[Architecture eBook] Urban Design - Method and Techniques

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Transcript of [Architecture eBook] Urban Design - Method and Techniques

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URBAN DESIGN:METHOD AND TECHNIQUES

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URBAN DESIGN:METHOD AND TECHNIQUES

Cliff Moughtin, Rafael Cuesta,Christine Sarris and Paola Signoretta

OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

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Architectural PressAn imprint of Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group

First published 1999

© Cliff Moughtin, Rafael Cuesta, Christine Sarris and Paola Signoretta 1999

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressedto the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataUrban design: method and techniques

1. City planningI. Moughtin, J. C.711.4

ISBN 0 7506 4102 9

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication DataUrban design: method and techniques/Cliff Moughtin .. [et al.].

p. cm.ISBN 0 7506 4102 91. City planning. I. Moughtin, Cliff.NA9031.U69 99–24321711'.4–dc21 CIP

Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, KentPrinted in Great Britain

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CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................................................... vii

Notes on the authors .................................................................................... ix

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... x

1 Definitions ............................................................................................... 1

2 Negotiating the programme ................................................................... 15

3 Survey techniques ................................................................................... 27

4 Analysis .................................................................................................... 67

5 Generating alternatives ........................................................................... 87

6 Project evaluation ................................................................................... 139

7 Presentation ............................................................................................. 151

8 Project management ................................................................................. 171

9 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 185

Figure sources ................................................................................................ 189

Index ............................................................................................................. 191

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The subject matter of this book is an introductionto the method of urban design. It is the fourth bookin this series on urban design and builds upon theideas in the first three. The first volume, UrbanDesign: Street and Square, outlined the meaning ofand role played by the main elements of urbandesign discussing, in particular, the form andfunction of street and square. The second volume,Urban Design: Ornament and Decoration, dealt indetail with the ways in which the elements of thepublic domain are embellished. It outlined thegeneral principles for the decoration of: floor plane,or pavement; the façades of street and square;roofline; roofscape; skyline; and street corners. Italso examined the arrangement of three-dimensionalcity ornaments, such as sculpture and fountains,which are placed in public places. The thirdvolume, Urban Design: Green Dimensions, relatesthe main components of urban design to a generaltheory of urban structuring, paying particular atten-tion to the city and its form, the urban quarter ordistrict and the street block or insulae. The thirdvolume examined the logic and imperative ofsustainable development and then formulated prin-ciples of urban design based upon this particularenvironmental code. This volume assumes the casefor sustainable development is proven; it explores a

design method capable of delivering both develop-ment and environmental protection.

My interest in urban design began in the mid-1950s but it was not until the early 1980s that Istarted serious work on these four volumes. Duringthe last sixteen years my ideas about the subjecthave changed radically. The most significant changewas brought about by a growing awareness of thedamage being inflicted upon the global environmentby thoughtless development. Much of the develop-ment was for the betterment of an already affluentWest and many of the ill effects of developmentwere and still are being felt by the poor of theunderdeveloped world. It seemed to me that anydiscussion of urban design which did not addressenvironmental concerns was highly superficial,particularly at a time of increasing pollution,growing fears of the greenhouse effect and theconsequences of climate change. Urban Design:Green Dimensions was my first attempt to addressenvironmental issues directly, though one percep-tive critic considered its conclusions to be a littletentative or guarded. This current volume fullyaccepts the environmental crisis which the planetfaces. It therefore attempts to develop an urbandesign method which has sustainability and environ-mental protection at the centre of its philosophy.

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PREFACE

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Urban design is a legitimate concern for archi-tects, planners and landscape architects. It is, there-fore, reasonable that the subject matter of urbandesign should inform the curricula of those disci-plines. Urban design, however, is itself a nascentdiscipline. That is, it is potentially the core subjectarea for University undergraduate degree coursesleading to a qualification in that subject. For urbandesign to achieve respectability as a discipline itrequires its own body of theoretical literaturesupported by research, its own history and methodtogether with a wide range of techniques. Urbandesign has a large and distinguished body oftheoretical works starting with the work of thesubject's founding father, Camillo Sitte (1901). Thefirst three volumes in this series on urban designaim to join that growing body of theoretical litera-ture. The extent of the literature in this subject canbe gauged by the bibliographies at the end of eachof the three earlier volumes. This volume, however,does not include a bibliography, relying instead onreferences at the end of each chapter. There arebooks which can reasonably be defined as Historyof Urban Design, though many are an extension ofthe treatment of an allied subject such as architec-ture or city planning. Few books on history take theevolution of the design of urban public space as themain theme of the text, treating other matters suchas city morphology or building design as subsidiary.Nevertheless, it could be argued that there is,indeed, a body of literature on the history of urbandesign. Similar arguments cannot be raised withregard to a literature of urban design method. Thisseems to be an almost totally neglected area. Thisbook aims to introduce the topic to the reader. It isby no means an exhaustive treatment of urban

design method, being limited by length and by theinterest and expertise of the authors. Individualtechniques are not explored in depth since eachtechnique could be, and in many cases has been,the subject matter of a specific book. Nevertheless,a number of techniques are illustrated by exampleor case study. Where techniques are discussed theyare located within the structure of the designprocess. This book, therefore, aims to develop alogical framework for a process which includesproblem definition, survey, analysis, concept genera-tion, evaluation and implementation. It is this frame-work which is presented here as a discoursetowards the development of an urban designmethod.

I have worked with three young practisingenvironmental designers in the development andpreparation of this manuscript. It is their expertisein the fields of aesthetic control, design brief formu-lation, environmental impact studies and projectmanagement which provides the practicalbackground so important for a study of method andtechnique. Where possible, techniques have beenillustrated by case studies, some of which draw onthe experience of one of the authors. This bookshould be regarded as a practical guide, one whichthe authors themselves would have found useful asstudents or in the early years of their professionalcareers. The book has been organized so that eachchapter can stand alone and can be read forpurposes of reference. Each chapter providesguidance which, hitherto, students and practitionersin this field have had to discover for themselves,often with some difficulty, since methods andtechniques for urban design is a broad topic thinlyspread in published form.

Cliff Moughtin

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Emeritus Professor Cliff Moughtin is a consul-tant in Urban Design. He holds degrees inArchitecture and Planning and was awarded thedegree of Doctor of Philosophy by The Queen'sUniversity of Belfast. He worked for many years indeveloping countries both as an architect and as aplanner. He was Professor of Planning in TheQueen's University of Belfast and in the Universityof Nottingham. He is the author of a number ofbooks, including Hausa Architecture, published byEthnographica in 1985 and three other books in thecurrent series on Urban Design, published byButterworth-Heinemann's Architectural Press.

Rafael Cuesta is currently Senior Officer withthe Programme Management Team of NottinghamCity Council. He studied Natural ResourceManagement in Norway and holds an MA inEnvironmental Planning from the University ofNottingham. He previously served as PrincipalPlanner with the Light Rapid Transit Team ofNottinghamshire County Council and for some yearswas Special Lecturer in Environmental Impact

Assessment with the Department of Urban Planningat the University of Nottingham.

Christine Sarris received her undergraduatedegree in Earth and Life Studies from the Universityof Derby and holds an MA in EnvironmentalPlanning from the University of Nottingham. Herspecialism is in bringing forward major sites fordevelopment, incorporating urban design principlesand accepted development control practices. She ispresently a Senior Planner working with LeicesterCity Council in Environment and Development.

Paola Signoretta is currently Research Fellow,Sheffield Centre for Geographic Information andSpatial Analysis in the University of Sheffield. Shewas awarded a degree in Town and CountryPlanning by the University of Reggio Calabria,Reggio Calabria, Italy. She has also been awardedthe degree of Doctor of Philosophy by theUniversity of Nottingham for her research intoSustainable Development in Marginal Regions of theEuropean Union. Her specialism is in project andplan evaluation.

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NOTES ON THE AUTHORS

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The authors are greatly indebted to the LeverhulmeTrust who gave generous financial support to CliffMoughtin for the work involved in his contributionto this book. Cliff Moughtin also wishes to thank TheBuilding and Social Housing Foundation for fundingthe public participation exercise in Newark and alsothe Reverend Vidal Hall and Dan Bone for theirvaluable contributions to that project. The authorswish to thank Michael Hopkins and Partners and theUniversity of Nottingham for providing informationabout the new University Campus; Gale andSnowden for material on their permaculture project

in Surrey; and Derek Latham and Company for infor-mation about their project, 'The Railway Cottages,Derby'. The authors wish to acknowledge thesupport of Leicester City Council, NottinghamshireCounty Council and the City of Nottingham in thepreparation of this book. We also thank Kirsten Argefor her introductions to those working on sustainabledevelopment in Norway and Kate McMahonMoughtin for her meticulous editing of themanuscript.

The views and opinions included in this book arethose of the authors only and not of the organiza-tions they represent.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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INTRODUCTION

The theme of this book is the Method of UrbanDesign. In particular the book will examine thetechniques used in urban Design Method to achievesustainable development. Dictionary definitions ofmethod include a number of key words such asprocedure, systematic or orderly arrangementtogether with the idea of a clearly defined goal asan end product. For example, The Shorter OxfordEnglish Dictionary defines method as: ‘procedurefor attaining an object, a special form of procedureadopted in any branch of mental activity’, or ‘a wayof doing anything, especially according to a regularplan’.1 The American Heritage Dictionary definesmethod more simply as: ‘The procedures andtechniques characteristic of a particular discipline orfield of knowledge – the Method’.2 It is this defini-tion which is taken as the starting point for thedevelopment of the argument in this book.Identifying and describing a unique Method forUrban Design, using this last definition of the wordmethod, is central to the development of thesubject as a discipline. Clearly, method, when usedhere, will include concepts such as procedures,objectives and plan.

The word technique has its origins in the Arts. Itis defined as: ‘Manner of artistic execution orperformance in relation to formal or practical details(as distinct from general effect, expression, senti-ment, etc.); the mechanical or formal part of an art,especially fine arts ... mechanical skill in artisticwork’.3 Technique is therefore related to specifictasks as opposed to Method which is the descrip-tion of a total process. The American HeritageDictionary includes a definition of technique whichconforms more closely to the nature of UrbanDesign: ‘The systematic procedures by which acomplex or scientific task is accomplished’.4

Technique, as used in the title of this book and asdeveloped in the text, refers to the set of detailedoperations used in the various stages of the UrbanDesign process. Method, on the other hand, refersto the structure and form of the Urban Designmanagement process.

The title of this book elicits, by association, thewords methodology and technology. The book,however, is not about either methodology ortechnology although the text does cover bothtopics. Methodology is: ‘The science of method; atreatise or dissertation on method’.5 The study ofmethod is dealt with summarily in this chapterwhere the broad outlines of alternative methods

1DEFINITIONS

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adopted in the allied disciplines of planning andarchitecture are analysed. From this discussion, abroad method is outlined for urban design whichaims at sustainable development. Technology isdefined as: ‘The terminology of a particular art orsubject’,6 or ‘the application of science, especiallyto industrial or commercial objectives ... the entirebody of methods and materials used to achieve suchobjectives’.7 At one level the menu of techniquesoutlined in this text could be described as thetechnology of urban design. Here, a more limitedview of urban design technology is advocated.Howard’s idea for the ‘Garden City’ is taken as anexample of urban technology.8 For the purposes ofthis book urban technology comprises major instru-ments or concepts advocated for the solution ofproblems associated with urban development. Urbandesign technology therefore would include, inaddition to the Garden City, such ideas as theUrban Village or the Urban Transport Corridor.Urban design technology using this definitionappears in Chapter 5, ‘Generating Alternatives’.

GOALS OF URBAN DESIGN

There are three main goals of urban design: they areto design and build urban developments which areboth structurally and functionally sound while at thesame time giving pleasure to those who see thedevelopment. Sir Henry Wotton, like many writerssince, defined architecture as consisting of‘commoditie, firmness and delight’.9 Urban designshares with its sister art, architecture, these threequalities of utility, durability and the ability to bringto the user a sense of well-being and emotional satis-faction. The general method of urban design and thetechniques used within that method have beendeveloped to achieve these interconnected ends.This book, however, does not present the full rangeof techniques used in urban design. For example, itdoes not discuss in any depth the structural require-ments of urban design nor does it deal with the

engineering requirements of urban infrastructure.This book does not deal with the legal requirementsof urban development so important for implementa-tion. These large topics of urban design deservecomprehensive treatment and, no doubt, will formthe contents of further works in this field. Thisbook, however, builds on the ideas in the first twovolumes in this series, Urban Design: Street andSquare and Urban Design: Ornament andDecoration, it will illustrate a design technologybased upon the design concepts discussed in thosetwo volumes as they are used to achieve urbandevelopment which is in keeping with a unique citycontext.10 Urban Design: Green Dimensions, thethird volume in this series, is the basis of the othermain area covered in this book.11 Techniques will bediscussed which measure the effects of urban devel-opments on city sustainability. The issue of sustain-able development is the social foundation of urbandesign today. The social imperative is an environ-mental crisis of global proportions; it is in coming toterms with the effect of this crisis on cities whichgives purpose and meaning to urban design.

Sustainability, that is, development which is non-damaging to the physical environment and whichcontributes to the city’s ability to sustain its socialand economic structures, is one important aspect of‘commoditie’. The pursuit of sustainable city struc-tures is predicated on the development of a builtenvironment of quality. The two goals, sustainabledevelopment and a built environment of quality, aremutually supportive. This book, therefore, aims toexplore the method and techniques which willdeliver both sustainable development and cityenvironment of great quality. At the turn of thecentury, at the start of a new millennium, quality inurban design must be seen against a backcloth ofcurrent concerns for the global environment and ina context of sustainable development where theenvironment is of paramount importance and isgiven priority in design decisions.

There seems to be widespread agreement thatsolving global problems will mean the adoption of

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policies and programmes which lead to sustainabledevelopment. The pursuit of a sustainable future inan environment of quality will require the design ofappropriate policies and programmes which addressdirectly the related problems of unsustainablegrowth and environmental degradation. Part of thistotal agenda for sustainable development is thepursuit of non-polluting, energy efficient urbanforms of quality. This book explores ways in whichurban design method can be adapted to achieve thisend and also examines the techniques available formeasuring and evaluating large-scale urban projectsin terms of the contribution made to sustainabledevelopment.

A generally accepted definition of sustainabledevelopment is: ‘... development that meets theneeds of the present generation without compromis-ing the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs’.12 This definition has three key ideas:development, needs and future generations.Development should not be confused with growth.13

Growth is a physical or quantitative expansion ofthe economic system while development is a quali-tative concept: it is concerned with improvement orprogress including cultural, social and economicdimensions. The term ‘needs’ introduces the idea ofresource distribution: ‘meeting the basic needs of alland extending to all the opportunity to satisfy theiraspirations of a better life’.14 These are fine senti-ments but in reality the poor of the Third World areunable to achieve their basic needs of life while themore affluent effectively pursue their aspirations;many luxuries being defined by the wealthy asneeds. There will naturally be environmental costs ifthe standards of the wealthy in the developed worldare maintained while at the same time the aspira-tions of people in underdeveloped and developingcountries are fulfilled. A choice may be inevitable:meeting needs and aspirations is a political, moraland ethical issue. Sustainable development means amovement towards greater social equity both formoral and practical reasons. Techniques for assess-ing the distribution of costs and benefits within and

between groups are basic tools for assessing theeffects of development and form the basis for evalu-ating the degree to which development can bedescribed as sustainable.

The definition of sustainable developmentextends the concept of equity to future generations,it introduces the idea of inter-generational equity:‘We have a moral duty to look after our planet andhand it on in good order to future generations’.15

This idea of stewardship was fostered by the UnitedNations Conference on the Human Environment in1972.16 Stewardship implies that mankind’s role onthis planet is one of caring for the earth and steer-ing a path which as far as possible benefits thehuman and natural systems of the world. Mankind isviewed as the custodian of the earth for futuregenerations. The aim therefore of developmentpolicy is not simply to maintain the status quo butfor each generation to hand on a better environ-ment particularly where it is degraded or sociallydeprived: it requires of any particular generation thewisdom to: avoid irreversible damage; restrict thedegrading of environmental assets; protect impor-tant habitats, high quality landscapes, forests andnon-renewable resources.

The application of this principle which placesgreat premium on environmental protection meansthat all development proposals should include thereal environmental costs. The true cost of all activ-ities, whether they take place in the market or not,should be paid by the particular developmentthrough regulation and/or market-based incentives.Conserving the environment for future generationsintroduces the notion of maintaining a minimum ofenvironmental capital, including the major environ-mental support systems of the planet such as thegreat river estuaries, together with the more conven-tional renewable resources such as the tropical rainforests. While it is difficult to identify the minimumenvironmental stock necessary to fulfil this require-ment it is clear that ‘current rates of environmentaldegradation and resource depletion are likely tocarry us beyond that level’.17 Sustainability

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constraints may be difficult to define with any preci-sion. It is possible, however, to identify the directionof change in consumption patterns which are neces-sary to avoid breaching environmental thresholds. Byapplying the precautionary principle, where doubtand uncertainty exist, it may be possible to indicatethe types of urban development which are moresustainable, or more accurately, less unsustainable.Environmental impact studies based upon accurateenvironmental audits, discussed in Chapter 6, arebasic tools for use by the urban designer in makingproposals for any major sustainable development.

In summary, the definition of sustainable devel-opment by Grø Brundtland implies both inter- andintra-generational equity within a framework ofdevelopment which does not destroy the planet’senvironmental support system.18 As Brundtlandpoints out, there are many problems in pursuingdevelopment without a high degree of democraticparticipation. Unless people as individuals and asmembers of groups can share in the decisionmaking and in the actual process of development,that development is bound to be unsustainable.There must be the opportunity for individuals andcommunities to own any development; such owner-ship comes through action in the developmentprocess. The urban designer working in the field ofsustainable development must be skilled in theprocess and techniques of public participation.Techniques of participation are used at many stagesin the design process and consequently appear in anumber of chapters of this book.

The pursuit of sustainable development gives tourban design its social purpose and acts as a goalwhich informs the design process. Subsumed withinthis goal of sustainable development is the aim todevelop an environment of aesthetic quality. Theconcepts used to define quality in the urbanenvironment have been discussed in detailelsewhere.19 In this book they appear in the assump-tions which determine the type of investigationscarried out in assessing the form and character ofthe urban context for any development proposals.

Chapter 3 deals with these techniques which areused to analyse townscape, the purpose of suchcontextual studies being to form the basis of sets ofproposals which fit into and complement existingstructures. The analyses are predicated upon suchnotions as compatible land uses, appropriate grainof development, buildings and spaces of humanscale, together with ideas about the use of localmaterials, colour and decorative treatments ofregional significance.

URBAN DESIGN METHOD AND PEOPLE

Public participation in the process of design andimplementation is a key factor in the definition ofsustainable development. Sustainable urban develop-ment is the result of a process. It is a little simplis-tic to discuss participation in urban design unlessthat discussion includes a specific description of thetype of participation and the techniques used ateach stage of the process. The techniques of partici-pation outlined in this book are based on thedetailed analysis which appears in chapter 1 ofUrban Design: Street and Square.20

Urban design, or the art of building cities, is themethod by which man creates a built environmentthat fulfils his aspirations and represents his values.One value which is becoming increasingly impor-tant is care for the natural and built environmentfor the benefit of future generations. Urban design,therefore, can be described as a people’s use of anaccumulated technological knowledge to controland adapt the environment in sustainable ways forsocial, economic, political and spiritual require-ments. It is the method learned and used by peopleto solve the total programme of requirements forcity building. The city, therefore, is an element of apeople’s spiritual and physical culture and, indeed,is one of the highest expressions of that culture.

Central to the study of urban design is man, hisvalues, aspirations and power or ability to achievethem. The task of the city builder is to understand

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and then express in built form, the needs and aspira-tions of the client group or citizens. How does thecity builder design to best serve the community’sneeds? How can the designer ensure that the endproduct is both culturally acceptable and sustainable?What methods and techniques are best suited to thispurpose? These are questions which are relevantconsiderations for those in the city-designing profes-sions. An important aspect of a designer’s skill is thedevelopment and use of a menu of techniques ofpublic participation for incorporation into the designprocess. These techniques range from anthropologi-cal studies establishing essential cultural data, userstudies and planning surveys, through informativetechniques such as the exhibition, press notice andother media means of communication, to administra-tive procedures such as planning appeals and publicinquiries. People’s views can also be elicited atpublic meetings or sought through the electoralprocess by the inclusion of planning matters in polit-ical manifestos. Finally, there is a group of moreactive forms of participation, such as communitydesign exercises, self-build operations and proce-dures for community administration and control.

THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS

The RIBA practice and management handbookdivides the design process into four phases:

• Phase 1 Assimilation: the accumulation ofgeneral information and information speciallyrelated to the problem.

• Phase 2 General Study: the investigation of thenature of the problem: the investigation of possi-ble solutions.

• Phase 3 Development: the development of oneor more solutions.

• Phase 4 Communication: the communication ofthe chosen solution/s to the client.21

The description of design method is taken a littlefurther by Markus and Maver. They argue that thedesigner goes through a series of linked decisionswhich form a clearly defined sequence.22 Thissequence is described as analysis, synthesis,appraisal and decision. The decision sequence isrepeated for increasingly more detailed levels in thedesign process (Figure 1.1). During the analyticalstage, goals and objectives are classified and patternsof information are sought. Synthesis is the stagewhere ideas are generated. It is followed by a criticalevaluation of the alternative solutions against objec-tives, costs and other constraints. Decisions are madedepending upon the findings of the evaluation. Thedecision process, however, is not defined as a simplelinear progression: return loops between stages inthe process are important, the process being iterative.

This way of looking at the design process for anindividual building can be extended to urban design,

Figure 1.1 Architectural

method.

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city and regional planning (Figure 1.2). In this case,decisions at the higher level should inform thedesign process at the next lower order of design,for example, from regional to town planning. Itmakes most sense when each component of theenvironment fits consistently within the frameworkof a ‘higher order’ or contextual plan, for example,a building designed to fit within an urban designscheme which is determined by an urban structureplan based upon proposals for the region. It is,however, not simply a one-way process from largeto small scale. It could be argued that each individ-ual building should have some effect upon thelarger urban grouping and that this three-dimen-sional design of large city areas should inform theplanning of the city as a whole. Hence in Figure 1.2there are return loops between the distinct facets ofthe development process for city planning.

In the discussion of design method so far therehas been no overt mention of theory. Facts withouttheory have little or no meaning. Facts take onmeaning when related to each other by a theoreticalconstruct. Solutions to urban design problems, alter-native ways of organizing city space, ideas about therelationship of function, urban structure and sustain-ability, have their origins in theory: in this booksuch concepts are considered as the technology ofurban design. In order to understand the role of

concepts in design and their relationship to theoryit is useful to examine general scientific method.Scientific method is a direct analogy for the designprocess. The scientific process is illustrated inFigure 1.3: it involves five principal informationcomponents whose transformations into each otherare controlled by six sets of techniques.23 The infor-mation sets are the body of theory relating to thestudy area; the hypotheses thought to explain thephenomena studied; a set of observations from thespecific environment and relating to the studysubject; the fourth information component consistsof empirical generalizations derived directly fromthe unique set of observations; and finally the bodyof decisions relating to the acceptance or rejectionof the hypotheses. These information componentsare shown in rectangular boxes in Figure 1.3. Thesix groups of techniques which convert one infor-mation component to the next are shown withinovals on Figure 1.3. Theory, for example, is trans-formed into hypotheses through techniques ofdeductive reasoning. Observations are collectedbased on the hypotheses; the hypotheses beinginterpreted using forms of instrumentation, scalingand sampling. The observations are then trans-formed into empirical generalizations through theprocess of measurement, gauging the parameters ofthe study and the analysis and summary of the

Figure 1.2 Integrated

design process for

planning.

