, the auditory sense,

and tonal sentiment. It integrates a practical, clear way of thinking about, hearing and

visualizing musical composition techniques with the feeling the music is intended to

convey, during the improvisation process." (Ibid, p. 11) He adds "creativity lies at the

core of this method whose aim is for students to get in touch with their innermost

feelings, express them spontaneously in gesture, then translate them into improvised

music." (Ibid, p. 14)

According to Jaques-Dalcroze (1913), he first developed his method of

Eurhythmics “as a musician for musicians.” (p. 35) As he experimented, however, he

noticed that developing rhythmic awareness and skills in the individual was not only

valuable for educating musicians. In addition, it had a general education value since:

its chief value lies in the fact that it trains the powers of apperception [interpreting new experiences in light of old knowledge] and expression in the individual and renders easier the externalization of natural emotions. Experience teaches me that a man is not ready for the specialized study of an art until his character is formed, and his powers of expression developed. (Ibid.)

He based his physical exercises (called “rhythmic gymnastics”) on two ideas: “(I) time is

shown by movement of the arms, (II) time-values, i. e., note-duration, [are shown] by

movements of the feet and body.” (Ibid., p. 37-38) Early in one’s practice of the method,

this distinction is carefully observed, but as one’s experience grows, this principle is

varied ingeniously, “for instance in what is known as plastic counterpoint, where the

actual notes played are represented by movements of the arms, while the counterpoint in

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[half notes, quarters, and eighth notes] . . . is given by the feet.” (Ibid., p. 37-38) This

second bodily portrayal of the music is virtually the opposite of the first portrayal.

The actual results of these activities are described in Driver (1936):

the movements of the young body, when freed from bad habits and mental inhibitions, link themselves on to the action of the intelligence, and become at their best a kind of visible music at once delightful to exercise and beautiful to witness. She [the Dalcroze Eurhythmics teacher] treats the bodies of her pupils as though they were natural musical instruments designed by nature for rhythmical, harmonious, concerted, and orchestrated activities. Above all, she has found that children, whose habit of movement is thus established in the rhythm and harmony for which their bodies are designed by nature, at once begin to develop mental and character qualities to correspond, such as poise, balance, self-control, evenness of temper, and power of concentration. These children experience a kind of release; their personalities throw off their inhibitions and fears; their aptitudes are liberated, especially if they have an aptitude for music (which is commoner than most people think), the fact is at once revealed and progress in technique becomes easy and rapid. The way described is therefore both physical and mental, and one may even add moral, since the effect on character is very considerable. . . .

The work is not easily described in words. Even photographs do not give us an adequate idea, since the picture itself is motionless and only shows us the movement arrested at the moment when the camera clicked. . . . It is one of those things that must be [p. vi] 'seen' to be 'believed.'. . . No educator of the young can afford to overlook so valuable a way of training both mind and body. (p. v.) (The preceding are comments from the introduction by L.P. Jacks, Oxford University, 1935.)

As Poppel (1985) puts it, "we cannot rely--at least not solely--on introspection.

We must therefore try to gain insight into the foundations of the processes of

consciousness with the aid of experiment." (p. 7) After conceptualizing it as fully as

possible in written, symbolic, linguistic form, it appears necessary to reiterate that this

conception, while rich, probably cannot fully convey the physical experience. Indeed, it

is only the teacher and student who understand and work very diligently at embodying it

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who will understand it in their bones, so to speak; more properly… in their muscles…

and brain…and neurons…and gut…and feet, etc.

As Emeritus Professor of Eurhythmics at Oberlin College Conservatory of Music,

Herbert Henke, mentioned, the challenge of defining Eurhythmics is one that even he is

unsure he has mastered.

Perhaps we should just accept the fact that this continually evolving subject we call ‘Eurhythmics’ will always require as many definitions as there are Eurhythmics teachers and students. This may be true because Eurhythmics means different things to different persons and has a different context as it is applied to musical training for children or for adults, for musical amateurs or professionals, or for therapeutic purposes with physically or mentally handicapped persons. When you think about it, Emile Jaques-Dalcroze was an amazing fellow to have conceived a teaching approach that has such a diverse and major impact on the lives of so many people. (Henke, 2000)

Abramson (1986) further explains the origins of Dalcroze's work. Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is, first, a music pedagogy founded in the notion that in music, the primary

element is rhythm and the source of that rhythm is found in the rhythms of the body.

Abramson explains its origins:

[Jaques-Dalcroze] discovered that many of his pupils, although technically advanced on their instruments, were unable to feel and express music. They could not deal with even the simplest problems of rhythm, and often their sense of pitch, tonality, and intonation was defective. They possessed a mechanical rather than a musical grasp of the art of music. They could not hear the harmonies they were writing in their theory assignments and were not able to invent simple melodies or chord sequences. When the students tried to follow the rules of harmony without understanding or sensing the reasons for the rules, the results were dull, awkward, and lacked smoothness of voice leading and clarity of expression. Frequently, their lack of rhythmic [sense was a] problem in their individual performances. (Ibid., p. 28)

Jaques-Dalcroze then spent the rest of his life creating ways for students to “feel,

hear, [and] invent; sense and imagine; connect, remember, read and write; perform and

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interpret music.” (Ibid., p. 28) He wanted to create musical understanding instead of

simply musical knowledge. He put much effort into changing the teaching of solfege and

music theory as it was done then (and still appears to be done, according to comments

made by Abramson at the Juilliard Dalcroze Summer Institute) as abstractions based in

musical signs to an understanding of the physical experience of the embodiment of those

sounds.

He worked to free his students of conflicts between mind and body, between feeling and expression. He hoped to balance the interaction of the nervous system and the muscles, to train the body quickly and accurately to perform commands given by the brain. He hoped to create a harmony between the temperament and the will, between impulse and thought. (Ibid., p. 28)

Abramson (1986) observes that these teaching problems that Dalcroze wanted to

alleviate were the same problems every perceptive teacher faces and that the solutions he

found were based in his own earlier experiences of music and a Pestalozzian education.

Dalcroze

developed techniques combining hearing and physical response, singing and physical response, and reading-writing and physical response, in an attempt to arouse vivid sensations of sound. He used the results of these experiments to devise means to induce and then to develop inner hearing--the ability to summon musical sensations and impressions by thinking, reading, and writing music without the aid of an instrument. (Ibid., p. 30)

Still, something was missing, something deep and mysterious about the musical process, something to unify vibrations and sensation, feeling and thought, temperament and spontaneity, imagination and willpower; that is, all those faculties found in truly talented musicians. Jaques-Dalcroze looked again at his students. He noticed something he had missed before. Students who could not play in tempo in the musical world were able to walk in tempo in the real world. [Part of the body could follow a rhythm, but not all the body. This is an approach that Dalcroze noted could be explored for integration of the parts. This insight later led to applications in the field of neurology, psychology and medicine.] Their walk was completely spontaneous and uninhibited by thought or any

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discernable action of the will. Next he observed that some of his best students tapped their feet or shook their heads and torsos in response to music. These were natural, automatic reactions common to all ages and cultures. Then he noticed that the students changed their movements when following a crescendo and sometimes physically demonstrated the accents they heard in the music. They also noticeably relaxed their muscles for a phrase ending [or 'cadence']. They appeared to be allowing the music to penetrate, feeling its effects. The students themselves were the instruments, he realized; not the piano, violin, flute, voice, or drum, but the students themselves. (Ibid.)

Dalcroze asked a list of questions about the music students of his day which, with

a slight editing, could be asked of public speaking students today. One may find a

relevance of these questions to today’s public speaking classroom by merely substitute

the words forensics, rhetorical theory, or oratory for musical terms as done in the

following abridged list from Abramson. (Ibid.)

Why are rhetorical theory and writings being taught as abstractions, divorced from the sounds, motions, and feelings they represent?Is there a way to arouse and develop expressive awareness, understanding, and response simultaneously with training the oratorical ear?Can mere vocal technique of a public speaker be considered a complete oratorical education?Why are the various communication studies so fragmented and specialized?Why does the study of oratory not lead to an understanding of rhythm?Why does the study of rhythm not lead to an understanding of public speaking styles?Why does the study of rhetorical history not reflect the movement of peoples, societies, or individuals in their struggles for power and survival?Why are so many textbooks on delivery written in a technical style? Should they not aim first at the development of the ability to hear the effects they describe?Why is it that the qualities that characterize a real orator are seldom felt in a public speaking class?What can be done about public speaking lessons in which students are permitted to perform without understanding? Students are permitted to read without comprehension? Students are permitted to write that which they cannot hear or feel? (Amended from Ibid., pp. 29-30)

These questions about expressive oratory—even based as they are in musical

questions created a hundred years ago -- seem relevant to speech as well. Research is

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needed to explore the possible uses of rhythm studies in public speaking and other

communication disciplines.

According to Abramson, after Jaques-Dalcroze asked these and other questions,

“the answers he found foreshadowed more modern theories of learning and learning

readiness.” (Ibid., p. 31) Some of his answers follow:

What is the source of music? Where does music begin?Human emotions are translated into musical motion.Where do we sense emotions?In various parts of the body.How do we feel emotions?By various sensations produced by different levels of muscular contraction and relaxation.How does the body express these internal feelings to the internal world?In postures, gestures, and movements of various kinds. Some of these are automatic, some are spontaneous, others are the results of thought and will. By what instrument does a human being translate inner emotions into music? By human motion.What is the first instrument that must be trained in music?The human body! The base of all musical art is human emotion. It is not enough to train just the mind or the ear or the voice; the entire human body must be trained since the body contains all of the essentials for the development of sensibility, sensitivity and analysis of sound, music and feeling. Any musical idea can be performed by the body and any movement of the body can be transformed into its musical counterpart. There must be an immediate reaction between the mind that conceives and the body that acts. (Ibid., p. 31, from an unpublished translation of Marten, Jaques-Dalcroze.)

These answers, though seemingly simple, were in fact profoundly insightful, adding “a

new dimension to stimulus-response behaviorism.” These ideas then “became the basis

for many twentieth-century ideas of affective behavioral studies and holistic learning.”

(Ibid., p. 31)

Dalcroze and his early students “hoped to find the connection between the ear that

hears; the body that performs, feels, and senses; and the brain that judges, imagines, and

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corrects." (Ibid., p. 32) This system was innovative because it used Newton’s laws of

the mechanics of motion “to train the human body to perform rhythms accurately and

comfortably by using correct proportions of time, space, energy in a gravity field.”

(Ibid., p. 32) His rhythmic gymnastics led to the basic artistic law of providing the

greatest effect using the least effort. (Ibid.)

Dalcroze determined that education should start when the student has a problem

—anything else he referred to as mere instruction. In order to find the missing link

between listening and moving, he realized that there was a rapid communication system

between the brain and the muscles.

He postulated that whenever the body moves, the sensation of movement is converted into feelings that are sent through the nervous system to the brain which, in turn, converts that sensory information about direction, weight, force, accent quality, speed, duration, points of arrival and departure, straight and curved flow paths, placement of limbs, angles of joints, and changes in the center of gravity. The brain judges the information and issues orders to the body again through the nervous system. These orders are given to protect the organism from injury and to find the most effective ways to move through the mental phenomena of attention, concentration, memory, willpower, and imagination. (Ibid., p. 33)

The earlier discussed literature in modern neurology refers to such feedback loops as

neural pathways. Modern science calls this process the “kinesthetic sense,” according to

Abramson (Ibid.). This “sense” and the other organs combine to turn sensation into

information about feeling. “This was precisely the tool Jaques-Dalcroze needed to help

his students control the rapid communication between the exterior senses of hearing,

seeing, touching, and moving and the hidden, interior activities of the brain which control

memory, memory retrieval, judgement, willpower, and imagination.” (Ibid., p. 33) This

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combination of moving-sensing-feeling, now called kinesthesia, is used to learn and

perform many different actions. So:

Hearing could be linked to moving; movement could invoke feeling; and feeling could trigger kinesthetic sensing to bring information directly to the brain and then back to the body via the nervous system. This brain connection would lead to the analytic process necessary to improve, correct, and perfect expressive performance and to read, write, and improvise music. In this way the exterior forces of the body and the interior processes of the brain could be harmonized and coordinated. (Ibid., p. 33)

Jaques-Dalcroze was then able to link his original discoveries about the Newtonian

physics of time-space-energy-balance (from physiology and physics) with kinesthesia

and thus to the psychology of affect and brain function. (Ibid.)

Unfortunately, kinesthesia usually operates at the subconscious level. Every day,

the multitude of physical tasks the body performs are handled by its “auto pilot,” so to

speak. A person usually improvises daily actions and movement algorhythms without

conscious planning. “They are done without hard work or conscious reflection

imagination, or willpower. Such automatic responses are called automatisms.” (Ibid., p.

34) Wilson (1998) calls the formation of such automatons producing “stereotyped

trajectories.” (p. 162) One of the techniques Dalcroze developed was the conscious

control and training of these automatisms. He realized that they were reproducible

through conscious effort if one could retrain the mind-body-brain neurological complex.

As Abramson (1986) explained:

The problem facing J-D was to make the students aware of the possibility of conscious control of their own kinesthesia. If he could teach them how to invoke and use their kinesthesia consciously, they would have all their faculties ready to work; they would be in a state of attention and concentration; they would be alerted to the slightest change in sound or rhythm; they would become aware of their own rhythms and the rhythms of others; they could consciously develop

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new responses or vary old ones; they could learn to put one rhythm 'on automatic' while performing another consciously; they would become more aware of the differences between individual and ensemble performance; and they would be better able to solve the problems that arise when different people have different approaches to rhythmic movements that must be synchronized or harmonized by the group. (p. 34)

By experimenting, and with the aid of Edouard Claparede (founder of the Institut Jean

Jacques Rousseau and teacher of Jean Piaget), he discovered using “excitation and

inhibition in a constantly changing musical environment. This technique forces constant

attention and creative improvised responses to musical changes and puts the kinesthetic

process under the conscious control of the student.” (Ibid., p. 35) He and Claparede

formulated four Eurhythmics goals:

1. development of attention2. conversion of attention to concentration3. social integration (awareness of similarities and differences and appropriate responses between oneself and others)4. responses to and expression of all nuances of sound-feeling. (Ibid.)

(A German language book, unavailable for this study, may shed more light on the

relationships between Dalcroze, Claparede, Laban, Montessori, Scheiblauer and Shaw.

{Ring & Steinmann, 1997})

These goals of Eurhythmics can be grouped into three areas. First, there are four

mental and emotional goals. They are awareness, concentration, social integration, and

the realization and expression of nuances. Next, there are three physical goals. These are

"ease of performance,” “accuracy of performance,” and “personal expressiveness through

performance, using the laws of time-space-energy-weight-balance-plasticity" within a

gravity field. (Abramson, 1986, p. 35) Finally, there is a musical goal as well. It is

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"quick, accurate, comfortable, expressive personal response to hearing, leading to

performance, analysis, reading, writing, and improvising." (Ibid.)

At this point, Dalcroze recognized

that his training 'in music by music' was more than a musical education. It was, in fact, a general education using music as a humanizing force. It was designed to teach students to use all of their faculties in solving problems. This aspect of the use of Eurhythmics as an educational force goes beyond music into fields of therapy, rehabilitation, and special education. It also becomes valuable for the training of dancers, actors, athletes, poets, and painters. Perhaps this explains the wide differences of understanding, definition, range, interests, and goals of teachers using the methods of conscious kinesthesia invented by J-D. His methods are complementary to many other methods and fields of study. (Ibid.)

Eurhythmics is a method to attain a "constant spiral of learning." (Abramson,

1986, p. 36) This spiral develops as "hearing to moving; moving to feeling; feeling to

sensing; sensing to analyzing; analyzing to reading; reading to writing; writing to

improvising; and improvising to performance." (Ibid., p. 36) Abramson also points out:

"The idea of using body movement in space-time to express music in time-space was

revolutionary at the time of J-D's experiments. Today this theory has been absorbed in

music curricula throughout the world and is particularly evident in the methodologies of

Carl Orff, Maria Montessori, and Zoltan Kodaly.” (p. 35) This tendency is also apparent

in the teachings of Shinshin Suzuki, I perceive. Interestingly, Suzuki spent some time

studying in Germany shortly after Jaques-Dalcroze had permanently returned to

Switzerland. Suzuki’s time in Germany, including the possible influences of Western

thinkers such as Dalcroze, deserves further scrutiny.

There have been problems, however, when the method has been attempted by

inadequately trained teachers. Well-trained teachers, using the method as Jaques-

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Dalcroze formulated it, can recognize, diagnose, and help students solve problems with

poor use of body technique and unawareness of Newtonian laws. However:

Teachers who use movement but lack a clear understanding of Jaques-Dalcroze's methods in finding solutions to movement problems may unknowingly force their students into embarrassing, self-consciously inhibited, clumsy, and unsuccessful movement activities. This unfortunate result may occur despite the students' love of music and deep feeling for rhythm. (Ibid., p. 37-38)

This problem can be seen in the now-common practice of using Jaques-Dalcroze’s

exercises of walking and clapping to embody musical concepts. An untrained teacher

may often succeed in getting the students to experience touch sensations, but not the

“necessary sensation of kinesthesia (rhythmic movement).” (Ibid., p. 38) This failure

happens when that kind of a

teacher assumes that the goal of the exercises is to produce a unison ensemble centered on movement at the attack of a beat (at the instant the foot touches the floor at the beginning of a walking step or at the instant that the hands touch in a clap). This error prevents the student from developing a clear kinesthetic feeling for the process of preparation, attack, and prolongation involved in the performance of each musical beat. (Abramson, 1986, p. 37-38)

For the method to be used properly and be effective, it is necessary, according to

Abramson, that: "A total kinesthetic sensation must be invoked in every Jaques-Dalcroze

movement experience. The sequence of response is always from preparation, to attack, to

prolongation, and then return to preparation." (Ibid., p. 38)

The teacher must be very careful, even in walking exercises, that tactility doesn’t

replace kinesthesia. To avoid this, the student must pay attention to the tiniest nuances of

his or her musical mimesis exercises.

The instant the foot touches the floor in a walking step is only the attack of the beat; it is not the real rhythmic sensation which occurs in and around the attack of the beat. A true kinesthetic response involves the transfer of weight felt in the

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body during walking. This weight transfer originates and carries throughout the preparation, attack, and prolongation of the walking step and is created by motion in the foot, ankle, knee, and hip joints and in the movements in the muscles of the trunk, thigh, calf, and foot. The teacher well trained in Jaques-Dalcroze techniques prepares students for good walking techniques and is aware that students who use their bodies poorly (with dragging or slapping feet, slouching posture, or lack of balance) will not receive the proper kinesthetic sensation of walking rhythm in music and will probably have difficulty in expressing clearly what they hear and feel in music. (Ibid., p. 38-39)

Since Jaques-Dalcroze observed rhythmic movement throughout its many manifestations

in the natural and man-made worlds, his method incorporates innumerable examples of

rhythm as metaphors, illustrations, examples, and analogies. The various games and

diagnostic lessons use rhythmic examples from nature, art, machines, and more. Two

books of games are by Abramson (1997) and Abramson. (1998)

Another very important skill that Dalcroze students develop is their internal

imagination, or inner hearing, as it is also called.

This is the area of Eurhythmics study that develops kinesthetic imagination and kinesthetic memory by encouraging students to store a vocabulary of movement feelings, images, and sounds. This special use of motion and sound sensing is one that enables a musician to perfect performance without playing an instrument. It allows the performer to imagine and visualize performance and to make the necessary corrections. Jaques-Dalcroze called this inner-hearing--the memory of muscular sensations. (Ibid., p. 39)

The simplest understanding of this skill can be demonstrated in the following stages:

1. Clap any pattern aloud, move the body in space, speak or sing aloud, or any combination of these three.2. Clap silently, move in space, hum quietly, or any combination.3. Eliminate (inhibit) parts of the movement and parts of the sound, but feel and hear internally in proper time and space.4. Inhibit all external sound and motion, but feel and hear inside the body.Internal feeling and hearing are the final goals. In this training the student may learn to internalize beat, meter, rhythm, melody, and form.5. Try to replace the silent activities by externalizing parts of the original pattern of movement and sound.

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6. Perform more of the original pattern externally.7. Perform all of the original pattern externally.The last three steps encourage the student to use memory retrieval as a performance tool, so that automatic learning may be brought back to consciousness for immediate use or for further development. (Ibid., pp. 39-40)

Thus, inner hearing is accomplished by transferring overt action to imagined action by

gradually inhibiting more and more of the overt actions, while still keeping one’s internal

awareness of them intact. This aids memory, bringing memory skills-building into the

conscious mind more fully. (Ibid., 1986)

These priorities and goals are achieved by keeping rhythm as the central subject

of each lesson. This rhythm isn’t merely a performer’s ‘timing,’ as is often supposed.

Rather, it is the much more complex, nuance-rich,

constantly changing flow of motion that gives vitality, color, and interest to the regular events--the beat--in Western music. Like an electric current of varying intensity, rhythmic movements may vary in qualities of tension and release between the two poles of nonmovement--total tension and total relaxation. Jaques-Dalcroze used the word rhythm to mean a balance and ration of the flow among body, mind, and feelings, as well as a balance between conscious and unconscious movement. In his theory, rhythm exists in a time-space-energy context, but is produced by complicated interaction among many elements of motion. Sometimes these elements work together (for example, the beat and its subdivision) and sometimes they are in strong opposition (syncopation and polyrhythm). Sometimes several different layers of rhythm may produce extremely complex waves of motion. (Ibid., p. 40)

One of the interesting aspects of the method is its recognition and teaching of the

ability to differentiate rhythms of various cultures and to reproduce them.

As in spoken language, rhythmic movement may have particular nationalistic characteristics. Some cultures foster the development of complex rhythmic games in very young children; others engender strong feelings for regular, heavily accented, even plodding rhythmic games. Jaques-Dalcroze's theories encourage the study of music from around the world and facilitate the teaching of many different styles of rhythm. They encompass both measured and unmeasured rhythm, and they introduce ways of studying Eastern music, with its unequal beats

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and measures, and jazz and Afro-Cuban-influenced music, with their additive rhythms. The basis for all these studies is a list of the elements of rhythm. (Ibid., p. 40)

This, then, is the nature of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. The question of its efficacy for

public speaking is best answered using empirical tests in both classrooms and laboratory

settings. In addition to its efficacy, however, we first determined its relevance and

importance. Specifically, what is the relevance if any of the development of rhythm skill

for the public speaking classroom? That question might first be broken into two parts.

How might it be relevant for the student and how for the teacher?

What is the practical use of rhythm in performance? It appears to be part of the

ineffable aspect of performance and leadership called “charisma” by Weber. Also,

musicians refer to the hypnotic, emotionally compelling qualities of performance as

“entrainment.” It is commonly referred to by laypersons as getting everyone "on the

same wavelength."

How important is rhythm for the public speaking classroom and is this need being

addressed as fully as possible? In appearance, it may seem the need isn't crucial. At least

this appears the case if one looks at its occurrence in texts as an indicator on its own.

However, its importance in expressive delivery and emotion is perhaps not well-

understood. Arguably, few academics understand rhythm, even though its study and

development is a very complex achievement. Contemporary communication literature

and texts do not fully define rhythm for what it truly is. Yet, how could they? As has

been said of talent and of pornography: ‘I can't define it, but I know it when I see it;’ or

as St. Augustine says of time: "What then is 'time?' if no one asks me, I know; if I would

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explain to one inquiring, I know not." (Poppel, 1988) Here we have the crux of the

problem. The study and development of rhythm is a wide issue. It includes all aspects of

flow and movement. Rhythmic delivery is not just repetition, as this study has made

clear. So, first is needed a very detailed definition of rhythm and a discussion of its uses

in all fields. Only then can scholars--not perhaps rhythmically aware, conceptualize it

well enough to study it more fully. Research scholarship appears to need a better

conceptualization of it. This thesis is an attempt to achieve this goal.

But in so doing, keep in mind another approach:

The present author wishes with Augustine to suggest to the reader that he leave to one side or pass by altogether the question ‘What is. . . ?’, since after all we all know tacitly what is at issue when we speak of time (or space). We ought rather to concentrate on the other question: ‘How does man arrive at time?’ In order to answer this question, a hierarchical classification of experiences of time will now be presented that will eventually lead us, at the end of our consideration, to a point where we may know why we encounter such difficulties answering questions like ‘What is time?’ (Ibid., p. 10)

What may be possible with rhythm may be possible with time; the two are not

unrelated constructs. In fact, the use of the term timing in music and rhythm is

significant of the interrelationship between these two concepts. Poppel's exploration of

the subjective versus objective nature of time is relevant for its clarification of the

subjective versus objective understanding of rhythm as well. Timing is mere

measurement; rhythm is quality of that time. Timing is quantitative, rhythm is

qualitative. Each is the opposite of the other. Both are necessary, neither is possible to

define without the other. Yin and yang.

What is the significance of time in the discussion of rhythm?

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One is reminded of a phenomenon in physics, namely the relativity of time in the special theory of relativity of Albert Einstein. One can speak meaningfully of the simultaneity of two events only within a single system of motion. To present an analogy, one could say, then, that the system of motion (the inertial system) in Einstein's special theory of relativity corresponds to the sensory modality. (Ibid., p. 17)

In a similar way, rhythms of the body are also based in the “sensory modality.”

What Poppel says of time is equally true of rhythm: rhythm and feelings are only

meaningful when they are related to the body’s “sensory modality.” They are not

objectively definable without seeing them relative to the body and its sensory-brain

interface. It seems perfectly reasonable, therefore, to expect that in order for rhythm to

have any relevance to the public speaking student, it must be first experienced and taught

through using the physical apparatus as its “single system” as Einstein might call it.

In summary, why should this method be explored for public speaking? Firstly,

because of the historically interdependent nature of rhythm and delivery—especially as

discussed by the ancient Greek rhetoricians. Partly because it appears to explore a

phenomenological experience for which no other way has been independently developed

to explore. Partly based on the testimony of Abramson, a practitioner for nearly forty

years and holder of the prestigious Diplome, highest honor bestowed by the Geneva

Institute Jaques-Dalcroze. Partly also based on the historical tradition of humanism and

education underlying its development. It has a very respectable history based on the

Neoplatonic ideals of Jean-Jacques Rousseau which were translated into pedagogy by

Pestalozzi, ingrained in Jaques-Dalcroze by his mother the Pestalozzi teacher,

incorporated into the system by Jaques-Dalcroze and honed by Claparede and Lussy.

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Finally, partly because of the vast accomplishments by its practitioners in a variety of

other fields.

In fact, it is particularly surprising that such an attempt to integrate it into the

public speaking classroom has not yet been made, given its contributions to the

intellectual development of so many other communication arts fields--including theater.

These contributions will be comprehensively explored in the ensuing chapter of this

study.

All of these research findings, added to the words of Professor Abramson, show

that the exploration of this method should prove fruitful in rhetoric, forensics and public

speaking of all kinds. Rediscovering the ancient roots of our rhetorical tradition in

Platonic ideals--including rhythmos--necessitates the exploration of this paradoxically

ancient yet modern method of developing the modern use of rhythm in student and

teacher alike.

Why do I laugh?

How is this information about Dalcroze’s contributions to music education

relevant to the communication classroom? This researcher presented the preliminary

findings of this study at the 2004 Sooner Communication Conference, University of

Oklahoma at Norman. The comment of the Panel Respondent, Professor Thomas Bartl,

was: “You’ve proved your point. We need to incorporate these practices in our

classrooms. Your challenge now is to show us what exercises we can do.” At this point

the researcher could only shake his head and laugh ruefully. For that is the dilemma

234

indeed. The researcher could just as well issue a like challenge to that respondent—and

all interested teachers: Can and will you sing? How many public speaking teachers are

willing to lead a class in singing? That is one of the daunting requirements of the

Dalcroze Eurhythmics method. Fortunately, Dalcroze developed a way of teaching

music that adults—and teachers—can use to develop their skills so they, too, can teach

musically and rhythmically. Are they willing to invest the time and money to develop

their good rhythm skills? The final section of this study will offer some very rudimentary

exercises that may be used for the public speaking classroom. However, a truly

eurhythmic experience must await the development of a more comprehensive curriculum

and teacher skills.

OVERVIEW: HISTORICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF DALCROZE

EURHYTHMICS

The preceding literature strongly reinforces the notion that Dalcroze Eurhythmics

is an historically sound educational pedagogy with relevance for the college level. It

indicates that the public speaking classroom is an arena in which its benefits would be

felt as well. This study will now attempt to solidify this proposal by further exploring

Dalcroze Eurhythmics’ importance to the understanding of 20th century communication

arts history. Examples of its influence in other related fields show that Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is not only relevant, but potentially vital to establish an emotionally

effective public speaker training.

The historical contributions of this the Dalcroze Eurhythmics methodology are the

subject of this next section of this study. The 20th century was affected on many fronts by

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Dalcroze Eurhythmics. As this study will presently show, rhythmic therapies based on

Dalcroze Eurhythmics now appear as part of the cutting edge of modern healthcare and

strength-giving techniques. The fields of neurology and education also show support for

Eurhythmics theory and practice. Certain historical contributions of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics already have been documented in scholarly literature such as dissertations

and history textbooks. This study will next incorporate these sources as well as others to

show how Dalcroze Eurhythmics has played a significant role in the development of

several major 20th and 21st century movements, theories, and developments. These

include—internationally--music education, modern dance, modern theater, art, and more.

Documenting these historical contributions is important because most professionals and

educators outside the field of music know little of its historical contributions. (Although,

many music teachers have heard of the method, even if they are not qualified to teach it).

While several scholars have commented upon Dalcroze Eurhythmics’

contributions to history, it is not well-known outside of this small circle of experts. Yet it

is significant that Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a little-known, specialized technique. The

leaders in several important historical movements have based their methods in its

precepts, but few besides the most educated of scholars have experienced, understood, or

chosen to write about it. Why this is so is probably best the subject of a different study.

Suffice it to note that several scholars have commented on its obscurity. (Revkin, 1984)

Since it is still taught today and appears to have exerted a strong effect in some fields, yet

is so little known, it seems logical to ask whether it may have been even more influential

than has been previously noted. Additional in-depth investigation of historical sources

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might show other less understood and less recognized contributions of the Dalcroze

Eurhythmics methodology to the history of the centuries since its founder's birth.

Further research is needed not only to securely establish Dalcroze’s historical

significance in music, but also to find other areas that his work has influenced.

Additional research is available in French and German language documents which have

yet to be translated into English. Researchers need to continue to develop more effective

methods for exploring the fascinating, yet convoluted, web of history to discover the true

impact of this phenomenal approach to intelligence building.

Perhaps Jaques-Dalcroze, as the culminating thinker of a significant seminal

stream of Swiss thought, had not just a tangentially significant, but a revolutionary

influence on the 20th century. Research may find that his thought set the philosophical

tone for important changes occurring in most, if not all, of the historically important

developments in 20th century culture. Possibly all the developments of his time which

emphasize movement and rhythmic education can be traced to Jaques-Dalcroze's

influence on Western thought and culture. Research suggests that, at the very least, his

influence was more widespread than standard history texts describe.

Music (Composing, Conducting, Lyric Opera, Education, Performing, Orchestral)

Without question, Jaques-Dalcroze has exerted a significant influence on music in

the 20th century. Of all the areas of Jaques-Dalcroze's involvement, music is the most

obvious and easy to research. This study will briefly mention these contributions and cite

237

several authorities, but will spend more time establishing the less well-known historical

contributions of Jaques-Dalcroze to other fields.

In their dissertations, Revkin (1984), Bradley (1988), Becknell (1970) and Rose

(1995) reiterate Jaques-Dalcroze's impact on music and musical education in the 20th

century--in Switzerland, Europe, and the United States. Revkin states that her study

"determined that an original and creative form of music education came from a narrow

and traditional educational environment. . . . It showed that his [Jaques-Dalcroze’s] ideas

influenced changes in music education world-wide." (p. iii) Bradley (1988) briefly

explores the influence of Dalcroze Eurhythmics within the Southern Baptist Convention

(SBC) music leadership and the graded choir movement. Bradley relates that her

Dalcroze Eurhythmics studies were a major influence on SBC music leader and

pedagogue Frances W. Winters. (p. 13) She was also influenced by the ideas of Jaques-

Dalcroze’s disciple Lilla Belle Pitts. (Ibid., p. 52) To give an idea of the significance of

this influence on the SBC, he further states that Winters was responsible for much of the

direction music leadership took in the SBC in the 20th century. She was a seminal

influence within this movement. (Ibid., p. 69-70)

Becknell (1970) traces at length the spread of Dalcroze Eurhythmics throughout

the world in educational facilities on many continents. He quotes endorsements of the

method from many major world figures. He explains that "The Eurhythmics institute [at

Hellerau, Germany] became an important part of the musical and theatrical world of the

early 1900's. Students and teachers throughout the world came to study at Hellerau. . . .

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Many of the early American pioneers in Eurhythmics were educated at the Institute."

(Ibid., p. 6)

Overall, he concludes, "The development of the public school music program in

the United States follows in many ways the method of music teaching evolved by Emile

Jaques-Dalcroze. This can be seen in lectures, demonstrations, other writings, and in the

actual music books in the public schools." (Ibid, p. 131) Rose (1995) calls Dalcroze

Eurhythmics "a fundamental music education approach" (p. 4) and says that Jaques-

Dalcroze originated "one of the prominent movement-to-music approaches emerging in

music education since the early 1900s." (p. 2)

Landis and Carder (1972) note that the system is a required course "in many of

the most important conservatories and schools of Germany, Austria-Hungary, England,

Russia, Switzerland, France, Belgium, and Holland, not to speak of classes in Sweden,

Italy, and Spain." (p. 36) They further note that Dalcroze Eurhythmics was introduced

into the Paris Opera for the presentation of lyric drama. (Ibid.)

A recent dissertation (Jaccard, 1996) presents a study which suggests that music is

co-equal with other academic studies, implying that the place of music in the general

curriculum should be redefined. It sets forth a procedural model for such education

which is based on intuition, is principle-driven, is centered on the learner, uses co-

construction between student and teacher, is based in music literature, and yet

encompasses Dalcroze and its derivative methods. In the dissertation, that procedural

model is comprehensively “cross-compared to parallel issues in other disciplines,

especially cognitive psychology and language literacy acquisition.” (p. 4312)

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More recently, an interesting influence of Dalcroze Eurhythmics is seen in the

Jacksonville Symphony Orchestra. Since the 1984 appointment of Juilliard graduate

conductor Roger Nierenberg, the orchestra currently teaches 350 area students the

Dalcroze Eurhythmics method. (Grove, 1997) In January, 1997, the Cleveland Concert

Opera performed Jaques-Dalcroze's opera, Les Jumeaux de Bergame, which was

accounted an artistic success. (Cleveland concert opera: Dalcroze Jumeaux de Bergame,

1997)

A dissertation unavailable for this study holds hope of additional information

about Dalcroze Eurhythmics. It is by John Randolph McGinness, is titled Playing with

Debussy's Jeux: Music and Modernism, and is published by the University of California,

Santa Barbara, 1996. It promises to discuss the collaboration between Debussy, Nijinsky,

and Diaghilev--including the influence of Eurhythmics on that collaboration's music and

choreography.

In February, 1913, at the invitation of Prince Wolkonsky, Jaques-Dalcroze arrived

for a tour of Russia, accompanied by some of his rhythmicists, including Marie Rambert.

(Revkin, 1984, p. 280) Jaques-Dalcroze's troupe performed in St. Petersburg where

they were applauded by the Russian court. They also were admired at the Conservatory

in Moscow by the composer Rachmaninoff, who joined in one of their demonstrations.

(Ibid.)

According to Becknell (1970), professionals and educators in several areas also

endorsed Dalcroze Eurhythmics. In music, one of these was Keith Faulkner, Director,

Royal College of Music, London. (Ibid., p. 142) Also endorsing it were: Ernest Bloch of

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the Cleveland Institute of Music and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music; Alfred

Cortot, French pianist and teacher; Gabriel Faure, French composer and teacher; Enrique

Granados, Spanish composer and pianist; Josef Hoffman, Polish-American pianist and

composer; Arthur Honegger, French composer; Rosina Lhevinne, Professor of Piano,

Juilliard School of Music; Guy Maier, American pianist and music educator; Clara and

David Mannes, co-directors, Mannes School of Music--New York; Dimitri Mitropoulos,

Greek-American conductor, pianist, and composer; Ignace Paderewski, Polish pianist and

composer; Eleanor Steber, singer and Professor of Voice, Cleveland Institute of Music;

and Sergei Rachmaninoff, Russian pianist and composer. (Ibid., p. 139-142) Pianist,

conductor, and educator Martin Goldray received his earliest musical studies at the

Dalcroze School of Music in New York City.

(http://www.composersrecordings.com/releases_detail.cfm/release_id/192, accessed

3/13/2003)

Twentieth-century music pedagogue Carl "Orff found in the Eurhythmics of

Jaques-Dalcroze more than one principle he was able to share." (Landis and Carder,

1972, p. 78) Orff began with speech patterns because he saw that a natural progression

from speech patterns to rhythmic activities, and then to song, was the child's most natural

development. (Ibid., p. 85) Orff derived his concepts of movement from Dalcroze

Eurhythmics. (Ibid., p. 99) "He was influenced by Dalcroze's thinking and by the same

factors that had helped to shape it." (Ibid.) Orff's contributions to music education are

founded on Dalcroze Eurhythmics. (Ibid., p. 159-61) This becomes even clearer as Orff

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speaks of rhythmic music and movement as of integral importance to his own method.

(Ibid., p. 187)

Jaques-Dalcroze was appointed professor of harmony and solfege (exercises for

development of vocal pitch) at the Conservatory of Music in Geneva in 1893. He was 28.

(Caldwell, 1995.) He began teaching a new subject called Improvisation. The same year,

due to the authorities not supporting his work in kinesthesia, he rented his own studio

elsewhere and began experimenting with his unique approach. "By 1905 he and his

students were ready to present the complete methodology of Eurhythmics." (Landis and

Carder, 1972, p. 13)

Trying to find a direct historical connection between Suzuki Method founder

Shinichi Suzuki and Dalcroze Eurhythmics is difficult. Results are sketchy, including

such ambiguous statements as: "Its founder, Shinichi Suzuki, was born in 1898 and

studied violin in Germany for eight years in the 1920s. European study brought him into

contact with ideas of the Western world, but the influence of educators and philosophers

such as Rudolf Steiner, Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Maria Montessori, and Jean Piaget were

probably tangential when compared with his oriental background and his personal

pragmatism." (Kendall, 1996, as accessed via Academic Search Elite 3/27/02 7:34 PM

CST.)

Another musician and music teacher who was deeply influenced by studies in

Dalcroze Eurhythmics was Martha Stockton Russell, founder of “creative motion.”

When Martha grew up she decided that ‘more than anything else, she wanted to know what it was that she had known as a little girl, and didn't know any more.

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What was the magic Something that sometimes got into music and made it come alive? She had to know, and presently she started to find out.

She graduated from Northwestern University's Music Theory Department, enjoyed a brief, yet wonderfully happy marriage to Frank Russell, and gave birth to two boys. While Martha was recovering from thyroid surgery, the tragic news of her husband's sudden death was brought to her. Her elder son died of diabetes at the age of two and a half and her remaining son, Christopher, lived only a few years.

It was through observing Christopher that she learned that music directly affects the body reactions of the young child. This knowledge sent her forth to search out ways of re-opening contact with music in older children who had lost their original ability to respond directly.

She traveled to London to study with Dr. Yorke at the Royal Academy of Music, and Jacques Dalcroze in Hellerau, Germany. She acquired a new awareness of the importance of the body, as well as the mind and spirit, in any form of creative expression.

Gradually her own techniques evolved. She selected schools across the U.S. where she taught group singing and a modified Dalcroze method and continued her research. She advocated music ‘as an important fundamental for binding one's life into a unity... [T]he relation of feeling to action, inside to outside...’ It was, at the time (1919-1921), considered new to the usual concept of education. (http://www.creativemotion.org/msr.html)

Patchen (1996) argues for “discipline-based music education.” (pp.17-19) This

approach focuses on the four disciplines of: production (composition, improvisation, and

performance); history; aesthetics; and criticism. This approach is reflected in the new

National Standards for Arts Education and is compatible with Dalcroze, Patchen says.