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sample of observations. The hypotheses can then betested for the degree of conformity with the gener-alizations. The final information set, the decisionsabout the validity of the hypotheses, is derived fromthese tests. The last action in the process is theconfirmation, modification or rejection of the theorythrough the technique of logical inference leadingto concept or proposition formation and subsequentarrangement in new theoretical constructs.

This and other outlines of the scientific processappear clear, precise and systematic but, because ofthe pressures of time, money and politics, the scien-tific process is open to endless variation. Codifyingmethod usually occurs after the event, the actualprocess being not always so precise as Figure 1.3suggests. For example some elements of the processare more important for some research projects;some scientists practise a high degree of rigour interms of method while others behave quiteintuitively and informally, in a manner more usuallyassociated with designers.

Figure 1.4 is a diagrammatic representation ofthe research process adapted to suit the needs ofdesign. Entry into the design circle is possible atthree points. Designers have been known to start

the whole process with ideas for change and inter-vention, that is, they start at the point where inscientific method hypotheses are formed. Or theymay start the design process with survey and datacollection. The more usual, classic procedure is tostart by trying to understand the theoretical natureof the problem, then to proceed through steps onFigure 1.4 in a clockwise direction. Nevertheless, itis possible to move directly from a statement of theproblem to ideas and concepts for its resolution orto a search for data that will assist with finding asolution. Both these procedures, however, requiresome preliminary notions about theory however ill-informed or unexplicit they may be; it is onlythrough theory that design concepts and data canbe organized into coherent patterns.

At the core of scientific method is asking theright question or questions. In a similar way, it is

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Figure 1.3 Scientific process.

Figure 1.4 Scientific

design process.

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defining the problem which is the art of design.This, however, is not the full explanation of acreative design process. There is a school ofthought, not now as popular as it once was, whichappears to infer that good design is simply theresult of applying the correct method. The ‘methodschool’, in its more extreme forms, suggests thatthe study of the problem, followed by the logicalevaluation of all possible solutions, would necessar-ily result in the best solution being discovered forthe problem under investigation. In complex designsituations it is not always possible to define theproblem from the outset, nor to collect all therelevant facts, nor is it possible to generate all pos-sible solutions. This is to misunderstand the natureof most complex urban design problems and theprocess by which an attempt is made to changefeatures of the environment. Most urban designproblems are explored through an examination ofsolutions. An application of this style of designmethod may result in the redefinition of theproblem which initiates a whole new round ofinvestigation.

The design process is not linear but dialectical,taking the form of an argument between problemand solution. ‘It is clear from our analysis of thenature of design problems that the designer mustinevitably expend considerable energy in identifyingproblems confronting him. It is central to modernthinking that problems and solutions are seen asemerging together rather than one followinglogically upon the other.’24 Following this view ofdesign by Lawson it is clear that the nature of theproblem becomes clear only as the process de-velops. Lawson also goes on to state that: ‘Sinceneither finding problems nor producing solutionscan be seen as logical activities we must expect thedesign process to demand the highest levels ofcreative thinking’.25 Urban design, like any otherdesign activity, involves creative thinking. It would,however, be misleading to assume that this does notapply equally in the field of scientific investigation.It would also be misleading to think that design

solutions cannot be generated through logicaldeduction from theory or indeed that problemexploration is not an outcome of standard designprocedures. It is, however, reasonable to suggestthat an important feature of the design process isthe exploration of problem definition through theexamination of solutions or partial solutions.

Fundamental to the urban design process is thegeneration of ideas and design concepts. Theorymay be a productive source of ideas but it is by nomeans the only one. Ideas can be generated in wayswhich fall outside the scope of inductive or deduc-tive reasoning. Artists and creative designers makeuse of analogy in their work. Analogy is a mostuseful tool for the creative designer. The use ofanalogy can be used to circumvent a mental block;a way of short-circuiting the design process. Thealternative of waiting for inspiration to find newways of seeing an old problem may be unproduc-tive or at best time-consuming. De Bono suggeststhat: ‘The usefulness of analogies is as vehicles forfunctions, processes and relationships which canthen be transferred to the problem under considera-tion’.26 Analogy is not the only technique availableto the designer seeking ways of seeing problemsand their solutions in a new light: ideas may begenerated by a process of lateral thinking with itsown range of standardized techniques. Thesetechniques, along with the uses of analogy forconcept formation, will be discussed in Chapter 5.

Urban design method is an iterative process,cyclical in nature. It has much in common withgeneral planning method which was for some timebased on Sir Patrick Geddes’s dictum: ‘Survey,Analysis and Plan’.27 Others have since amplified themethod outlined by Geddes inserting additionalintermediate steps. Figure 1.5 illustrates one suchinterpretation of the essentially Geddesian method.As with design method the planning process is seenas cyclical having intermediate loops. For example,after an evaluation of alternative plans it may benecessary to redefine goals, or collect additionaldata, or to analyse the data in a different way. The

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urban design method suggested here mirrors theplanning process with which it has so much incommon. A book, however, is a linear presentationof material. Urban design method is thereforepresented here as a simple progression starting withgoal formation and ending with techniques ofimplementation. This ordered and orderly presenta-tion cannot do justice to the richness and complex-ity of urban design. The linear presentation of thematerial is adopted for clarity and convenience.

Urban design method like planning method isrelated to the main theoretical schools of thoughtwhich explain the procedures of public action inplanning, development and design. According toHudson there are five major schools of thoughtwithin normative planning theory.28 The fivecategories are: the synoptic, incremental, transactive,advocacy-orientated and radical traditions. Themethod advocated here for urban design is very muchin the synoptic traditions of planning. It is appropriateat this point to discuss the suitability of this methodfor the delivery of sustainable development andenvironmentally sound procedures in urban design.

Synoptic planning has its roots in rationalismand utilitarian philosophy. As the method describedin this chapter outlines, synoptic planning methodproceeds from analysis to target definition followedby a search for alternatives and their comparison.Synoptic planning method in some cases, andfollowed here, includes the process of implementa-tion with its techniques for the feedback of informa-tion. This text adopts a compromise position,following a course described as ‘limited rationality’since common sense suggests the impossibility of

elucidating all possible alternative actions in anygiven situation. It may also be appropriate to followLawson’s ideas, testing partial answers to theproblem in dialectical fashion by confrontingproblem and answer.

Incremental planning has its roots in liberalismand theories about social learning. According to thistheory it is not possible to define clear goals basedon commonly accepted values. Only a limitednumber of alternative actions are considered in anydevelopment context and these differ little from thestatus quo. A good solution in incremental planningis not defined by the degree of goal achievement,but by how feasible implementation is with themeans available and the degree of agreement amongkey decision makers.

Transactive planning places great emphasis onmutual learning and dialogue between thoseaffected by planning. It seeks to build decentralizedplanning bodies which can give the populationmore control over the social processes that areaffecting their welfare. According to Hudson, trans-active planning is just as concerned with planning’seffect on people’s self esteem, values, behaviourand capacity for growth through co-operation, aswith the instrumental consequences of the plan.29

Advocacy planning, as the name suggests, impliesthat planners become spokesmen and spokeswomenfor various groups. The planner contributes to thedevelopment process by creating a situation withmany competing plan proposals. The theory postu-lates that this model of planning provides for minor-ity groups to be heard more clearly and that, as aconsequence, the general public receives betterinformation about alternative options.30

Figure 1.5 The planning

process.

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Radical planning has two main trends. The firstis an anarchist-inspired approach emphasizingdecentralized control and the experimentation withalternative societal organizations. The second mainschool of radical planning is more structurally orien-tated. It takes a Marxist direction focusing on theimpacts of the economic system on class conditionsand the role of planning in the class struggle. Thefirst group of radicalist planning theorists includesthe environmentalist movements. The Marxistradical version proposes government control of themeans of production and that production, instead ofbeing governed by profit motives, should bedirected towards meeting societal needs as definedthrough the political process.

Naess analysed these five main alternativeplanning theories with a view to determining theirability to deliver sustainable development.31 Thecriteria Naess used to evaluate these theoreticalpositions were:

(a) To what extent will the planning form be ableto contribute to long-term preservation of globaland national environmental qualities ... and manage-ment of natural resources in a way that does not

reduce the abilities for future generations to meettheir needs?(b) To what extent will the planning form be ableto contribute to the preservation of local environ-mental qualities?(c) To what extent will the planning form be ableto contribute to a distribution of goods whichensures basic rights to welfare for everybody,regardless of nationality or social group?(d) To what extent will the planning form be ableto advance, or be in conflict with civil and politicalrights, especially minority rights?(e) To what extent will the planning form be ableto contribute to the improvement of the conditionsfor planning in accordance with the criteria for asustainable development?32

Table 1.1 shows the results of the evaluationconducted by Naess. It indicates that each planningmodel has certain strengths with regard to achievingsustainable development. Assuming that society hasthe political will and the power to promote sustain-able development, then synoptic planning, whichforms the basic philosophical underpinning of themethod outlined in this text, is appropriate for thetask. It is particularly well suited to the promotionof global and national environmental concerns and

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Table 1.1 Benefits and drawbacks of various planning theories, in relation to different aspects of astrategy for promoting a sustainable development.

Global/national Local Fair Civil and Potential forenvironmental environmental distribution political change ofand resource concerns human rights societal frameconcerns conditions

Synoptic (+) (–) (+) (–) ?Incremental – – – (+) –Transactive (–) (+) (+) + +Advocacy ? + (–) + +Radical + ? + – +

+, Usually well suited; (+), may be suited under certain conditions; ?, vague or ambiguous function; (–), may have anegative effect; –, usually has a negative effect.

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also to the promotion of justice in the distributionof goods. Its weakness lies in the practise of thetheory where there is a tendency to neglect localknowledge particularly in the field of conservation.This is evidenced in Britain, where the synopticmodel of planning is predominant, by the totaldisregard for local protests at road and airportdevelopment sites. The views of the communityactivist appear to carry little weight.

Incremental planning appears to be poorlysuited to the promotion of collective objectiveswhich address major issues such as global, nationalor even local environmental concerns. A more justdistribution of resources is also not a priority forthe incremental planning process and this, ofcourse, is a fundamental requirement of sustainabledevelopment. The transactive planning modelimplies the sacrifice of the important controlsneeded to attain targets for global environmentalprotection and the equitable distribution of goodson which such environmental protection are predi-cated. Both transactive planning and advocacyplanning do appear well suited to addressing localenvironmental problems. Advocacy planning isparticularly supportive of civil and political rightstogether with community involvement in develop-ment which is so important in the theory ofsustainable development. Having strong parochialconcerns to the fore, advocacy planning is a littleambiguous in relation to global concerns and amore just distribution of resources. The attempts toexecute Marxist planning theories have revealedserious shortcomings with regard to securing civiland political rights while socialist states of acommunist leaning have poor records in achievingenvironmental quality. The critical perspective ofradical planning does, however, form a basis foroutlining strategies to overcoming obstaclestowards achieving global environmental concerns.33

In the hands of the radical environmentalists theideas about a global system of self-sufficient villagesis a refreshing contribution to the debate aboutsustainable development.

It seems that the normative planning theories, tosome extent, are complementary and that commonsense suggests an eclectic approach where planningstyle is dictated by the needs of a particular situa-tion. There seems no good reason to believe thatcompatible features from different planning stylescannot be combined within the same planning orurban design task. Naess seems to be speaking for awider audience than his Norwegian colleagueswhen he suggests that: ‘Synoptic planning shouldbe used to the greatest possible extent’.34 Hesuggests, however, that implementation of plansshould take place, where possible, in small steps sothat experience can be incorporated in later phases.It seems wise also to include within the frameworkand objectives of synoptic planning methodadequate provision for active public participation. Itis not sufficient simply to pay ‘lip service’ to partici-pation, such tokenism can be counterproductive byraising false expectations or by feeding a publiccynicism towards all development. Public participa-tion is a procedure which can illuminate genuinealternative development strategies suggested bypeople with a specialist local knowledge. Withthese caveats it appears that the synoptic method ofdesign advocated in this book is an appropriate toolfor delivering sustainable development.

Chapter 2 will outline the following ways inwhich problems in urban design are defined,writing design briefs, developing or negotiating theprogramme and issues related to design control.Chapter 3 deals with the survey; in particular, itcovers techniques of site investigation including sitehistory, townscape analysis, urban legibility, perme-ability studies, and visual analysis. Chapter 4 coverstechniques of problem analysis, including SWOTanalysis, constraints and possibility mapping, trends,forecasts and scenario writing. The concern ofChapter 5 is methods of generating alternatives,including a discussion of the nature of designconcepts, synectics and the use of analogy, brainstorming, lateral thinking and history as a source ofideas. The chapter is particularly concerned with

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those ideas which are compatible with sustainabledevelopment. Chapter 6 covers the techniques usedin evaluating alternative proposals. Project evaluationfor major urban design projects which aim at deliv-ering sustainable development and therefore at thepromotion of equity should include a considerationof the distribution of costs and benefits: the gainersand losers should be clearly identified. This chaptertherefore covers social and economic evaluationsuch as cost-benefit analysis in addition to environ-mental analysis. Chapter 7 is concerned withcommunication of ideas; it includes techniques ofreport presentation and case studies in visualpresentation of urban design projects. Chapter 8discusses the process of implementation, summariz-ing the whole process of design using projectmanagement as a means of relating the constructionphase, monitoring and feedback to the earlierphases of design method. Chapter 9 is a shortconclusion summarizing the contents of thechapters and raising a number of questions leftunanswered in the text.

REFERENCES

1 Little, W. et al. (revised by C.T. Onions) (1952 reprint) TheShorter Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. 1, Oxford:Clarendon Press (first published in 1933) p. 1243.

2 Morris, W. (ed.) (1973) The American Heritage Dictionary,New York: Houghton Mifflin, p. 826.

3 Little, W. et al., op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 2140.

4 Morris, W. (ed.) op. cit., p. 1321.

5 Little, W. et al., op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 1243.

6 Little, W. et al., op cit., Vol. 2, p. 2140.

7 Morris, W. (ed.) op. cit., p. 1321.

8 Howard, E. (1965) Garden Cities of Tomorrow, London:Faber and Faber.

9 Wotton, H. (1969) The Elements of Architecture, London:Gregg.

10 Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design: Street and Square,Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, and Moughtin, J.C., Oc, T.and Tiesdell, S. (1995) Urban Design: Ornament andDecoration, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

11 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) Urban Design: Green Dimensions,Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

12 World Commission on Environment and Development,(1987) Our Common Future: The Brundtland Report,Oxford: Oxford University Press.

13 Blowers, A. (ed.) (1993) Planning for a SustainableFuture, London: Earthscan.

14 World Commission on Environment and Development, op.cit.

15 Department of the Environment (1990) This CommonInheritance, Britain’s Environmental strategy, CM 1200,London: HMSO.

16 United Nations (1972) Conference on the HumanEnvironment, New York: UN.

17 Elkin, T. and McLaren, D. with Hillman, M. (1991) Revivingthe City, London: Friends of the Earth.

18 Ibid.

19 Moughtin J.C. (1992) op. cit.

20 Ibid.

21 RIBA (1965) Architectural Practice and ManagementHandbook, London: RIBA.

22 Markus, T.A. (1969) The role of building performancemeasurement and appraisal in design method, in DesignMethods in Architecture, eds G. Broadbent and A. Ward,London: Lund Humphries. See also: Maver, T.W. (1970)Appraisal in the building design process, in EmergingMethods in Environmental Design and Planning, ed. G.T.Moore, Cambridge, MA: MIT.

23 Wallace, W. (1980) An overview of elements in the scien-tific process, in Social Research: Principles and Procedures,eds J. Bynner and K.M. Stribley, Harlow: Longman.

24 Lawson, B. (1980) How Designers Think, London:Architectural Press.

25 Ibid.

26 de Bono, E. (1977) Lateral Thinking, Harmondsworth:Penguin.

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27 Geddes, P. (1949) Cities in Evolution, London: Williams andNorgate.

28 Hudson, B.M. (1979) Comparison of current planningtheories: Counterparts and contradictions, Journal of theAmerican Planning Association, Vol. 45, pp. 387–398.

29 Ibid.

30 Davidoff, P. (1973) Advocacy and pluralism in planning, inA Reader in Planning Theory, ed. A. Faludi, Oxford:Pergamon Press, pp. 139–149.

31 Naess, P. (1994) Normative planning theory and sustainabledevelopment, Scandinavian Housing and PlanningResearch, Vol. 11, pp. 145–167.

32 Ibid.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

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The urban designer may be employed by a localauthority or working in some capacity for a devel-oper. There are other careers open to those with aninterest in urban design in, for example, academiaor the civil service. This chapter, however, isconcerned with the contrasting roles of designnormally associated with protecting the community’sinterest in the environment and with the role ofmaximizing a developer’s profit. These contrastingand sometimes conflicting roles have been crudelydescribed as working ‘as gamekeeper or poacher’.In reality, both groups share much common groundand common interest. The chapter begins with asummary of the peculiar debilitating conflict whichis often played out between architects and planners.The chapter emphasizes the benefits which ensuewhen good environmental design is the goal of bothdeveloper and local authority. The chapter goes onto discuss planning gain and the identification ofsites for development. Negotiated development,development guidance and design briefs make upthe middle part of the chapter; all are importanttools for the urban designer to understand, nomatter which side of the design fence he or shemay straddle. This part of the development processis illuminated by a case study from Leicester. The

aim of the chapter is to introduce the practicalproblems encountered when attempting to writethe project programme or schedule of uses andbuilding floor space. This process is intimatelylinked with implementation and ultimately withdevelopment control: it is argued here that theprocess of programme development is mostefficiently and effectively achieved when it is theproduct of negotiation between developer and thelocal authority.

ARCHITECTS AND PLANNERS – THESTORMY AFFAIR

The past decade has seen a shift in attitude inrelation to design. Ten years ago the debatebetween architects and planners was furious; archi-tects being concerned that planners were nottrained in the areas of design, therefore they consid-ered any design criticism from a planner invalid.Such a prejudice might be held by an architectsteeped in design who, subjectively, had encoun-tered a young development control planning officerwho had dismissed the architect’s design as unsatis-factory because it did not fit in, without explaining

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why exactly it did not ‘fit in’. The BritishGovernment’s view, with some reason, ten yearsago was also that planners should not get involvedin design issues.

There has, however, been a growing awarenessthat the relationship between development projectsand adjacent areas has not been addressed. Theschemes that were gaining planning permissionhitherto were inward looking and did not take intoaccount wider issues, such as the qualities of theenvironment which make it both enjoyable and safeto use throughout a twenty-four-hour day. Housingschemes, for example, were based on the home asa defended space. The cul-de-sac attained primeposition as a desired residential layout, followingclosely many of the points identified in The NewEssex Design Guide.1 This led inevitably to layoutswith high defensive walls around the perimeter. Theentrance roads were often marked by rumble stripsand sleeping policemen, while areas at the edge ofthe site were places in which no one felt safe whenwalking. This has been further exacerbated by thedocument from the police on crime prevention bydesign, which has taken a very defensive approachto residential layout.2 However, these residentiallayouts have sold well in the past and still sell well.The house builders, therefore, are meeting certainneeds of many prospective buyers. These unimagina-tive schemes by house developers have proved tobe a tried and trusted recipe with which to circum-vent obstructive planners. Such housing areas stilllitter the towns, cities and countryside. They haveleft a legacy of increasing car dependency, a massiveuse of valuable greenfield sites, an increased fear ofcrime and a lack of vitality in our towns and cities.

Prince Charles initiated discussion about designwith his open criticism of architects and plannersand their unimaginative approach to design in thecity. He made the obvious point that since we havemanaged to create lovely places in the past we can,therefore, produce a better environment withgreater vision now. His support led to the develop-ment of the Urban Villages Forum in 1992 which is

working to create mixed-use urban developmentson a sustainable scale and is making the case for amore people-friendly environment. There is also agrowing awareness of the city as a work of art:‘Those who develop prime sites must not beallowed to focus on their own problem and weneed to know how they will contribute to the Cityas a work of Art’.3 The development of urban designhas provided an intellectual bridge for architectsand planners, permitting each profession to viewdevelopment from a new and different perspective.

The attitude of the British Government hasgradually changed: a greater emphasis is now beingplaced on urban design. Various planning policyguidance documents and circulars have beenproduced to encourage better urban design withless emphasis being given to the use of the car.These include Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) 6and 13 and more recently 1. PPG1 now places theemphasis firmly on urban design, giving localauthorities the power to ask for an assessment ofsurrounding areas and buildings.4

There have also been initiatives by EnglishPartnerships who, in 1996, produced a bookletTime for Design, Good Practice in Building,Landscape and Urban Design.5 More recently,English Partnerships have teamed up with theUrban Villages Forum and will be contributing over£50 million to various schemes throughout thecountry which aim to develop areas of mixed useon previously derelict land. This will clearly stimu-late the attention of local authorities, who haveseen financial resources diminishing over the pastyears, and will also stimulate an increase in compe-tition for limited funds.

IMPOVERISHED LOCAL AUTHORITIES ANDDEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Local authorities for a number of years have beentrying to resist monotonous and bland development.However, to date there has been little support from

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the Government. Most authorities are desperatelyunderfunded and therefore fear refusing permissionfor major developments which might bringresources to the area. Local authorities, in addition,cannot afford more than a limited number of PublicInquiries or Planning Appeals per year. SuchAppeals and Inquiries can result in substantial costsbeing awarded against an authority. It is not surpris-ing, therefore, that local authorities try whereverpossible to avoid costly public hearings. In order toimprove design advice and reduce the possibility ofexpensive conflict with developers some city author-ity planners form a close working alliance witharchitects and urban designers. This is also, in part,a response to the emphasis now placed on UrbanDesign. The expert advice received from qualifiedprofessionals in the fields of urban design and archi-tecture lends more weight to negotiations withdevelopers to improve the quality of urban designin preparing projects. The benefits of this imagina-tive approach to teamwork between the professionsare beginning to emerge in the form of more sensi-tive development. This design team approach isappropriate for all types of development from achange of use application to major projects.

There has been little development and construc-tion by local authorities in recent years since theirfinance has been depleted. It is still expected bylandowners, developers and the general public thatlocal government should continue to provide all theancillary services for housing developments. Thisincludes not only the maintenance of existingservices but also the provision of new services suchas new parks, schools, community facilities, leisurecentres and any other requirements of the localcommunity. This service expectation has a revenueimplication for the local authority. When a localauthority develops its own land it is assumed thatall the capital realized from the sale is at thedisposal of the local authority. However, at presentthe local authority will only be allowed to spend 50per cent of any financial gain resulting from devel-opment. There is the expectation that the local

authority will provide facilities in the neighbour-hood where the land sale takes place, an assump-tion that is misplaced. All local government spend-ing involves deciding priorities in the allocation ofpublic money which is likely to involve a politicaldecision based on need across the whole of theparticular local authority.

These tighter financial constraints under whichlocal government operates has led to the develop-ment of planning gain or betterment. Planning gainoperates primarily through what has come to beknown as the Section 106 process. Local authoritiescan no longer provide many of the servicesrequired to make a community function and so it isincumbent upon planners to co-ordinate negotia-tions with developers in an attempt to get necessaryservices provided as part of the development. Thismakes the process of planning lengthier and enablesdevelopers to negotiate with a number of authori-ties in an effort to develop land where the planningrequirements are less stringent.

There is in developers’ negotiations an emergingview that development opportunities should beseized wherever they arise, provided the public isconsulted at every stage. Opportunities may arisethroughout the development process and may takea number of different forms; the submission of aplanning application which may lead to negotiationsfor improvements both on and off the site in termsof uses, links, vitality, mix of uses; the developmentof written advice and guidance for sites; the applica-tion of funding from organizations such as CityChallenge, Single Regeneration Budget, CapitalChallenge, Lottery Funding, English Partnerships orUrban Villages Forum; or through Planning Gain, asalready mentioned.