Interestingly, there has been a corresponding drop in opportunities for children to study

music in American schools for the last three decades. (Ibid.) This has reduced the music

program more and more to focusing on performance. Patchen suggests this increases the

role of the classroom teacher working with the musical specialist. The four perspectives

he mentions lead naturally to developing composition, improvisation, performance,

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historical and aesthetic inquiry, writing, discussing, reporting and making informed

decisions about music. The Dalcroze Society of America says : “Somatic studies

programs are also looking at Dalcroze Eurhythmics as a resource for holistic learning and

well-being,” (http://www.dalcrozeusa.org/research.htm accessed 2/28/03)

Thus, Dalcroze Eurhythmics has had a major impact on 20th century music and

music education. Possible directions for its future impact have been indicated here, but

such speculation must be largely reserved for a separate study.

Theater (Stage and Set Design, Costuming, Lighting, Acting Techniques, Directing, Meyerhold, Stanislavsky, Boleslavsky, Grotwski, Strasberg, Clurman, Jacques

Isnardon, Reinhard, Craig)

Dalcroze began his career working as a touring actor and then trained at the

Comedie- Francaise in Paris. (Dalcroze Eurhythmics and the theatre.

http://www.msu.edu/user/thomasna/dalthea1.html; accessed 3/30/2004) (Caldwell, 1995)

Dalcroze introduced his completed system in 1905 and toured throughout Europe

building support and also finding opposition in some rigid academic situations.

(Caldwell, 13-4) Beginning with the interest of Swiss theater designer, theoretician, and

innovator, Adolphe Appia, several theatrical leaders explored the benefits of Eurhythmics

training for actors. (Thomas, 2002) Appia saw that the actor's movement and/ or

mobility unify the text with the setting. He felt that the key to theatrically successful

movement was the element of rhythm. (Ibid.) According to theater historian Oscar

Brockett (1987), Jaques-Dalcroze's influence caused Appia "to believe that the rhythm

embedded in a text provides the key to every gesture and movement to be used on the

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stage and that the proper mastery of rhythm will unify all the spatial and temporal

elements of a production into a satisfying and harmonious whole." (p. 566.) He became

a partner of Jaques-Dalcroze's at Hellerau after seeing Jaques-Dalcroze's work elsewhere.

While Appia's ideas were often denounced as impractical, after World War I they would

prevail. (Ibid. p. 567.) Brockett writes that, next to Wagner, the greatest influence on

Adolphe Appia, one of theater's great revolutionaries, was Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. (Ibid.,

p. 587.) Thomas (1995) explores the historical contributions of Dalcroze Eurhythmics to

American acting training in depth and offers suggestion for applying the principles at

three stages of training at the college and university level.

The French director Jacques Copeau visited Dalcroze in Geneva in 1915 and also

incorporated Dalcroze Eurhythmics into his actor training in Paris in the 1920s.

(Thomas, 2002) Copeau, with his acting company, took Dalcroze Eurhythmics teacher

Jessmin Howarth to tour the United States. (Ibid.) Other United States experiences in

Dalcroze Eurhythmics occurred through the Little Theatre movement from 1916 on.

(Ibid.) Michio Ito, modern dance leader, was a Dalcroze student at Hellerau in 1912 and

his work is very recognizable for its Dalcrozian influence.

(http://cemaweb.library.ucsb.edu/it_michio.html accessed 2/28/2003) Ito directed the

Washington Square Players in Bushido, a production which used Eurhythmics. (Ibid.)

Dalcroze Eurhythmics was endorsed by Charles Dullin, George Bernard Shaw, and Irene

Lewisohn. Lewisohn was part of the Neighborhood Playhouse. Dullin is considered by

the source to be "one of the great French actors and directors of the early twentieth

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century. (Ibid.) According to this Internet source, Dullin considered Dalcroze

Eurhythmics to be "indispensable" in the training of young actors. (Ibid.)

Two other important people influenced by Jaques-Dalcroze were Prince Sergei

Wolkonsky of Russia and Professor Susan Canfield of Pittsburgh, PA. Canfield founded

the first Eurhythmics courses at the University of Pittsburgh and at Carnegie-Melon

University. Wolkonsky visited Hellerau in summer, 1911. He was Superintendent of

Russia's Imperial Theater. He then arranged a demonstration tour for Jaques-Dalcroze

and his students in Russia in January of 1912. There Jaques-Dalcroze's method was seen

by Stanislavsky of the Moscow Art Theater and Vsevold Meyerhold at the state theater in

St. Petersburg. The Jaques-Dalcroze troupe also performed as the guests of Stanislavsky's

Moscow Art Theater. (Revkin, 1984, p. 280) According to Thomas (2002), the use of

Eurhythmics can be seen in the work of Meyerhold's student, the film director Eisenstein.

It can also be seen in the work of Polish director Grotowski (his connections to the early

Polish Eurhythmics school must be explored in a separate study.) It is also seen in the

work of German director Bertolt Brecht. (Ibid.) It can be seen in Stanislavsky’s own

writings as translated into English in a section where he discusses “plasticity of motion”

using a series of piano-accompanied exercises to develop “a smooth and regular flow of

energy.” (Stanislavski, 1949, pp. 64-7)

Wolkonsky also established several rhythmic institutes in Russia--in Moscow, St.

Petersburg and Riga. The one in Moscow was taught by Mme. Alexandroff. In Riga it

was headed by Charlotte Pfeffer and Theodore Appia; and in St. Petersburg they were in

the homes of Princess Gargarine and Countess Tolstoy. (Revkin, 1984, p. 280)

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Because of this Russian tour, Dalcroze Eurhythmics was included as part of actor

training at the Moscow Art Theatre's First Studio in 1912. One of those in that program

was Polish actor Richard Boleslavsky, founder of the Lab Theatre in New York City.

(Here Thomas, 2002, cites Roberts, 1981) This American theatre was important enough

to be called "the haven of all rising theatre artists in New York." There Boleslavsky

instituted Dalcroze Eurhythmics classes taught by Elsa Findlay. (Ibid.) The theatre was

described as follows:

The Lab Theatre proved to be the starting point for twentieth century actor training. Among Boleslavsky's students were such notable teachers and directors as Lee Strasberg and Harold Clurman. Strasberg and Clurman, along with Cheryl Crawford, were responsible for starting the Group Theatre in the 1930s. Strasberg was mostly responsible for what is known as 'Method' acting in America. . . . there are traces of similarities to Eurhythmics in some of Strasberg's work - the "Song and Dance" exercise, for example. Thus Dalcroze Eurhythmics has been an on-going part of professional actor training in America. Eurhythmics has also been an on-going part of university actor training in America. (Ibid.)

The other above-mentioned person of importance to be influenced by Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, Susan Canfield, actually studied with Jaques-Dalcroze himself at Hellerau.

After the World War prevented her from finishing her study, she returned to the

University of Pittsburgh and taught Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the Theatre Department

there. Eventually, she moved to Carnegie-Melon University where she taught from 1921

to 1947. She instituted Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the music pedagogy curriculum and it

also was required in the theatre program. (Ibid) It is still taught at Carnegie-Melon

today. Thomas concludes that

Dalcroze Eurhythmics has been a part [of] actor training in the West throughout the twentieth century. The work done by Stanislavski and Boleslavky set the course for most actor training in the West and eurhythmics was a part of that

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work. Actor training in American universities was influenced by the ground-breaking work done at C.I.T. [Carnegie Institute of Technology] All of this resulted from the visit to Hellerau [by] Prince Wolkonsky and Susan Canfield. (Ibid.)

Today a new movement called Transversales is centered in the old Festspielhaus

at Hellerau. It is focused on "body work" with theatres from around the world according

to its website at (http://culture.coe.fr/Infocentre/pub/eng/erout30.3.html, accessed

2/26/02, 11:17 AM CST.) One of its leaders states: "In a gestural training programme

based on the body, we have to continually reinvent this body, preparing it for the 21st

century and listening to it . . . . Words about the body will never replace practical

experience of the body." The fourth international rhythmic workshop was held at

Festspielhaus Hellerau in Germany on September 8th - 14th, 2003.

(According to http://www.rhythmik-hellerau.de/d03res_e.htm Accessed March 29,

2003.)

Dalcroze Eurhythmics was also taught by Ester Boman, the Swedish school

mistress at Tyringe boarding school for girls between 1909 and 1936. Her ideas are still

considered advanced in Sweden. (Hagglund, 1999, p. 85) As Revkin (1984) sums up:

It has been shown that training in Eurhythmics was included in actors’ training in different countries. Some specific view on the importance of this training are included here. Stanislavsky, for instance, felt that ‘Eurhythmics exercises developed sensitivity to a variety of different tempos and rhythms and that this was essential to the performer in his creation of a character.’ Likewise, Jacques Isnardon in his book La Declamation Lyrique et La Mise en Scene, printed in 1922, was very complimentary about Eurhythmics and the actor. The author expressed surprise that those who appeared in public had not studied Dalcroze Eurhythmics, to acquire suppleness, equilibrium of the body, elegance in walking and gestures, and a feelings of a true harmonious attitude.

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In conclusion, this section has shown that Dalcroze Eurhythmics had a definite influence on the development of the theatre. It was responsible for changes of Scenery, Staging, Lighting and Training of the Actor that took place in European and American theatres. (p. 304)

The system also was endorsed by Michael MacOwan, head, Old Vic Dramatic School,

London. (Becknell, 1970, p. 143) The field of mime was also influence by Dalcroze.

French mime master Decroux was influenced by Jaques-Dalcroze and M. J. d’Udine

studied with Jaques-Dalcroze, according to

http://www.indranet.com/art/lcds/newlook.html accessed 3/13/2003.

To anyone familiar with theater, the persons and places mentioned above read like

a Who's Who of its 20th century history. Without question, Jaques-Dalcroze's methods

touched the lives of some of the most important figures in the theater of this period.

Augusto Boal (2002), creator of 20th century Theater of the Oppressed, shows that

rhythm is still a very important element of acting training. His book uses a metaphoric

fable to relate that music is the oldest art, helping us to organize reality as early as in the

womb. He lists at least 47 rhythm games to develop actor rhythm. He says that

empathy, the emotional liaison of character and spectator, is necessarily dynamic, it involves movement, flow. . . . our aim is not to exhibit static emotions, but to create rivers in flux, to create a dynamic. Theatre is conflict, struggle, movement, transformation, not simply the exhibition of states of mind. It is a verb, not an adjective. To act is to produce an action, and every action produces a reaction—conflict. (Ibid., p. 39)

His exercises have five parts. (Coincidentally, as mentioned earlier herein, Dalcroze

Eurhythmics also uses five basic kinds of exercises.) The exercises seek to bridge the

gaps between: first, feeling and touching, and, second, between listening and hearing.

Third, they try to develop multiple senses simultaneously. Fourth, they aim to get actors

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to see more clearly, and fifth, they intend to awaken the sense memory. (Ibid.) Several

of these aims are among the previously listed goals of Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

Dance (Modern Dance, Ballet)

your dancesongsoul. rarely-beloved

a single star isuttered, and i

think of you

e.e. cummings (Pearson & cummings, 1978)

The history of Jaques-Dalcroze's influence on the field of dance is similarly

impressive. He taught many of the century's great dancers, dance leaders, dance teachers,

and choreographers. Their students and movements are a lasting result of Jaques-

Dalcroze's direct involvement with dance. Some early recipients of Jaques-Dalcroze's

ideas were dancers and choreographers Diaghileff, Nijinski, and Sakharoff. (Becknell,

1970, p. 7)

Jaques-Dalcroze's influence has been seen very consistently in the dance

developments of the 20th century. While there is some ambiguity about how much

responsibility for these developments must be shared with Francois Delsarte, overall

Jaques-Dalcroze's known contributions are widespread and profound. Addressing this

ambiguity, what Ruyter (1999) mentions about Delsartism could well be said of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, namely that

Even with all the attention that has been paid to the relevance of Delsartism to dance history, there is a great deal of information that is simply not known. It hides in archives in this country and abroad and in obscure publications that have been consulted only by a few specialists on the Delsartean phenomenon. (p. xviii)

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Of even more relevance, she adds that

What I like to think of as the genealogy of the American Delsartean contribution to German physical culture and dance is complicated by the fact that all sorts of influences were co-mingling at the same time: Delsarte, Dalcroze, Bode, Laban, the Isadora Duncan School, and others. It is not possible to separate the strands, but one can establish that through the work of Kallmeyer and Mensendieck, the American Delsartean principles were at least known by the players and followed by many. Several of their students became important leaders in German movement education. . . . The separate department of body training, established in 1921 in the Dalcroze School, was directed by Czech choreographer Jarmilla Kroschlova, a graduate of both the Dalcroze and Mensendieck schools. (Ibid., p. 70)

Ruyter is especially interesting when she applies Connerton’s “incorporating practice”

concepts to the discussion of the history of movement. While we can read literature on

movement and other inner experiences, by their nature these experiences are transitory.

The trick is not to limit ourselves to documenting data from such sources, but to try to find clues in the data that will help us understand (in our own bodies) something of the incorporating practices, and to at least suggest to our readers some of the question or possibilities raised by the data in relation to bodily experience.

* * *Let us ponder if indeed they might have felt something of the integration of body, mind, emotions, and spirit that was promoted in Delsartean and other self-help literature of the nineteenth century and what such an experience might have meant to them. (Ruyter, p. xv, 1999)

In a personal interview with this researcher on March 19, 2004, dance pioneer

Williams discussed his particular experience with Dalcroze as an addition to his Delsarte

work. Joe Paul Williams is a pioneering Delsartean of whom Ruyter has said:

Joe Williams is unique in using today a teaching methodology based on principles drawn from the theory and practice of Delsarte himself and from the work of American Delsarteans of the late 19th and early 20th centuries who carried Delsarte’s work into new directions. Williams’ incorporation of Delsartean principles into the teaching of liturgical, Middle Eastern, and Isadora Duncan inspired dance demonstrates that the Delsartean theory and practice can be

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relevant and useful today in the training of performing artists. (Personal email to this researcher, 03/31/2004.)

Williams said:

Through my work at the Robert Abramson Dalcroze Academy and the Juilliard School Summer Dalcroze Institute, I am developing the impossible. I am developing impeccable foreign language diction and piano playing. The success is coming from a kind of openness—like that of a child—that one must exhibit when working with a great Dalcroze teacher. An adult learns the hard way—in reference to everything else he already knows. He is not really learning, merely rehashing everything else he knows. A child, however, learns openly. That’s what I think it means to say that: ‘Unless you become as a child, you cannot enter the Kingdom of Heaven;’ and, ‘The Kingdom of Heaven is within you.’ Perhaps the neurological construct to explore is ‘accessibility.’ (Personal interview, Omaha, 3/19/2004)

Landis and Carder (1972) mention that Dalcroze made a significant contribution

to dance history. Doris Humphries and Martha Graham were part of the Denishawn

dancers whose leaders directed their members study the Dalcroze method. (Ibid.)

Balanchine also applied its principles to his choreography. (Ibid., p. 17) The following

dancers endorsed the method or studied under it: Sergei Diaghileff, Isadora Duncan,

Vaslav Nijinski, Anna Pavlova, and Mary Wigman. (Becknell, 1970, p. 143-4) Isadora

Duncan embodied some of the method’s ideas and endorsed it, but she was alternately

praised and criticized by Dalcroze. (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913)

Others included George Balanchine, Ruth St. Denis, and Hania Holm. (Becknell,

1970, p. 133) Ruth St. Denis is often considered the first lady of modern dance. She and

Ted Shawn founded the premier modern dance school and company, Denishawn. Many

of the great dancers and musicians of the following generation studied there. Students

would include such notables as Martha Graham, Louie Horst, and Doris Humphrey.

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(Internet source: The Development of Modern Dance in the U.S.: The Foreunners.

Accessed at http://www.people.cornell.edu/pages/jgv4/dance/hist.htm)

Ruth St. Denis' mother was Emma St. Denis. Both Dalcroze and Francois

Delsarte were influences on Emma St. Dennis. Delsarte was also an influence on Rudolf

von Laban, who created a system of movement notation. Laban’s system is still used by

dancers and choreographers. (http:// www.people.cornell.edu/pages/jgv4/dance/fore.htm,

accessed 2/26/02, 11.33 AM CST) Laban’s importance to Dalcroze is partly in his

conceptions of basic movement qualities, called “The Efforts”: flick, dab, glide, float,

press, pull, slap, punch, to name a few. These efforts help develop plasticity, or the

shaping and influencing of the movements used in creating expressiveness. (Abramson

& Reiser, 1994, p. 25)

There is also a connection between Dalcroze, Martha Graham and famed

Broadway choreographer Agnes DeMille. According to her autobiography, DeMille

(1951) was inspired by early performances by and a meeting with famed prima ballerina

Anna Pavlova, a supporter of Dalcroze principles. DeMille studied with Dalcroze-trained

teacher and dancer Marie Rambert in Paris. (Ibid.) Rambert had been taught by

Dalcroze himself. As a Dalcrozian, Rambert had been hired by Diaghilev to help

Nijinsky. (Ibid.) DeMille looked upon Dalcroze-trained Martha Graham as a mentor.

(Ibid.) Graham was a product of the Denishawn School, where Dalcroze Eurhythmics

were part of the curriculum. Graham was the inspiration for generations of dancers such

as Paul Taylor, Twila Tharp and Alvin Ailey. (Campbell, 2000)

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Thus the influence of Jaques-Dalcroze in dance passed on in a direct line through

his students, their students, and their students’ students. Other researchers give a fuller

picture by noting:

Mary Wigman studied with Dalcroze for several years and then, using some of the principles he taught, built a most successful career as a dancer. Ted Shawn and Ruth St. Denis directed that the members of their troupe, the Denishawn dancers, study the Dalcroze work; in this group were Martha Graham and Doris Humphries. Among those who explored the possibilities of Dalcroze's principles for choreography were Vaslav Nijinsky and George Balanchine. (Landis and Carder, 1972, p. 17)

The co-founder of the Henry Street Settlement House Neighborhood Playhouse,

Irene Lewisohn, taught Dalcroze Eurhythmics to Jewish theater dance leaders Anna

Sokolow, Sophie Maslow, and Tamiris. (Harris, 1996)

In 1913, Jaques-Dalcroze’s festival at Hellerau was attended by Stanislavski,

Nijinski, and Diaghilev. (Caldwell, 1995, p. 14) As a result of the January, 1912, tour of

Russia by Jaques-Dalcroze, Sergei Diaghilev and Vaslav Nijinsky hired Dalcroze

Eurhythmics teacher Marie Rambert as rhythmic professor for the Russian ballet.

(Revkin, 1984, p. 280)

Alexander Sacharoff was another Russian dancer influenced by Dalcroze

Eurhythmics. (Mangan, 1996) He was joined in collaborations by Wassily Kandinsky

and Thomas De Hartmann (who later worked with students at Taliesin West, Frank Lloyd

Wright's architectural group in Arizona. (Ibid.)

American singer, dancer, composer and choreographer Meredith Monk also was a

Dalcroze Eurhythmics student. Her emphasis on the magic of movement is captured in

her use of the phrase, “I think of myself as a verb, not a noun.” (Kourlas, 1998, p. 75) “I

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never think I am a noun; I always feel like I’m a verb.” (Hering, 2002, p. 62) Agnes

DeMille said “Works of art are the symbols through which men communicate what lies

beyond ordinary speech.” (Solomons, Jr., 2001, p. 1) Joan Finkelstein of New York's

Harkness Dance Center was also a student of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. (Hering, 2002)

In its section on music, this study previously mentioned a dissertation

(McGinness, 1996) of possible interest which discusses the collaboration between

Debussy, Nijinsky, and Diaghilev and includes the influence of Dalcroze Eurhythmics on

that collaboration's music and choreography. It is of interest for its connections with

dance as well.

As in the previous section which discusses theater, the list of names in dance that

were influenced by or endorsed Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a virtually complete list of the

most well-known leaders in 20th century dance. There is no question that 20th century

dance, like 20th century theater, was deeply influenced by Jaques-Dalcroze's

methodology.

Film (Jean Cocteau, Eisenstein, Meyerhold, Grotowski)

Other sections of this study show that Jean Cocteau, Eisenstein, Meyerhold, and

Grotowski also were influenced by Dalcroze Eurhythmics. These four are also

commonly recognized as early film pioneers. The extent of their influence in the history

of film must be the subject of a separate study, as must be the extent of their use of

Dalcroze Eurhythmics principles in their film work. However, the fact of their

involvement in both film and Dalcroze Eurhythmics argues persuasively that there are

probably more connections than this study has found.

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A dissertation of interest to this researcher--though as yet unobtainable--is Bowes

(1978). It promises to discuss the influence of Eurhythmics on Eisenstein’s film

Alexander Nevsky.

Literature (Kafka, Countess Tolstoy, Upton Sinclair, George Bernard Shaw, Jean Cocteau, Paul Claudel)

The world of literature was no exception to the overall impact of Jaques-Dalcroze

on 20th century intellectual life. One source mentions that Franz Kafka studied at

Dalcroze’s school in Switzerland. (http://print.google.com/print/doc?isbn-0374282013)

That source discusses the connectedness of Kafka’s thought with the “body-culture

movement” in Germany at the time. Another source verifies that, in 1914, Kafka spent

the summer at Hellerau. (http://cep76.50megs.com/kafka/chrono/htm) In 1913,

Dalcroze’s festival at Hellerau was attended by the writers George Bernard Shaw, and

Upton Sinclair. (Caldwell, 1995, p. 14) To that list Becknell (1970) adds the writer Paul

Claudel. (p. 7) Abramson (1986) mentions that William James also attended Hellerau

under Dalcroze’s leadership. Because of the 1913 production of Orpheus, Jaques-

Dalcroze received many invitations to present lectures and demonstrations throughout the

continent. This led to the establishing of many new Dalcroze Eurhythmics training

institutes. (Becknell, 1970)

Becknell says Dalcroze Eurhythmics also was endorsed by Jean Cocteau, French

poet, novelist, playwright (Ibid., p. 142) He quotes Cocteau as saying in a letter to Emile

Jaques-Dalcroze: "In the middle of a period, vague, confused, shifting and

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impressionistic, you have saved the movements of the body. You have been able to

maintain the straight line between the old and new orders." (Ibid.)

Revkin (1984) relates English playwright George Bernard Shaw's "wonderfully

clear" description of a Dalcroze Eurhythmics demonstration he experienced at Hellerau's

first School Festival in 1911. She says he was "extremely impressed" to see:

The two candidates faced the jury . . . Dressed in tunics with nothing that resembled a sleeve or a pant leg. Each of them had to lead a class, to play the piano and make them walk to the rhythms which they chose. Following this, they had to sight-read impossible themes written on a blackboard and harmonize them on the spot. One asked them to improvise some variations upon those themes, to modulate in all the keys, next to listen to Dalcroze play other modulations and to indicate in which keys they were. The final test was for them to conduct a choir first with a baton, in the normal manner, then in executing some poetic movements with their whole bodies. This last example was extraordinarily effective. (Ibid., p. 260-1)

At Hellerau, the 1912 list of eleven full time professors included:

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, who taught Gymnastic Rhythmics, Improvisation, Ear Training and Solfege and Plastic; Nina Gorter, who taught the same courses as Dalcroze with the exception of Plastic; Mitzi Steinwender, who was responsible for the same courses as Nina Gorter; Annie Beck, who taught Rhythmic Gymnastics, Dance and Gest; Pierre von Montolieu, who taught Rhythmic Gymnastics and Gest; K. A. Fischer, who taught Ear Training, Solfege and Theory; Frl. G. Sander, who taught Swedish Gymnastics; Suzanne Ferriere, Plastic; Dr. El Jolowicz, who taught Anatomy; A. Jeanneret, who taught Improvisation and Jelle Troelstra, Plastic. (Ibid., p. 249)

Revkin mentions that one of the early Dalcroze institutes in St. Petersburg, Russia

was in the home of Countess Tolstoy. (Ibid., p. 280) Just what, if any, influence this

might have had on Count Leo Tolstoy or other Russian literary figures must be the

subject of a separate study, but it is interesting to find this initial reference to Russia's

great novelist in such direct connection with Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

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Chilean poet, composer, pianist, piano teacher and art teacher David Rosenmann-

Taub studied rhythm with Andree Haas, a pupil of Dalcroze, according to

http://www.davidrosenmann-taub.com/eng_a_chron.htm, accessed 3/13/2003.

Jaques-Dalcroze's influence has here been shown to extend far beyond the realm

of music education. In addition to his revolutionary influence in that area, his thought

has also influenced leaders and directions of many other 20th century developments.

These include, but are not limited to, musical education and performance, special

education, modern theater, modern dance, architecture, film, modern art, physical

education, medicine, psychology, and literature. Other possible areas of influence for

future research might include athletics, flow theory, olympic figure skating, and multiple

intelligences.

Tracing such tenuous pathways taken by Jaques-Dalcroze's ideas, disciples, and

the leaders inspired by them is difficult and time-consuming at best. The sheer number of

primary sources that must be reviewed to glean the one or two sentences mentioning

Jaques-Dalcroze or Dalcroze Eurhythmics is daunting, to say the least. But assuredly,

this is what the investigation will require. Reading autobiographies, articles, accounts,

etc. must be the primary method--even though tedious, repetitive and sometimes dead-

ended or fruitless.

Architecture (Le Corbusier, Tessenow)

Two 20th century architects who can be directly linked to Dalcroze are Le

Corbusier and Heinrich Tessenow. Le Corbusier is famous as "the great architect of the

century." (Rykwert, 1997, p. 38) He was also one of the founders of the art movement

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named Purism and founded the magazine L'Esprit Nouveau. (Ibid.) His older brother

became a teacher of the Dalcroze method. (Ibid.) He was originally a Swiss who became

a French citizen. (Ibid.) The Dalcroze Eurhythmics method influenced Le Corbusier.

(De Michelis, 1990, p. 143-170.) This point is also made by Rosenblatt. (Rosenblatt,

1998)

Revkin (1984) mentions that in April of 1911, the Hellerau Dalcroze Institute's

cornerstone was laid. The building, she says, was designed and built "by Henri

Tessenow, a young architect whom Wolf Dohrn had engaged.” (Ibid., p. 242) A later

study could examine the extent of Tessenow's impact on 20th century architecture.

Interestingly, another architect influenced by Swiss pedagogy was Frank Lloyd

Wright. He was brought up by a mother who used Froebel's methods. (Secrest, 1992, p.

59) To date, the only concrete connection this study has found between Wright and

Dalcroze is the tangential one via the Russian composer Thomas Alexandrovich de

Hartmann. De Hartmann had collaborated with Russian dancer Alexander Sacharoff, a

Dalcroze student. De Hartmann would go on to teach Wright's students at Taliesin West

in Arizona. (Mangan,1996)

According to Mangan (1996), "Wright believed that architecture and musical

composition were closely related skills." (Internet pagination unclear) This assertion

leaves this researcher to ask the question: How closely did Wright relate these skills?

Did he have any formal awareness of Dalcroze? Little data to answer this question is

revealed by the current study other than the fact that Wright did visit Germany in Fall,

1909. (Secrest, 1992, p. 203) He returned to Chicago a year later. (Ibid. p. 205) What he

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did during this missing year is not known. Given, however, Dalcroze's influence on

European art during these years, the temptation is great to speculate on a possible

connection. Wright's Wasmuth portfolio was published in 1910 and 1911 and strongly

links him to Germany during these years. (Ibid, p. 251) He told his banker in 1911 that

his reason for visiting Germany was to deal with details of its publication. (Ibid, p. 208)

These were also the years of the establishment at Hellerau. Surely an international artist

in Germany in those years would have followed the crowd of internationally renowned

artists in so many fields to visit the Dalcroze Festpielhaus in Hellerau. Wright’s later

connections to Dalcroze associate Gurdjieff also are of interest in this context.

Gurdjieff’s connections with Dalcroze are discussed more fully in the ensuing modern art

section of this chapter. Future research might link Wright more directly to Dalcroze,

Hellerau, and Johannes Itten or to Itten's rhythmic pedagogy at the Bauhaus (which will

be discussed in the following section of this study).

Modern Art (Salzmann, Kandinsky, De Hartmann, Rodin, Bauhaus, Itten)

Perhaps the least explored and most unexpected historical strand this study has

uncovered is the possible historical line of development between Dalcroze Eurhythmics

and its artistic successor in Germany, the Bauhaus. Results of the current study argue for

an indepth study of Johannes Itten, his curriculum at the German Bauhaus, and the

possible connections between his work and that of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. It is doubtful

that this link has yet been explored elsewhere at any length. Therefore, it seems very

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important that researchers eventually attempt to discover, if possible, whether such a link

does, indeed, exist.

It is possible, should Dalcroze be found to have actually influenced Itten's work,

that Dalcroze may, given his seminal importance in the other mentioned streams of

Modernist ideology and practice, be established as the true Father of Modernism. At

such a point in time, it will have become evident that his theories were the foundation of

so many developments in Modernism that to consider him any less than its Father would

be a grave historical injustice.

While the connections made in this study are still tenuous at present, they are

provocative and innovative just the same. This researcher has discovered some similarity

in curriculum between the German Bauhaus (a later artistic development) and the earlier

Festspielhaus of Dalcroze in Hellerau. The “dominant figure” during the formative years

of the Bauhaus was Johannes Itten. (Franciscono, 1971, p. 173) In fact, the author goes

on to say: "For this reason no study of the ideas that went into the creation of the school

can leave Itten and the preliminary course he developed out of account." (Ibid., p. 173)

A source to examine at more length in another study is: Itten, Johannes. The Foundation

Course at the Bauhaus. Chapter in: The Education of Vision. Edited by Gyorgy Kepes

(New York, 1965), p. 104.

Itten was a "trained pedagogue." (Franciscono, 1971, p. 173.) Alma Mahler

Gropius, the founder's wife, persuaded her husband that Itten's ideas would be important

for the Bauhaus. She brought the two men together in Austria in the spring of 1919.

(Ibid., p. 173-4)

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Franciscono describes Itten's Bauhaus classes as using warm-up exercises to bring

students

to the proper state of mental and physical concentration and coordination. These included various breathing and relaxation exercises and the rapid drawing of simple rhythmic strokes, spirals, circles, and the like as a means of 'training the machine for emotional functioning'. . . . (Ibid., p. 179)

He describes further rhythmic concepts underlying the Bauhaus training.

The third major component of the Vorkurs instruction . . . . comprised [a number of different exercises including:] the structural and rhythmical analysis of old masters . . . . Related to all of these, finally, were various rhythm studies, both abstract and of the human figure in motion. (Ibid., p. 179)

Franciscono goes on to state that Itten's teaching pedagogy was based on "the

liberal Rousseau-Pestalozzi-Froebel-Montessori reform tradition of child education."

(Ibid., p. 180) These four thinkers did not develop the concepts of rhythm, however.

This was a unique contribution of Dalcroze's. Franciscono fails to mention Dalcroze,

Lussy, or Claparede specifically. As the seminal thinkers on and earlier practitioners of

rhythm and movement, what part must Dalcroze and those who influenced his system

such as Pestalozzi, Lussy and Claparede have played in the origins of the rhythmic

movement studies at the Bauhaus?

Since it was Dalcroze and his aforementioned three colleagues who developed the

earliest 19th and 20th century rhythmic studies and theories, this researcher must raise

several questions. Should one assume Franciscono’s not mentioning them as the source

of the rhythm pedagogy of this period was an oversight? Was perhaps the above quoted

attribution meant to include them automatically as part of the “reform tradition?” Either

explanation leaves much in question and deserves fuller treatment in a separate study.

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Dalcroze brought together--for the first time ever--into one system the ideas of Swiss

pedagogues and theorists Lussy, Claparede, Pestalozzi and himself. (Abramson, 1986)

These ideas were inextricably bound together in his Eurhythmics methodology. If it is

true that they influenced these leaders of Modern Art, then they would together--not

separately--be the founding ideology at modernism's roots.

Franciscono (1971)describes the Itten classes as "by-passing the intellect in order

to reach what is conceived to be his natural, unlearned creative center" (p. 180) and

containing

various improvisatory exercises in self-expression-scarcely more at times, it seems, than reflex acts- conceived as a way of giving direct voice to the unreflective creative urges of the student; and the compositional play with a great variety of materials, the results of which were to be free, ideally, of any prior conception, theory, or style of art. [Footnote here in original: ‘The materials studies were in part probably inspired directly or indirectly by the education theories of Maria Montessori which stressed above all the importance of sensory training.’] (Ibid., p. 180-1)

Given Abramson’s (1986) mention of Dalcroze as an influence on Montessori, the

attribution of Itten’s methods to a foundation in Montessori’s method gives an indication

of the historically overlooked influence of Dalcroze Eurhythmics on Modern Art.

Franciscono ascribes to these lessons “an informal master-pupil relationship, the doctrine

that true education requires 'doing' rather than mere learning’” (Ibid., p. 181) and

continues by stating that

all these, and especially the last, were as much the direct heritage of Ruskin and the English Arts and Crafts Movement as they were of more narrowly pedagogical traditions. They had in part reached Germany on that broad wave of interest in English pertaining to the arts which had been generated in the eighteen nineties. (Ibid.)

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It is surprising that Franciscono peremptorily dismisses the contributions of the

Swiss pedagogues mentioned here. Such a cursory dismissal deserves closer

examination. Some interesting parallels have herein been noted between the pedagogies

of Itten and Dalcroze. It appears the relationship between them would benefit from

further study.

Another interesting parallel between the two schools is their both being located in

Germany. Franciscono (1971) further traces the interest of the Bauhaus leadership in

new types of education for the arts to an event held near the site of Hellerau: "The

gathering interest in Germany in the reform of art education . . . first culminated in

September 1901 with a conference on art education held in Dresden which was attended

by a number of future leaders of the Deutsche Werkbund." (p. 182)

Clearly the Hellerau Institute (also near Dresden) was a later development than

this conference, yet their close proximity to each other in both time and location near

Dresden indicates a possible path for future research. If research shows a relationship

between the Dresden conference and the later Institute at Hellerau, this may argue a

closer relationship between Itten, the Bauhaus, and Dalcroze than has previously been

explored in scholarly literature.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics was unique and revolutionary in connecting the elements

of rhythm, movement, art and expressiveness together with education. Thus the

similarities between Jaques-Dalcroze’s ideas and the techniques subsequently used by

Itten at the Bauhaus are too derivative to be ignored. Future researchers should explore

these connections:

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[Itten] had the pedagogical insight to recognize that with the decline of naturalism and the interest of the modern artist in subjective expression and in conceptual modes comparable to those used by children, could also be relevant to the education of art students. . . . [He was] further . . able to relate [his] teaching principles to the prevalent aesthetic doctrine of empathy, which, as popularly understood, tended to lead in works of art to an emphasis upon rhythmical movements and kinetic forms as the means of expressing inner states and experiences. [emphasis in the original]

Itten set down his conception of art as the realization of a 'spiritually emotional vibratory power' . . : 'Everything reveals itself to man through movement. Everything vital reveals itself in forms. Thus all form is movement and all movement is manifest in form. Forms are receptacles of movement and movements the essence of form.' (Ibid., p. 190)

Franciscono continues: "One may well acknowledge that the Vorkurs exercises in

expression--the free, rhythmical studies and the depictions of emotions--were valuable in

training the students' sensibilities and perceptions." (Ibid., p. 217) Itten's emphasis on

empathy during the early years of the Bauhaus was replaced at his departure by its later,

"more geometric and normative" emphasis. (Ibid., p. 238)

The similarities of Itten's pedagogy to Dalcroze's concepts are too obvious and

strong to be, without further study, dismissed as unconnected. Further study seems

necessary to establish these historical strands and give proper credit to the appropriate

source of Bauhaus pedagogy--the basis from which its unique 20th century contributions

developed. What the exact connections are must be the subject of a separate study.

Unfortunately, the research sources and material will probably be in German or French,

making it very difficult for American researchers to fully access.

It is inconceivable that two institutions which: were both located in the same

small country and involved movement and rhythm based education; were contiguous

(happened relatively soon one after the other); and influenced international art and

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architecture cannot be more completely connected. For this reason, the possible

connections between the Dalcroze Festspielhaus at Hellerau and the German Bauhaus at

Weimar should be the focus of a future study by researchers.

In that connection, a German dissertation may be of interest. (Hurtgen-Busch,

1995) Its title suggests that its author makes the connection to Dalcroze's work being the

earliest form of movement and gesture pedagogy in Germany. Its title is translated as:

The forerunner of rhythmic-musical education in Germany.

Another German dissertation is of interest. (Karfurke, Publication date unclear)

Translated to English, the title is: The History of music-school training in Prussia, 1918-

1930.) It appears to explore early developments in arts education in the area near the

Bauhaus.

Two other possible avenues for research into the influence of Dalcroze on artists

of the 20th century are noted here. The web site

http://www.people.cornell.edu/pages/jgv4/dance/fore.htm, accessed 2/26/02, 11.33 AM

CST, mentions that both Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis were "muses" for the French

artist Auguste Rodin. Is it possible that these two proponents of Dalcroze Eurhythmics

were important in Rodin's revolutionary portrayal of the human form in his sculptures

and paintings?

Secondly, as Revkin (1984) notes, "Russian painter Alexander Salzmann was

responsible for the inner décor and for the lighting of the grand hall [at Hellerau].” (p.

242) His wife Jeanne de Salzmann was a Dalcroze student, dancer, and teacher of

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rhythmic movements who would later found the Gurdjieff Foundation as a devoted

follower of Gurdjieff. (http://www.gurdjieff.org/salzmann.htm accessed 2/28/03)

Gurdjieff, incidentally, became attached to the Dalcroze school in Paris, but the

December 13, 1923 premier of his movement performances in Paris was followed by

heckling outside the theater from Dalcrozians who called him a cheat and a thief because

his ideas were so derivative, apparently without attribution. (http://www.gurdjieff-

movements.net/movements/dalcroze.htm) This source also mentions that Gurdjieff’s

Movements strongly parallel Dalcroze’s approach. The implication is that Gurdjieff was

distinct because his was more of a ritual to be used for whole life development and

personal growth. Gurdjieff’s use of Eurhythmics thus appears to follow some of the

religious ideas of ‘eurhythmy’ developed in 1912 in Munich, Germany, by Rudolf

Steiner. (Leviton, 1993) However, the distinction is muddled. Dalcroze’s system

certainly predates those of both Gurdjieff and Steiner. Given this latter fact, the fact of

Gurdjieff’s early association with Dalcroze student and teacher Jeanne de Salzmann, and

the fact of Gurdjieff’s connection to the Dalcroze institute in Paris before his premiere,

there can be little doubt that Dalcroze was, at the least, an influence in the development

of Gurdjieff’s system. This researcher is intrigued by the question of whether Salzmann

has since been recognized as a major artist of his time. Another question of interest is

whether Salzmann or his Dalcroze Eurhythmics experiences influenced any other artists

of importance in the century.

It is reasonable to suspect that Dalcroze's Institute at Hellerau, Germany and the

subsequently-created German Bauhaus were, at the least, geographically related

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developments. Possibly, however, they are more closely causally, artistically, and

intellectually related than has been previously established. Gauging from the wealth of

historical sources detailing the German Bauhaus, it appears possible that an entire

dissertation could be written. It could detail the continuity of thought, method and

geography between three occurrences: the September, 1901 conference on art education

held in Dresden (attended by some future leaders of the Deutsche Werkbund at the

Bauhaus); Dalcroze's seminal Institute at Hellerau--near Dresden; and the later

institution, the Bauhaus, at Weimar.

Athletics and Physical Education (Czech Sokol, Swedish Gymnastics)

Another movement that Dalcroze directly influenced was the Czech Sokol

physical culture association. Toepfer (2000) describes this development briefly:

"Sokol . . . adapted the ideas of the Swiss Emil [sic] Jaques-Dalcroze (whom Segel

mentions only in passing) to create perhaps the most rigorous, detailed, comprehensive,

and teachable program for creating body consciousness at any time during this

century…" (p. 267, as cited on internet Academic Search Elite, accessed 3/19/02

5:27PM.)