IDENTIFYING SITES

All too often site development and its integrationinto the surrounding urban structure is limited byindividual land holdings. Although local authorities

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have the power to compulsorily acquire land, thispower is rarely used even if there is the prospect ofbeneficial development. This reluctance to useCompulsory Purchase Order (CPO) powers arisesfor the following reasons: local authorities do nothave the time to identify a vision for the future ofthe area and are involved in a great deal of reactiveand abortive work; local authorities are under-resourced both in terms of staff for the workinvolved in processing a CPO and the financerequired to actually acquire land; the process is notwidely understood in local authorities nor is thelegal expertise always available; and finally theprocess is time consuming.

The difficulties of using CPO procedures usuallydeter most local authorities. They are thereforeencouraged to look at other ways of achieving sitedevelopment. This may involve either entering intoa partnership with developers or seeking planninggain from a development. A compromise may haveto be negotiated with developers to make thescheme acceptable to both partners. The resultingcompromise may be a development which, althoughbetter than may have originally been proposed, doesnot achieve the environmental quality originallydesired by the local authority.

NEGOTIATING DEVELOPMENT

The ideal situation for the development controlplanner and the developer is where there is alreadydesign and planning guidance available for a givensite. This advice appears in a number of differentplaces: it can be found in the Local Plan or in theMaster Plan which may also include planning briefs,design briefs, planning frameworks, specific siteguidance, city centre action plans, etc. Whatever thetitle of the document the objective is to give clearideas about the design requirements for any givensite. Such a document will also outline any consid-erations which the local authority thinks the devel-oper should take into account. Design guidance

should not be limited to those areas dictated by theboundaries of land ownership: wherever possibledesign guidance should cover areas with a cohesivestructure and a planning rationale for the boundary.The stronger the guidance the better will be thechance of achieving the objectives outlined in thedocument. Where clear guidance incorporatinggood design practice is prescribed for a site, adeveloper would have to prepare a convincingproject which addressed the issues raised by theguidance. When sound design guidance is outlinedby a local authority it becomes more difficult fordevelopers to produce mediocre development.

PREPARATION OF DESIGN GUIDANCE

The preparation of design guidance should bestarted as early as possible and preferably beproduced in partnership with landowners. The great-est advantage in adopting this approach to designguidance is that development costs are identifiedfrom the start of the development process. The landprice where possible should already reflect therequirements of the local authority before it is puton the market. There is then less opportunity whenthe land is being sold to a developer for the devel-oper to circumvent the implementation of designguidance by appealing to the vested interests ofeither the local authority or the landowner.

The landowner knows the requirements of thelocal authority from the beginning of the process.This, in theory, enables the land to be marketedand planning permission obtained in a shorterperiod of time. The early knowledge of the localauthority’s requirements may also assist in determin-ing the best way to phase the development of asite. For example, there may be expensive infra-structure costs which would suggest that the mostlucrative developments be constructed first, perhapsprior to the provision of some other necessarycommunity facilities, in order to finance these lessprofitable developments later in the process.

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When site development guidance is drawn up inadvance of serious development negotiations, thereis more chance of achieving a strategic approach toregional development, thereby preventing develop-ment in a piecemeal and incoherent fashion. Suchpiecemeal development is often perceptually il-legible. There may be the loss of existing landmarks;a blurring of features which distinguish the districtfrom adjacent areas; the development of ill-definedroutes without clearly structured node or centre. Itis difficult to produce a strategic landscape plan forsuch featureless areas so that restoring identity andlegibility is often a forlorn effort in remedial action.

DEVELOPMENT COSTS

When producing site development guidance (SDG)it is important to build into the guidance the overallidea or vision. A good quality environment willnever result from a scheme without a centraltheme. The guidance should provide an imaginativeframework which allows the developer the freedomto develop his own vision. However, this will needto be tempered with a realistic look at the costs ofachieving development in accordance with SDG.Table 2.1 provides a list of some of the planningrequirements which affect development costs.

It is equally important to understand the effectplanning requirements may have on current landvalues and to appreciate the complex mechanismsfor land finance. Clearly it is not in a landowner’sinterest to be benevolent and suggest anythingwhich would detract from the value of theirproperty. The landowner or developer would beworking against their own self-interest if they didnot try to reduce costs. Nevertheless, in certainareas land values may be low and compromisemade in order to obtain viable site developmentguidance. There may be planning objectives to meetin accordance with local plan and structure plandevelopment. These considerations, along withother desired planning gain, will have to be priori-

tized so that the local authority can achieve themost important of its objectives without destroyingthe viability of site development. When carrying outthis type of assessment it is important to realize thatboth the landowner and developer will haveongoing costs which increase as time passes andthat development will not occur unless both have areasonable opportunity to make a profit.

There is a tendency for local authorities to beover-optimistic about the potential of a site: somehave even been known to seek to impose the sameplanning requirements on completely different sites.There are, of course, differences in the values ofsites; therefore, it is an extremely worthwhileprocess to understand the factors which affect thecommercial value of a site and to make a roughcalculation as to the value of the land before start-ing any negotiation with developer or landowner.Only then is it possible to assess the level of

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Table 2.1 Planning requirements which affectdevelopment costs.

InfrastructureTopography – drainage, sewage and engineeringworksCost of on-site road constructionCost of off-site road constructionLandscapePlay areasContributions to public transportAffordable housingAccess housingCommunity facilities – schools, libraries,community halls, social servicesLeisure facilities – sports centre, sports pitchesSites reserved for places of worshipBuilding houses to higher energy specificationsLocation of local shopping to benefit frompassing tradeRetention of existing landscape and ecologyIncorporation of Public Art

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planning gain that is possible on any given site andfrom that assessment to prioritize the local author-ity’s main requirements.

Land value changes over time and is affected bygovernment legislation and planning policies. At themoment, a greenfield site in a good area will bemuch easier to develop than a brownfield site. Witha reduction in the availability of greenfield sites,brownfield sites could increase in value as the onlyland with development potential. However, if devel-opment requirements are wildly different in neigh-bouring authorities, investment may be lost to oneauthority when it becomes cheaper to buildelsewhere. The following example illustrates thispoint: 100 acres of residential land may be worth£230 000 per acre, depending on where the land islocated. The land is worth £23 000 000 to thelandowner. If an average density of thirteen housesper acre is permitted on the land, and if each houseis worth £50 000, this would equal a potentialrevenue of £650 000 per acre from house sales.Each house may cost £20 000 to construct, totalling£260 000 per acre. The total development costequals £260 000 plus £230 000, or £490 000, leavingonly a total of £160 000 per acre for the housedeveloper (see Table 2.2). The house developer istherefore going to be extremely resistant to furtherburdens imposed by the local authority.

Land values are readily affected by market forcesand will reflect conditions in the neighbouringdistrict. Land values will also reflect house priceswhich, in turn, are affected by the location of facili-ties, such as schools, in the area, together with theproximity of any existing or proposed affordablehousing. It may, therefore, be more sensible forplanning requirements to be negotiated beforedevelopment is contemplated and at a time whenthe landowner is achieving high land values becauseof local plan proposals. It is at this stage that anybetterment for the community can be realisticallycontemplated.

This demonstration can be taken a step further toshow the effects of planning requirements on profit

margins and ultimately on the viability of theproject. For example, within the 100 acres of landthe local authority may require ten acres of publicopen space and children’s play areas as a matter ofpolicy in the local plan. This will result in thereduction of £2 300 000 in the eventual profit forthe landowner, as this land can no longer be usedfor house construction. Drainage and sewerage andengineering works may cost a further £5 million.The local authority may require up to 30 per cent ofthe whole development for affordable housing. Thiswill reduce the value of the land for the affordablehousing and also the adjacent land will be affectedby the proximity of the affordable housing. Thismay affect the land value, in this case by £3 million.The cost of constructing a primary school may be£1.5 million and contributions to establish publictransport may be approximately £200 000, depend-ing on service provision in the area. Leisure andcommunity facilities may cost a further £1 million,depending on requirements, while Public Art andimproving the urban quality may add a further£500 000. Accepting the original figure of £23 000 000for the cost of the land and deducting 40 per centtax at £9 200 000 leaves a profit of £13 800 000 forthe landowner. However, the rough planningrequirements outlined above amount to £13 500 000

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Table 2.2 Housebuilding on 100 acres of land.

Cost per acre £230 000Total cost of 100 acres £23 000 000

Density thirteen houses per acre

Construction cost per house £20 000Construction cost per acre £260 000Total construction cost £26 000 000Total cost to housebuilder £49 000 000Site value of house £50 000Value of 1300 houses £65 000 000Total profit for housebuilder £16 000 000Profit per acre £160 000

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leaving the landowner with a net profit of £300 000.This is equivalent to the approximate value of the100 acres of land for agricultural use. It is thereforeunlikely that in the scenario outlined above thelandowner would be interested in developing theland. If, however, the drainage and engineeringworks are only going to be £3 000 000 and the localauthority requires only five acres of open space, thelandowner may then achieve £3 450 000, or £34 500per acre, which may make the scheme viable (seeTable 2.3).

There are other costs and requirements associ-ated with development but the above demonstrationis used purely to show that the planning require-ments for development can and do impact onwhether a site is viable for development. If the localauthority planning and urban design team issupported by professionals that will carry out landvaluations and assessments of development coststhe negotiating ability of the local authority will bemuch stronger. Developers should be aware of theconstraints under which local authorities work andunderstand their role and obligation to securebetterment resulting from planning for the commu-

nity. Negotiations carried out with a knowledge ofthe other’s bargaining position are more likely tolead to a negotiated development programme whichsatisfies the objectives of all the actors in theprocess.

SECURING DEVELOPMENT

The main mechanisms for achieving planning gainare either by the use of a Section 106 agreement asoutlined in the Town and Country Planning Act orby planning conditions attached to a planningapproval.6 A Section 106 agreement will always berequired for planning gain related to off-site workssuch as road improvements. It is also possible to usenegatively worded conditions to ensure a circum-stance before development commences. This isknown as a Grampian type condition. It has becomeknown as this since it was given the approval of theHouse of Lords in the case of Grampian (1984).7

Grampian Regional Council applied for planningpermission to carry out industrial development. Asthe City of Aberdeen failed to determine the appli-cation within the required period, the applicationwas deemed to be refused. However, on appeal itwas stated that the application would have beenapproved if the development had not resulted inunacceptable traffic danger at a road junctionoutside the site. A condition to require the closingof part of the road would have been invalid as itmay have been beyond the powers of the applicant.The decision upholding the refusal of permissionwas challenged on the ground that while a condi-tion requiring the road to be closed would havebeen invalid for unreasonableness, a condition couldhave been imposed to the effect that developmentwas NOT to commence until the road in questionhad been closed. Compliance with a negative condi-tion is within the control of an applicant and istherefore enforceable by a local authority.8

Optimistic assumptions are often made about thepowers of the local authority to develop its own

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Table 2.3 Landowner’s profit, sale of 100 acresof land.

Sale 100 acres at £230 000 £23 000 000Costs to landownerTax at 40 per cent £9 200 000Ten acres open space £2 300 000Drainage and engineering works £5 000 000Affordable housing £3 000 000Primary school £1 500 000Contribution to public transport £200 000Leisure facilities £1 000 000Public art £500 000

Total £22 700 000

Net profit to landowner £300 000 or £3000per acre

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land. The public may assume that the planningauthority will be able to achieve its main designcriteria and all the facilities required to make thedevelopment work. However, those in charge of thecity council’s finance have a duty to make as muchmoney for the local authority as possible, whichmay mean that one department ends up in verydifficult negotiations with several other depart-ments. The department responsible for planning andurban design will be seeking to obtain the bestpossible design and benefits for the local commu-nity and to be consistent with the approach takenwith private landowners. This problem is becomingmore apparent as local authority budgets are lessable to respond to the full range of local commu-nity wishes.

DESIGN BRIEF CONTENT

Once basic planning requirements are established,planning negotiations enter a different level. Adesign concept should already have been estab-lished for the site, and the local authority should bedeveloping and detailing the concept with therelevant parties. All new development is expectedto provide variety and choice for people. ‘Acomprehensive urban design policy, spelling out thefull range of design considerations that are impor-tant in a locality is important as the cornerstone ofall design policies.’9 The design brief shouldconsider the following main subject areas: means ofaccess by road and by other modes of transport; therelationship of the pedestrian, cyclist and the car;safety in the public realm; quality of design in streetand public square including notes on achievingvitality and permeability; the identity and legibilityof place; features of sustainable development; andopen space and landscape strategy.

Until quite recently great emphasis has beenplaced on designing for the car. Highway engineersconcerned to minimize road accidents have influ-enced site layout considerably, by their insistence

on separating the movement of cars from that ofpeople. As a result, it is not permitted for houses tofront main highways because the drives to thosehouses would create too many potential accidentspots, given the speed for which the highways aredesigned.

In certain authorities such as Leicester there areproposals to slow traffic throughout the roadsystem. Preference is now being given to othermodes of transport and the dominance of the car isbeing reduced in the design of urban areas. Forexample, Leicester City Council is trying to ensurethat all new development is within 200 m of apublic transport route, in response to DesignBulletin 32. In addition 20 mph traffic zones arebeing introduced in residential layouts. The processof negotiating new residential road standards withhighway engineers however, is relatively new, andmany highway engineers remain to be convinced ofthis new orthodoxy.

In the public domain it is essential to considerhow a development can be made as safe as possibleby ensuring that public places are overlooked andthat users feel comfortable using the streets by anymode of transport. The police have, until recently,concentrated on the home as a defended place sothat housing has often turned its back on publicplaces, so making people feel that they are unwel-come unless they actually live in the neighbourhood.Defining private and public spaces in design terms isessential in order to reduce the perceived fear ofcrime. This is possible by improving the quality ofpublic spaces and by encouraging more people touse the streets, thus increasing natural surveillance.This should also be effective in creating a morevibrant atmosphere on city streets. Access considera-tions in urban areas need to emphasize the value ofpermeability and easy movement for the elderly,women, children and the disabled. Public Artpolicies also play a valuable role in creating a vibrantcity and have their place in the design brief.

The Urban Design movement has been muchinfluenced by the work of both Cullen and Lynch

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and a return to city legibility as an aim of designpolicy.10 There is now a clear consensus amongsturban designers that development should aim tocreate a sense of place and community. A legibledevelopment can also be created by the emphasisgiven to paths, landmarks, nodes, edges anddistricts. There should be a clear design strategy forthe use of materials, colours, and building heightsto strengthen features which give identity to thequarter or district.11

Open space provision should be closely linkedwith conservation and should be designated beforethe housing layout is attempted. A greater emphasisis being placed on street trees and the greening ofthe street, all of which may have maintenance andmanagement implications for the local authority; itmay also have cost implications for developers.Nevertheless, these are important considerations forthe design brief.

It is argued in this book that all developmentshould be sustainable development. See Moughtin(1996)12 for a fuller treatment of this subject butthis section of the design brief would include thetopics shown in Table 2.4.

The emphasis being placed on good design maytake a variety of forms but all such supplementaryplanning guidance should be cross-referenced toestablish policy and be in accordance with it. Anarea of concern for the design brief will be a desireto link new developments with existing urban struc-

ture. The ways of making these connections shouldform a major theme of the design brief. The struc-ture and content of the design brief may take avariety of forms but its main aim should be tostimulate good urban design, not to restrict imagina-tive or innovative development.

CASE STUDY IN NORTHEAST LEICESTER

A planning brief was produced for a district centresite in 1990. This was in accordance with theHamilton Local Plan13 and the soon-to-be-adoptedCity of Leicester Local Plan.14 The District Centresite provided for 9700 m2 of retail floorspace toserve the community of Hamilton, which is a green-field development of 4000 dwellings. Progress onthis development, which was to meet the needs ofthe expanding Leicester population, had beenconstrained because of the development of acontroversial road infrastructure.

The development was slow owing to theeconomic recession in the housing market. Thedevelopers started negotiations with a very basicscheme in 1995, claiming that the planning briefwas out of date and that retailing had moved onsince 1990. The developers stated the scheme wasin accordance with the basic remit of the outlineplanning permission. Analysis of the schemesuggested that little or no attention was given tothe layout or to the planning of the development inrelation to the adjacent residential areas. The outlineplanning application had been renewed on anumber of occasions and permitted 10 200 m2 ofretail floorspace. This allowed for a superstore, fourlarger shop units, a public house, a doctor’s surgeryand a petrol station.

After several meetings and intense negotiations, itwas clear the developer was unwilling at this pointto amend the scheme in any substantial way.Further design guidance relating to the layout wasalso provided. Internally, officers debated the issuesand came to the conclusion that the application

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Table 2.4 Topics for sustainable development.

Mixed land usesLocal access to facilitiesTransport choice opportunities, i.e. foot, cycleroutes, buses, light rapid transitWater conservationEnergy conservationNature conservationLong-life developmentsAdaptable buildings for flexible land useBuilding height restriction

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should be resisted for a number of reasons, particu-larly because of the poor layout and poor design.There was the threat from the applicant of anappeal against the local authority. The decision wastaken that the City Council should not be promot-ing or permitting a scheme which was of such poordesign quality. This decision was relayed to theapplicant who after consideration placed the appli-cation in abeyance rather than obtain a refusal. Thisapproach reserved the applicant’s right to reactivatethe planning application and later to lodge anappeal.

A fresh application for full planning permissionwas then submitted in February 1997 by the devel-opers and negotiations were restarted. This isknown as twin tracking an application. It is adevice often used by applicants to increase thepressure on the local authority. The applicant wasalso concerned about the length of time taken bythe negotiation. Central Government places a greatemphasis on encouraging local authorities to deter-mine an application within eight weeks which, ifthe development is complicated, may lead onoccasion to less than satisfactory schemes.

The scheme was developed in line with thefurther guidance already provided. The revisedscheme included direct cycle-path links to continuealready existing green routes through new residen-tial development; internal bus stops to enablepermeability and mobility for all users; land reservedfor community facilities in the position easiest toreach by local residents; seven shops suggested toenclose an entrance square containing features ofart which are yet to be provided by locally commis-sioned artists, so bringing life and vitality into thepublic realm. The applicant’s modified scheme wassupported. The car park was to be screened fromthe majority of residential properties by buildingswhich overlook the main road and provide naturalsurveillance. Links were provided to the DistrictCentre via a pedestrian and cyclist bridge, togetherwith footpaths related to pedestrian desire lines topromote ease of access. A doctor’s surgery, petrol

filling station and public house were also indicatedon the plan. A concession was made to the appli-cant by permitting the inclusion of a non-food retailstore. This was, however, in keeping with theCentral Leicestershire Retail Strategy which hadbeen adopted in February 1997. Even with the non-food retail store the total amount of retail floor-space did not exceed the agreed 10 200 m2.

Over fifty planning conditions were attached tothe document giving planning consent to ensuresatisfactory development. Two negatively worded,or Grampian type, conditions were utilized toenable the development to obtain planning permis-sion but also to ensure that the necessary road infra-structure was in place before the development wasstarted. These conditions prevented the DistrictCentre from being started until contracts for a linkroad had been agreed and signed, so preventing themain food store from opening until such time as thelink road was open to traffic. This device enabledthe conclusion of protracted negotiations betweenlandowners in the area over the funding of thisroad.

This was the first stage of development and arobust approach will need to be taken to withstandamendments to the scheme as it proceeds throughthe process of construction. The applicant hasobtained the main objective which was securingdevelopment, the community is set to achieve somebenefits and the funding of the link road has beenconcluded. The next stage in the developmentprocess will no doubt include a process of trimmingcosts.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong requirement for establishing devel-opment frameworks and site development guidance.A framework should encourage variety and becapable of accommodating a range of developmentinterests. The intention of guidance is to encourageand guide development, not to stifle the creativity

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of the designer or to thwart the economic needs ofthe developer. The development framework shouldenable the developer and his designers to preparethe scheme’s programme of land uses and floor-space requirements together with a concept fordevelopment.

Raising the quality of new development, however,also requires vision and innovation by local authori-ties. Local authorities need to be innovative in theiruse of development control powers to influencepositively the design of residential development.Conventional approaches to development control mayneed to be reconsidered in the light of the need fordiscussion, negotiation and agreement betweenlandowner, developer and the local authority. Fromsuch discussions realistic project goals can be formu-lated as a basis for sound but innovative urban design.

REFERENCES

1 Stone, A. (1997) The New Essex Design Guide, UrbanDesign Quarterly, No. 62, pp. 31–35.

2 Association of Chief Police Officers, Project and DesignGroup (1994) Secured by Design, Stafford: Embassey PressLtd.

3 Turner, T. (1992) Wilderness and plenty: construction anddeconstruction, Urban Design Quarterly, No. 44, pp.20–23.

4 Department of the Environment, Planning Policy Guidance,Transport, PPG13 (1994), Planning Policy Guidance,PPG6, Town Centres and Retail Development (1993) andPlanning Policy Guidance, PPG1, General Policies andPrinciples (1997) London: HMSO.

5 English Partnerships (1996) Time for Design, Practice inBuilding, Landscape and Urban Design, London: EnglishPartnerships.

6 Department of the Environment (1990) Town and CountryPlanning Act: 1990, London: HMSO.

7 Grampian Regional Council v. City of Aberdeen DistrictCouncil (1984).

8 Healey, P., Purdue, M. and Ennis, F. (1995) NegotiatingDevelopment, London: E. & F.N. Spon.

9 Punter, J., Carmona, M. and Platts, A. (1994) Design policiesin development plans, Urban Design Quarterly, No. 51, pp.1–15.

10 Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City, Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, and Cullen, G. (1961) Townscape, London:Architectural Press.

11 Moughtin, J.C. (1995) Urban Design: Ornament andDecoration, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

12 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) Urban Design: Green Dimensions,London: Butterworth-Heinemann.

13 Leicester City Council, Planning Department (1990)Hamilton District Planning Brief, Leicester: Leicester CityCouncil.

14 Leicester City Council, Planning Department (1994) City ofLeicester, Local Plan, Leicester: Leicester City Council.

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INTRODUCTION

The survey techniques used in site analysis dependupon the nature and scale of the project. The infor-mation which is necessary to complete the prepara-tion of a design for a small infill site is quitedifferent from that required for an investigation ofinner city regeneration proposals. This chapter willoutline survey techniques used in moderate- to large-scale projects; it will omit reference to small streetimprovements and projects for single buildings onindividual sites. The techniques outlined here aim tobuild an analytical framework for the delivery ofsustainable development which is the underlyingtheme of this book. A book of this size cannotcover survey techniques for all aspects of sustain-able development but concentrates on the conserva-tion of cultural identity and of the built environ-ment. The first part of the chapter deals withhistorical analysis so important as a basis for conser-vation and for the promotion of ideas compatiblewith a developing culture. The second part of thechapter discusses townscape analysis includingurban legibility, permeability and visual analysis.

HISTORICAL ANALYSIS

Understanding the genius loci is a good startingpoint when beginning study of the site. The sensi-tive perception of the spirit or nature of a placeoften provides the key to charting the direction forfuture development. Peeling back the layers ofhistory which encrust the modern city reveals thereasons for its present form and function. Knowing‘how that which is came to be’ is a sound basis forfuture action. The richness of the urban realm is theproduct of a long process of historical development.The drabness of much late twentieth-century devel-opment is, in part, the product of a rather childishattitude commonly held by city designers, whichtreated history as irrelevant for ‘modern develop-ment’. In the recent past the ideal platform for citydevelopment was considered to be the un-interrupted site cleared of all former traces ofoccupation.

‘Peeling back the layers of history’ is one ofthose ringing expressions which can have manymeanings. It can mean, simply, the examination ofan early ordnance survey map in order to determine

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the scale of urban grain prior to a faceless develop-ment in the 1960s. After the demolition of theunwanted development it is possible, using theinformation from the ordnance survey to restore thesite to something resembling its former richness ofstreet patterning (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). Even themost perfunctory site analysis would include aninvestigation of those structures of historic or archi-tectural interest. If the site has an ancient historythe study may include a detailed archaeologicalinvestigation. More simply, it may identify thosebuildings, trees and other structures which havebeen listed for protection, including sites of scien-tific or ecological interest. The analysis of the siteand its history would conclude with a study of morerecent pressures on the urban structure, whichwould include an analysis of recent planning

documents in order to determine those policieswhich currently affect development on the site. Itmay also be relevant to identify those ideas andsuggestions for development which, for one reasonor another, have not been implemented. An under-standing of the reasons for inactivity in the areamay provide the key for choosing a successful formof development in keeping with its history andfunction. As a part of this study of contemporarypressures on the site an analysis should be made ofall recent planning applications which completesthe picture of the site and its potential fordevelopment.

Great works of urban design develop over manygenerations. The Piazza del Popolo as a majorentrance to Rome, dates from AD 272 when thePorta del Popolo, gateway to the square, was built

Figure 3.1 Radford. A

return to a street

architecture after demolition

of 1960s deck access flats.

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into the Aurelian wall at this place in the city’sdefence. The piazza was repeatedly reformed andremodelled by succeeding generations, the role ofthe Papacy being of particular importance inmaintaining a fine tradition of urban architecture inRome throughout Medieval times and into theRenaissance. Valadier gave this great entrance toRome its final form as seen today, with its twinchurches by Rainaldi, central obelisk and hemicyclesor sweeping exedra to east and west.1 Baconstresses the role of the second designer in the devel-opment of any great work of urban design.2 It is thesecond person involved in a project who, accordingto Bacon, determines if the design forces set inmotion by the initiator are achieved, developed andenhanced, or destroyed. It is the second designerwho has to forgo his or her own egotistical instincts

in order to develop the vision of another. Baconcites the development of the Piazza Annunziatta inFlorence as a model for the selfless behaviour of thesecond designer. Brunelleschi set in motion thedevelopment of this great square, in the form weknow it, when he built the Ospedale degliInnocenti. Sangallo the Elder, ninety years after thedeath of Brunelleschi, completed the opposite sideof the square repeating in almost exact detail thehospital arcade.3

The actions of the second designer involved in anurban development are clearly critical in the evolu-tion of a masterpiece of civic design: his or her roleis of great significance. In addition, however, thesupporting roles of all those concerned in urbandevelopment, if quality is to be maintained, shouldnot be underestimated. Our cities are the product of

Figure 3.2 Radford. A

return to a street

architecture after demolition

of 1960s deck access flats.

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the actions of countless individuals and groups: it is,therefore incumbent on all engaged in this longcommunal process of urban design to appreciateand understand the forces which have formed theenvironment and to distinguish clearly those struc-tures which give direction to future development. Abasic survey of the history of the site is a standardprocedure for any urban design project. Thesestandard procedures have already been outlined;following them gives a sensitive designer much tostimulate the thought process. However, an under-standing of the design forces, the almost natural andself-evident structuring components, requires greatereffort than the automatic implementation of a set ofstandard survey procedures. It requires the under-standing of the historic forces which continue topattern development. Understanding these forcesenables each designer to perform effectively thecritical role of the ‘second person’.

Completing the items on the basic check list ofstudies for site history outlined earlier is fundamen-tal for any urban design project. A rational analysisshould go further: it would include an examinationof the main form-giving components of city develop-ment. These studies involve the examination of the

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Figure 3.3 The planning of

Rome by Sixtus V.

Figure 3.4 S. Maria

Maggiore, Rome.

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fundamental geographical reasons for settlementformation, including topography, geology, soils anddrainage; the dominant axes of development, includ-ing lay lines and vistas of symbolic importance;dominant buildings of historic significance; focalpoints of activity; movement patterns of ancientorigin, including processional routes; changing seatsof power and influence; changing economicpatterns as evidenced by the ebb and flow of landvalues, the density of development, building condi-tions and their occupation; the patterns of popula-tion intrusion, invasion and succession; and finally,the developing patterns of functional areas inrelation to changing modes of transport.

An example of urban development structured byancient lines of movement is the transformation ofRome by Pope Sixtus V and his architect Fontana

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Figure 3.5 The Spanish

Steps, Rome.

Figure 3.6 Chester.

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between 1585 and 1590. The technique used tocreate the framework of the city plan from thechaos of Medieval Rome was the long vista. Usingwide, straight roads he connected the seven mainchurches, the holy shrines which had to be visitedby pilgrims in the course of a day. The lines of thetraffic web of a modern city were first formulatedhere in Rome by Sixtus V, based upon a long-estab-lished set of pilgrim pathways.4 Each great axialstreet terminated at one of the centres of pilgrimageand at these points of enhanced activity were raisedobelisks originally brought from Egypt duringAncient Roman times when the city rulers

dominated the Mediterranean world. It was theseancient lines of pilgrimage which structured Romefor succeeding centuries, providing the base for realestate development along their lengths. They stillact as a patterning device for the tourist, themodern pilgrim to Rome (Figures 3.3 to 3.5).

City street patterns continue to govern urbanform long after their original raison d’etre hasceased to exist. Many fine European city centresowe their foundation and current grid pattern to aRoman origin dating from the early centuries of thefirst millennium AD. Chester is a particularly fineexample of such a city centre. Chester retained its

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Figure 3.7 Chester.

Figure 3.8 Chester.

3.7 3.8

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Figure 3.9 Isle of Dogs, The

Greenwich Axis.

Figure 3.10 Greenwich. Figure 3.11 St Ann's Church, Limehouse.

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Roman grid structure through the period of urbandecline in the Dark Ages to be reborn in Medievaltimes and given its delightful half-timbered two-storey shopping arcade built largely upon its Romanstreet lines. Chester is a particularly good exampleof a city which owes its existence and currenteconomic well-being to a living tradition of conserv-ing the best from the past and building intelligentlyupon this fine legacy (Figures 3.6 to 3.8). Goslingattempted to structure development in the Isle ofDogs, London, using the lay line or axis connectingThe Queen’s House by Inigo Jones in Greenwich toSt Ann’s Church by Hawksmoor in Limehouse. Theaxis so formed was intended to be a structuringline, giving definition to this section of theDockland’s regeneration. Unfortunately, thisproposal was never implemented and the opportu-nity to stamp the area with a discipline generatedby a sensitive appreciation of this magnificentlocation and its history was lost (Figures 3.9 to3.12).5

Development in Nottingham during the 1960sand 1970s illustrates a misdirection of urban struc-ture which resulted in part from an application ofprinciples of architectural and planning designassociated with ‘modernism’. The almost total disre-gard for Nottingham’s urban form which had devel-oped over a long history has resulted in areas of thecity in need of attention and repair, or as Alexandersays, ‘in need of healing’ (Figures 3.13 to 3.16).6

The fate of Nottingham mirrors developments of thetime in other British and European cities. The maingeographical and historic structuring elements ofNottingham remain evident today. Two main factorsdetermined the siting of Nottingham. The RiverTrent on which the city is sited was navigable andeasily fordable. Bunter sandstone coinciding broadly

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Figure 3.12 St Ann's Church, Limehouse.

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with Sherwood Forest terminates abruptly in a river-cut cliff, about two miles long and overlooking theTrent flood plain. The earliest settlement stood onthe highest point of this cliff, a sandstone spur withgood defence on three sides. The city has the physi-cal remains of two ancient settlements which weresited on the defensive sandstone spur. The formerSaxon settlement, or Anglian Burh, centred on thearea now known as the Lace Market is to the east ofthe city centre and the former Norman Borough tothe west of the centre was planted on Castle Rock,the most impregnable site in the area (Figures 3.17and 3.18).7 The two settlements were unified admin-istratively probably from the twelfth century,symbolized by the development of Market Square,known locally as ‘Slab Square’. Around the largetriangular square has grown the nucleus of the towncentre. The Norman and Saxon centres were, andto some extent are still, connected to each otherand to Market Square by a series of narrow Medievalstreets such as Castle Gate, Hounds Gate and BridleSmith Gate (Figures 3.19 to 3.21). Nottingham,unlike many other British cities, is physicallyseparated from its main river. The much smallerRiver Leen was diverted in the thirteenth century torun beneath the Castle Rock but never became amajor trade carrier. It was not until the opening ofthe canal in the 1790s and the building of a seriesof warehouses along its length that there waspressure for the centre to move southwards. Theearly rail network ran round the outside of the built-up area of the town (Figure 3.22).8 The easiest routeinto Nottingham at the time of railway expansionwas on the south side of the town across theMeadows; the entry point being south of CarringtonStreet on the edge of the built-up area. Nottingham’sVictoria Station to the north of the city was openedin 1901. It served The Great Central and The GreatNorthern routes. The Great Central Line through theheart of Nottingham connecting The Victoria Stationand The Midland Station, which was rebuilt on agrander scale in 1903/1904, was finally and short-sightedly closed by Beeching in 1967. Despite the

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Figure 3.13 Maid Marion

Way, Nottingham.

Figure 3.14 Entrance to

The Victoria Shopping

Centre, Nottingham.

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3 6

Figure 3.15 Entrance to

The Victoria Shopping

Centre, Nottingham.

Figure 3.16 Entrance to

The Victoria Shopping

Centre, Nottingham.

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growth of the city early in this century, Nottinghamremained focused on Market Square until the morerecent post-World War Two developments.9

Maid Marian Way, begun in 1959 and completedin the late 1960s, was built to accommodate themotor car. It cuts across the Medieval street pattern

radiating from the Castle, isolating it from MarketSquare and the Lace Market area. Two majorcommercial developments, Victoria Centre in thenorth and the Broadmarsh in the south, were builtto provide additional shopping floorspace. Bothencourage shopping by car, providing multi-storey

Figure 3.17 Medieval

Nottingham.

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car parking facilities. The developments extendedthe centre along a north–south axis reducing theviability of shopping in the vicinity of MarketSquare and the Lace Market. The massive gyratoryroad system associated with the southern shoppingpole, Broadmarsh, virtually cut off the direct pedes-trian connection between the city’s main rail entrypoint and its heart at Market Square. (Figures 3.23and 3.24). These three developments of the 1960sand 1970s, Maid Marian Way, Victoria Centre andBroadmarsh, together with the accompanying facili-ties for the motor car, are totally out of scale withthe grain of the city and must be classed amongstthe ugliest urban developments in Europe. The

commercial and symbolic heart of the city wasfurther damaged by moving the market to theVictoria Centre and by the building of ‘edge oftown’ developments such as Castle Marina, about amile from Market Square, together with a numberof large commercial and retail ‘out of town’ devel-opments (Figures 3.25 to 3.27).

An interesting transport planning experiment wascarried out in Nottingham during the 1970s. Arestraining collar was placed round the city centre,the purpose of which was to control the numbersof private cars entering the city centre while givingbus movements priority. Influenced by the changeto a Conservative-controlled local authority in

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Figure 3.18 Medieval

Nottingham.

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Figure 3.19 Castle Gate, Nottingham. Figure 3.20 Castle Gate, Nottingham.

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Nottingham and the later Thatcher years in CentralGovernment, forward-looking experiments, such asthat at Nottingham and the Greater LondonCouncil’s policies for subsidized transport fares,were abandoned. Until very recently, making provi-sion for the motor car has dominated transportplanning driven by the philosophy that the market

knows best. The simple belief was that de-control ofbuses together with the building of more roadswould solve urban transport problems. There is nowa growing awareness of the need to reduce theconsumption of the finite stock of fossil fuel and toreduce the levels of pollution, including greenhousegas production, caused in part by the use of this

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Figure 3.21 Bridle Smith

Gate, Nottingham.

Figure 3.22 The

Nottingham rail network

prior to Beeching.

3.223.21

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4 1

Figure 3.23 The

Broadmarsh Centre,

Nottingham.

Figure 3.24 The

Broadmarsh Centre,

Nottingham.

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fuel for road transport. Fundamental changes atGovernment level have given a fresh impetus to thesearch for more effective public transport systemsfor cities. There is also a new drive to find meansof reinvigorating the city centre, serving it witheffective public transport, and making it thelocation for those land uses which generate traffic.The city centre will then, once again, become theprime location for important commercial, office andresidential developments served by public transport.Nottingham is experimenting with the developmentof public transport, securing funding for a light railrapid transit system (LRT) while implementing anextension to its system of ‘park and ride’. The citycentre is being redeveloped along the length of thecanal with some fine buildings including the InlandRevenue Building, Law Courts and other public,commercial and residential developments. This is anatural location for the city-centre extension bring-ing back into use the canal and connecting themain railway centre with the new extended citycentre. The redevelopment of the Midland RailwayStation will create an impressive gateway to thecity, connected to the centre with landscapedpedestrian, cycle and public transport links.

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Figure 3.25 Suburban

centres, Nottingham.

Figure 3.26 Suburban

centres, Nottingham.

Figure 3.27 Suburban

centres, Nottingham.

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Where does Nottingham go from here? A broadstrategy for healing the wounds caused by thedevelopments of the 1960s and 1970s is in process.Methods of controlling the use of the private carremain to be discovered while new uses may haveto be found for the inner-city multi-storey car parks.In addition, at a time when sustainable developmentis so important in guiding urban design strategies,ways of encouraging a vibrant residential populationto reoccupy the city centre have to be devised.Following on from the example of continentalcities, Nottingham has yet to define a large centralzone where pedestrian needs are consideredparamount. Finally, probably the most demandingproblem facing Nottingham is devising strategies fordealing with the two large 1960s shopping centres,The Victoria Centre and Broadmarsh, and the out-of-scale inner ring road, Maid Marian Way, again datingfrom the 1960s. Each of these major developments,characteristic of similar developments of the periodin other British cities, continue to be destructive interms of the urban fabric of central Nottingham.

TOWNSCAPE ANALYSIS

There are three main aspects of townscape analysis.The first concerns the legibility of the urban struc-ture, that is, the ways in which people perceive,understand and react to the environment. Itconcerns those qualities of a place which give it animmediate identity, one which is quickly perceivedor grasped by its users. The second aspect oftownscape analysis concerns the permeability of theenvironment, that is, the choice it presents to theuser. The third aspect of the analysis, a visual study,conforms more closely to the more traditionalmeaning of townscape, as used by Cullen followingon from Sitte and his disciples.10 The visual analysisincludes studies of urban space, the treatment offaçades, pavement, roofline, street sculpture and ananalysis of the complexity of visual detail whichdistinguishes one place from another.

PERCEPTUAL STRUCTURE

The small traditional city and those parts of thetraditional city which survive twentieth-centurydevelopment have qualities admired by people,many of whom feel psychologically alienated by theimpact of a visually bland and overpowering citygoverned, not by local burgers, but by the power ofinternational commerce. Legibility is one of thequalities of the traditional city. The traditional city is‘easy to read’. The important public and religiousbuildings were the tallest and most imposing in thecity; the main public squares and streets for paradewere embellished with decoration, fountains, sculp-ture and ornamental lighting. Districts within thecity were clearly apparent, defined and givendistinct names such as The Lace Market inNottingham or The Jewellery Quarter inBirmingham. Places had a beginning, an end, adefining boundary and, above all else, a centre formeeting and commercial display. Kevin Lynch illus-trated a method for analysing legibility andsuggested ways in which the concept can be usedto structure new developments and strengthen thelegibility of existing areas where this quality of theenvironment has been impaired by modern develop-ments.11

Lynch demonstrated with his studies of mentalmapping that a legible environment is one that iscapable of being structured by people into accurateimages. With this clear perceptual image of the city,the user can react to the environment more effec-tively. Lynch also found evidence that groups of cityusers share features of a common image. Mappingthis common image is fundamental for an urbandesign study. There are five key physical features bywhich the user structures city image; they arepaths, nodes, districts, edges and landmarks.12

The path is probably the most significant struc-turing element in image building. Most people relateother imaging features to their main network ofpaths. Paths are the main channels of movement,

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whether by foot, bicycle, bus or car. Paths are theroutes we take to move about in the city. The needto reduce the use of the private motor car willinevitably increase the importance of the network ofpedestrian routes. It is these networks of pedestrianpaths which form the distinctive images of districtsand quarters in the city. Memorable paths, or thosepaths which evoke a strong image in the user, areoften of a distinctive form and clearly modulated.The memorable path has important places andlandmarks along its length.

Nodes are focal points of activity, such as thejunction of paths, meeting places, market squares orplaces of transport interchange. According toAlexander, interesting and lively paths have nodes ofactivity at a maximum distance of 300 m along theirlength.13 A city, town or village usually has a centre

which is probably the most important node, if notin terms of activity then as a symbol for that place.A good example of a symbolic city centre is MarketSquare in Nottingham which is no longer the mainshopping focus for the city and its region as a resultof a decision to move the market away from theSquare in the 1960s. But it is here in Market Squarethat Nottingham Forest, recently the most successfulcity football team, returned victorious to present itstrophy to adoring fans. It is here, too, beside thesculpted lions which flank the steps beneath theCouncil House Dome, that young people arrange tomeet. Market Square with its fountains, formalpaved garden and seating, is the focus for celebra-tions such as those which occur on New Year’s Evewhen throngs gather in front of the Council House,the headquarters of the City Council. Other impor-

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Figure 3.28 Castle Rock,

Nottingham.

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tant nodes occur on routes as they enter the city orone of its main quarters. The gateway to the city istraditionally the place where travellers rest, wheremarkets develop and where controlled entry to thecity is maintained. Piazza del Popolo has been, aswe have seen earlier, Rome’s northern gateway fornearly 2000 years and is a model for such entrypoints to city or quarter. The perceptual study ofplace should aim to establish the distribution andlocation of nodes. Equally important for the study,however, is a classification of nodes by type,function and relative importance.

Landmarks are points of reference which areexperienced at a distance. They are three-dimen-sional sculptural objects in contrast to nodes whichare places to be entered and experienced fromwithin. Landmarks can be natural phenomena such

as Castle Rock in Nottingham or important buildingsor monuments such as the dome of Nottingham’sCity Council House. Nelson’s Column in TrafalgarSquare, London, is a typical city landmark. Thelandmark is often a feature used in giving directionsto a stranger. The landmark may, therefore, notalways be the great monument but be somethingmuch more commonplace, such as an oddly shapedshop window or a small but highly visible streetfountain. Discovering the wealth of small-scalelandmarks is one of the functions of the perceptualstudy. It is the intricate nature and complexity ofthese perceptual clues which give to a place itsinterest and vitality (Figures 3.28 to 3.31).

The city is organized into quarters or districtseach having some identifying characteristic. Thedistrict is a medium- to large-scale section of the

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Figure 3.29 Castle Rock,

Nottingham.

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city. Soho and Mayfair are well known districts ofLondon while Nottingham, like many other medium-sized cities, is divided into areas such as Lenton,The Park, Forest Fields and The Meadows. Districtshave known names: they have a resident and/or aworking population who contrast themselves with‘outsiders’. Each district has a boundary where itends and the next place begins. Determining theposition of boundaries, however fluid they may be,is an important step in deciding the nature andextent of the study area.

The final major element by which the city imageis structured is the edge. Edges are two-dimensionallinear elements where the function of pathway is ofless importance than the role of boundary. Examplesof boundaries are railway lines, canals, rivers, seafronts and the vertical cliff face of a natural escarp-ment. Alexander suggests that boundaries should be‘fleshy’ and permit movement.14 Such ‘fleshy’ bound-aries, he believes, reflect the complexity of city life,

where activities overlap in endless combinations.This is most true of the boundary between districtsbut less apparent for the major perceptual structuralbarriers such as the river or sea front. It would,however, be a very dull city if all boundaries weresimilar to the prison wall where entry is throughone or two controlled gateways: a concept, inciden-tally, which security-conscious North American-stylehousing developments closely follow. Even theboundary of the shore line is not a complete barrierand is used as a connection between land and seaby fishermen, swimmers and pleasure boats. Thesubtle change of architectural style from one districtto another is a common feature of the civilized cityand so different from the ‘peace line’ in Belfast withits high security fence which is the ultimate expres-sion of exclusion.

Paths, nodes, landmarks, districts and edges allhave a significant role in determining the legibilityof the city, but even at the smaller scale of the

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Figure 3.30 Nelson's

Column, Trafalgar Square,

London.

Figure 3.31 Wren's

Column, London.

3.30 3.31

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district or city quarter they have similar functions ofgiving identity to place. Districts, too, have minorpaths, nodes, landmarks, identifiable sub-areas withdistinctive boundaries. These structuring ideas helpthe designer to focus on the kinds of physicalcomponents which, if used sensitively, can make adistrict or city memorable and rich in perceptualdetail for both the citizen and visitor.

PERMEABILITY STUDY: PRIVACY ANDACCESSIBILITY

We all live both public and private lives. Onemeasure of a civilized society is the freedom withwhich citizens can walk the streets in safety. Afunction of urban government is to ensure the safe

use of the public realm. Another, apparently contra-dictory, role of urban government is to guarantee toits citizens the levels of privacy demanded by itsculture or cultures. Securing safety and privacy inthe home and delivering easy access to public spaceare two functions of urban government. Thecontrary demands for privacy in the home and easyaccess to the streets, squares and parks of the cityare resolved at the interface between the publicrealm and the private domain. The design of theinterface between the public realm and the moreprivate areas of individual properties is a legitimateconcern of urban design. This section outlinestechniques for studying and understanding therelationship between privacy and accessibility in agiven location. The technique highlights points ofconflict in the environment, indicates those places

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4 7

Figure 3.32 Entrance to

The Lace Market,

Nottingham, from Middle

Pavement.

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where improvements are possible and provides abasis for discussing the topic with members of thepublic.

According to Bentley et al., ‘Both physical andvisual permeability depend on how the network ofpublic space divides the environment into blocks:areas of land entirely surrounded by public routes’.15

Clearly, an area divided into small blocks givesgreater choice of routes than one divided into largestreet blocks. Contrast The Lace Market and TheVictoria Centre, both in Nottingham (Figures 3.14 to3.16 with Figures 3.32 to 3.34). The Victoria Centre,being in private ownership, has a system of internalstreets which remain open to the public largely atthe discretion of the owners. Access to these inter-nal streets for pedestrians and therefore through thedevelopment is limited to four main entrances. Theentrances to shopping malls like The Victoria Centrein Nottingham clearly indicate that the citizen isentering private property: these areas are not publicstreets. One of the problems facing future genera-tions of designers is how to break down the scale ofdevelopment such as in The Victoria Centre and soincrease accessibility in the public realm. A roughguide for an acceptable level of permeability is astreet layout with street blocks somewhere betweenone acre and one hectare in area.16 Such a layoutwould mean that street junctions would occur atcentres of 70 to 100 m. The pattern of street blocksis therefore one measure of permeability and acces-sibility; it is also an indication of the degree of flexi-bility which the user has in moving round the area.

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Figure 3.33 Entrance to The Lace Market, Nottingham,

past Weekday Cross.

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Examining the street layout to determine thelevel of choice and variety of route for moving fromplace to place will indicate the degree of permeabil-ity in the neighbourhood. Hierarchical layouts,based on cul-de-sac development as opposed to thetraditional layout of small street blocks surroundedby public roads, have a tendency to reduce choiceof route. ‘Hierarchical layouts reduce permeability:in the example below (Figure 3.35) there is onlyone way from A to D, and you have to go along Band C: never A–D directly, or ADCABCD but alwaysABCD. Hierarchical layouts generate a world of culs-de-sac, dead ends and little choice of routes.’17 Itshould be noted, however, that the cul-de-sac devel-opment in traditional Muslim cities serves well thecultural norms of privacy and family seclusionwhich are of paramount importance for that society.Now that there are many Muslim people settling inWestern cities this is not a problem peculiar only todistant lands. Cul-de-sac development also providesgreat security for residents. With cul-de-sac develop-ment there are fewer escape routes, that is, lesschoice for the mugger, rapist or burglar. Designingan environment with a high level of permeabilityfor the law-abiding citizen has to be weighedcarefully against the possibility of establishing areaswhich give freedom of action and a greater sense ofsecurity for those breaking the law.