Another contribution to athletics may possibly be found by investigating the

stream of literature in athletic flow theory. As Caldwell (1995) describes it:

The third form, imaginary kinesthesia, has probably been used by musicians for many years, but we have only recently given it a name. Some years ago, trainers of world-class athletes began using imaginary kinesthesia as a regular part of their training. Athletes are taught to imagine themselves performing their sport; they feel their bodies hurling down the slopes or pole vaulting as their muscles are trained by their minds. (p. 117)

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The documentation of Dalcroze developments in the field of athletics is still somewhat

sketchy, but given Dalcroze's connections to Sweden, mentioned elsewhere in this study,

and Sweden's long tradition of Swedish Gymnastics, this study would seem to indicate

further research may uncover greater relevance.

Psychology (Gestalt Therapy, Jean Piaget's Theories based on children studied at

Maison des Petits School where Dalcroze taught and performed)

Dalcroze's work at the early Institute Jean Jacques Rousseau in Switzerland and

his various levels of association with its founding director Edouard Claparede is well

known. His work at the school for young children at the Rousseau Institute and possibly

with Jean Piaget (who conducted much of his experimental work with children there

during these years) must remain for another study. He was a student of Edouard

Claparede at the Institut Jean Jacques Rousseau and a contemporary of Jean Piaget. His

songs, incidentally, were taught at the Maison des Petits where Piaget made observations

which would lead to some of his discoveries about early childhood development.

(Revkin, 1984, p. 383) Certainly Jean Piaget and Dalcroze were taught by the same

teacher, Claparede, head of the Institute Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The research indicates a

connection of some sort, possibly a strong one. That must, however, remain for a future

study. Since Dalcroze grew up in Vienna, a future study might also examine his

connections to fellow Viennese thinkers Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Some of the

sources herein listed mention possible connections, but these, too, must remain for

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careful development in a future study. One dissertation shows the application of Jung’s

psychological types with Dalcroze methodology. (Bragg, 1996)

This researcher has, however, brought to light a connection between Dalcroze

Eurhythmics and the development of gestalt therapy. Throughout the Dalcroze literature,

there are repeated references to gesture and gestalt. Caldwell (1995, p. 121) recommends

that Dalcroze students:

Form a Gestalt in the Learning Process. Gestalt is a German term meaning 'form' or 'shape.' Rather like working a puzzle, finding the framework of a composition makes it easier to begin placing the myriad other pieces; by grasping the form (e. g. ABA or strophic) early, we can more easily fit the parts of the musical puzzle together. The gestalt process also encourages the use of metaphors as a means of developing the affective colors of a piece. This process is sometimes referred to as 'holistic.' (p. 121)

Evidently the concepts are interconnected.

An intriguing resource discusses Dalcroze's influence on the creation of Gestalt

Theory. (McBride, 1998) Frederick S. (Fritz) Perls was born in Germany. His wife,

"Laura Perls had a background in modern dance, piano and eurhythmics which

influenced her use of body work and movement with clients and trainees (Serlin, 1991)."

(McBride, 1998, Internet pagination unclear throughout citations) "In later years, Laura

Perls admitted that she resented his never acknowledging her role in the development of

gestalt therapy (Bernard, 1988)." (McBride, 1998) Upon cursory examination, the

parallels are striking.

The basic message of the philosophy that Perls espoused was ‘to be here now’ and to ‘be yourself’; his estranged wife, Laura Perls, once described him as ‘half prophet and half bum’ (Shepard, 1975, p.3). Perls thought that description was accurate. (Ibid.)

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. . . .Perls had moved away from psychoanalytical concepts such as the libido and complexes, and towards such existential ideas as awareness and the present, experiencing the flow of one’s own process (Shepard, 1975). (Ibid.)

. . . .there is evidence that Perls, in his later years, shifted ‘...from a structural to a process model’ (Friedman, 1993, p. 97). (Ibid.)

The word, gestalt, comes from the German word meaning ‘a structured entity that is more than...its parts’ (Perls, 1992, p. 52). . . .Therefore, the focus in therapy, and in life, is on the present moment, the quality of one's being, and the ‘how’ of existing (Naranjo, 1993); ‘the Gestalt approach...attempts to understand the existence of any event by how it came about...not the why’ (Perls,1971, p. 16). This leads, as Laura Perls said, to gestalt therapy being considered an existential-phenomenological approach (Perls,1992). (McBride, 1998) ‘Van Deusen (1975) speaks of ‘tun[ing] out the words and study[ing] the music of the voice and the dance of the movements’; he goes on to say, ‘from this I can see them [clients] better than I could from many words’ (p. 77). Thus, the notion of process in gestalt therapy lends itself not only to expressiveness but also to observation, to noticing, to awareness (Perls, 1992), rather than listening to the words, the content in communication. (Ibid.)

Much of this description reads like a review of Eurhythmics methodology.

Without question, a strong preliminary case can be made that the influences of

Eurhythmics are evident in Gestalt Therapy. Future research will surely draw even more

striking correlations.

Summary: Historical Analysis of Dalcroze Eurhythmics

Thus, while a theorist and practitioner from a field only tangentially related to

oratory, Emile Jaques-Dalcroze created a historically significant method of combining

movement and music to stimulate the intellect and creativity. His method would

influence the systems and practices of many of the 20th century's greatest artists, teachers,

and thinkers. The list of people who used or endorsed this method includes Mary

Wigman, Ted Shawn and Ruth St. Denis, Martha Graham, Nijinsky, (Landis & Carder,

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1972, p. 17) Sergei Diaghilev, Isadora Duncan, Anna Pavlov (Becknell, 1970, p. 143-4),

Sakharoff, (Ibid., p. 7) Balanchine, Holm (Ibid, p. 133), Lewisohn, Sokolow, Maslow,

and Tamiris (Harris, 1996), Monk (Solomons, 2001), Marie Rambert, Uday Shan Kar,

Rosalia Chladek, Zouzou Nicolaude, Antony Tudor, Jerome Robbins, Paul Taylor

(Revkin, 1984, p. 314) and other founders of modern dance; Constantin Stanislavski,

Boleslavski, Meyerhold, Grotowski, Strasberg, Clurman, Isnardon, Rheinhardt, Brecht,

Copeau, Ito, Dullin, Granville Barker, Ernst Ferand, Maurice Brown (Thomas, 1995;

Revkin, p. 263, 275, 300, 304), Appia (Brockett, 1987) and other founders of modern

theater; writers such as George Bernard Shaw, Sinclair Lewis, (Caldwell, 1995, p. 14)

and Paul Claudel (Becknell, 1970, p. 7); Fritz and Laura Perls, the founders of Gestalt

therapy (McBride, 1998); architects Le Corbusier (De Michelis, 1990; Rosenblatt, 1998)

and Tessenow (Revkin, p. 242); film makers such as Cocteau (Revkin, p. 275),

Eisenstein, Meyerhold, and Grotowski (Rosenblatt, 1998); many of the public school

music programs in the world; the Southern Baptist Convention music leader Frances W.

Winters (Bradley, 1988); the Jacksonville Symphony Orchestra (Grove, 1997); musicians

and composers such as Sergei Rachmaninoff (Revkin, p. 282), Gabriel Faure, Enrique

Granados, Josef Hoffman, Arthur Honegger, Dimitri Mitropoulos, Ignace Paderewski;

teacher-musicians such as Ernst Bloch, Alfred Cortot, Guy Maier, Rosina Lhevinne,

Clara and David Mannes, Eleanor Steber (Becknell, p. 139-142) and Darius Milhaud.

(Revkin, p. 279) In London, the children of Churchill and Asquith were enrolled in a

Dalcroze school. (Revkin, p. 285)

Abramson (1986) summarizes these and adds to the list:

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Many of the students at Hellerau became the leading artists of the next generation: Hanya Holm, Marie Rambert, and Vaslav Nijinsky were among the dancers and choreographers attracted to Hellerau; the director and producer Sergei Diaghilev was there also. These artists in turn have affected the dance and the theater to the present day through their influence on Ted Shawn, Ruth St. Denis, Doris Humphrey, Martha Graham, Paul Taylor, and Alvin Ailey. Among the musicians to come to Hellerau were Sergei Rachmaninoff, Ernest Bloch, and Ignace Paderewski; some writers were Paul Claudel, William James, George Bernard Shaw, and Upton Sinclair. The directors and actors Max Reinhardt, Gordon Craig, and Konstantin Stanislavsky visited and worked in the theater, and the future leaders in education Maria Montessori, Dorothee Gunther, Gunhild Keetman, and Carl Orff came to Hellerau to study and observe this unique experiment in education by the arts. (p. 69)

EURHYTHMICS IN THE PUBLIC SPEAKING CLASSROOM

Concepts

Determining the possible applications of a rhythm education method such as

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Speech Communication is the focus of this thesis. This study

has explored five reasons for such interdisciplinary relevance. It has explored: 1)

neurological research supporting Dalcrozian principles; 2) current trends in education;

3) the paucity of rhythmic elements in recent college public speaking textbooks; 4)

historical precedent in ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric; and, 5) Dalcroze Eurhythmics’

historical contributions to many disciplines.

Given the extensive evidence presented in this study of Dalcroze Eurhythmics’

relevance to modern science, education, ancient rhetoric, 20th century history, and related

therapies, it is important to describe how it may be implemented in the college public

speaking classroom. Professor J. Timothy Caldwell at Michigan State University has

been using it to teach singing and to evaluate expressiveness of performers. (Caldwell,

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1995; Abramson, 2003, personal email) So, college student performers are today already

being analyzed and scrutinized using this method.

Stansell (2001) quotes Sedar: "Swiss musician and inventor Emile Dalcroze

sought to merge music and movement into a kind of language, one that relates back to the

ancient Greek ideal of music. Dalcroze Eurhythmics (Gr. Eu + rhythmos, good

movement) was an attempt to sharpen a child's perception and sensitivity to timing,

articulation, and phrasing, all key elements of both music and language." (p. 3) He

concludes with:

Dalcroze lends current philosophical support to an integrative pedagogical theory of music, language, and rhythmic movement. Ancient and modern thinkers show that it is helpful to bring music, choreography, and language together in order to teach all of them better. . . . [M]ousicas [sic] today can inspire . . . an active, vocal teaching methodology. (Ibid.)

Over time, fewer people have become able to listen to music without explicit

beats (rock and roll, for instance), that isn’t endlessly repetitive, and takes more than

three minutes to hear. (Caldwell, 1995) Dalcroze exercises work because they force the

brain to work. They use imaginary kinesthesia as well, the same visualization technique

now used by athletes in training. (Ibid) Broadening the range of conscious kinesthesia

automatically broadens its unconscious use as well. Dalcroze’s goal “is to produce a

clear and compelling performance in which the singer has learned the dance of the music

and then is able to stand quietly and make the souls of the audience dance and sway.”

(Ibid., p. 118)

The modalities of education used in Dalcroze work might be, with slight

modification, also applied to public speaking classrooms. Abramson and Reiser (2000, p.

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8-9) outline these modalities which are based in the work of Dalcroze, Pestalozzi, and

Piaget.

1. One thing at a time instruction methods. Only go on when children achieve

mastery.

2. Make your voice musical to show the expressive nature of language.

3. Stop the lesson when students are distracted. Play the piano (or shift into an

expressive oratory example!) to show them their future abilities, while

keeping them in the present and alert.

4. When you ask a student to repeat something, tell them why. This is consistent

with Gardner’s (1991) multiple intelligences approach, according to Russ

(1993): “He feels that we must teach students in context and use approaches

that help students see the reasons for learning.” (p. 94) Focus their attention

on a specific, perhaps different, behavior to work on—phrasing, timing, color,

touch, etc. Having a well-designed practice plan is essential to developing

high-level skill. (Wilson, 1998)

5. Asking students to change dynamics, phrasing, accents, articulation, etc.,

during a lesson increases their expressiveness and reduces boredom. As

Wilson (1998) says, “. . . getting better means increasing the repertoire of

things that you do when something goes wrong.” (p. 110)

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6. As the student performs, check to make sure she is upright, balanced,

moveable, breathing--or whether she is tense, locked, or immoveable.

(Abramson & Reiser, 2000) Wilson (1998) says that the frontiers of

neuroscience are demanding that we question the deeply embedded

educational theory and praxis premise that intelligence is purely mental and

that we can teach the mind without involving the body.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics uses a Newtonian vocabulary to discuss its approach.

Practitioners seek to train the human body to accurately and comfortably perform

rhythms while correctly using time, space, and energy in a gravity field. Regulating

responses of the body and hearing also requires developing an awareness of weight and

balance. The exercises are "designed to help students strengthen their feeling for metrics

and their instinct for the many flows of motion called rhythm." (Abramson, 1986, p. 32)

Abramson (2002) states that there are three different kinds of rhythm/movement

in music: time-space (note values, metrics, accents, dynamics—they move through time

and space), pitch (melodic shapes that move through pitch-space. They ascend or

descend using steps—conjunctive—or jumping—disjunctive movements. This occurs

within the background of tonal gravity), harmonic (weight controlling—2 or 3 note

harmonies are lighter than 4, 5, 6, or 7). He also points out harmonies relate to posture by

leading to body contraction or extension. Major, minor, diminished, and augmented

triads are each expressed differently. They have various functions, too. For instance, in

tonal music dominant harmonies require resolution after pulling off balance. Consonance

and dissonance are tension and release. Harmonies have different levels of these. Such

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harmonic characteristics are reflected by various inclination, postures, and height in body

movement. Pianos are used because they can convey time, melody and harmony as well

as an entire orchestra of sounds--along with an 88 tone range.

Abramson and Reiser (1994) define musicality as “the ability to perform musical

activities with correct nuance, phrasing, sensitivity, and sensibility, connecting content

with context.” (p. 5) They discuss Dalcroze’s distinction between non-sense learning

and synesthetic learning which connects sensation (visual, aural, touch, or kinesthesia) to

sensibility (thought or judgment). In Dalcroze teaching, abstractions of theory are

connected to their physical movement to breathe life into them. If a teacher doesn’t see

that the students make this mind-body connection, “theory becomes names (labels),

numbers, terms, symbols, and shapes without context, leading to Errhythmy, a lack of

nuanced human expression.” (Ibid.) Many students return to school in the fall having

forgotten what they learned the year before because of the lack of embodied knowledge.

The following relatively simple applications indicate a direction for teachers to

follow in building lesson plans using rhythm in the public speaking classroom.

Personally, this researcher suspects that the exercises must first start with embodying

musical elements until teachers are satisfied that all students can move musically. Then

teachers can work on developing special exercises built just for rhythmic rhetoric.

Aims

Recent writings in Dalcroze Eurhythmics clarify the aims and claims of the

Dalcroze Eurhythmics method. Abramson (2003) describes the aims of the method. He

also quotes Dr. William Bauer (his former student and now colleague) from the

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Department of Music, Staten Island University, on some characteristics of and issues

explored in the method. Some relevant concepts for public speaking might be inner-beat

impulse, diagnostic assessment in real time (DART), use of personal space, transfer of

weight, handling of balance and momentum, muscular coordination, dramatic character

of tempos, subtle variations of same, physicalization of same, conscious awareness of

unconscious activity or movement, and developing a sophisticated teacher evaluative

frame of reference.

Abramson and Reiser (1994, p. 9) list six goals of Dalcroze teaching: 1) Attention

This broad goal includes attention, concentration, social integration, nuance (dynamics,

phrasing, articulations, accents, slowing and acceleration), comprehension and expressive

gesture; 2) Rhythm; 3) Pitch; 4) Memory This is accomplished by teaching material to

every part of the body—left brain, right brain, legs, arms, fingers, mouth, tongue, etc.

(embodiment connects the mental, physical and emotional expression); 5) Method This

is the Pestalozzian directive to teach only one thing at a time. The value of this

Pestalozzian and Froebelian concept has been born out in new research in brain function,

cognitive psychology, music perception, neuro-linguistics and dyslexia; 6) New Habits

This last goal focuses the teacher on studying the learning process and the brain

functioning in order to develop a practicing technique which helps the student to

overcome difficulties by changing ineffective habits.

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze focused all of this effort on creating better, more

expressive artists. As Professor Robert M. Abramson told this researcher in the summer

of 2001, "We are creating young artists in training." (Private lesson) Clinical studies as

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well as the lives and work of countless students attest to the artistic validity of the

techniques used by Dalcrozians to train artists. (Rose, 1995)

Also, Abramson mentions, Dalcroze's exercises, techniques, and philosophies

were not created in a vacuum. "He consulted with the leading proponents of his day."

(Abramson, 2004) This method is meant "for the development of rhythmic instinct, the

auditory sense, and tonal sentiment. It integrates a practical, clear way of thinking about,

hearing and visualizing musical composition techniques with the feeling the music is

intended to convey, during the improvisation process." (Ibid, p. 11) He adds, "creativity

lies at the core of this method whose aim is for students to get in touch with their

innermost feelings, express them spontaneously in gesture, then translate them into

improvised music." (Ibid, p. 14) This researcher's experience suggests that the student's

ability to work in a focused, concentrated way is enhanced, leading to what

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) calls a "flow state" of productive, joyful, creative time. This,

then, is the nature of Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

None of which, Abramson cautions, should imply that Dalcroze is about having

fun. Fun is not necessary. Instead the method develops joy--the result of learning and

accomplishing something of personal and or universal significance. (Abramson, 2004)

Jaques-Dalcroze said essentially the same as early as 1911:

I preach joy, for it alone gives the power of creating useful and lasting work. Amusement, an excitement which stimulates the nerves instead of uplifting the spirit, is not necessary in the life of the artist. . . . This condition of joy is brought about in us by the feeling of freedom and responsibility, by the clear perception of the creative power in us, by the balance in our natural powers, by the harmonious rhythm between intention and deed. (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1913, p. 30)

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As it is written in the Kabbalah,

there is one who expands even further until he unites with all of existence, with all creatures, with all worlds, singing a song with them all.There is one who ascends with all these songs in unison—the song of the soul, the song of the nation, the song of humanity, the song of the cosmos—resounding together, blending in harmony, circulating the sap of life, the sound of holy joy. (Matt, 1997, p. 154)

Techniques

The next priority of this study will be to describe experiences and exercises which

lead to the development, expression, and understanding of rhythm. In the rhythmic

exercises of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (hereafter referred to by their English name, Dalcroze

Eurhythmics), students learn to feel the inherent rhythms of all around and within them.

Students are "excited" and "inhibited" into feeling a more fully aware sense of their

bodies, minds, hearts, spirits, and souls. Through the use of musical accompaniment,

gymnastic movement, stretches, solfege pitch development games, vocal training,

improvisation, and other games, students begin to discover nuances of expression, neural

development, muscular coordination, and brain excitation. Dalcroze Eurhythmics gets

students up out of their chairs and engages their minds and bodies in an integrative

movement toward thinking or building intelligence. Clinical studies as well as the lives

and work of countless students attest to the artistic validity of the techniques used by

Dalcrozians to train artists. (Becknell, 1970; Revkin, 1984; Rose, 1995)

This researcher has used rhythm and music activities in the public speaking

classroom and in private coaching with speech students. One student was unable to

adjust his staccato speech delivery until after privately receiving work on bodily rhythm

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awareness. In his first speech, the other students in the audience fidgeted and grew

increasingly distracted as he delivered his speech somewhat like a stereotypical drill

sergeant. After one session with this researcher, he was able to stay aware of his speech

rhythm and keep the entire class on the edge of their seats, as the researcher saw from the

back of the classroom.

In this researcher’s glassblowing classes, he is able to facilitate greater physical

mastery for his students in their handling of punty rods which hold gathers of molten

glass. He leads them through group rod turning exercises to a rhythmically expressed

vocal direction such as “and turning round and round!” He focuses on teaching them one

physical activity at a time and waits for mastery before introducing a new action. In this

way, he is able to take an entire class of six to twelve beginning glassblowers from

complete inexperience of hot glass tools to complete air implacement in molten glass

gathers—all within one three-hour long evening.

One student was having particular trouble handling her punty rod—which must be

turned constantly while poking the end with molten glass into the open oven (glory hole).

He asked her if she knew a song by heart; then to show its rhythm or movement first with

her breath, then her body, and finally in the turning of her rod. She mentioned afterwards

that the exercise had been of help to her.