Public safety on streets depends primarily on theintensity of use which, for this purpose, is probablymore important than the physical form of the street.Streets are safer if heavily used and if overlooked by

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4 9

Figure 3.34 The Lace Hall marking the entrance to

The Lace Market, Nottingham. Since the writing of the

manuscript for this book The Lace Hall has been

converted into a fashionable bar and restaurant (Pitcher

& Piano), and a visitor centre established near the

weekday cross. See also page 75, Figure 4.8.

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occupants of surrounding buildings. Such streets inthe terms used by Jacobs are ‘self-policing’.18

Complete segregation of pedestrians and motorvehicles, when carried to extremes, can in somecircumstances dramatically reduce the activity onstreets and, by default, can place control of theenvironment in the hands of the unlawful. Somestreets which are heavily trafficked by pedestriansthroughout the day are clearly a sound propositionfor pedestrianization. At the other extreme are theurban motorways which are not the place for pedes-trians. There are, however, a whole range of citystreets which fall into neither of these categories.The tree-lined boulevard is an elegant way in whichroad planners in the past have arranged for pedes-trians and vehicles to use the same street. Thewoonerf pioneered in Holland aims to combinepedestrian and vehicular movements in the sameneighbourhood street. In the case of the woonerf,vehicles move at speeds which are compatible withwalking and cycling. A permeability study includessome estimate of current pedestrian, cycling andvehicular movements, noting blind or dead spotswith little activity and points of pedestrian–vehicularconflict. Residents can provide invaluable informa-tion about trouble spots and ‘no-go’ areas whereviolence is likely to erupt.

The frontage between public and private space isthe mechanism for ensuring privacy while maintain-ing a friendly and safe environment on the publicstreet. The building frontage performs this functionusing both visual and physical means. In mostplaces in the city there is a gradation betweenpublic, semi-public, semi-private and private space.The interface between the privacy of the innerhome and the public space of the street is thebuilding frontage which contains the semi-publicand semi-private spaces. Security along the street ismaintained by views from the front garden, balcony,lace-covered bay window and porch. Many accesspoints along the street frontage increases activityand, together with the visual links, enrich thepublic scene. The permeability study concludeswith an analysis of street frontage, noting thoseareas where there is little or no visual or physicalcontact across the building frontage and also notingplaces where it may be possible to enrich the streetscene and increase levels of permeability betweenthe private domain and public realm.

VISUAL ANALYSIS

The visual analysis has three main parts: a study ofthree-dimensional public space, a study of the two-dimensional surfaces which enclose public spaceand a study of the architectural details which giveto an area much of its special character.

There are many books dealing with the delightsand composition of public space, the classic beingthe seminal work of Sitte.19 It is not the intention torepeat this well-worked subject matter but tooutline the main techniques used in the survey andanalysis of external public space. Urban space isappreciated in serial vision as the observer movesaround the city.20 The most common tools forrecording spatial composition are the camera andthe three-dimensional perspective drawn fromnormal eye level (Figures 3.36 and 3.37). For thisform of analysis to be useful, the viewpoints must

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Figure 3.35

Hierarchical layouts

reduce permeability:

here there is only

one way from A to D

and you have to go

along B and C,

never A–D directly,

or ADCABCD, but

always ABCD.

Hierarchical layouts

generate a world of

cul-de-sacs, dead

ends and little

choice of routes.

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be carefully chosen along pathways through thearea. Particular views are chosen to illustratedramatic changes in composition, such as the pointof emergence from a narrow passage into a brightand expansive public square. It is argued that it is aseries of such dramatic pictures as they register onthe mind which makes a pathway memorable. Thistechnique because of the compositional nature ofeach view which is chosen for the record is, ofnecessity, picturesque, exaggerating the charmingaspects of the study area.

The two-dimensional map has long been used toshow the form and distribution of public space. Of

particular interest for urban design is the map ofRome by Nolli in 1748 (Figure 3.38). On this mapthe streets and squares are voids and the buildingssolid black, with the exception of the main publicspaces or semi-public spaces within buildings whichare also depicted as voids. Nolli’s map, therefore,shows the external public spaces and their connec-tion with the main internal spaces of churches andother buildings used by the public. This is a mostuseful technique for recording public space in thecity then analysing its distribution and connection.When reading maps the eye is accustomed to seeingthe spaces between buildings as voids and the

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Figure 3.36 Townscape

sketch by Cullen.

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5 2

Figure 3.37 Townscape

sketch by Cullen.

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buildings as solids. Gibberd suggested an alternativeform of mapping.21 He suggested alternating theway the form and ground are represented: in thistype of map the buildings remain white and thepublic spaces, the streets and squares are repre-sented as black. This change of perspective concen-trates the mind not on the buildings and theirforms, but on the spaces between the buildings, theanti-form (Figure 3.39). A basic visual analysis of thecity should include these two figure ground studies.From these studies it should be possible to highlightweaknesses in the enclosure of public space, pointsof weak connection and the general characteristicsof spatial composition.

Useful techniques for spatial analysis are theaerial photograph, aerial perspective and the aerialaxonometric (Figures 7.6 to 7.10). The aerial photo-graph shows the relationship of the building formsto the surrounding public and private open space ata given time. Unfortunately, the choice of viewpointis often not under the control of the designer. Atime series of aerial photographs can give valuableinsights into recent developments. Both the aerialperspective and aerial axonometric have the advan-tage of greater control and choice of vantage point.The aerial axonometric is a little easier to constructthan the perspective, particularly if it is simplifiedto show buildings in block form. For this reason itis used more often than the perspective during theanalytical stages of the design process. It is a partic-ularly simple procedure for use with the computerwhich can translate a two-dimensional map togetherwith spot heights, into a series of axonometricdrawings from a multitude of viewpoints. Whenused in this way, the aerial axonometric becomes apowerful design tool. The aerial perspective isusually reserved for the presentation of thecompleted proposal either to the client or at publicexhibition.

The distorted bird’s eye perspective used by J.H.Aronson to illustrate the form of a public squareand show its relationship to the city is a remarkabletool for the analysis of urban form.22 The technique

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Figure 3.38 Fragment of

the map of Rome by

Giambattista Nolli.

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is based upon multiple vanishing points and is widelydistorted; by revolving the drawing it elegantlyreveals the dynamic relationship of the façades ofthe buildings and the space they enclose (Figure7.9). The three-dimensional model is a usefultechnique for the analysis of urban form. There aremany types of model used in urban design, themost highly sophisticated and beautifully finishednormally being reserved for presentation purposes(Figures 7.11 to 7.14). The more usual model typefor analysis and for testing alternative ideas is oftenrobust and cheap to construct. Gibson makes avirtue of the need for cheap modelling techniques.He suggests that when the public are involved inthe design process nothing is more destructive ofparticipation than a beautifully finished three-dimen-sional model.23 If such a model is presented itsuggests that there is nothing more to say on thesubject, the design is complete. Gibson suggests theuse of cheap paper models which participants can

change, move about, destroy and recreate. It seemsclear that the flimsy paper model of the typeadvocated by Gibson does, in fact, assist in theprocess of engaging the public in design and is amost useful tool for this purpose (Figures 3.40 and3.41).

A study of the existing surfaces enclosing publicspace presents the opportunity to develop strate-gies for dealing with colour, materials, roofline,major junctions between elements and architecturaldetailing. Most traditional cities exhibit a distinctiveuse of colour and a set of building materials whichform the bulk of the urban fabric.24 Lenclos hasdeveloped a technique for studying colour in thecity from which study he develops strategies forcolour use in keeping with the traditions of theregion.25 Lenclos collects swatches of materialsfrom the area. Using these swatches of predomi-nant colours, he prepares a colour range for use infuture developments. The technique can be

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Figure 3.39 Figure ground

study of Piazza Annunziatta,

Florence by Gibberd.

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5 5

Figure 3.40 'Planning for

real' model.

Figure 3.41 'Planning for

real' model.

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extended to include the preparation of lists ofpredominant building materials, noting the parts ofthe façade or street pavement where each materialis used. This particular study should analyse thesubtle changes of colour, material and detail fromdistrict to district, noting any characteristic featuresof path, node and landmark. One function of imple-menting a colour and material strategy is toenhance the clarity and distinction of the fiveperceptual components by which the image of thecity is constructed.

The roofline is a distinctive feature of the city,reflecting power structures of former times inaddition to current patterns of wealth, prestige andinfluence. A visual study of the existing roofline isthe first stage in determining the parameters forbuilding heights in future developments. If sustain-able development and energy efficiency are to have

any meaning for built form, then, probably, thegeneral roofline and height of buildings in urbanareas may be close to that of the three- and four-storey traditional city.26 Certainly, the skyscraper asthe symbol of the wasteful competition for heightand commercial prestige in the city may be nearingthe end of its lifespan as an idea for development.

Two techniques for the analysis of buildingheights in the city are the studies by Holford in thearea around St Paul’s, London and the strategy forhigh buildings in San Francisco.27 The Dome of StPaul’s is one of the most imposing landmarks ofLondon; Holford in his plans for the precinctaround St Paul’s was determined that it shouldretain this form. He made careful perspectivestudies of the Dome from critical viewpoints. In hisplans for the precinct, Holford interposed betweenthese critical viewpoints and the Dome only build-ings of a height and bulk which did not damage theview of the Dome (Figures 3.42 to 3.44). The resultwas the imposition of a height strategy around StPaul’s Cathedral. In San Francisco, a careful study ofthe landform and its topography was the basis fordetermining building height or roofline strategy.Building forms were used to enhance the landformand a ‘hill and bowl’ effect was created; tall build-ings being restricted to the hill tops and lowerbuildings sited in the valleys.

Two features of the city which, to some extent,determine its character, are the treatment of streetcorners and the design of the pavement. Mosttraditional cities have a wealth of ornate streetcorners. The street corner has been classified intoa simple typology.28 The typology is a useful toolfor the analysis of street junctions in a particularstudy area but this part of the city fabric lendsitself to an imaginative and exuberant decorativedisplay: the typology should therefore be used tostimulate, not restrict, ideas. The treatment of theground floor and its junction with the pavement isthe part of the city street which receives the mostdetailed attention from the pedestrian. It is thearea of exchange between the public and the

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Figure 3.42 Holford's

analysis of roof profiles for

St Paul's London.

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private parts of the street. A lively and active cityground floor with many entrances, shop windows,alleyways to internal courts, is the essence of avibrant city. A visual study of the ground floor,consisting of elevational drawings or a photo-graphic series can indicate those areas of the citywhich are popular with users and which workwell. It will also show those ‘dead’ areas without afrontage which generates activity. Such areas areshunned by pedestrians and are in need ofremedial action.

The three-dimensional computer model of theurban environment is a wonderful tool which canbe used at many stages in the design process. Themost obvious use for the three-dimensionalcomputer model is to assist in visualizing changesto individual buildings and public spaces. Thistechnique is no more than an extension of thetraditional process of visual analysis which relies

upon various types of perspective, physical modelsand photographic records. The three-dimensionalmodels of Edinburgh Old Town, designed inStrathclyde University, and the Georgian city ofBath, designed in Bath University, enable theexamination of the impacts of proposed develop-ments on the existing urban structures in thosecities (Figure 7.17). Using the computer model,alternative arrangements can be assessed rapidly,opening the design process to informed publicdebate. All too often in the past public debate hasbeen confused by the submission of projects slicklydrawn, illustrated by perspectives carefullycontrived to obscure the truth from a planningcommittee. It is only when the building iscompleted, that it is found to intrude on itssurroundings in ways that were never anticipated.The three-dimensional computer model has thepotential to overcome this particular problem by itsability to generate accurate perspectives from manydifferent viewpoints and by the computer’s powerto analyse the visual effect of proposed develop-ment on any part of the immediate surroundings.29

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Figure 3.43 Holford's

analysis of roof profiles for

St Paul's London.

Figure 3.44 Holford's

analysis of roof profiles for

St Paul's London.

3.43

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CASE STUDY: HAVERFORDWEST

In the summer of 1995 Pembrokeshire CountyCouncil were preparing a bid for developmentfinance. As part of that bid a townscape analysiswas prepared by CITYFORM 21, an urban designconsultancy. The townscape analysis was structuredaround a perceptual study using the techniquedeveloped by Lynch, followed by a visual study.The aim of the project was to make suggestions toconsolidate and stimulate existing regenerationinitiatives and opportunities.

Haverfordwest is a small Pembrokeshire townsitting astride a river. It has an appealing setting, aMedieval street pattern, an attractive street architec-ture, a rich urban fabric with many picturesque

views and dominant landmarks (Figures 3.45 to3.48). The vision for the town was to build on itsMedieval character and to restore it to regionalimportance, so that a rather run downHaverfordwest would be transformed into a WelshCounty Town of distinction.

In order to obtain a coherent view ofHaverfordwest townscape, the physical form of thetown was studied in terms of the main visualelements which make up the structure of the town.The five types of perceptual structuring elementsdescribed by Lynch were identified. From this analy-sis of town structure it was possible to distinguishquite clear town quarters. Each quarter had adistinct character, a clearly defined boundary, atleast one important node connected by major pathsto adjacent areas. These main quarters, listed in

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Figure 3.45 Haverfordwest,

town gateway.

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Figure 3.46 Haverfordwest,

the river.

Figure 3.47 Haverfordwest,

the High Street.

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Figure 3.49 and shown in diagrammatic form inFigure 3.50 became the environmental areas whereco-ordinated action or interventions were proposed.

The visual study of Haverfordwest identified themain spaces, the modifying elements and the details.It is the size, shape and arrangement of the mainpublic spaces, the streets and squares which give thetown its Medieval character. The frontages, trees,fences, walls, and even the projecting advertisementsigns, enclose and form the shape of the publicspace. For the purpose of this analysis they weredefined as the modifying elements. Details are thefiner points of the architectural composition, materi-als, mouldings and colour which enliven public space.These features of the townscape were categorized ashaving a positive, negative or neutral role in thetownscape. From this detailed analysis it was possibleto propose detailed interventions for each space.

The Central Environmental Area is one of themost important quarters in the town. It is formed bythe High Street and the adjacent commercial areas: itis the centre of commercial activity in Haverfordwest.The High Street is the central spine of the town,containing the most important public spaces. TheHigh Street provides the first impression of the townfor most visitors. The area has a number of attractivelinks with the river which, when upgraded, shouldprove to be an attraction to tourists. There is anurgent need for landscaping and general upgrading ofthis, the central core of the town. Some of theproposed improvements suggested by CITYFORM 21are shown on Figure 3.51. Figure 3.52 shows a

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Figure 3.48 Haverfordwest,

The George.

1 Central environmental area (EA)2 Castle EA3 Market Street/Goat Street EA4 Saint Thomas Green EA5 The Parade EA6 Dew Street EA7 Riverside EA8 The Administrative Centre (EA)Figure 3.49 Haverfordwest

environmental areas.

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Figure 3.50 Haverfordwest

environmental areas.

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similar treatment for the main town gateway whichis the entrance across the river to the High Street.The proposals for all eight environmental areas arelinked with a plan for Town Trails where environ-mental upgrading is suggested for all the main pathsin the town (Figure 3.53).

Unfortunately, in the case of Haverfordwest therewas neither time nor finance for the inclusion ofresidents in the perceptual study. A perceptualstudy is a useful technique for site analysis but it isgiven greater authority when members of the publicare involved in the survey. For a public exercise ofthis nature to be useful, it should be part of a widerproject in participation where people can freelyexpress views about the problems in their neigh-bourhood, suggest ideas for its development, andbecome involved in the management of theirenvironment. The perceptual study should be adver-tised as part of this more far-reaching exercise ofpublic engagement in planning. For the perceptualstudy, the views of a wide range of users is mostuseful. Participants should include residents, peoplewho work in the area and visitors. It is goodpractice to identify particular groups of user forinclusion in the exercise. Such groups may includeschool children, youths, young mothers, workingpeople, the aged and those with disabilities. UsingLynch’s techniques participants are asked to make asketch map of the study area.30 The resultingsketches are analysed to discover those elementscommon to all users. The common perceptualimage should be checked against the designer’sown mental map of the area (Figures 3.54 and3.55).

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Figure 3.51 Haverfordwest, proposals for the Central

Environmental Area.

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Figure 3.52 Haverfordwest,

proposals for the main town

gateway.

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Figure 3.53 Haverfordwest,

proposed town trails.

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CONCLUSION

This chapter has introduced techniques for historicaland townscape analysis. It is emphasized that thesurvey strategy adopted will depend on the natureand scope of the project and upon the timeallocated for project preparation. There is always agreat danger of collecting too much information,much of which, while of academic interest, mayhave little influence on the final design outcome.The main purpose of the survey and its analysis is toform an understanding of the problem being investi-gated and to provide a framework for the develop-ment of innovative ideas for solving that problem.The use of an extensive survey should not be usedas an alternative to thought nor should it be permit-ted to stifle imagination. The purpose of the surveyis not to provide instant recipes for action orcatalogues of ready made design details. However,an understanding of the environment and its historyis the foundation from which innovative develop-ment springs. This understanding of a particular cityor town begins with an analysis of past develop-ments in the area, followed by a perceptual study todefine the structure which determines the image andidentity of that city or town. Detailed studies of thecity or town, in terms of its permeability and visualqualities, complete the townscape analysis.

REFERENCES

1 Ashby, T. and Pierce Rowlan, S. (1924) The Piazza delPopolo: its history and development, Town PlanningReview, Vol. xxi, No. 2, pp. 74–99.

2 Bacon, E.N. (1975) Design of Cities, London: Thames andHudson, Revised Edition.

3 Ibid., and Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design: Street andSquare, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

4 Giedion, S. (1956) Space, Time and Architecture,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 3rd edn, Enlarged.

5 Gosling, D. and Maitland, B. (1984) Concepts of UrbanDesign, London: Academy Editions.

6 Alexander, C., Neis, H., Anninou, A. and King, I. (1987) ANew Theory of Urban Design, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

7 Barley, M.W. and Straw, I.F. (undated) Nottingham, inHistoric Towns, ed. M.D. Lobel, London: Lovell Johns-CookHammond & Kell Organization.

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6 5

Figure 3.54 Perceptual

image: the Los Angeles

image derived from sketch

maps.

Figure 3.55 Perceptual

image: the visual form of

Los Angeles as seen in the

field.

3.54

3.55

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8 Beckett, J. and Brand, K. (1997) Nottingham, An IllustratedHistory, Manchester: Manchester University Press.

9 Straw, F.I. (1967) An Analysis of the Town Plan ofNottingham: A Study in Historical Geography, UnpublishedThesis, University of Nottingham, Nottingham.

10 Cullen, G. (1961) Townscape, London: Architectural Press,and Sitte, C. (1901) Der Stadt-Bau, Wien: Carl Graeser andCo.

11 Lynch, K. (1971) The Image of the City, Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 2nd edn.

12 Ibid.

13 Alexander, C. et al., op. cit.

14 Ibid.

15 Bentley, I., Alcock, A., Murrain, P., McGlynn, S. and Smith,G. (1985) Responsive Environments: A Manual forDesigners, London: Architectural Press.

16 Moughtin, J.C. (1992), op. cit.

17 Bentley, I. et al., op. cit.

18 Jacobs, J. (1965) The Death and Life of Great AmericanCities, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

19 Sitte, C., op. cit.

20 Cullen, G., op. cit.

21 Gibberd, F. (1955) Town Design, London: ArchitecturalPress, 2nd edn.

22 Bacon, E.N., op. cit.

23 Gibson, T. (1979) People Power, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

24 Moughtin, J.C., Oc, T. and Tiesdell, S. (1995) Urban Design:Ornament and Decoration, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

25 Urbame, M. (1977) France: how to paint industry, Domus,No. 568, March, pp. 14–18.

26 Moughtin, J.C. Urban Design: Green Dimensions, Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann.

27 Attoe, W. (1981) Skylines: Understanding and MoldingUrban Silhouettes, New York: John Wiley and Sons, andHolford, W. (1950) St Paul’s Cathedral in the City ofLondon, Town Planning Review, Vol. xxvii, No. 2, July, pp.58–98.

28 Moughtin, J.C. et al. (1995) op. cit.

29 Day, A. (1994) New tools for urban design, Urban DesignQuarterly, No. 51, July, pp. 20–23.

30 Lynch, C., op. cit.

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INTRODUCTION

It is unproductive to try to define a rigid dividingline between survey and analysis. The collection ofparticular pieces of information implies the use ofa preconceived analytical framework. The accumula-tion of facts without purpose is wasteful and canonly confuse the outcome. Even the drawing of asimple sketch presupposes that a particular viewhas a relevance for the problem under investigation.Furthermore, it presupposes that the elements inthat view which are emphasized in the drawing alsohave some bearing on the task. If this is not thecase, then why make that particular sketch?Similarly, the collection of social or economic datacannot be all-inclusive. Only those sets of informa-tion of immediate use should be stored ready foranalysis. A useful principle to follow in surveydesign is to keep it brief, at least initially. It isalways possible to extend the search as the analysisilluminates the problem definition. In reality theremay be no clear distinction between survey andanalysis. But, for the sake of convenience, theanalytical stage of the design process can bedeemed to begin when thought is given to thestrengths and weaknesses of the project site, the

opportunities presented by the project and thepotential threats to the area which any interventionmay have to counter. This chapter begins with anoutline of the considerations involved in making aforecast of the future and the use of such a forecastas a design tool. The chapter then examines thetechniques for assessing the constraints on develop-ment and for assessing the possibilities of interven-tion. The central part of the chapter is focused onSWOT analysis; applying to urban design thetechniques for discovering the Strengths andWeaknesses of a project; the Opportunities fordevelopment; and the Threats which may disruptimplementation. The chapter ends with two casestudies. The first is The Lace Market in Nottinghamand the second is the New Campus for theUniversity of Nottingham.

TREND, FORECAST AND SCENARIO

Planning in Britain after the 1947 Town andCountry Planning Act, to some extent depended forits method on the analysis of trends and from thosetrends, making predictions about the future. Theplan was then based upon those predictions. It was

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found from experience that predictions andforecasts about the future can be wildly out whenbased on such calculations. The story of the chang-ing forecasts of national population in Britain duringthe post-1947 period is a salutary lesson for those inthe business of forecasting the future and also forthose relying on those predictions for plan making.The other major difficulty with the forecast is that itcan become a self-fulfilling prophecy. For example,the prediction of fast-rising car ownership and usagein the 1960s provided the rationale for Governmentpolicies. These policies gave priority to road-build-ing programmes to the detriment of pursuing vigor-ous investment in public transport. The extra roadmiles built on the strength of Government policystimulated demand for the use of those same roads.With that stimulus in demand, came the inevitableincrease in car ownership and the use of the car,even for short journeys. The forecast for the growthin car ownership was therefore shown to be true,or to some extent to be a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’.This analysis of the growth in car ownership inBritain over the last forty years may have beenoverstated, nevertheless there is some truth in thebelief that this prediction, particularly about carusage, has some of the characteristics of a circularargument where the forecast reinforces the trend.Trends in the changing patterns of lifestyle areevident, even under the most superficial of examina-tions. An analysis of these trends may stimulateideas about the nature of the problem being investi-gated and also actions which may be necessary tomodify a trend leading to an undesirable outcome.The apparent trends in changing lifestyles, however,are no more than an indication of what mighthappen in the future. And only if the conditionsgoverning these trends remain the same. If trendsare viewed in this light, then there is little dangerthat they may evolve into a forecast leading to anauthoritative prediction of future conditions. Theonly certainty about a prediction is that it is morelikely to be misleading than to give an accuratepicture of the future.

The ways in which some factors governing every-day activity and current lifestyle are changing maycritically affect development, or the designer’s viewof development, potential in the project area. Itmay, therefore, be appropriate to analyse sucheconomic, social and cultural factors. For mostdevelopment projects, forming an understanding ofthe dynamics of population change is standardprocedure. A knowledge of what might happen tothe target population is fundamental for many urbandesign projects. This study may be a simple attemptto gauge the rate of growth or decline of popula-tion, or it may aim to discover which sections ofthe population, in terms of age, sex, race or socio-economic group, are growing or declining and atwhat rate.

Population studies are the starting point fordetermining the land requirements and for theallocation of space for competing activities or landuses. A knowledge of present population is neces-sary in order to make some prediction for thefuture. The most basic information is the size ofthe present population. This may not be asstraightforward as it sounds. The resident popula-tion may be supplemented by tourists and a dailycommuting population. For some projects thisvisiting population may be extremely important. Itis often essential to have some knowledge of thebreakdown of the population in terms of age, sex,race and socio-economic group. From this informa-tion the specific needs of the community forservices and facilities can be gauged. It may, if theproject area is large enough, be necessary toexamine the physical distribution of the variousgroups which comprise the population. The physi-cal distribution of the population gives someindication of the location of facilities. An assess-ment of the population can be made by conduct-ing a specially designed survey. This is bothexpensive and time consuming. It is more usual touse the Registrar General’s Census of Population,adjusted to allow for assumed changes betweencensus dates.

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Predicting future population is based upon anexamination of existing trends. It is important toknow if there are any signs of change in the factorsgoverning population size. For example, it is usefulto know the birth, death, marriage, and fertilityrates, together with the levels of migration. Theunderlying tendencies in the population should beexamined to see if there is a trend in the popula-tion towards ageing, or a trend towards a greaternumber of working females, or towards more butsmaller households. The designer would want toknow the tendency towards the physical distribu-tion of changes. Knowledge of the existing popula-tion, together with any trends and tendencies whichcan be discovered, together form the basis offorecasting future population.

Forecasting population is a speculative business.Demographers are extremely guarded aboutattempting to forecast the future particularly ofsmall districts of the city. The smaller the area ofstudy, the less reliable are the forecasts. If it isdecided to engage in this hazardous enterprise thenthere are a number of techniques for makingpopulation forecasts. The most basic is a continua-tion of the recent past into the future by extendinga straight line graph based on the assumption thatcurrent trends will persist. A popular technique forforecasting future population is the Cohort SurvivalMethod.1 This technique adjusts census figures inforward steps, by age and sex groups, year on year,until the date of the project completion.Adjustments are made to the figures for changes inbirth, death, fertility, in- and out-migration: ‘Inessence what it does is to trace a particular agegroup, for example 0–4 years through theirestimated life cycle making deductions for projecteddeaths based upon life tables, and amendments fornet migration. The next 0–4 age group is calculatedby reference to the fertility rate of the number of‘survivors’ remaining in preceding groups orcohorts’.2

There may be other areas, as well as population,for which projection may prove useful. For

example, further information about population andits changing patterns of employment, income andexpenditure may throw light on possible demandfor housing or other goods. The rates at which thehousing stock is declining in numbers and quality ofmaintenance or the changes in patterns of owner-ship, or, indeed the general changes in land-usepatterns may be of significance to the project. Thenature of the project and its goals will determinethe factors to be investigated and which particulartrends, when analysed, will prove useful for thedevelopment of the project.

The analysis of trends becomes a more usefuldesign tool when comparisons can be madebetween the study area and the city, its region, orthe nation as a whole. A knowledge of populationtrends in the study area may be essential for designpurposes but when those local trends are comparedwith those in the larger community the significanceof local change may be highlighted. This compara-tive element in trend analysis applies equally toemployment, housing conditions or car ownershippatterns. All trend analyses should embody acomparative element.

A more imaginative technique than trend analysisfor assessing future possibilities is scenario design.Using this technique the designer constructs pos-sible futures imagining the major factors which mayaffect the way people live. Major events such as asea change in political attitudes; an oil crisis; astock market crash; joining or not joining theEURO; and many other possible future events canbe built into a series of different scenarios. Thesescenarios can be fed back into the forecasts, whichin turn result in a set of different trends for anytopic analysed. The trends can then be presentedgraphically. It is usual to present three trends andtheir resulting forecast for each topic; one wherethe assumptions are favourable, one where they areunfavourable and the third somewhere between theextremes. Scenario building is, above all else, a toolof the imagination and therefore most useful for thedesigner seeking ideas.

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CONSTRAINTS AND POSSIBILITIES

Two useful analytical tools are constraints and possi-bilities mapping. The constraints and possibilitiesmaps focus mainly upon the physical factors whichaffect development. The constraints map containsinformation, for example, on the location anddesign of any approved projects such as roadwidening, sites with planning approvals, land use orbuilding height restrictions, buildings designated asof historic interest, together with any importantfeatures of the land or its servicing. The constraintsmap can have a debilitating effect upon design ifeach constraint is not challenged in terms of itscurrent importance and also examined in the lightof any possible waivers or methods of circumvent-ing the effects of the constraint. The possibilitiesmap includes items such as areas ripe for develop-ment, possible linkages with adjacent areas in thecity, features which are special to the area, groupsof buildings of outstanding architectural significancewhich, with a change of use, would bring distinc-tion to the quarter, positions where developmentwould enhance the appearance of the built environ-ment and areas where landscape intervention wouldbe advantageous.

SIEVE MAPPING

Analysing constraints and possibilities can beexpressed graphically as a series of sieve maps.Mapping a number of constraints as transparentoverlays to an ordnance survey map of the projectarea eliminates those areas which, for one reason oranother, present difficulties for development. Thetechnique, when combined with the power of thecomputer using Geographic Information Systems(GIS) technology, can combine many layers ofphysical and socio-economic data, so affordingcomplex analyses which relate population studies tothe environment occupied by the community. The

use of large-scale three-dimensional computermodels is becoming more common in urbanplanning and design. In addition to the use of thecomputer model for design, it is being developed toact as the core of an urban information system.Systems are being developed for linking objects in athree-dimensional model with other kinds of infor-mation, including text and photographs, records ofa building’s history, social statistics, data aboutenergy use and digital material for sound and video.Computer models are beginning to appear in which‘The visualisation capacities of the CAD model andthe analytical power of the geographic informationsystem can be brought together to provide newkinds of tools for urban design’.3

STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES,OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,threats) analysis is a useful technique for the collec-tion and structuring of data. SWOT analysis has itsorigins in business management where strengthsand weaknesses refer to the internal workings ofthe organization while opportunities and threats areexternal to it.4 This clear distinction between inter-nal and external conditions is more difficult to applywhen assessing the potential of a part of the physi-cal world such a city district. The analysis in strictmanagement terms could be applied to an organiza-tion contemplating a particular intervention in theworld of real estate but not necessarily in quite thesame way for the potential of the real estate itself.Many of the threats facing an inner city area or theopportunities it presents could be considered to beinternal to the physical structure being investigated.For example, a continued loss of population in theinner city could be seen as a threat to regenerationbut in many ways it is inherent to the inner city.Clearly there is overlap between all four analyticalcategories. A weakness, for example, can be viewedin a more positive light as an opportunity, while in

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some instances a strength in one area when viewedfrom a different perspective can appear as thesource of a weakness. Nevertheless, the structureimposed by the listing and categorizing of aspectsand qualities of the project site under these fourbroad headings does assist in formulating possiblestrategies for intervention. The completion of theanalysis can also form the basis for questioning theassumptions underlying project goals and objectives.The SWOT analysis can, therefore, assist in theclearer definition of the design brief and point theway to design solutions.

SWOT analysis, when used in matrix form, is apowerful tool for dissecting the properties andpotential of an urban area. If the examination of thedata is structured, as shown in Figure 4.1, then thestrengths and weaknesses of a number of the mainaspects of life in a study area can be addressed andanalysed. The properties and potential of the studysite or city district can be examined under anumber of broad headings or factors. In Figure 4.1the factors considered are the physical properties ofthe built environment of the area and its aestheticquality, the natural environment which wouldinclude pollution, and finally the social andeconomic conditions in the area. Using this or asimilar matrix, it is possible to examine, forexample, the strength or weakness of the study areain terms of the factors listed in the matrix, which

may be of more use to the designer than a simpleaggregate statement about the area which mayobscure more than it reveals. It is also possible,working horizontally along a line of the matrix, toexamine any particular factor for its strength, itsweakness, opportunities for its development and thepotential threat it faces. The use of the matrix issimply an aid to analysis. The result of that analysiswill be a statement which summarizes the potentialof the site for achieving sustainable development,outlining the interventions or actions necessary toarrive at such an outcome.

CASE STUDY: THE LACE MARKET,NOTTINGHAM

A SWOT analysis is not possible without an under-standing of the history of the study area and aknowledge of its present function within the city.Plans for the regeneration of The Lace Market inNottingham, for example, expressly emphasize thequarter’s history and the development of its specialcharacter: it occupies the site of the former EnglishBorough (Figure 3.18). The Lace Market, as its nameimplies, was the centre of the large and flourishingnineteenth-century lace industry. Grand warehousesand factories were built in pleasantly scaled streets,which makes The Lace Market in Nottingham one

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Figure 4.1 SWOT analysis.Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

Built Environment

physical and aesthetic properties

Natural Environment

fauna, flora, air and water

Socio-economic Environment

including political and

administrative conditions

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of the finest collections of nineteenth-century com-mercial architecture possibly in Europe (Figures 4.2to 4.5). In the twentieth century, the lace industrywent into decline. Many of the fine buildings werenot properly maintained, became run down andwere sub divided as workrooms for small clothing

and textile firms. The rents such properties couldcommand were low, so exacerbating the problemsof maintenance. Following the destruction of somebuildings during the Second World War, furtherbuildings were demolished in the 1950s and 1960s.The road schemes in The Lace Market and its

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Figure 4.2 Stoney Street,

The Lace Market,

Nottingham.

Figure 4.3 Stoney Street,

The Lace Market,

Nottingham.

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proposed comprehensive redevelopment in the1960s were never completed, fortunately. The areawas probably saved when it was declared aConservation Area in 1969. In 1974 the City Counciladopted a renovation strategy in the hope of reviv-ing what had become a badly run down area with

thirty derelict sites and many more decaying build-ings. This strategy for renovation adopted by theCity Council in conjunction with the Department ofthe Environment and English Heritage was remark-ably successful, improving over 150 buildings,landscaping derelict sites, redeveloping other sites

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Figure 4.4 Broadway, The

Lace Market, Nottingham.

Figure 4.5 Broadway, The

Lace Market, Nottingham.

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for housing, converting the Unitarian Chapel onHigh Pavement to a Lace Hall as a focus for touristsin the area and generally changing the fortunes ofthe area.

In 1988 the City Council, the Department of theEnvironment and Nottingham DevelopmentEnterprise appointed Conran Roche to carry out astudy of The Lace Market which led to the adoptionby the City Council of a new approach to theplanning of the area. The unique history of the site,with its roots in Saxon times and a wealth of fineurban architecture, formed the backcloth to thestudy. Of particular importance was its long associa-tion with the lace industry. This led to a keyproposal in the planning strategy to develop thequarter as ‘a centre for fashion, clothing and textileindustry, particularly for small and medium-sizedcompanies who need a City Centre location’.5 Thetextile industry, while giving to the quarter itsspecial character, in terms of large-scale manufac-ture is a function in decline. In 1989, 5500 peoplewere working in The Lace Market in 250 firms. Inaddition to the clothing and textile firms there wereother light manufacturing industries with associatedoffices and warehousing; retailing along CarltonStreet, Goose Gate and Hockley; together withoffices which at that time occupied 18 per cent ofthe total floorspace. A small but significant popula-tion of 500 people lived in the area, some in adesign award-winning group of town apartments. Inthe area there was also the beginnings of a leisureindustry with a small live theatre, cinema and anumber of restaurants. Based on his understandingof the situation in Lace Market in 1989, Rochesuggested six key principles for the regeneration ofthis city quarter.6

The first principle of the regeneration strategywas to ensure the survival of small textile com-panies in their present location within The LaceMarket. For this purpose Roche suggested thatPlumptre Street should be the focus of aprogramme of property acquisition and refurbish-ment for use as workshops. Two-hundred square

feet of floorspace was to be let at affordable rents.In addition, it was proposed that a Grade Two-listedschool house should be developed as a TextileExperience Centre. The second strand in the strat-egy was to revive the Adams Building and create anew focus for a New Lace Market. The AdamsBuilding is the most grand of the industrial buildingsin the area. It was designed by T.C. Hine in theItalianate Style and built in 1885. It is the focalpoint of The Lace Market. It was to be rehabilitatedand converted for retail use on the ground floor.There was to be a 120-room hotel and 30 000square feet of residential apartments on the upperfloors. A small public square was to be sited next tothe Adams building on a dilapidated car park. Thepublic square was to be enclosed on the west, withthe new four-storey Lace Market Building acting as agateway into the quarter. The third strand in theregeneration strategy was to create a major exten-sion to the Broadmarsh Centre with direct linkswith The Lace Market, along a retail route throughWeekday Cross. The remaining principles of thestrategy were to maintain the present mix of landuses; to meet essential car parking requirementswithin each site and to build multi-storey car parksadjacent to the Ring Road; and finally to create TheLace Market as an Historic Urban Park.

The Lace Market Development Company waslaunched in 1989 to stimulate the regeneration ofThe Lace Market. The Lace Market DevelopmentCompany, together with Nottingham City Counciland Nottingham Tourism Development ActionProgramme, commissioned a further report byconsultants Tibbalds, Karski, Colbourne andWilliams. The report by Tibbalds and his colleaguesrecommended the declaration of The Lace Market asa National Heritage Area.7 Figure 4.6 illustrates thedesign strategy proposed in the report which isbased in part on a SWOT analysis. The summary ofthe SWOT analysis identified twenty-six items underthe headings Strengths, thirty-two Weaknesses,thirty-one Opportunities and seven Threats.Figure 4.7 shows the opportunities and threats

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listed in the report. Such lists, resulting from brain-storming sessions with members of the public, are auseful starting point for an urban design study.Analysis of such long lists takes on greater signifi-cance if structured as shown in Figure 4.1 andarranged in some order of importance.

The onset of the recession in the late 1980smade it difficult to achieve a property-based regen-eration. It was particularly difficult to achieve adevelopment control strategy which prevented theloss of clothing, textile and other manufacturingfloorspace to offices.8 The Lace Market Heritage

A N A L Y S I S

7 5

Figure 4.6 Strategy for The

Lace Market by Tibbalds

and colleagues.

1 Lace Hall

2 St Mary’s Church

3 Adams Building

4 Shire Hall

Reinforce/enhancesquares

Reinforce gatewayspaces

Creation of newsquares or recreationof former ones

New build frontages

Pedestrian only streets

Pedestrian links

Central feature

On street car park

Environmentalimprovements

Screening/heating ofcorridors

Landmark feature

Man movement routes

Small piazza/forecourtenhancement

Re-establishing ‘corner’

Landscape treatment

Multi-storey car park

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Trust was set up in 1993 as a private-/public-sectorpartnership to reflect the need for development notsolely based on property regeneration.9 Since thenthere have been significant improvements in condi-tions in Nottingham Lace Market. In terms oftourism, Lace Hall is linked to Shire Hall and to theformer County Gaol, which opened as a museum(Figures 4.8 and 4.9). In addition, BroadmarshCaves, of great significance for Nottingham’shistory, have been opened to the public. Whilethere has been a loss of textile and clothingmanufacture, the Fashion Centre has expanded itsactivities and a new programme of training coursesinvolving local employees was developed, centredon Clarendon College.10 Several buildings have been

or are being refurbished, including the AdamsBuilding which will be used as an extension ofClarendon College, a highly significant event forThe Lace Market. A further development which willaffect The Lace Market is the building of theproposed Light Rapid Transit System (LRT, super-tram). The LRT for Nottingham has received RoyalAssent and The Lace Market is located on the routeof its first phase.11

A SWOT analysis of The Lace Market carried outtoday would have to take into account the quarter’scurrent function, the state of its social, economicand physical environment; recent developments;and the commitment to new administrative struc-tures. The Lace Market is in a considerably stronger

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7 6

Figure 4.7 SWOT analysis

(part).Opportunities

1 Potential of Shire Hall

2 Boots first shop

3 Vacant/underused warehouse buildings and sites

4 Better pedestrian links to city centre

5 LRT

6 Improved traffic management

7 Bringing together of various activities associated

with the area (e.g. lace)

8 Creating a mixed-use people’s place

9 Environmental improvement

10 Events (e.g. Warser Gate Square)

11 Potential to link Broadmarsh caves and other

caves

12 Possible relocation of English Heritage to Lace

Market

13 Development of industrial tourism

14 Possible development of national (international)

lace centre

15 Education

16 Interpret heritage in depth

17 Potential to provide Nottingham with a richer, more

integrated national tourism product

18 Packaging of Lace Market as part of city centre

19 Pedestrian tourist trail from castle

20 Retailing (speciality/independent)

21 Factory shops

22 Thematic interpretation of Goose Gate

23 Opportunity to improve car parking

24 Opportunity for hotel development

25 Gateway treatment of Weekday Cross

26 Adams Building – focal point

27 Craft Festival Market

28 European aid

29 Cultural events

30 Media industry

31 Fashion Centre

Threats

1 Speculative increase in land values

2 Unecomonic costs of refurbishment

3 Constraints on local authority spending

4 Increased rents may displace independent shops

5 Ownership – single ownership/fragmented and

private

6 Current economic circumstances – investment

limited to north/south of centre/out-of-town

retailing

7 Loss of traditional crafts in building industry (need

for supervision by grant-aiding authorities)

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position than it was even twenty years ago. There isnow the Lace Market Heritage Trust with the abilityto marshal public and private finance. The area hasalready received major private-sector investment.Other strengths include a growing list of refur-bished properties of distinction, resulting in higherproperty values, a nascent tourism industry andmedia industry. The location of The Lace Market

close to the city centre makes it an attractive propo-sition for real estate developments. The prospect ofthe quarter’s link by supertram to the railwaystation, bus stations and to other parts of the citycentre will improve the centrality of its location.The main weakness remains the area’s appearance,in some places, of dilapidation and isolation. Thereis little movement of people in the area at most

A N A L Y S I S

7 7

Figure 4.8 Lace Hall, High

Pavement, The Lace

Market.

Figure 4.9 Shire Hall, High

Pavement, The Lace

Market.

4.8 4.9

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times of the day; it can give the impression, whichis not the case, that it has been abandoned and leftto disintegrate, like a deserted town. This isolationgives the area a bad reputation and attracts fewpedestrians, particularly in the evenings. Thereseems little connection between The Lace Marketand the city centre across Fletcher Gate from

Weekday Cross to Carlton Street. Service access intothe area for industry is weak and conflicts with theneed to pedestrianize more of the area. There arefew land uses in the heart of The Lace Marketwhich attract heavy flows of pedestrian trafficwhich would help to make the quarter a saferplace. There are still few ground-floor land uses

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7 8

Figure 4.10 St Mary's

Church, High Pavement,

The Lace Market.

Figure 4.11 St Mary's

Church, High Pavement,

The Lace Market: detail.

4.10 4.11

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which generate activities opening out onto thestreet. Despite recent developments, there are fewvisitor attractions and no inviting public squares.For pedestrian street traffic to increase significantlythese deficiencies in urban structure will need to beaddressed. Many of the weaknesses of a place,however, may present other opportunities if theyare seen in a more positive light. Seeing only theproblems faced by a city quarter can be so negativethat it may inhibit the search for innovativesolutions.

The Lace Market has the opportunity to buildupon the successes of the last twenty years. Thereis a great opportunity to develop further the touristpotential of this part of Nottingham. It is the site ofmany nationally important archaeological, historicand townscape elements. These elements must befully developed and linked if the area is to attractsignificant numbers of visitors. The area does havethe potential to form an Historic Urban Theme Park(Figures 4.8 to 4.11). In addition to its long historyand the area’s association with the lace industry,The Lace Market also could be developed as amedia centre because of its two existing theatres. Italready has a street which attracts a fashionableclientele because of the specialized character of itsethnic shops, chic boutiques and restaurants. Theseattractions need very little to weld them into aviable all-year-round centre for visitors: it doesmean establishing a critical mass in terms of thedensity and numbers of activities associated withtourism. The Adams Building, once occupied byClarendon College, will introduce into the area awhole new dynamic. The additional student popula-tion will generate pressures for further develop-ments and presents an opportunity to bring backlife and vitality to The Lace Market. The ‘threats’facing The Lace Market should not be used as anexcuse to inhibit development. They too can beseen as an opportunity to make arrangements anddevelop strategies which avoid the effects ofeconomic forces which may prove detrimental tothe developmental goals. In the case of The Lace

A N A L Y S I S

7 9

Figure 4.12 Canalside

development, Nottingham:

The Inland Revenue

Building by Michael

Hopkins and Partners.

Figure 4.13 Canalside

development, Nottingham:

The Inland Revenue Building

by Michael Hopkins and

Partners.

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Market there is a danger that the very success ofthe scheme and the increase in property prices andrentals could damage the fragile basis of the textileindustry. The improvement to the environment andthe rehabilitation of the many fine buildings in TheLace Market will increase the pressure for floor-space for offices, restaurants, clubs and possiblyresidential accommodation. New users moving intothe area will generate higher rents which will placeadditional pressures upon textile companies whichpresently enjoy low rents. Such companies may bedisplaced and unable to find alternative accommo-dation in The Lace Market. Because of the loss ofjobs the area would lose its character. The veryheart of The Lace Market could be torn out of thequarter as this process of gentrification proceeds.Other ‘threats’ which are faced by The Lace Marketinclude stagnation caused by the area’s incapacityto compete with large-scale developments in thecity to the north and south of the site. Prestigiousdevelopments are being pursued on the sites of theold warehouses along the canal to the southeast of

the city centre. These sites are unencumbered byexisting buildings, having been largely cleared andthe ground prepared for modern purpose-designeddevelopments, more suited to the needs of thetwenty-first century than the fine, but constrained,envelopes of the nineteenth-century buildings ofThe Lace Market (Figures 4.12 to 4.17). To thenorth of the city centre the large 1960s VictoriaShopping Centre is being expanded with some up-market shopping which offers strong competitionto any possible retail developments in The LaceMarket.

NEW CAMPUS FOR THE UNIVERSITY OFNOTTINGHAM

Extensive survey and imaginative analysis do notnecessarily result, of themselves, in fine urbandesign. Without a broad concept or unifying ideathe result can only be pedestrian. The University ofNottingham is engaged in building an extension ona new campus. After an architectural competition,the University of Nottingham engaged MichaelHopkins and Partners to design a new university ofremarkable quality. This particular case study isused as a reminder that great city building resultsfrom inspiration and imagination and not frommethod alone. Method is to facilitate and stimulatethe imagination. The case study is also used to illus-trate how small components of the total problemcan be analysed.

The project goal for the new campus is to regen-erate a redundant site in Nottingham and to trans-form it into a distinctive, attractive and environmen-tally friendly setting for the University’s muchneeded expansion of teaching, research and livingaccommodation (Figures 4.18 and 4.19). There are anumber of reasons for the £40 million developmentwhich is to be completed by 1999.12 The Universityof Nottingham is the most sought-after university byprospective undergraduate students. It is also aleading UK university with an international

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8 0

Figure 4.14 Canalside

development, Nottingham:

The Inland Revenue

Building by Michael

Hopkins and Partners.

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A N A L Y S I S

8 1

Figure 4.15 Canalside

development, Nottingham:

The Courts.

Figure 4.16 Canalside

development, Nottingham:

refurbished warehouse.

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8 2

Figure 4.17 Canalside

development, Nottingham:

offices and restaurants.

Figure 4.18 The New

Campus for the University

of Nottingham, by Michael

Hopkins and Partners.

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reputation in top quality research as well as teach-ing. It is therefore anticipated that future expansionof research, teaching and ‘technology transfer activi-ties’ will lead to pressure on the University Estateand the need for additional space. Perhaps the mostinteresting reason given for the development of the

new campus is the desire to protect ‘the treasuredenvironment of the University Park Campusrenowned and popular for the beauty and space ofits landscape’. Fundamental to the project is therealization that an environment can only support orsustain a limited development before its quality is

A N A L Y S I S

8 3

Figure 4.19 The New

Campus for the University

of Nottingham, by Michael

Hopkins and Partners:

axonometric.