Exercises

Caldwell (2000) mentions the four basic activities in the gymnastique portion of

Eurhythmics. These are categories of games called follow, quick reaction, replacement,

and canon. Simply put, all are improvisational movement performed to musical

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accompaniment. Each category is a broad type, but the teacher has the freedom to create

the specific physical actions asked for from the students and the music used. The

combinations can be endless.

In a follow exercise, students follow the music played on the piano (or other

expressively used instrument) and move through space. This movement can be walking,

running, etc., either freely or in group circle or other formation. The movement can be

any movement that students can use to echo the music’s expressiveness—even passing

balls. The teacher first must watch the movement and make sure it is conveying the

nuances and movement structure which is appropriate to the music choice. The teacher

can vary speed, size, dynamics, etc. Surprise change cues can then be introduced into the

music; these require changes in movement when a particular vocal or musical cue is

given. So, for instance, when the teacher plays a trill, the class might have to quickly—in

appropriate rhythm—change direction. Or, when a mordent is played, they may have to

stop, keeping an internal beat, then resume moving when they hear the mordent again.

That changes the original follow game into a quick reaction game.

A replacement game will replace an item in an already learned rhythmic pattern.

(Abramson, 1986) For instance, students move to the pattern of four quarter notes in a

measure. The teacher might then direct them to replace various notes with rests—either

singly or in combination. Perhaps they might have to substitute two eighth notes for a

quarter; or, two eighth notes for one quarter and rest for another. The combinations can

be endless in this exercise too. Meanwhile, the expressiveness of the music must still be

mirrored in the student movement.

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In a canon exercise, the teacher performs a rhythmic pattern which the class

immediately ‘echoes.’ (Abramson, 1986) The teacher creates a new pattern; the class

responds anew. The teacher can lengthen the patterns and combine them with elements

from the previous exercises. This particular canon would be an interrupted canon and it

aids short term memory. Canon is thus similar to the language-learning babbling of a

baby. Mothers teaching babies language quite naturally say a nonsense or sensible phrase

and cue the baby to respond. Eventually babies do respond, with their first language—

babble. This format is the foundation of the canon game. Predictably, however, it is a

much more challenging exercise for children or adults than baby babbling would be.

Another type used is the continuous canon. It follows the same format as the first

canon, but in this game the teacher doesn’t wait for the students to copy her before she

moves to the next pattern. This game forces the students to perform one action while

remembering the next one—shown while they are still performing. The students live in

three worlds of memory simultaneously—past, present, and future. (Abramson, 1986)

This exercise is often the final one in a lesson serving to sum up the skills and knowledge

learned in that lesson. (Ibid.)

The writings of Caldwell (1995) on singing expressively offer some helpful

exercises for singers that may, with some changes, be applied to the public speaking

classroom. He advises making flashcards with various affect descriptor words on them.

Some he lists are “brave, bubbly, eager, ecstatic, melancholy, passionate, pious, sexy,

vengeful, vindictive, proud, excited, sensual, longing, haughty, angry, confused,

penitent.” (Ibid., p. 168) Each time a student practices, use a different affect such as

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smiling, etc., for all or parts of the piece. He makes this exercise more complex by

memorizing several affects and alternating them during the practice. He recommends

neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) as well. (Ibid.) He presents exercises for

developing memory, inner hearing and inner rhythm as well. Another exercise directs the

student to memorize a phrase, and then walk it expressively through the room, paying

attention to articulations of affect and dynamics with all parts of the body, including

hands, feet. and face. Such an exercise would seem very applicable to speech

memorization, and reduce stress on the voice as well.

Stabley (2001) mentions that Dalcroze realized that motion can be used to study

every musical element. Stabley’s (2001) movement exercises include: statue games

where poses are changed to musical accompaniment; rhythmic walking and fingering the

air to accompaniment; a building of student rhythms by additive means by going around

the circle having each student clap what came before and add his or her own—this is

played till it falls apart; have students tap accompanying piano even while it is stopped

periodically; making rhythmic motions to music, with students taking turns being the

leader; create canon games where teacher does a four beat movement, the students then

mimic it for the next four beats, meanwhile the teacher gives them a new four beat

movement while they are performing the first one—this continues and the patterns can

become more complex. Another exercise is having students echo a rhythm and then

repeat it as an augmented or diminished one. Also, do it with eyes closed. A student can

stomp out the rhythm of a popular song for the others to guess. The winner goes next.

Sing a song and have students imitate the quarter and eighth notes as given. Then ask

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them to move to beats using heavy and light gestures and fast versus slow. Watch for

creative student efforts and ask the class to imitate them. Have those individuals

demonstrate for class if needed. Then, perform this as partners. Sing a song and have

students imitate beats as given. Then choose a student partner and create a duo

movement to express beats. Ask others to imitate. Give a brief time to create new

movements and perform. Then ask all to imitate the most creative ones. Using such

lesson plans, Stabley says, allows students to enjoy the classroom more and increases

improvisation, creativity, and movment skills.

Abramson (personal email, 04/25/2003) mentions using physical movements such

as flick, dab, glide, float, smack, punch, and wring to interpret spoken phrases. He

suggests one exercise: Speak “various articulations of the sentence ‘I love you,’ using

flick, dab, glide, float, smack, punch, and ring.” In another email, he mentions having his

teenage students perform it in the way they agree teens do normally, unexpressive and

‘cool,’ then changing both accents and articulations. He adds that the students loved the

activity. They had never before used their bodily instruments such as tongue, lips, teeth,

throat, and breath. (Personal email, 04/17/2003 09:35 AM EDT) Regarding public

speaking, Abramson also reminded this researcher that repetition is merely one form of

rhythm, as are triads (groupings of three notes, words or phrases). Finally, he says,

remember that the brain takes in only three-second phrases—no matter what language,

poetry, or music is performed. (Private email from Abramson, 04/25/2003)

A particularly helpful, simplified source of some beginning exercises useful for

both music and public speaking classroom can be found in Abramson & Cataneo (2003).

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These exercises include those aimed at developing a repertory of skills in multi-tasking,

rapid access memory, musicalizing the voice, commands, empowering gestures, metric

expression, canonical movement, and lesson planning.

At this point, this researcher will offer some simple Eurhythmics-related exercises

which he has created that may be of interest for the teacher in the public speaking

classroom. These have been used by the researcher in his own classes of university and

college students. All were directly inspired by the researcher’s own experiences in the

classes directed by Professors Robert M. Abramson and Daniel Cataneo at the Juilliard

School Dalcroze Summer Institute.**** They were initially put into written form at the

request of Professor Karen Dwyer for projected inclusion in the Eighth Edition of her

workbook which accompanies the Lukas (2003) text mentioned in the content analysis

herein.

I. “Getting in the Flow”—Posture and Movement for Oratory****

Speech research indicates the importance of movement and gesture to effective delivery. But how can a speaker achieve comfortable, easy movement while a crowd watches? You’ll notice that when one focuses on posture correctly, the arms and hands flow much more naturally. When one focuses on only one, isolated body part, one usually tenses the muscles there. So, instead of focusing on “What are my hands doing?’ or on the action of some other heavily muscled body part, focus your attention on the body part that has the least musculature—the top back of the head. “Where is the top back of my head moving toward?’ is a more helpful question. The following exercise will help you experience how this may be so.

Posture and Movement GameClear a space in the middle of the room (or go out into the hall). Have the

entire group form a line and walk around the space. Have them visualize the following:Imagine a string running up the inside of your spine and going out the top of your head. The string reaches high into the sky where a little old man (or woman) pulls on it. Now imagine your top back of your head following the string as it is

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pulled up. As this happens, the front of your head (forehead) will tip forward and down slightly—pulling you slightly off-balance. Allow this; it is a natural way your body helps you begin and keep moving easily and comfortably. Be sure to relax your shoulders and allow them to sink naturally into a compact, yet upright, position.

(At this point, it may be helpful to have the instructor follow the moving students and lightly press down on the shoulders of those who have tensed or scrunched up their shoulders. American classroom teachers should especially watch for this among males. Also, sometimes it is helpful to lightly touch the spot on the top back of the student’s head which should be highest, or even lightly tug on the hair in that spot (with the student’s permission and wiping hands with a sterile cloth between each person). Tugging lightly on the hair I have found especially effective, because it immediately helps students visualize the string’s pull and the correct direction their spine should be moving them.

Exercise with Rhythmic Music or Rhythmic VocalizingDo the above exercise again, but add rhythmic music or beat on a desk or

tambourine. Notice if the music or rhythm helps the students focus, flow more naturally, or enjoy the movement more. Try also varying the movement by letting students switch directions on command, circulate randomly, etc. Try also changing the gait—from a walk to a skip, trot, or gallop. These are not, however, easy movements for all students, so be aware that they may require additional coaching to simplify the movement enough for all to embody it.

Adding an Endorphin Rush GameWhile performing the rhythmic posture walk above, have the group

members smile as big as they can. Those who don’t stretch their mouth muscles ‘high’ enough will need to be coached using their fingers to push up each corner of their mouths; then pull down; then repeat. Then have them make their mouths move the same amount but without the fingers. Ask them if they feel any different when the mouth is up versus when it is down. (By this time you will already have gotten giggles or embarrassed laughs from students. Note this aloud and explain that these laughs are already a sign the exercise is working.)

The movement of the mouth muscles—even when done mechanically—can cause the release of endorphins to the brain. These are the body chemicals which make us feel pleasure. As students walk lightly, moving up, and smiling, notice aloud how free their arms and hands are to swing freely and comfortably. When speakers move freely and look like they enjoy themselves, they can become more charismatic.

II. “SMTC”—Eliminating Ums, Uhs, and Ers****

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Many students mention on their self-evaluations that they have a tendency to overuse dysfluencies. These are also called vocalized pauses. They occur when a speaker automatically fills in speech ‘space’ by adding ‘fillers’—meaningless sounds such as ‘um’, ‘uh’, and ‘er’—or inappropriate words such as ‘and’, or ‘so’. How can a speaker train herself to minimize or eliminate such sounds?

There is a four-step process to stopping dysfluencies. First: Can you tell when one is coming? If so, instead of letting it out, STOP. Stop everything: speech, movement, thought. Second: MOVE. Move your hand, move your whole body, even walk across the room. In some way, move your muscles. This engages your kinesthesia—your body intelligence. Third: Now THINK. ‘What is my point?’ ‘What shall I say next?’ ‘What’s on my cue card?’ Fourth: CONTINUE. Go ahead and finish speaking your thought.

For an interesting variation, during the move phase of this exercise imagine a song you know and move to its beat in some way. This may actually give you confidence.

It seems that speakers are sometimes afraid that stopping, pausing, or a silent gap in sound will bore the audience or make the speaker seem unsure of themselves. Instead, the truth is, a pause will automatically make an audience feel tension, interest, and attention—especially if the pauses are part of a rhythmically delivered speech. Notice this in speeches you hear. Model this fact for the students. Show some examples of pauses that are attention-getting for the audience.

Remember, to turn your fillers into helpful attention-getters:Stop.Move.Think.

Continue.

III. “Endorphin Rush”—Smiling, Relaxation, and Enjoyment****

Have you ever noticed a speaker who was so comfortable that you felt like smiling or laughing comfortably with her at various stages in her speech? Did you notice whether she was smiling at those moments? Smiling is very important to relaxed delivery and a pleasant vocal sound—even in sad, poignant, or tragic moments, where it can communicate a comforting message. Yet some beginning speakers find that they have a challenge smiling at the group they’re addressing.

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Did you know smiling releases endorphins? These chemicals give you the same emotional results that chocolate does—without the calories. Have you ever felt this as it occurred? If you smile big enough, you can actually feel the rush of pleasure-causing chemicals flow to your brain. Try it!

Endorphin Rush Finger PushTake the first finger of each hand and push up each corner of your mouth

as high as you can. Hold it high until you feel a ‘lightening’ of your mood, a pleasant feeling, or an intense urge to smile or laugh on your own. Allow that to happen when you feel the urge. This is the endorphin rush. Some people feel it throughout their body; others as a localized effect in their head. If you didn’t recognize the feeling, don’t worry. Try pushing higher or try pulling down and holding first; then push up again. Hold each extreme until you feel some difference emotionally between the two. If nothing else works, try accompanying the exercise with music which attempts to show direction and ‘move’ the students’ mouths for them. This, of course, takes a musical teacher who knows how to show the crusic structure of movement through musical accompaniment. (All these exercises require a teacher with such skills.) Teachers must also remember that they must model the proper smile for their students. If a teacher hasn’t achieved this prowess herself, she cannot help the students attain it as effectively.

Some people automatically push the corners of their mouths down as they smile. They think they are smiling when, in fact, they are frowning or grimacing. This is probably a learned behavior from childhood. At any rate, it will NOT give the endorphin rush. Watch for this and correct the behavior by having them use the fingers again. They will often express shock that you really want the mouth to turn ‘so far up!’ If you are one of those people, use your fingers until you can make your facial muscles do it on command by themselves. Now do it throughout your speech, using only your facial muscles.

See if you can get your listeners to smile in response. How might you? Make eye contact with each one and see if you can get his eyes to sparkle. This is a physiological response which indicates his pupils have dilated, meaning they are focusing on you and your message more clearly and directly. Incidentally, it will also probably make your eyes dilate in response—creating a nice loop of reinforcement for both speaker and audience. (Cox, 2001. The mimetic hypothesis and embodied musical meaning. Musicae ScientiaeV(2), pp. 195-212.)

As e. e. cummings reminded the world, the smile is part of a holy place:

the holycity which is your faceyour little cheeks the streets

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of smiles(Pearson & cummings, 1978)

The current study does not allow a more in-depth description and discussion of

the various exercises used in Dalcroze Eurhythmics; however, all are based in music and

movement development. This study includes no in-depth discussion of all the possible

permutations of the five exercises. Indeed, none is possible: for the permutations are, by

chance and choice, infinite. This section has, however, attempted a broad description of

the traditional Dalcroze Eurhythmics exercises, as well as a short description of some

developed with public speaking in mind. Further descriptions can be found in the

writings of both Emile Jaques-Dalcroze and Robert M. Abramson. (The references list

herein contains several of their available and out-of-print works.) A future study

examining specific exercises and exploring their potential applicability to public speaking

would be of interest.

Lesson Plans

Lessons are arranged according to plans made in advance, but these plans can be

changed improvisationally in order to respond to student deficiencies or contributions.

Overall the lesson plans traditionally follow the structure of musical compositions. In

this way they help students embody various macro musical structures such as ABBA,

fugue, etc. Coincidentally, rhetorical structures and musical structures have historically

had similarities to each other. (Zucker, 1988) Thus, musical structures should be of

value for Dalcroze Eurhythmics-based public speaking lesson plans. Otherwise, it might

be instructive to attempt lessons plans which ‘echo’ formal rhetorical structures such as

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the Problem-Cause-Solution, Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, or Introduction, Exposition,

and Recapitulation formats. Methods for doing so must be the focus of a separate study.

Practicing

Professor Abramson tells the participants at the Juilliard School’s Summer

Dalcroze Institute that, as a rule, teachers do not teach students how to practice. It is as if

that is something the student is mature enough to figure out on their own. Teachers of

public speaking may do their students a great service by offering them different goals for

each repeat of their speech. Better yet, have the students decide their own unique goals

for each repetition. They may end up practicing for hours, not even realizing how time

has flown.

Dalcroze saw that if a student doesn’t practice with a cognitive sense awareness

of motion, his performance will merely be mechanical, not expressive. (Abramson &

Reiser, 2000) If the mind and body aren’t connecting, the amount of practice is

irrelevant, you won’t do well. (Ibid.) It is easy for children and any of us to focus on

end-goaling, and not on how to get the goal. Motion sensing equals kinesthesia. (Ibid.)

The motion sensing function is located in proprioceptor nerves which are in joints,

muscles, and ligaments—but not in the vocal chords. (Ibid.) One way to conceptualize

this is to think of the body being full of motion detectors that are directly wired into the

brain. These connect to each other through that central brain.

Practicing in Dalcroze should never be boring or merely repetitive. Caldwell

(1995) explains that after two exact repetitions, the body becomes distracted and the mind

wanders. Students need to enact conscious changes in their pattern in order to produce

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attention. Rote practice slows the brain and learning. With alterations, some elements of

Caldwell’s exercise tips may be applicable to public speaking practice: set goals for each

session, use 15-20 minute sessions, practice without speaking, practice controls such as

articulation, tempo, and dynamics, and form gestalts very early. Gestalts are the inner

understandings of the forms or shapes of a composition. Gestalt is a German word which

means form or shape. Gestalt use also includes metaphors to develop the various

emotional states or “affective colors” of a piece. (Ibid., p. 121) Most students have a

very limited affective vocabulary. They need to be taught words that express nuances of

emotion. Such lists exist in other places. (Zucker, 1988)

Students should be encouraged to think about how they want the audience to feel.

A teacher should ask questions like: “What should I listen for as you perform?” “How do

you want me to move while you perform?” This reminds them someone is listening and

helps them focus on how they sound to the audience. This is a central concern of rhetoric

as well. (Davidson, Scherer, Goldsmith, 2003) It also helps concentration during

practice and reduces pre-performance anxiety.

Another way to ensure kinetic learning takes place is to ask students to perform

something both ways—with their corrected mistakes, and then the old ways. Otherwise,

the teacher can assume it will have to be taught again. (Caldwell, 1995, p. 141)

Students must be full partners in the lesson and setting its goals. The teacher becomes a

co-learner. Teachers encourage the students to bring their full range of emotions and

feelings to class.

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Students need to take active part in shaping their learning. Ask them open-ended

questions at the end of the lesson such as: What did you learn? List everything we did

today in order from beginning to finish. What should you now be careful of? What

should you practice? How? Do you hurt anywhere? Are you comfortable? Where not?

Why do we do these things? Was this an expressive lesson? How can we make it more

so for next time? (Abramson & Reiser, 2000)

Overall, the effect of such a practice program is to force students to analyze their

work. Although it’s not: “Go figure it out!”; but rather it’s: “How could you figure it

out?” Such self-directed learning doesn’t encourage the students to wait for the next

lesson when they have a problem and let the teacher fix it. That’s why most students

learn so little from week to week. They assume the teacher will fix it in the next class.

Students can start making their own decisions more effectively when they learn to define

problems, develop solutions, and test those solutions. (Caldwell 1995)

CHAPTER VII. IMPLICATIONS (OR CONCLUSIONS)

Where has all the rhythm gone?

The 20th century was affected on many fronts by Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Certain

historical contributions of Dalcroze Eurhythmics have been documented already in

scholarly literature such as dissertations and history textbooks. Scholars have

acknowledged Dalcroze Eurhythmics to have played a significant role in the development

of several major 20th century movements, theories, and developments (Abramson, 1986;

Abramson, 2004; Becknell, 1970; Bradley, 1988; Brockett, 1987; Caldwell, 1995; De

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Michelis, 1990; Grove, 1997; Harris, 1996; Landis & Carder, 1972; McBride, 1998;

Revkin, 1984; Roberts, 1981; Rosenblatt, 1998; Thomas, 2000, accessed 3/16/02) These

include, internationally, music education, modern dance, and modern theater.

It is significant that Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a little-known, specialized

technique. The leaders in several important historical movements have based their

methods on its precepts, but few besides the most educated of scholars have experienced,

understood, or chosen to write about it. Why this is so is probably best the subject of a

different study. Suffice it to note that several scholars have commented on its obscurity.

Since it is still taught today and appears to have exerted a strong effect in some fields, yet

is so little known, it seems logical to ask whether it may have been even more influential

than has been previously noted. Additional in-depth investigation of historical sources

might show other less understood and less recognized contributions of the Dalcroze

Eurhythmics methodology to the history of the centuries since its founder's birth.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics appears to have widespread application in fields other than

music. Its influence is noted in some of the performing arts such as Dance and Theater.

(Revkin, 1984; Anderson, 2004) More research is needed, however, to trace less well-

known influences of Jaques-Dalcroze on the ideas of both his time and today.

Many music teachers have heard of the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method, even if

they are not qualified to teach it. (Abramson, 1986) Since it is a proprietary approach

controlled by the Institut Jaques-Dalcroze in Geneva, Switzerland, requirements for

certification are stringent. Training can also be relatively expensive. Thus, most

professionals and educators outside the field of music know little of its historical

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contributions. Yet rhythmic therapies similar to or based on Dalcroze Eurhythmics now

appear as part of the cutting edge of modern healthcare and strength-giving techniques.