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diminished. Environmental carrying capacity, herelinked to the attraction of the main campus forprospective students, is a concept central to sustain-able development.

The master plan for the new campus reflectssome of the most distinctive qualities of UniversityPark, the main university campus. The central idea

for the regeneration of the site is the creation of agreen lung, making it one of the many parks forwhich Nottingham is known and of which the cityis justly proud. The site at Wollaton Road is smallwhen compared with the existing campus. It islocated between industrial landscape and suburbia.The concept is linear development following the

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8 4

4.20 4.21 4.22

4.23 4.24

Figures 4.20–4.24 The

New Campus for the

University of Nottingham,

by Michael Hopkins and

Partners: detail.

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main lines of the site. Efficiency is derived by segre-gating the movement of cars and pedestrians.Vehicular traffic, including buses, use one spineroute running the length of the site and pedestriansthe other main route. There are two main entrypoints into the site: both roads are lined with treesand are modelled on the Nottingham boulevardswhich are such a distinctive feature of the roadsystem developed in the city during last century andthe early parts of this century. The design for thenew campus places great emphasis on the quality ofthe environment. Existing woodland on the westernedge of the site is retained and enhanced as aconservation area for plants and wildlife. A man-made lake is a feature of the proposed develop-ment.13 On one side of the lake is the existingwoodland which serves as a buffer between theuniversity and the residential area. On the otherside, to the east of the lake, is the main walkwaylinking all the new buildings. The width and depthof the lake will vary, which will encourage theestablishment of a variety of wildlife. There is anenvironmental strategy for the buildings, the aim ofwhich is to deliver the optimum sustainableconstruction and energy performance. The buildingsare designed with climate-modifying façades, anefficient ventilation system and atria with extensiveplanting. The various departments are arranged indistinct buildings along the spine. The buildings areset in parkland following the landscape tradition ofthe main university campus. Visual and physicallinks are established by the sharing of commonspaces which form internal piazzas where peoplecan meet and socialize.

The illustrations for the new campus include aseries of informative thumb nail sketches. They illus-trate the solution to a number of the designproblems in the new campus (Figures 4.20 to 4.24).This method of analysing and expressing ideas forsolving key parts of the total problem is a mostuseful analytical technique during problem explor-ation: thumb nail sketches are also worth manythousand words of explanation.

CONCLUSION

The New Campus for the University of Nottinghamis the result of an International Competition won byMichael Hopkins and Partners. The New Campus islikely to prove a benchmark for architectural qualityand it may also prove to be an exciting regenera-tion of a run-down area of Nottingham. It is, aboveall else, a fine example of urban design whichshould serve as a model both of method and ofideas for city development during the twenty-firstcentury. Its inclusion in this particular place in thebook is to emphasize that the design idea is asimportant as the method. Good design does notnecessarily follow the application of sound method.Ideas may result from a flash of inspiration andwhen it does, the idea should be grasped, devel-oped and accepted with gratitude. The designer,however, cannot wait for inspiration. He or shefollows a method which is likely to stimulate thegeneration of ideas. This chapter has examined therole of forecasting, constraints and possibilitiesmapping and SWOT analysis, while the next chapterwill explore some of the techniques for generatingalternative design concepts.

REFERENCES

1 More complex matrix techniques of forecasting for use inmodelling can be found in McLoughlin, J.B. (1969) Urbanand Regional Planning: A Systems Approach, London:Faber and Faber, and in Field, B. and MacGregor, B. (1987)Forecasting Techniques for Urban and Regional Planning,London: Hutchinson.

2 Ratcliffe, J. (1974) An Introduction to Town and CountryPlanning, London: Hutchinson.

3 Day, A. (1994) New tools for urban design, Urban DesignQuarterly, No. 51, pp. 20–23.

4 Bevan, O.A. (1991) Marketing and Property People,London: Macmillan.

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5 Nottingham City Planning Department (1989) NottinghamLace Market, Development Strategy, Nottingham:Nottingham City Council.

6 Roche, Conran (1989) Nottingham Lace Market: TheVision, Report One, and Detailed Proposals and Impacts,Report Two, Nottingham: Conran Roche.

7 Tibbalds, F., Karski, Colbourne, Williams in association withTouchstone (1991) National Heritage Area Study:Nottingham Lace Market, Nottingham: Nottingham CityCouncil.

8 Nottingham Evening Post, 8 August 1991.

9 Nottingham Evening Post, 3 July 1996.

10 Nottingham Evening Post, 30 December 1996.

11 Greater Nottingham Light Rapid Transit Act, 1994.

12 The University of Nottingham (12 November 1996) NewCampus Fact Sheet, Nottingham: The University ofNottingham.

13 Fawcett, P. (12 November 1996) The New Campus: AnArchitectural Appreciation, Nottingham: The University ofNottingham.

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INTRODUCTION

Central to the urban design process is the explor-ation of problems through an examination andtesting of solutions. Many of the problems in urbandesign could be described as ‘wicked’, in the sensethat they are difficult to define and they are withoutan obvious and generally agreed solution. Thenature of the process, therefore, by which theseproblems are approached is dialectical, taking theform of a dialogue between problem and solution.Inevitably the designer expends considerable energyunderstanding the problems with which he or sheis confronted. Clearly the designer, by engaging inthis dialectic between problem and solution, clari-fies the definition of the problem and the directionof the investigation necessary to seek the solution,as the process itself evolves. The nature of theproblem only becomes clear as the iterative processdevelops. The solutions or ideas used in solvingurban design problems for the purpose of this textwill be termed concepts. Generating design ideasfor solving problems of urban structure is funda-mental to urban design. Design concepts are thebasis of the creative process: without them theprocess of urban design degenerates into a sterileactivity. Generating concepts is an act of the imagi-

nation. Concepts, or the ideas which inform alterna-tive ways of perceiving the problem, can be gener-ated using a number of techniques. Ideas can begleaned from an analysis of the site, from a study ofhistorical precedent, from theoretical propositions,by using synectical techniques or the art of analogy,by techniques of lateral thinking including brain-storming and by seeking ideas directly from thepublic. This chapter explores the use of analogy forthe generation of ideas; being particularlyconcerned with concepts drawn from nature. Casestudies from Surrey, Derby and Norway illustratethe use of some of these concepts in practice. Thechapter also explores techniques used whenworking with the public on the process of conceptformation. The process of public participation indesign is illustrated with a case study from Newarkin Nottinghamshire.

According to Lynch there are three mainmetaphors which attempt to explain city form.1 Themagical metaphor for the earliest ceremonial centresattempted to link the city to the cosmos and to theenvironment. The second metaphor uses the machineas an analogy for the city. The concept of the city asa machine is quite different from conceptualizing itas a microcosm of the universe, a perfect unitymodelled on the universe and anchored by orienta-

5GENERATING ALTERNATIVES

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tion to the magical path of the sun. The idea of thecity as a machine is not purely a twentieth-centuryphenomenon – its roots lie much deeper. Thiscentury, however, the idea has been developed andelevated to a predominant position by movementssuch as Futurism and the writings of Le Corbusier,particularly his project for the Radiant City.2 Otherlandmarks in the development of this idea of the cityas a machine are the linear suburbs for Madrid byArturo Soria y Mata in 1894 and the Cité Industrielleby Tony Garnier (Figures 5.1 and 5.2).3 In contrast,followers of Geddes and Mumford describe the cityin organic terms. For them the city is an organismwhich is born, grows and dies: it can be healthy ordiseased.4 Concepts of the city, in part, have theirorigins in one of these generic ideas and can only beunderstood when seen against this larger picture.

The city, when thought of as a machine, iscomposed of small parts linked like cogs in a wheel;all the parts having clear functions and separatemotions. In its most expressive form it can have theclarity of a crystal or it can be a daring exposition ofrationality. The early work of Le Corbusier exhibitsthese heroic qualities. It can also appear coldlyfunctional with undertones of social engineering andstate control. Miliutin develops the machine theme

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8 8

Figure 5.1 Linear city by

Soria y Mata.

Figure 5.2 Cité Industrielle

by Garnier.

5.1

5.2Figure 5.3 The linear city of

Miliutin.

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in his ideas for Sotsograd.5 He uses the analogy ofthe power station or the assembly line for his city,separating it into autonomous parts of separate landuses connected by a rationally designed transportnetwork (Figure 5.3).

The idea of the city as a machine is as old ascivilization itself, pre-dating the nineteenth centuryand the industrial revolution: it is not based only onrecent ideas, such as the complex assembly linemade famous by Chaplin in Hard Times, but alsoparallels the use and development of simple ancientmachines such as the lever, the pulley and that greatinvention, the wheel. The concept of the city asmachine can be found taking a most inhuman formin the workers’ villages in Pharaonic Egypt (Figure5.4). The plan is based on the use of the regular grid;all the parts being repeated in a regular pattern.

The third metaphor, and the most relevant forthe sustainable city, is the analogy of an organism.Using this metaphor the city is seen as beingcomposed of cells which can grow, decline and die.This city metaphor is associated with developmentsin the biological sciences during the last 200 years.It can be regarded as a reaction to the worstfeatures associated with the industrial revolutionand the growth of cities. As an idea for city devel-opment the organic model is associated withHoward, Geddes, Mumford and Olmstead. In thiscountry Unwin and Perry gave architectural form tothese ideas. In North America Frank Lloyd Wright’swork during the early part of this century set apattern for an organic architecture wedded to thelandscape.6 Alexander in his writing also emphasizesthe organic nature of environmental design: ‘...natural or organic order emerges when there is aperfect balance between the individual parts of theenvironment and the needs of the whole’.7

The main principle of organic planning is thestructuring of the city into communities, each ofwhich is a self-contained unit for the immediatenecessities of life. The sustainable city would alsobe self-contained for much of its energy needs andwould recycle day-to-day waste products, reducing

the export of pollution to a minimum. Co-operationrather than competition is emphasized in theorganic model of the city. Community members areinterdependent within a unit of collaboration andoffer mutual support. A community, when healthy,is a group of diverse individuals tending towardssome optimum balance necessary for the smoothworking of the community. The organic city isorganized into a hierarchy of units within which aresub-units, which in turn are composed of smallersub-sub-units.

The organic city has an optimum size: the city isborn and, like organisms, comes to maturity,persists if healthy, or declines and dies if diseased.The aim of sustainable development is to prolongthe life of healthy cities, that is, those cities whichprovide the basis of a good quality of life for theircitizens without, at the same time, destroying theglobal environment. City health is maintained onlywhile the balance within and between its compo-nents are maintained. Excess growth is managedand maintained by the birth or propagation of newsettlements or colonies. How much growth, orindeed if any growth, can be maintained at theglobal scale is debatable. Some scholars see popula-tion growth as a major cause of the problems which

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8 9

Figure 5.4 Workers'

village, Amarna, Egypt.

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endanger the world. They advocate a steady state orpreferably a decline in population and an economicslow down.

The organic model of the city is most in tunewith the concept of sustainable development,particularly when it takes on the attributes of theecosystem. The analogy for the optimum stage incity development is the ecological climax, that is,where there is a sufficient diversity in its compo-nents to maintain a balance between the energyinputs and outputs. The optimum or balanced stageof city development reduces pollution and wasteproduction through processes of recycling. Insimplistic terms the city deals with its own dirtywashing. Decay, according to the organic model ofthe city, is apparent in settlements where thedelicate balance of its components breaks down,excessive growth occurs and where self-healingceases. The result can be likened to cancer oruncontrolled growth. Sustainable development andorganic city theory both conceptualize the settle-ment as a whole, and both develop within a holisticparadigm where the elements or parts of the cityare not strictly separate but supportive. The organiccity as an idea has the delight, diversity and subtletyof the natural world. It is, indeed, a part of nature.

An understanding of man’s settlement pattern andits relationship with the larger world of nature isilluminated by the work of Lovelock and his Gaiantheory.8 Gaian theory has, as its premise, the ideathat the Earth is a superorganism which is activelyself-regulating. Lovelock rejects the notion that theEarth seen as a self-regulating organism is necessarilya teleological concept. He maintains that a self-regulating superorganism, such as his concept ofGaia, does not require a biota with both foresightand skills in planning. To investigate and dismiss thisparticular criticism of his Gaia hypothesis as teleolog-ical, Lovelock invented Daisyworld. Daisyworld is asimplified model of our planet consisting only of aflora of different coloured daisies. Lovelock showedmathematically how the living plants could adjustthe proportions of the various coloured varieties, so

changing the planet’s conditions, to maintain a life-supporting environment suited to the plants’ require-ments. Life on this planet is a paradoxical contradic-tion to the second law of thermodynamics whichstates that everything has been, is, and always willbe, running down to equilibrium and death. It israther like a wound clock spring, which slowlyunwinds until the clock stops. Natural processesalways move towards an increase of disorder,measured by entropy, a quantity that inexorablyincreases. The normal expectancy for a planet likeEarth is an inert, lifeless mass such as Venus orMars. Lovelock illustrates the paradox of life onEarth in this way: ‘Yet life is characterised by anomnipresence of improbability that would makewinning a sweepstake every day for a year seemtrivial by comparison. Even more remarkable thisunstable, this apparently illegal, state of life haspersisted on Earth for a sizeable fraction of the ageof the Universe. In no way does life violate thesecond law, it has evolved with the Earth as a tightlycoupled system so as to favour survival’.9

Permaculture, a theory developed by Mollinson,like Gaia theory, has for its starting point life andthe world of nature: like Gaia theory it, too, is auseful tool for the design of sustainable urbanforms.10 Both theories are essential reading for theUrban Designer as we approach the new millen-nium. They provide the core of the ethics andphilosophy of sustainable development.Permaculture, which is short for permanent agricul-ture, is ‘the conscious design and maintenance ofagriculturally productive ecosystems which havediversity, stability and resilience of natural ecosys-tems. It is the harmonious integration of landscapeand people providing their food, energy, shelter,and other material and non material needs in asustainable way’.11 Permaculture parallels Lovelock’snotion that the Earth is an information processwhich is self-regulating, self-constructed and reactivesystem, creating and preserving the conditions thatmake life possible. This system actively adjusts toregulate disturbances. Mollinson attempts to build a

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theory which will prevent humanity, in its presentmindlessness, from developing into the final distur-bance which the Earth cannot tolerate.

Permaculture has a strong ethical basis which liesat the root of its discipline. The ethical dimensionof permaculture can be summarized by threeguiding principles:

1 Care of the Earth by providing conditions for alllife systems to continue and multiply.

2 Care of people by providing access for them tothose resources necessary for human existence.

3 Setting limits to population and consumption inorder to be in a position to set aside resourcesto further the above principles (paraphrasedfrom Mollinson, 1992).

Permaculture is about adopting the mechanisms of amature ethical behaviour for ensuring the survival ofthe Earth as a life-sustaining planet. Central to thisethical position is the conservation of energy andresources, the re-use of waste and the consequentreduction of pollution. The chief characteristic ofpermaculture is the design of a system where itsenergy needs are provided by the system itself.While modern crop agriculture is totally dependenton external inputs of energy, the Tropical RainForest, in contrast, creates its own energy.Consequently it is the model, par excellence, for asystem of permaculture. It is self-sufficient and self-sustaining; it is, therefore, a powerful model also forthe sustainable city (Figures 5.5 and 5.6).

Energy can be transferred from one form toanother but it cannot disappear, or be created, orbe destroyed. While the total energy in the Universeis constant the total entropy is increasing. Entropyis that energy which has been dissipated and isunavailable for work: it is no longer useful energy.When we put petrol into the car it has potentialbut when the potential is realized as movement theenergy is dissipated as heat, noise and exhaustfumes. The question for the urban designer is: howbest can the available energy be used before it

passes from the site or from the city? The aim forurban design then becomes to trap, store and re-useas much energy as possible on its path to increasingentropy.

Permaculture has a number of broad implicationsfor urban design and settlement planning. Primarily,it means creating regions with stable populationswhere cities, homes and gardens feed and shelterthe population. It is a question of getting our ‘ownhouse in order’ so that it supports us and our dailyneeds. For Mollinson (1992) this is a processempowering the powerless to create ‘a millionvillages’ to replace the nation state: he sees this asthe only safe route to ensuring the preservation ofthe biosphere.12 While not wishing to be drawn intothis large geo-political debate, it does seem sensibleto organize city regions so that they are capable ofboth feeding the population and dealing withorganic waste. The cities of today return littleenergy to the systems which supply them. Theypass on wastes as pollutants to the sea and to theland, having developed a one-way trade withrespect to their food supplies. For this to change,the city has to be planned as a self-governing andself-managing garden. One important objective foreach development project within such a garden cityis to maximize its food-producing capacity and haveclear links with a local system for recycling organicwaste.

The use of energy in city construction has beenexplained in Urban Design: Green Dimensions.13 Insummary, the practical design considerations are toconstruct systems which last as long as possible; torepair and renew systems rather than replace them;to construct buildings fuelled where possible by thesun; to design transport regions where the need formobility is minimized and, where necessary,movements are largely by foot, bicycle and publictransport. It requires that urban governance beconducted in a manner which emphasizes publicparticipation in planning, design, system construc-tion and environmental management. The basiccomponents of such a sustainable city region are the

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Figure 5.5 Ecological

garden design.

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quarter, or in Mollinson’s terms, the village; thestreet block surrounding its own green space; theindividual home with its own supporting garden;and the green wedge connecting the city centre tothe surrounding countryside.

A technique used in permaculture and appropri-ate for urban design is systems analysis. A cleardistinction exists between the ‘closed system’ ofthermodynamics and the ‘open system’ of livingorganisms. Two quotes taken from Mollinson makethis point graphically:14

All living organisms ... are ‘open systems’; that is tosay, they maintain their complex forms andfunctions through continuous exchanges of

energies and materials with their environment.Instead of ‘running down’ like a clock that dissi-pates its energy through friction, the living organ-ism is constantly ‘building up’ more complexsubstances from the substance it feeds on, morecomplex forms of energies from the energies itabsorbs, and more complex patterns of information... perceptions, feelings, thoughts ... from the inputof its receptor organs.

Most thermodynamic problems concern ‘closed’systems, where the reactions take place in confine-ment, and can be reversed; an example is theexpansion and compression of gas in a cylinder.But in an open system, energy is gained or lostirreversibly, and the system, its environment, or

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Figure 5.6 Ecological

garden design.

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both are changed by the interaction ... the secondlaw of thermodynamics (states that) energy tends todissipate towards entropy, or chaos. In seemingviolation of that law, biological systems tend tobecome increasingly more complex and efficient.

The aim of urban design is the development of thecity and its parts as open systems, constantly build-ing up more complex forms of energies from theenergy absorbed. This view of the city is in contrastto the city visualized as a mechanism with its partsfunctioning like clockwork. The result of workingto this philosophy of the city as machine is theparasitic metropolis feeding off its host, giving littlein return and leading ultimately, if not checked, tothe demise of itself and its host.

A design concept strongly associated with sustain-able development is the idea of mixed land uses. Asa concept it has its origin in the rejection of rigidand inhuman land-use zoning associated with themechanistic model of city planning as practisedearlier in this century. For those espousing sustain-able development, localities of mixed land usepresent the prospect of self-sufficient communities,while at the same time reducing the need tocommute great distances from home to work, fromhome to school or from home to shopping centre.As a concept it is a tentative step towards an ‘opensystems’ view of settlement. Such a systemic analy-sis of settlement concentrates on the relationshipand linkages between design components. Anydesign for a human settlement involves concepts orideas about the problem and its solution, techniquesfor performing essential design tasks, strategies forachieving a future goal and the materials ofconstruction. Urban design is the method used toassemble the components of city design, whetherthey are concepts, ethical propositions, social imper-atives or the physical structures of design such asbuildings, infrastructure, land and vegetation: thepurpose of the process being sustainable develop-ment and security of man and all living beings.Central, therefore, to urban design is an analysis ofthe linkages between the various components, even

if that analysis is no more than the simple listing ofeach component’s characteristics. The ultimate aimof the analysis is the location at close proximity ofthose activities which are mutually supportive.Design policies which support mixed land uses atthe local level of the quarter or residential neigh-bourhood are compatible with this aim. While theuse of a regime of mixed land uses is not an alter-native to a more detailed analysis of major linkages,it is a sound basis for such a more definitive study.

Each urban activity has outputs, yields orproducts which become resources only when theyare used productively. They become pollutants ifthey are not used constructively by the systembeing designed. Each activity also has inputs, needsor demands on resources. If these inputs are notbeing supplied by the design system, then energyhas to be found to satisfy those demands fromwithout the system. In terms of permaculturetheory, ‘A POLLUTANT is an output of any systemcomponent that is not being used productively byany other component of the system. EXTRA WORKis the result of an input not automatically providedby another component of the system’.15 The aim,therefore, of urban design is to develop systemswhere the outputs from activities become theinputs for adjacent activities. In the sustainable citythe location of activities is not only or necessarily afunction of economics, but more importantly it islocation strategies which attempt to minimize theexport of pollution and the importation ofadditional inputs of resources, or EXTRA WORK,from beyond the boundary of the system.

The concept of the self-sufficient, neighbourhood,quarter or urban village is a useful tool for structur-ing the sustainable city region.16 The early newtowns built in Britain after the Second World War,to some extent, achieved this aim. In many waysthe early post-war new towns in Britain adopted anorganic structure with components organized likeliving cells. New towns such as Harlow by Gibberdare structured on an hierarchical basis: the citycomprising four main districts, each with its own

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district centre. Districts are sub-divided into neigh-bourhoods with a neighbourhood centre. The neigh-bourhoods further divide into distinct housing areas,which in turn sub-divide into housing clusters, eachcomposed of the basic unit or cell – the home ofthe nuclear family (Figure 5.7).

McKie’s concept for ‘cellular renewal’ is a partic-ularly good example of organic planning.17 Hedevised a model for restructuring streets and run-down neighbourhoods in inner-city areas. Hissuggestion was to replace comprehensive redevelop-ment, then the favoured tool for city restructuring,with a more sympathetic small-scale process ofrehabilitation and regeneration. There was evidence,at the time McKie was working, to show thatcomprehensive redevelopment destroyed many vitalcommunities in the process of renewing the physi-cal structure. Cellular renewal depends for itssuccess on a detailed survey of individual properties

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Figure 5.7 Harlow new

town, structure diagram.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 d d c c c b c c c b b b c

2 a b a b b a c c b c b b b

3 c c c d c d d c d a b c c d

4 b b b c b c a a a d a a a b

5 a a a b b c c d c c b b a/c

6 c b b c c b a a/b a d a a a b

7

Sta

ndar

d o

fam

eniti

es

Small families inprivate lets

Cells

Small adult families, firsttime owner occupiers

Mainly students

Old people renting fromlocal authority, improve?

Families anxious to move.Possible source of housesfor internal relocation

Older people in privatelets. Improvementpotential?

Str

uctu

ral

def

icie

ncy

Inte

rnal

arra

ngem

ent

Inte

rnal

mai

nten

ance

Ext

erna

litie

s/so

cial

co

sts

Ten

ure

Ho

useh

old

typ

e/m

ob

ility

Ho

useh

old

’sp

erce

ptio

n o

fen

viro

nmen

tal

def

icie

ncy

So

cial

/kin

ship

ties

Ext

erna

lam

enity

Wo

rkp

lace

ties

Def

iicie

ncy

of

effe

ctiv

e d

eman

dfo

r im

pro

ved

hous

ing

Rat

ing

Sp

ecia

l no

tes

Figure 5.8 Cellular renewal.

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to determine the precise state of each structure andthe stage of development of the social unit orfamily occupying that particular structure. Each unitor home was described as a cell. A soft cell, oneripe for immediate renewal, was one which was inpoor physical condition and where the family wasin great need of rehousing. A hard cell, one whichcould take low priority for redevelopment orrehabilitation, was a property in reasonable condi-tion and was perhaps occupied by an elderly personowning the property and unwilling to move. Such aproperty could be left until the owner died ormoved willingly to sheltered accommodation. Thisorganic concept of the neighbourhood proposed a

slow renewal process refurbishing some properties,replacing others, but carried out in a piecemealfashion which did not disturb the community andwhich was in tune with the natural growth anddecay of families (Figure 5.8).