(Heidenreich, 1979; Schlaug, 2001; Sedar, 1997; Seitz, 1999)

Dalcroze Eurhythmics has been used in various countries in psychiatric hospitals

and schools for the handicapped, the mentally retarded, and the blind. (Revkin, 1984, pp.

287, 416) It has been adapted for work with people suffering from nervous disorders.

(Becknell, 1970, p. 36) Another study shows some of its medical applications for

geriatric patients and retarded and emotionally disturbed children. (Heidenreich, 1979) It

has been recommended for exceptional children--both gifted and handicapped. (Landis

and Carder, 1972) It is founded in principles developed by Pestalozzi, Claparede, and

Lussy. (Caldwell, 1995, p. 14) It has been endorsed by educators at many institutions

including Columbia, Western Reserve, Oberlin, Mills College, Roxboro High School.

(Becknell, pp. 134-136) Currently it is part of the curriculum of many of the most

important European conservatories of music (Landis and Carder, p. 36) and many in the

United States, including the Juilliard School and Carnegie-Melon University. A more

complete list can be found in Revkin (p. 290).

Further research is needed in this area not only to more securely establish these

results, but also to find others. Additional research is available in French and German

language documents which have yet to be translated into English. (Revkin, 1984)

Researchers need to continue to develop more effective methods for exploring the

fascinating, yet convoluted, web of history to discover the true impact of this phenomenal

approach to intelligence building and therapy. Despite its obscurity, Dalcroze

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Eurhythmics study, research and influence is growing. (Caldwell, 1995; Revkin, 1984;

Becknell, 1970)

Currently there is a paucity of research on the historical significance of Jaques-

Dalcroze outside the arts—and, more specifically, outside music. What is needed is a

single exhaustive source tracing the historical contributions of Jaques-Dalcroze to a

variety of disciplines including, but not limited to, the arts, education, medicine,

psychology, and physical education. The current study can only indicate this need, not

fulfill it. Scholars are encouraged to delve carefully into historical documents and seek

such historical trails--however poorly marked.

Standard contemporary research sources do tell us some important facts about

Jaques-Dalcroze such as his biographical details, the development of his thought, its

unique characteristics, and its spread to other countries. (Brockett, 1987; Kennedy, 1996)

In general, Jaques-Dalcroze's historical significance is largely considered to be centered

in music education. Yet Dalcroze Eurhythmics appears to have widespread application in

fields other than music. Occasionally his influence is noted in some of the performing

arts such as Dance and Theater. This study will clarify and amplify his contributions in

those areas but also discuss some of his important contributions in other areas as well.

More research is needed, however, to trace less well-known influences of Jaques-

Dalcroze on the ideas of both his time and today. This study has introduced and

discussed some of those connections as discovered in less well-known sources.

As a final note, some recognition has been recently accorded Jaques-Dalcroze.

His original school "Festspielhaus" at Hellerau, Germany (near Dresden) has been

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recognized as "one of the birthplaces of modernism." (Theatron, 2002) The same source

claims that it "introduced new concepts regarding the unity of the arts-architecture,

music, dance, and theater." (Ibid)

Summary of Research Goals

This thesis's major purpose has been to discuss the historical impact of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics and project its relevance for the future of the communication arts.

Hopefully this discussion will lead to better understanding of rhythm and ways to teach it

in disciplines such as speech, forensics and theater. The literature review of the present

study did not attempt to establish the historical primacy of this movement. Instead, it

merely looked at the historical influence of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in fields related to

speech, forensics, and theater and then showed a proposed need in public speaking

pedagogy. This study shows a definite scholarly interest in the issues explored herein.

While this study is not meant to be comprehensive, it indicates that this interest is

significant. Thus, the area is relevant and important to scholarly researchers.

While current textbooks appear to only minimally address the development of

rhythmic emotional expressiveness, the ancient rhetoricians gave it a high priority. Given

the need of rhythmic emotional expression not only in the arts, but in communication

studies as well, it appears that a pedagogy which seeks to instill such expressiveness and

emotional eloquence should be examined by researchers. Its possibilities for the

amelioration of communication apprehension, while still speculative and anecdotal, are

provocative. This recommendation for further study applies specifically to the field of

communication—especially oratory, rhetoric, and public speaking of all other kinds—

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thought it is reasonable to expect its relevance to extend to other fields as well.

Hopefully this discussion will lead to a better understanding of rhythm and ways to teach

it in disciplines such as speech, forensics and theater.

The phenomenon which Jaques-Dalcroze (or 'Dalcroze' as he is commonly called

in America) explored and taught was the ancient Greek idea of rhythmos or rhythm. This

idea pertains to the awareness of the nuances of movement. While this idea is still

mentioned occasionally in public speaking texts, it is the ancients who appear to have

most deeply applied it to public speaking. It remains for modern researchers to

reexamine it for efficacy in modern public speaking education.

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CHAPTER VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results

This section will review the research questions and hypotheses of this study and

show how each was addressed by the study.

RQ1: What is the quality of charisma that makes a leader more or less compelling to

followers?

H1: Charisma is an accepted construct in communication literature which describes

expressive leaders.

As the section on charisma and gesture showed, charisma is, indeed, an important

construct discussed in the communication literature to characterize the ineffable quality

of leaders who experience an emotion rapport, connectedness or empathic

communication with their followers.

RQ2: Is the concept of charisma large enough to incorporate the hypnotic delivery

quality of extremely influential leaders? Will the introduction of additional concepts

such as rhythm or hypnosis become necessary in order to fully explore extremely

charismatic leader influence over followers?

It appears that the construct of charisma as conceptualized in the communication

literature is limited and does not account for the more ‘magical’ effects of leaders over

their followers. The construct of rhythm as discussed herein offers much more scope for

exploration of such qualities as hypnosis, mass appeal, mind control, subliminal

communication, and other concepts that are not addressed by the construct of charisma.

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RQ3: What is rhythm?

RQ4: What is the deepest nature of rhythm in speech delivery? Is it produced by the

initial bodily movement flow? What parts of the body? What other kinds of movement

enter into the production of states of flow or rhythmic delivery?

RQ5: What is movement? Is movement being taught in speech, forensics, and theater?

What part does movement play in the development of rhythmic public speaking skills?

Regarding RQ3, RQ4, and RQ5, this study has shown that the term rhythm is

defined as qualities of movement, particularly of the human body, for the public speaker.

Every aspect of the body’s movement and movement throughout other aspects of nature

comes to bear in describing the nature of rhythm. It was not possible to answer RQ5

fully in the current study. A more comprehensive analysis of textbooks and classroom

practices would be necessary to determine to what extent movement is being taught in

public speaking at the college level.

RQ6: Does rhythm have any relevance in the modern public speaking classroom or

curriculum?

H4: Modern college speaking texts include the concept of rhythm in tables of contents,

glossaries, or indexes.

RQ6 was answered as anticipated by H4. Because rhythm and related words

‘rhythmos’ and ‘flow’ are found in recent college textbooks’ tables of contents,

glossaries, or indexes, rhythm is indeed relevant to current public speaking pedagogy at

the college level.

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RQ7: How often is rhythm listed in college-level beginning public speaking texts as

important for great speakers, speeches, or speech?

RQ7 is also addressed, but not fully answered, with these specific numbers of

occurrences of the terms. This study did not explore the implicit issue of importance

mentioned in this research question.

RQ8: How is rhythm (as correctly defined) important to exemplary public speaking?

The answer to RQ8 has been a primary issue throughout the study and has been

discussed by defining good rhythm, showing its pedagogical foundations, and showing its

historical importance to the ancient rhetoricians and 20th and 21st century history.

RQ9: Are there any neurological foundations for using rhythmic movement as a

teaching tool?

H2: Research in neurology indicates there are biological foundations for using rhythmic

movement as a teaching tool.

RQ9 has been answered as anticipated by H2. This study has shown, through a

fairly comprehensive survey of current neurological discussions of rhythm that there are

biological foundations for the use of rhythm as a pedagogical tool.

RQ10: Are there any educational or pedagogical foundations for using rhythmic

movement as a teaching tool?

H3: Research in education indicates there are pedagogical foundations for using

rhythmic movement as a teaching tool.

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RQ10 is answered as anticipated by H3. This study has presented extensive

findings in education literature showing significant pedagogical foundations for using

rhythmic and somatic methods of movement education as a teaching tool.

RQ11: Is there historical precedent for inclusion of rhythm education within the

education of orators?

H5: Orator training using rhythmos was a concept central to ancient Greek and Roman

rhetoric.

H6: The concepts embodied in the construct of rhythmos are similar to those discussed

in public speaking texts today.

RQ11 was answered as anticipated by H5 through extensive presentation of

primary literature from ancient rhetorical sources. Regarding H6, the study also

indicated, through in-depth presentation of descriptions of both ancient eurhythmic

practice and Dalcroze Eurhythmic practice, a consistent similarity between the two

methods.

H7: The rhythm construct offers a unified model for handling of disparate terminology

of delivery.

H7 was not addressed formally. However, the wide-ranging topic areas within

the discussion of rhythm have been presented in enough detail to indicate that it certainly

offers value in addressing issues that are not addressed in the charisma literature.

Therefore, H7 appears to be worth future research.

RQ12: Is there an established pedagogy and curriculum that can be utilized to teach

rhythm and emotional expressiveness?

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H8: The historically established pedagogy of Dalcroze Eurhythmics with its curriculum

of musical, movement-based exercises has been used to teach rhythm and emotional

expressiveness.

H9: Eurhythmics offers a relevant addition to discussion of delivery techniques used in

current college texts.

RQ12 was thoroughly explored as a major theme of this study and appears to be

conclusively shown as anticipated by H8. Dalcroze Eurhythmics has an impressive

history of teaching rhythm and emotional expressiveness in a wide variety of disciplines

and is endorsed by an impressive list of leaders, educators, and artists. While this study

stopped short of examining all other delivery constructs in college public speaking

textbooks, it appears that the connection between rhythm and delivery as conceptualized

by the ancient Greeks and Romans indicates support for H9 as well.

RQ13: What historical connections are there to Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the

communication arts fields which are analogous to public speaking such as: theater,

literature, film, dance, music, and education?

This study conclusively showed a multitude of connections to the communication

arts fields listed in RQ13.

RQ14: Are there any significant criticisms of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the literature?

RQ14 has not been answered as fully as this researcher would like. Certainly,

this exhaustive search of the literature has indicated two critical sources. However, both

of these have significant weaknesses which impede their potential validity. Future

research is called for on this question, especially.

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RQ15: Is there validity to criticisms that Dalcroze Eurhythmics could lead to mass

hypnosis or propagandizing by irresponsible leaders? Are these critics merely expressing

paranoid delusions?

RQ16: How does Social Critical Theory help explain the connection between the

concepts of propaganda and paranoia?

RQ17: Using constructs from Social Critical Theory, might we accurately define some

occurrences of paranoia as ‘behavior, suspicions, ideas, or thoughts which are criticized

or condemned by the dominant cultural, intellectual, therapeutic or political elite?’

RQ15, 16, and 17 are especially interesting. It appears impossible, given the limited

resources of this present study, to fully answer RQ15. A more thorough perusal of the

literature may shed more light on the quality of these internet sources. However, using

the constructs of Social Critical Theory, the exploration of agendas of cultural, religious,

and economic hegemonic elites may lead to greater clarity about the controversy in using

body movement to educate the whole person.

DISCUSSION

In order for public speaking pedagogy to follow trends in current research related

to speech, movement, and neuroscience, it seems reasonable to expand our use of the

rhythm construct and reexamine its efficacy in light of these discoveries of ancient

pedagogical uses in highly advanced civilizations as well as recent developments in the

modern arts and sciences from the time of Hellerau to the present. Objections that no

method for teaching such rhythmic awareness exists can safely be reexamined for validity

by further exploring Dalcroze Eurhythmics as a tool for teaching rhetorical rhythm.

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The results of the content analysis portion of this study indicate that rhythm as a

construct has relevance for college public speaking pedagogy, research, and textbooks.

Several occurrences of the words ‘rhythm,’ ‘rhythmos,’ or ‘flow’ were found in the

analyzed textbooks. This researcher's research premise has been that in order to be listed

in a table of contents, glossary, or index, a term must be sufficiently important to be

relevant to public speaking textbooks and, by implication, the college public speaking

classroom pedagogy. These results should not, however, be taken as an indication of

which textbooks possess more or better discussions of rhythm. It would be entirely

possible for a book to mention rhythm in its table of contents, glossary or index and yet

not give much detail to the development of rhythm. In addition, some books did not

contain glossaries. Thus, there is a possibility that the number of times a rhythm word

occurs in table of contents, glossaries and indexes may not reflect the actual number of

times it occurs in the text itself or the amount of space devoted to it within the text. Also,

the use of rhythm in such a book may or may not be developed in the same way that the

ancient Greeks, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, or modern neurological and kinesthetic evidence

suggest would be optimal.

Interestingly, ‘gesture,’ ‘delivery,’ ‘voice’ and other expressive and emotionally

important words exist in these textbooks, but cannot be included in present study, due to

space limits. However, it would be instructive, for a further study, to determine if any of

the traditional elements of rhythm (as determined by the ancient rhetoricians or Emile

Jaques-Dalcroze) have been subsumed under the headings of different categories such as

these listed. More importantly, researchers might need to explore whether college

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instructors are teaching delivery techniques most efficiently without a technique for

exploring rhythm. Does the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method offer advantages over current

methods used to teach these delivery techniques? Results of the current study are

insufficient to determine this conclusively, but indications are that the method might offer

such advantages, given its basis in ancient Greek performance training, its importance in

other performance arts, and its importance in the development of modern science.

Further empirical and longitudinal studies are necessary to determine the method's

applications and long-range effects.

Limitations and Validity

Internationally, much has been studied in rhythm and rhythm therapy. There are

several limitations on the present study, however. First, it is not comprehensive. There

are many foreign language or obscure studies pertaining to rhythm for which this

researcher was unable to obtain even an abstract. It therefore cannot give a thorough

vision of the field. This task must be reserved for future studies. A second limitation is

the method of finding sources and the sources themselves. Most sources were found

either through internet searchers or library searches—both public and private. This does

not account for potentially significant material which may be in private collections

around the world. Occasionally, the use of internet-based research sources left some

sources of citations in doubt. Where applicable, the researcher has noted this and will

attempt to develop these citations more fully in a future version of this study.

Many articles which deal with the same issues may use different terms. This

limitation may, however, be attenuated somewhat by the general scholarly tendency to

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explain new or unusual terminology by describing similar terms which the researcher has

decided to, for whatever reason, ignore, change, subvert, or replace. The previously

common terms are usually listed in text and discussed to some degree--if only to show

the author has taken them into account and to explain why they are not being used. In

such cases, these previous terms should show up in a full text online search and the

articles would appear in a Boolean operator-generated list of articles. Another limitation

of this study comes from the fact that several studies mentioned in the literature review

were only available to this researcher as abstracts. Having access to complete

dissertations and other sources would at times have made this more exhaustive and more

authoritative. A review gleaned partly from abstract sources can only indicate the

direction research is currently heading toward, not speculate on the accuracy of such

findings themselves. Finally, much rhythm research is published in non-English sources.

Given the limitations of geography and language, this present study cannot, therefore, be

comprehensive.

Another issue of validity concerns the Dalcroze Eurhythmics method itself.

Given the difficulty of describing it and training teachers, it can only be difficult to

determine its actual potential for the average public speaking classroom. It is evident that

its potential is great for the possibly few classrooms or institutions willing to devote the

resources needed to create and support a Dalcroze curriculum for oratory. As to the

validity of the method itself, there can be little doubt that it is a valid pedagogy, given its

inclusion in the music and singing programs at well-respected schools and conservatories

listed herein and the number of books written on it. Of course, its validity can also be

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inferred from the number of students and teachers of highly respected merits who have

elected to use it.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics holds the tantalizing prospect of being of continued

importance in the 21st century. Unfortunately, some of the most provocative articles

detailing current developments are in French and German, making research difficult for

English-speaking researchers.

Eventually, it should be possible to say that Jaques-Dalcroze not only influenced

musical training, but exerted a profound influence on many of the major streams of 20th

century thought as well. While several of the above hypotheses were shown to be worth

further study, quantifying them has been difficult, mostly due to time constraints. In

most cases there is at least some evidence or indication that they may hold some truth. It

appears relevant, if not mandatory, that we start examining this method today as a means

of reintroducing and reexploring the ancient Greek and Roman rhetorical paradigm of

rhythm.

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CHAPTER VIII. FUTURE RESEARCH

Future Research

Future researchers could explore the concept of rhythm within the field of

charisma in leadership. While the history of scholarly communication research and

theory focuses least on the term rhythm and what it conveys of the experiential attitude,

there are a few researchers who realize this as a lack in the field and not necessarily a

desirable state. (Abramson & Reiser, 1994) The leadership research seems to indicate

researchers are more interested in describing the status quo from outside the experience

of the examined leader rather than from a gestaltic, phenomenological approach focusing

on the inner completeness of emotional expressivity of the examined leader.

On the face of it, rhythm could be analyzed as intrapersonal and interpersonal,

macro systemic and micro systemic. The approach in a future study might be to codify

the need for rhythm as a dynamic, necessary, and illuminating concept in the field of

communication. It might be conceptualized as an important subset of charisma and

include both the elements of nonverbal behavior and emotional intelligence, as well as

the experience of gestalt. Boal (2000) has proposed the integrating of seemingly

competing theories and it is his lead that I hope to follow in subsequent research as I seek

for ways to illuminate some dark corners in the charisma paradigm. I hope to integrate

the concept of rhythm into leadership study to help explain the internal experience of the

speaker and the emotional impact upon the followers.

Today the holistic value of exercises and therapies that systematically integrate all

phases of our physical, emotional, spiritual, mental, and social existence as part of a

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rhythmic awareness of our place in nature's large scheme is being shown more and more.

Not only do practitioners realize the artistic value of fuller awareness of their complete

selves, but also practitioners and scholars alike are finding new therapeutic uses for

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in an ever-increasing variety of disciplines. The possibilities

Dalcroze holds for future research, treatments, and applications are provocative.

Just as its initial use in music training led to its use in the other arts, so its initial

use in these therapeutic areas may lead to an even wider range of uses in fields such as

medicine, science, and communication. Of particular interest to this researcher are

possible future applications in the areas of physical health and well-being, sexual

dysfunction, hospice care, at-risk youth social work, giftedness training and development

(or as I like to call it, genius-building), charismatic speaking and leadership training,

computer screen development and bit mapping/pixel development, anti-illegal drug

movement, athletic movement, physical education, routine exercise, American classical

ballet, mechanization, ergonomics, and routine task development. Dalcroze today

presents a rich potential for areas of future research, including those named above.

This researcher proposes a comprehensive content analysis literature study which

will attempt to exhaustively clarify, coordinate, and categorize terminology, theoretical

approaches and literature content in the area of propaganda studies as they intersect with

perceived paranoia and the mass media. The section of this current study which explores

the shadow side of Dalcroze Eurhythmics should be considered a pilot or exploratory

study to help develop later approaches to this topic and material. This study shows the

need for and relevance of more research. Future studies would be significant, interesting,

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and useful if they show the general historical trends of scholarly interest levels, changes

in terminology and theoretical approaches, and the specific fields of study exploring these

issues. For instance, it might be useful to know if military scholars conduct more or less

research in this area than other scholars. Also, it might be instructive to find out if any

scholars in certain fields are conducting more research in this area than scholars in other

fields. Finally, it would be informative to find out if any fields have historically

increased their published scholarly or popular research in this field.

Future study might also benefit from the introduction of Jungian analytical

concepts that relate to the “shadow” side of the psyche. Such a discussion might explore

the theoretical intuitive nature of humans which may lead to the inevitability of humans

to become suspicious when they are being covertly influenced. This might shed light on

the inner nature of the state of human awareness commonly termed paranoia.

While correcting the possible problem of paranoia framing is beyond the scope of

this paper, the possibility itself leads to an intriguing, perhaps obvious stream of future

research addressing the following research questions.

RQ1: What is propaganda?

RQ2: What types of propagandizing occur in our civilization?

RQ3: What are the results of this propagandizing (or force-feeding) of social and

political agendas?

RQ4: What is paranoia?

RQ5: What linkages, if any, can we find between people called paranoid and people

called dissenting? Are they treated similarly? What are their symptoms?

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RQ6: Are both types of behavior based in similar fallacies?

As an additional note, future study may explore why either a paranoid or an

honest critical thinker such as Karl Marx would find it necessary to write a work titled

“Toward a Critique of all Existing.” Could one write this work today without being taken

for a paranoid?

This study has established that the discussion of rhythm is relevant to the college

public speaking classroom. However, determining that rhythm as a communication

construct is a relevant topic for the public speaking classroom does not automatically lead

to the conclusion that it is an important issue. This study has used philosophical,

neurological, communication literature, and historical analysis to establish the importance

of rhythm as a construct for communication studies in general and the public speaking

classroom in particular. Questions about the importance of related concepts such as

‘delivery,’ ‘emotion,’ ‘movement,’ and ‘kinesthesia’ must await future studies. Given

Dalcroze Eurhythmics' focus on each of these and other concepts, future findings of their

relevance and importance in college texts should lend more weight to the relative

importance of a pedagogy such as Dalcroze Eurhythmics for teaching them.

The Gershwin song which begins this paper implies that as long as one has

rhythm, one has everything one needs. Given the dearth of rhythm education in the

college public speaking curricula, this researcher is forced to wonder: Without rhythm,

do college level public speaking students have everything they need? Who could ask for

anything more? Perhaps our college public speaking students, for a start.

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APPENDICES

Author’s Notes:

From 2001-2003, the author attended the Summer Dalcroze Institute at the

Juilliard School under the direction of Professor Robert M. Abramson, graduate faculty

member of the Juilliard School music theory department; director of the Summer

Dalcroze Institute, The Juilliard School; faculty member, Phillips Exeter Academy; and

founding director of the Robert Abramson Dalcroze Institute. He has also undertaken

private instruction with Professor Abramson. He is a member of the Dalcroze Society of

America. In 2002, he was awarded the Dalcroze Society of America’s Memorial

Scholarship to continue his studies that year. During the summer of 2003, he was given

full access to the private research library of Professor Abramson, where significant

sources were found and used for the present study. Recently he was offered a scholarship

to continue his studies in Dalcroze Eurhythmics at the Robert M. Abramson Dalcroze

Academy. He has written this master’s thesis for the graduate communication program at

the University of Nebraska at Omaha School of Communication where he is also a part-

time instructor. He has also completed a graduate teaching fellowship. Portions of this

paper were presented as two papers at the Sooner Communication Conference, March,

2004, Norman, Oklahoma, a scholarly forum for students and graduate students.

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Endnotes

1. Correlates

Incidentally, I’m developing a set of correlates to the popular Murphy’s law which states,

“If something can go wrong, it will.” Correlate #1: When anything does go wrong,

only the power elite really know why. Correlate #2: Just because you’ve never heard

about it, doesn’t mean it’s not a secret. Correlate #3: Just because you don’t believe it,

doesn’t mean it’s not true. Correlate #4A: Those who recognize propaganda for what it

is are sometimes called paranoid. Correlate #4B: The rest of the time they’re called

revolutionaries.

2. My Experience

When I was a child, I remember feeling moved enough by some musical

selections and some performances to spontaneously conduct their music, to sway, and to

dance to it. Over time, I found that less and less music made me feel this way. Quite

naturally, I assumed the fault was mine. I was growing more intellectual and less

expressive or emotional. This seemed to be the optimal progression of the maturing child

who someday must take his place in the objective, real word of adult responsibility. So I

quietly mourned my growth.

As that child of 5 or 6 I loved conducting music I heard. But gradually I found

that some music wasn't "moving" enough to conduct. Eventually I felt less and less

music moved me. Deep inside me I knew a sense of loss and mourned this "passing

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away" of my expressive self. It seemed an inevitable part of growing up in a dry, sterile

culture. Or so I told myself.

Yet that inner part of me never believed it was my fault. Instead, at my deepest,

most truthful, perhaps most arrogant self, I intuitively blamed it on the performers.

Certainly NOT on the music. I could "see" that there was a potential in the

compositions--even in the simplest of them--for greater, truer, expressiveness. EVEN AT

THAT TENDER AGE I KNEW THIS. My soul--MY PRIVATE SELF THAT TALKS

ONLY TO ME--realized it and ALWAYS yearned to do better than the unexpressive

performers AND AS WELL AS the few exciting ones. Not because I was better. But

because MUSIC was. I KNEW music wasn't supposed to feel emotionally flat and

savor-less.

But then (and later), I assumed no one would believe me or support me if I said

these truths out loud. I believed people would just say "Nuances are insignificant and not

an important part of the music. Melody and message are masters over feeling. All else is

frivolous." I could tell the music was technically "right;" it just had no soul. It wouldn't

MOVE me. So I just kept this sad knowledge quietly inside my young, shrinking heart --

part of the relentless, tormented, inner monologue of my life. And inside I wept.

Until one day I picked up J. Timothy Caldwell's book, Expressive Singing

(1995), off the library shelf. (In it he applies Dalcroze to vocal training.) Suddenly it

was as if some Force Greater Than Myself was saying, "You have been correct. All

along you knew what to dream, what to feel, what to achieve. Your lifelong desire for

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soulfulness is both a Truth and a Proof in and of itself. This is that which you seek. Here

you will find the method."

My summers with Dr. Abramson are the wonder-full play that invigorates my

spirit and re-energizes my soul. I look forward to a lifelong, passionate application of

Dalcroze principles in every area of my life, especially multidisciplinary teaching,

studying, and writing. The notion that I can join the ranks of those helping spread these

principles gives me a profound sense of peace, COMFORT and JOY!!!

I have wept enough. Yet for every one of my small tears, there are millions

unshed--frozen away in the dry hearts of helpless children the world over. Suffering little

souls--of all ages--sob for their hearts to return back home to them.

Dr. Abramson said to me one day, "Some people are very intimidated by me.

You're not." I could only look into his eyes and pour out to him the love from mine.

There's a quiet part of me that recognizes truth, even when unspoken--and also that

realizes how honestly Professor Robert M. Abramson feels . . . and understands.

e. e. cummings said it best:

(i do not know what it is about you that closesand opens;only something in me understandsthe voice of your eyes is deeper than all roses)(Pearson & cummings, 1978)

Before studying Dalcroze, I had become conscious of a schism in my

consciousness. A part of me, deep inside the limits of my awareness, began watching my

life pass by as if it was someone else's. On auto-pilot almost. I experienced the usual

moments of joy, sensation, happiness, sadness, depression, grief, and angst, but moments

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of true exaltation, oneness with God, etc., were few and far between. I would guess that

this sounds familiar to many--perhaps most--of us.

Yet, my secret childhood dreams were still simmering inside me. I began putting

some of them into action. But throughout there was an unconnectedness, a lack of a

raison d'etre. Why? What personal satisfaction could I possibly find in life?

Overall, I had reached a state of malaise. I became unable to watch or listen to

orchestral, classical, and operatic music. I found myself unmoved by most theatrical and

musical experiences in my area of the country (the American Midwest). At times I

became vitriolic on the subject of the bland, inexpressive quality of modern performances

and performers. Those I found that did move me at all did so mostly to annoyance, fear,

or anger--not to joy and certainly not to exultation!

The few greatly expressive contemporary performances (such as Broadway's Les

Miserables, et al.) mostly seemed tragic. It seemed as if the only contemporary

performances capable of capturing transcendent beauty were those of great loss or

unhappiness.

I wondered if perhaps this meant I was clinically depressed. This must be my

problem. Somehow, I was at fault here. It couldn't be my society. Certainly not

something bigger than me that was determining my actual emotional fate.

Yet, life flowed on and I became an artist in glass. I began realizing tiny

moments of wholeness. Strangely enough, they occurred mostly after the action of

creating. I felt them while observing, analyzing, titling my finished pieces. I could

literally spend hours staring, thinking, feeling my pieces. This had never happened

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before. Before, I mostly critiqued my efforts and saw my shortcomings. Now,

conversely, excitingly, I saw the beauty of finished pieces and was able to read their

stories more and more completely each time I looked. Every glance became part of love's

labor and a process of analyzing, interpreting, developing the story of the piece. No

longer was I tied to the concept that a piece of art was finished when made. Instead, my

pieces only completed themselves if I stopped--at least momentarily--experiencing them.

While this may mean merely that I was now beginning to create great art, I think

it argues more that the great art I was creating was beginning to come alive for me. As it

lived, it expressed itself to me. As I listened to its expression, I knew myself better, my

art better, my purpose better, my emotional balance better, my strengths, weaknesses,

goals, stories, priorities, all, better than ever before. I was feeling, seeing, touching its

rhythms and that was enough to bring joy to life. Fulfillment, even.

What was the inciting incident? What had occurred to give me these moments of

glory, these periodic realizations that I was becoming a great expressive artist--perhaps

the greatest I knew? What was different at the time of my new artistic development that

hadn't been true previously?

A few years before this artistic epiphany, I had been browsing the shelves of the

University of Nebraska at Omaha Library, as was my perennial custom, when a book title

jumped out at me from the overcrowded shelves. The title was Expressive Singing, by J.

Timothy Caldwell. This book applies Dalcroze Eurhythmics theories to the training of

singers. At last, I could perhaps find an explanation of why some performers moved me

and others left me cold! True to my hopes, the exercises Professor Caldwell outlined

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showed that there was a science to learning expressivism. Most excitingly, it could be

learned by and taught to anyone. I remember reading the book cover to cover and at

times just holding my breath with wonder, hope, excitement, fear, and trembling,

uncontrollable joy.

I kept this book in my heart from that moment. I didn't consciously dwell upon it

or even often think about it, but I began consciously or unconsciously to apply tiny

insights from it into my life. After a couple of years of this mostly unconscious

assimilation, I re-read parts of it and decided to offer classes exploring its method. These

I offered as part of the continuing education program at the Omaha Community

Playhouse. Today, I am almost ashamed of the basic, clutzy, unrhythmical nature of

these beginning efforts of mine.

Yet, my variously-aged performing arts students at the Omaha Community

Playhouse were moved. They participated in a solid, continuous four hours of classwork

and at the end were still invigorated, excited, and emotionally in tune with me and

themselves. How to explain this? Even with my profound lack of expertise in the

discipline, the exercise programs affected, mesmerized, and motivated my students. I

knew that I must find a way to continue my own studies. That is when I wrote the letter

explaining my developments to Professor Robert M. Abramson and asked him to allow

me to join his program at The Juilliard School.

* This is not meant as a criticism of educational efforts to teach children about their

bodily functions. An example of such current scatological pedagogy is the illustrated

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Japanese children’s book: Gomi, T. (1993). Everyone poops. LaJolla: Kane/Miller.

The following excerpts give a flavor of its content, but no analysis of their pedagogical

value is herein given or implied. “Some stop to poop; others do it on the move.” (pp. 14-

5) “All living things eat, so everyone poops.” (pp. 25-7)

(Regarding that Jacuzzi® theory, the only thing relevant about that water-based

construction is the following: Hydration is necessary for higher-order brain functioning.

Therefore, I need a drink.)

** Sadly, for many years my experience of mainstream orchestral music and opera

performances is that they lack this moving power that I refer to here as rhythmic

greatness. One of the few places I now hear music that is rousing (and I don’t mean

‘marching’ music!) is in the Dalcroze classroom. One duet between Abramson on the

piano and a Korean opera singer whose name I don’t know, was so emotionally direct,

confrontational, and electrical that it literally caused the hairs on the backs of necks to

stand up and the entire hall of critical, professional musicians and music teachers to

unanimously erupt onto their feet at the end in a spontaneous standing ovation.

***Here’s my theory about the conscious and subconscious (or unconscious) minds:

As both Freud (1957) and Jung (Whitmont, 1969) noted, we are constantly

thinking. Most of us have far more thoughts at most moments than we can verbalize

without stopping the process and losing our train of thought. This is our subconscious

mind at work—our stream of consciousness, if you will, which the modernist writers

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exploited so famously. At any given moment, we would be hard-pressed to capture a

given thought, stop, verbalize it exactly, analyze it, and act upon it. Those moments

when we do so particularly effectively, we call ‘intuition.’ (Sometimes intuition comes

from a less conscious place-time, where-when we say of it, ‘I don’t know how I knew

that, I just did.” This is a separate experience, one which I am not examining here.)

These captured moments of which I speak also refer to the events which

sometimes occur as we experience what Csikszentmihalyi (1990) referred to as “states of

flow.” Incidentally, as I try to complete this thought, one which began early this morning

in the awareness of a dream, I find it difficult to continue accessing this same stream of

thought so I can finish my insight in all its nuances--both original and added as I write—

thus fine-tuning the idea. Poppel’s (1985) insights into the biological clock which

governs the thinking process, our creativity, and our awareness of existence seem

relevant. Staying in the moment is difficult and is naturally, according to our human

physiology, broken into three second bites, or awarenesses, if you will. Now, having

inserted this caveat, I must go back, review my train—here I am helped by having the

written word to review and jog my memory--re-enter the stream (or create a new one),

and continue capturing my thought.

So, the subconscious train of thought is one that is constantly, perhaps

involuntarily most of the time, going on and on—even as we sleep. We are ever and

anon thinking, analyzing, theorizing, comparing our theory with fresh evidence,

discarding parts of it, and retaining others—some quite painful or distressing then or later

(such is the nature of trauma and repression).

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As I was awakening this morning, my dream was one where I noticed that

designer Ralph Lauren and other successful businessmen played the piano at several

“openings” of stores with which they were associated —often with great complexity and

prodigiousness. Now, I don’t know whether this is true in real-life; I have no idea

whether any of these men play instruments in real life—though obviously my mind

suspects they might! I had the insight in this dream that this piano skill—particularly as a

by-product of the process that developed it—practice—had been the means to their

business success as well. Not in the perhaps obvious way of entertaining others and

otherwise exploiting the skill itself or themselves as performers, but in the less obvious

way of (there I went again, losing my train of thought—but I shall recover and the only

sign you’ll ever have that the glitch occurred is the parenthetical note, for it was a

phenomenological experience I relate, such a one as we usually think of as irrelevant)

giving them practice at accessing their stream of conscious awareness with the result of

prodigious (and here I’m thinking of a different word instead of prodigious, but I can’t

quite pull it up to my conscious thought and be able to see it clearly) action. Sometimes

this ability to translate quite complex trains of thought into movement—whether it’s

performance, written theory, or creation—is called genius.

Here is where I have been traveling to with my thought: I had the insight then,

upon awakening and showering, that the value of Dalcroze Eurhythmics experience is to

increase, not necessarily intelligence, per se, but those experiences of integration between

the subconscious mind and movement. Perhaps it is even to expand the boundary of the

three second phrase or clock of our body by creatively manipulating its-their borders. So,

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the fact that I can not necessarily hold this extraordinarily long train of thought in my

mind, experience, or typing hand-mind fusion (again there’s a more precise word I can’t

put my mind on instead, but fusion will do), but at least express it by somehow re-

entering, if not that precise three second phrase-time—now forever gone—at least a

corollary process by which I review, evaluate, or theorize about such previous streams or

phrases, illustrates the ability to manipulate the borders of time-consciousness—and

perhaps time itself (for I have no idea how much time has flown by as I’ve been writing

this, struggling to grasp this time-concept itself).

By teaching us the practice of more and more accessing (through action) of our

so-described subconscious mind, Dalcroze Eurhythmics would appear to make us more

capable of longer moments of being present in the moment and expressing more of our

subconscious train—some of it taking very visual forms. This may make us appear

smarter—and perhaps we are—but it seems to me, more accurately, that it is making us

not smarter, but more free-thinking, creative, and prodigious. We don’t necessarily know

more, we know how more. Like the child prodigy and Dalcroze student John “Bach”

Choi (so nick-named by Professor Abramson) whose hands sweep magnificently over the

keyboard playing musical scores of such complexity I can’t even read them, we can do

more amazing things and do them more amazingly. This, then, is how I would answer

the question: “Is Dalcroze building brain intelligence?” “No—and Yes.” It is not,

perhaps, building intelligence of the kind we normally rate most important, that of the

brain-intellect, but it appears to be building a kind of synthesized kinesthesia of brain and

body which produces great intelligence of a wider kind. The phenomenological

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experience is of embodying an organ which is constantly more alive and aware of its

production and potential for more beautiful creation at every moment—three seconds or

longer.

This expanding control of time is not necessarily a by-product of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, but I think it can be if the mind stays open to applying its new-found

techniques to other aspects of my experience or learning efforts. For instance, I can

become a better writer, researcher, artist, etc., if I do apply this phenomenological

knowledge to my approach to other disciplines besides music as well. It appears to me

that this is a choice one makes, and it is not a one-time choice, but a constant rediscovery

of decision moments—moments when I realize I could try applying all my skills at

integrative learning or time expansion to enhance that moment’s experience. Indeed, for

some students it may be more or less conscious decision-making, but I would hazard a

guess that if you brought it to the attention of the less conscious students, they would

agree, “Yes! I did do so! Now I remember!” Surely the converse is true as well. I

should be able to decide not to enhance learning. Of course, this is the more speculative

point, for I have a suspicion my subconscious mind (or the “superconscious mind” of

Jung) might take over and cause me some cognitive dissonance, making me rethink my

values. This could conceivably cause the psychic stress that leads either to an incredible

breakthrough in personal development or thoughts of despair, suicide, or resignation.

This latter can be the resignation unto one’s inevitable fate of being less than effective, or

the more cognitively affective “waiting” that Weil (1951) discusses in Waiting for God.

Resigning oneself to the will of God, the superconscious, or the efforts of ”another day”

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as Scarlett O’Hara might say, might even lead to the sort of exaltation experience which

began this paper.

****Note: These exercises were originally developed as brief introductions to rhythmic

awareness to be included in her public speaking workbook at the request of Professor

Karen Dwyer, School of Communication, University of Nebraska at Omaha. The

workbook accompanies the Lukas (2003) public speaking textbook reviewed in the

content analysis.

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TABLE 1: RHYTHM OCCURRENCES

TEXT INSTANCES OF "RHYTHM" OR "FLOW" IN TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. 2003. Public speaking: An audience-centered approach. 5th Ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

0

Brydon, S. R. & Scott, M. D. 2003. Between one and many: The art and science of public speaking. 4th Ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.

3

Daly, J. A. & Engleberg, I. N. 2001. Presentations in everyday life: Strategies for effective speaking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

0

DeVito, J. A. 2003. The essential elementary public speaking. New York: Pearson Education.

0

Hamilton, C. 1996. Successful public speaking. Belmont: Wadsworth.

0

Jaffe, C. 1998. Public speaking: Concepts and skills for a diverse society. 2nd Ed. Belmont: Wadsworth.

0

Fujishin, R. 2003. The natural speaker. 4th Ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

0

Grice, G. L. & Skinner, J. F. 2001. Mastering public speaking. 4th Ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

1

Griffin, C. L. 2003. Invitation to public speaking. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.

16

Gronbeck, B. E.; German, K.; Ehninger, D.; Monroe, A. H. 1998. Principles of speech communication. 13th Brief Ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

0

Gronbeck, B. E.; McKerrow, R. E.; Ehninger, D.; Monroe, A. H. 1994. Principles and types of speech communication. 12th Ed. New York: Harper Collins College.

0

Lucas, S. E. 2001. The art of public speaking. 7th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

6

Osborn, M. & Osborn, S. 2000. Public speaking. 5th Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

3

Richmond, V. P. & Hickson III, M. 2002. Going public: A practical guide to public talk. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

0

Sellnow, J. D. 2002. Public speaking: A process approach. New York: Harcourt College.

0

Sprague, J. & Stuart, D. 1996. The speaker's handbook. Ft. Worth: Harcourt Brace College.

3

326

Truman, J. S. & Fraleigh, D. M. 2003. The St. Martin's guide to public speaking. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.

0

Vasile, A. J. & Mintz, H. K. 2000. Speak with confidence: A practical guide. 8th Ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

0

Verderber, R. F. & Verderber, K. S. 2003. Effective speaking. 12th Ed. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.

0

Zarefsky, D. 2002. Public speaking: Strategies for success. 3rd Ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

4

327

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