Alexander, in The Oregon Experiment, devel-oped a technique aimed at reproducing the organicorder of the much admired, traditional Europeancity18 (Figures 5.9 and 5.10). Cities such as Florenceor Venice seem to owe their great qualities tonatural growth without recourse to formal planning.In the organic theory of urban design developed byAlexander et al., process and form are one.19 Whilethe process of city structuring results in the form,

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Figure 5.9 Duomo, S.

Maria del Fiore, Florence.

Figure 5.10 Rialto Bridge,

Venice.

5.9 5.10

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the form is apparent from the beginning: thepattern is in the seed, that is, at the point of origin.For example, while the growth of any acorn resultsin an oak tree, no two trees are identical eventhough each tree is composed of similar elements.So, too, with the organic or sustainable city, itspattern is established by the principles used for thedesign and linkage of the parts.

Alexander developed a number of key principlesfor the design of organic cities. One of these prin-ciples of organic development states that growthshould be piecemeal with a guaranteed mixed flowof various size projects. In detail he specifies that nosingle increment should be too large and that

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Figure 5.11 Alexander:

organic design process, the

site.

Figure 5.12 Alexander:

organic design process,

early stage in the process.

5.11

5.12

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‘There are equal numbers of large, medium andsmall projects’.20 There is an argument in favour ofreducing Alexander’s figure of 100 000 for thelargest single city development so that even thelargest developments would be in keeping with thesmall scale of sustainable settlements.21 The idea ofdeveloping the city as a series of incremental exper-imental steps without the guide of a comprehensiveblueprint which defines in detail the form of theend product does seem to fit closely with theprinciples of permaculture.

Alexander’s second rule for the organic urbandesign process is ‘The Growth of Larger Wholes’.For the purpose of this particular rule every incre-ment to the city should help to form one largerwhole in the fabric of the settlement: ‘In the

process of growth, certain larger structures, orcentres, emerge. These larger centres are distinctand recognizable entities, larger than any individualbuilding’. These centres are normally public spaces,the creation of which is detailed in Alexander’s Rule4 ‘Every building should create coherent and well-shaped public space next to it’. The essence ofAlexander’s theory is the aim to heal the city or tomake it whole by the creation of a field of overlap-ping centres or wholes. Rules 5 and 6 deal with thedetailed design of buildings and structures, which isnot the main concern of this particular book.However, it is interesting to note that even in thecase of building structure Alexander is still analysingthe elements, such as windows, floors or columnsin terms of the creation of centres and wholes. Thisis how Alexander defines the centre: ‘A centre isnot merely, as the word suggests, a point thathappens to be a centre of some larger field. Acentre is an entity; if you like, a ‘thing.’ It may be a

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Figure 5.13 Alexander:

organic design process,

midway through the

process.

Figure 5.14 Alexander:

organic design process,

towards the end of the

process.

5.13

5.14

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building, an outdoor space, a garden, a wall, a road,a window, a complex of several of these at thesame time ... In general, a centre has some kind ofelementary symmetry, especially bilateral symmetry... This does not mean that all centres are perfectlysymmetrical. But when an asymmetrical situationoccurs, the centring process will generally try toconstruct the asymmetrical thing, or centre, as aproduct of simpler centres which are themselveslocally symmetrical. It does not permit randomasymmetrical arrangements’.22 Figures 5.11 to 5.15illustrate the result of Alexander’s organic urbandesign process. For this experiment he used groupsof students to design an incremental series ofindividual projects. Without a master plan andarmed only with the principles for the healing orcentring process, the design groups preparedground plans for a new city district which wouldexhibit some of the qualities associated with aMedieval town in Europe and therefore would fulfilthe aim of the process.

CASE STUDIES

This section of the chapter illustrates, with casestudies, the use of analogy in the generation ofideas for urban design in the pursuit of sustainabledevelopment. The first case study is from Surrey. Itexplores the theme of permaculture. It is a projectwhich develops from ecological analogy. Thesecond case study is from Derby and outlines therehabilitation of railway cottages, developing theidea of the urban village. The third case study takesfurther this idea of the small urban community andshows how such a community can become involvedin design. In the process of generating ideas aboutdesign, a group of strangers came together to formfriendships and a support group, the bedrock ofcommunity. The resulting physical structure exhib-ited the organic qualities associated with theunplanned settlement.

The fourth case study is the NorwegianEcological City. The ideas taken from nature havebeen developed in Norway and applied to the cityas a whole. A number of features of the EcologicalCity are examined using ‘Gamle Oslo’ and Bergen asthe main examples.

DESIGN FOR ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY ONAN EIGHT-ACRE SITE IN SURREY, UK

This private residence which is linked toConstruction Resources, Ecological Building Centre,

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Figure 5.15 Alexander:

organic design process,

final stage of the process.

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16 Great Guilford Street, London SE1, was designedby Gale and Snowden, an architectural practicebased in Barnstaple and specializing in ecologicaland energy efficient design.

The main concept for the site is the integrationof building and landscape to provide the occupantswith shelter, energy, food and water in an ecologi-cally sustainable way. The principles of designfollow the philosophy of permaculture. An existing

seventeenth-century building, when completed andrefurbished can, together with the landscape,provide a robust, efficient, self-perpetuating,balanced ecosystem (Figures 5.16 to 5.19). Thebuilding will use on-site renewable energies includ-ing passive solar heat and coppiced wood, alongwith effective superinsulation. Sympathetic energy-efficient window and door detailing, draught proof-ing, passive ventilation and low-energy appliances

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1 0 0

Figure 5.16 Design for

ecological sustainability in

Surrey, by Gale and

Snowden. Plan.

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are also features of the design. All materials andproducts used in the building will be ‘healthy’, thatis, those products and materials which minimizepollution and energy use in manufacture, on the siteand in transport.

The landscape is laid out strategically in zonesrelated to their frequency of use, the topographyand micro-climate. Planting is mainly native peren-nial and self-seeding annual vegetation with appro-priate introduced species. The aim, over a shortperiod of time, is to increase the diversity of stockof native woodland, plants and animal species. Toachieve this, the landscape scheme is designed toincrease habitat-diverse micro-climates by the plant-ing of windbreaks, the development of thehedgerow system, the creation of ponds, marshareas and meadows.

The landscape has also been designed for foodproduction. Low maintenance forest gardens providefruit, nuts, salads and vegetables. In addition to foodproduction and shelter for wild life the forestgarden’s other function is to build soil structure forthe herb and vegetable gardens surrounding thehouse. An aquaculture pond and associated marsharea is a feature of the landscaping, producing foodin the form of a variety of fish, crustacea and waterplants. In addition, the landscape could be organizedto support chickens, geese and ducks which are allessential to the ecosystem.

All waste will be recycled on site, creating cycli-cal systems which mimic the natural ecosystem.Rainwater is used in the home, grey water taken tothe aquaculture pond, sewerage is treated by biolog-ical means in carbon-filled (wood chips) collection

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Figure 5.17 Design for

ecological sustainability in

Surrey.

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chambers (bark pits), reed beds and in the pondson site: the foul water will be converted into usablecompost. Compost will be formed by planting nutri-ent-absorbing species onto sediment collectionbunds situated next to the forest garden. Rainwaterwill be collected and some treated for use as drink-ing water and for kitchen use. The bulk of therainwater will be stored in a subterranean tank,purified, and introduced into the building underpressure for WCs, washing machine and dishwasher.

The wildlife pond, being at the end of allaquaculture systems, acts as a large buffer for allwater systems. In the summer, a solar PV panelpumps water from the wildlife pond to the aquacul-ture pond to prevent adverse conditions affectingthe various species in the pond. The wildlife pondbenefits from fluctuations in depth, as water ispumped to the aquaculture pond permitting aunique habitat to be formed, supporting specieswhich otherwise would not exist on the site.23

This is a holistic concept for building andlandscape based upon ecological sustainability. Theindividual elements interact to form the completeecosystem. It is a concept designed to change anddevelop as the users come to terms with, and forma symbiotic relationship with, the plants andcreatures which also occupy the site. The projectdesigned by Gale and Snowden is a practical appli-cation of the principles of permaculture as devel-oped by Mollinson: ‘The philosophy behind perma-culture is one of working with, rather than againstnature; of protracted and thoughtful observation,rather than protracted and thoughtless action;looking at systems in all their functions: and ofallowing systems to demonstrate their own evolu-tions’.24

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Figure 5.18 Design for ecological sustainability in

Surrey.

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THE RAILWAY COTTAGES, DERBY(Designed by Derek Latham & Company Limited)Two decades after their conservation was under-taken, the Railway Cottages in Derby (Figure 5.20)are a thriving urban village and a fine example ofsustainable living. The village is not a self-sufficientcommunity according to the strict definition byMollinson. It does not, for example, produce itsown food or energy but it has other features associ-ated with sustainable development. There is a well-formed community which has been activelyinvolved with the development. The communitylives within walking distance of the city centre anda few yards from the railway station. While some ofthe residents own cars, the development is notdependent on the car for its continued existence.The Railway Cottages are located in an area where

there are many workplaces and job opportunities.The development also sets a high standard both forconservation practices and for environmentaldesign, two criteria for defining sustainable develop-ment. The Railway Cottages in Derby are a particu-larly appropriate case study, illustrating the practicaldevelopment of an urban village which adheres tomany of the precepts associated with sustainabledevelopment.

The Railway Cottages were built in 1840 and arethe earliest known railway company cottages in theworld. They are adjacent to Derby’s station outsidethe Borough boundary. Despite a campaign to savethe cottages by Derby Civic Society, the Council inDerby was not persuaded to rescue them for councilhousing. They were scheduled for demolition, beingon the line of a proposed inner relief road. The only

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Figure 5.19 Design for

ecological sustainability in

Surrey.

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Figure 5.20 Railway

Cottages, Derby.

Axonometric.

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reasonable alternative to council housing was therehabilitation of the cottages for sale on the openmarket. With this in mind the cottages were boughtby Derbyshire Historic Buildings Trust.

Agents advised that there was no market forterraced housing in Derby. The professional view ofEstate Agents was that people in Derby wantedeither detached or semi-detached houses. In 1979,at the start of the development process, the valueof an unimproved terraced house was £5000, and£8000 when improved. After rehabilitation, it wasestimated that there would be a shortfall of £2000per house. This was not a particularly favourablemarket prediction.

‘The key to this conundrum lay in identifyingwhat the market need was and delivering a productthat satisfied that need in a unique manner.’25 The

market identified was for conveniently locateddwellings which were attractive two- and three-bedroom houses of compact form but not ofminimum size. They were to have generouslyproportioned rooms, were to be economic to heat,set in an attractive surrounding with a defensiblespace outside the front door, a decent sized gardenand adjacent car parking space. The result of thismarket research informed the project programmeand set the design objectives.

The project was declared a General ImprovementArea which made it possible to seek ways toimprove the physical context of the properties.Roads on the edge of the site and within it wereclosed or part closed. This permitted the introduc-tion of gardens with railings and some dedicated carparking space allocated to specific properties. These

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Figure 5.21 Railway

Cottages, Derby. Sketch.

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Figure 5.22 Railway

Cottages, Derby. Before

rehabilitation.

Figure 5.23 Railway

Cottages, Derby. After

rehabilitation.

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improvements increased the rehabilitation costs to£11 500 per house, requiring a new sale price of£12 750. The new sale price was reluctantlyaccepted as a reasonable valuation by one potentialbuilding society which enabled the sale of the firstsix houses. The demand for the properties increasedin the later phases of the project, raising the sellingprice to £13 500, so creating a project surplus. Tenyears on from the original sale, the price of proper-ties had increased by a factor of five.

The project for the Railway Cottages in Derby isa sensitive rehabilitation of fifty-five traditionalnineteenth-century dwellings: materials from threecottages demolished to improve daylight in otherswere re-used; sensitive landscaping and street furni-ture have been introduced into the area; the devel-opment has its own street pub, the original RailwayInn which was also part of the rehabilitationprocess and now forms a social focus for an activeresident group. All this has been achieved in a freemarket which makes the case study a most promis-ing example for those interested in promotingsustainable development (Figures 5.20 to 5.24).

MILLGATE, NEWARK IN NOTTINGHAMSHIRE(The Nottingham Community Housing Association)Participation in the design process is fundamentalfor the theories of both sustainable developmentand permaculture. Both movements aim to empowerpeople so that they are able to take control of theenvironment in which they live. A theoretical struc-ture for the role of public participation in designand planning was outlined in Urban Design: Streetand Square, see also Creating Community Visions,and Community Participation in Local Agenda

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Figure 5.24 Railway Cottages, Derby. After

rehabilitation.

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21.26 It is proposed here to illustrate in greaterdetail some of the techniques which enable peopleto take part actively in the design process. A casestudy from Newark, Nottinghamshire, is used todiscuss the techniques of participation.

The impetus for the project in Newark camefrom Mark Vidal-Hall, the Vicar of Chellaston inDerbyshire. He maintained that architects andplanners were quite wrong in the methods they useto create communities. His criticism was that asprofessionals involved in the building industry weplaced too much emphasis on physical structures:in effect we were starting from the wrong place. Bydesigning and building the physical structures andthen expecting people to move into those struc-tures and form a community we were ‘putting thecart before the horse’. His thesis involved a reversalof this process. Vidal-Hall suggested that ‘commu-nity building’ should be completed before thedesign and construction phase. Adopting thisapproach means that the group meets, forms a

community, then the group decides the shape ofthe physical structures necessary to house thecommunity and to meet its needs and fulfil itsaspirations. With this elegant idea in mind theNewark experiment was set in motion. TheNottingham Community Housing Association whohad been commissioned to build about twenty-fivehomes on a small site of under one hectare agreedto work on this experiment with the Projects Unitof The Institute of Planning Studies of the Universityof Nottingham (Figures 5.25 and 5.26).

A description of the project was placed in thelocal paper with an invitation to a public meetingfor families wishing to design their own homes.About fifty families arrived at the meeting fromwhich twenty-five families fitting the requirementsof this type of social housing and who were keento participate were selected. The families rangedfrom young single people, young married couples, asingle-parent family, married couples with olderchildren, and retired single people. The range of

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Figure 5.25 Millgate,

Newark, entrance to the

site.

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Figure 5.26 Millgate,

Newark, the site.

Figure 5.27 Millgate,

Newark, design meeting on

the site.

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family types, while not statistically representative,nevertheless could be described as balanced. Thiswas the group given the task of forming acommunity.

The group met in a room close to the site tointroduce themselves, to meet the design team andto participate in the arrangements for additionaldesign meetings (Figure 5.27). At the first meeting itwas decided to produce a weekly broadsheet listingthe forthcoming activities and the latest news about

the project (Figures 5.28 and 5.29). The secondmeeting was a walk about in the town conductedby architects from the local authority. The task ofthe architects was to try to show to the groupfeatures of Newark which make it so special and, inparticular, to look in detail at the visual context ofthe streets surrounding the site. After these prelim-inary meetings aimed at building group confidenceand solidarity the first design session took place. Amodel of the site outline was presented to the

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Figure 5.28 The Millgate

project: broadsheet.

Figure 5.29 The Millgate

project: broadsheet.

5.28 5.29

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Figure 5.30 The Millgate

project: working round the

model.

Figure 5.31 The Millgate

project: sketch plan.

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group by the research team together with a set ofmodel homes made to the same scale. The modelhomes were made to represent bungalows, flats andtwo-storey houses of various floor sizes. Each familyunit chose a home of a size compatible with thenumber of people in the family. Each family thenprinted its name on the bottom of the model home(Figure 5.30).

Right from the initial meeting the group dividedinto two sub-groups. One sub-group always locatedtheir homes to the north of the road dividing thesite while the other group chose to locate theirhomes to the south of the site. Within each sub-group, particular families insisted on locating onadjacent plots. A group of unmarried young peopleinsisted on being together in a block of flats while amarried couple with three young children and asingle widowed woman wished to be next-doorneighbours. The couple intended to take care ofboth gardens and the older woman was to be theresident baby sitter: during the design process theolder woman became an adopted granny. A group ofelderly people wished to occupy bungalows onadjacent sites while the single-parent mother with apiano always located on the fringe of the site withthe ‘room for the piano’ facing away from the neigh-bours. The community-building exercise did notprecede the design process as we envisaged, butproceeded along with the design. Both processeswere in fact parallel. Within three weeks, a plan wasprepared showing the position of each family home.It was given to the local authority for comment and,while there were no objections, much greater detailof the project was required (Figure 5.31).

The next stage in the process was to enableindividual families to design their own homes. Forthis purpose each family was asked to describe and,

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Figure 5.32 The Millgate project: visit to Milton

Keynes.

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Figure 5.33 The Millgate

project: visit to Milton

Keynes.

Figure 5.34 The Millgate

project: house model.

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if possible, make a sketch plan of their currenthome, listing its good and bad features. In addition,a field trip to Milton Keynes was arranged for thegroup to view a range of house types. The bus tripand pub lunch was part of the community-building

process even though the primary purpose of thevisit was to widen the group’s knowledge-base(Figures 5.32 and 5.33).

The task of home designing was facilitated by theuse of another large-scale model. The model consisted

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Figure 5.35 The Millgate

project: house model.

Figure 5.36 The Millgate

project: house design.

5.35 5.36

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of a thick chipboard base with deep grooves markingout a checkerboard pattern enclosing 1-m squares at ascale of 1:20. Into these grooves partition walls,window or door units could be placed (Figures 5.34to 5.37). A thick perspex sheet with a pattern ofgrooves similar to those on the base represented thefirst floor. The two floors were separated by pegs atthe corners being kept apart at the scale height of thefloor. In addition to the wall panels, model staircasesof different forms, and furniture and fittings were

provided. Each family worked with an architect todesign the home of their dreams. The family wasallocated the number of squares permitted by thestandards for its family size. The architects’ role was adifficult one of giving advice only when it wasrequested. At all times the aim was to try to placecontrol in the hands of the families. The architectcould intervene only if he or she could see mistakesof a structural or geometrical nature. Within a three-hour evening session, most families had prepared a

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Figure 5.37 The Millgate

project: house design.

Figure 5.38 The Millgate

project: house plan.

5.37 5.38

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design to their satisfaction. They were then asked totransfer the design to squared paper following thecheckerboard pattern of the model (Figures 5.38 and

5.39). They were also encouraged to give importantdimensions for the rooms. The game was described asgreat fun ‘as good as telly’.

The sketches were interpreted by the ProjectsUnit’s architect Dan Bone and redrawn in a profes-sional style. The group, together with the profes-sionals in the team, analysed the drawings, compar-ing them with the original layout (Figure 5.40).From this critique, anomalies such as windows inparty walls were thought about again. Then, for thefinal design phase, a large-scale polystyrene modelof the whole layout was made (Figures 5.41 and5.42). The purpose of this design phase was toorganize the use of the space between and aroundthe buildings. A further group visit was organized toillustrate the landscaping possibilities in the designof this little street. It was decided to take the groupto Norwich, which was noted for some of its urbanlandscaping schemes. The visit to Norwich alsobecame another community-building exercise,cementing friendships in a relaxed atmosphere(Figures 5.43 and 5.44).

The final people’s plan was presented to theHousing Association three months after the start ofthe project and within the time allocated for theexercise (Figure 5.45). The probable cost of theproject was determined and found to be about 10per cent over the limit set by the then Governmentcost yardstick. The Association’s architect, in consul-tation with the community group, reorganized thescheme to meet the cost yardstick without detri-ment to the design or the process. Unfortunately,the then Conservative Government placed a mora-torium on all ‘new build’ housing. Two years laterthe site was developed, the design being basedclosely on the ideas of the people taking part in theexercise (Figures 5.46 to 5.49).

The project in Newark shows quite clearly thatpeople can become involved in the detailed designof their homes and surrounding environment. It alsoshows that the process is conducive to the creationof a ‘community’, taking the form of emergingfriendship patterns. Furthermore, the process

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Figure 5.39 The Millgate

project: house plan.

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Figure 5.40 The Millgate

project: critique of house

plans.

Figure 5.41 The Millgate

project: large-scale model.

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mirrors closely the natural evolution of settlementswhere a myriad of decisions produce an environ-ment of great complexity, as opposed to the blandand often inhuman imposition of grandly designedhousing estates. For the purpose of public participa-tion in urban design, the model at all scales plays avital role and, together with educational visits toprojects of a similar nature, it becomes a powerfultool in the process of empowerment.

THE ECOLOGICAL CITY: CASE STUDIESFROM NORWAY

Norway can, in many ways, be regarded as thebirthplace of sustainable development. Clearly, thereare other claims to be first in the field for thisparticular environmental movement. A numbercould be made with some justification. But when aleading national politician such as Norway’sBrundtland puts her name to a seminal internationalreport on the environment, it indicates activenational political support for the idea.27 For thisreason, it is appropriate for a book whose theme issustainable development to review current ideas inNorway about environmental protection. Theplanning concept reviewed in this case study is theconcept of an Ecological or Environmental City.

The Ministry of Environment, Norway in1992–1993 initiated a project to promote environ-mentally sound development in five cities:Fredrikstad, Kristiansand, Bergen, Tromsø and thepart of Oslo known as ‘Gamle Oslo’, or Old Oslo

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Figure 5.42 The Millgate project: large-scale model.

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Figure 5.43 The Millgate

group in Norwich.

Figure 5.44 The Millgate

group in Norwich.

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Figure 5.45 Millgate, the

people's plan.

Figure 5.46 Millgate.

Completed project.

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Figure 5.47 Millgate.

Completed project.

Figure 5.48 Millgate.

Completed project.

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(Figures 5.50 to 5.53). The populations of the projectareas range from 19 000 in Gamle Oslo to about215 000 in Bergen. The objective of the project is toarrive at models for sustainable development whilelaying the foundation for jobs, improving the environ-ment for children and adolescents and improving theconditions for all people living in the cities.

The project is designed to develop a holisticapproach to city planning and design by exploringan ecological vision for the city. The project derivesmuch of its core philosophy from the work of theBrundtland Commission.28 The main features andpriority areas for action in the proposed environ-mental cities are:

1 Co-ordinated land-use and transport planningwith priority being given to environmentally

friendly transport, environmental improvementin the cities and an increase of densities in thebuilt-up areas. The land-use pattern is beingconcentrated and co-ordinated with the transportsystem in order to reduce consumption fromnature, including energy, and to reduce the needfor transport. New residential and commercialareas will be concentrated along main corridorsand at nodes in the public transit system.

2 Policies have been developed to strengthen thecentre as a meeting place for commercial, socialand cultural activities. The centre is planned toinclude a mixture of dwellings, work places,commercial, civic and cultural land uses, sobringing back life to the city centre. The activi-ties in the centre will be reached by environ-mentally friendly means of transport, which will

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Figure 5.49 Millgate.

Completed project.

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reduce the need for out-of-town shoppingcentres along the highways served by cars.

3 An important feature of the environmental cityin Norway is the development of the idea of the‘living neighbourhood’ which will have a goodquality residential environment and be served byall necessary local services. The living neighbour-hood is designed to satisfy many of theresidents’ needs for services and leisure activi-ties, thereby reducing the need for unnecessarymovement in the city.

4 Norway is a country which is well-endowed witha rich natural environment and some magnificentscenery. It is not surprising, therefore, to findthat the love of nature plays a prominent part inthe planning of the environmental city and in thedesign of its main components. The aquaticenvironments and green areas are to besafeguarded for the purposes of recreation, topreserve biological diversity and to ensure thatresidents will have a close contact with greenareas and nature in the vicinity of their homes.The green structure for the city will form part ofthe network for pedestrians and cyclists, whileimproving the micro-climate in the city.

5 The responsible management and recycling ofwaste is fundamental for the development of theecological city in Norway. For this purpose, thedifferent kinds of waste from households, indus-try and commercial establishments are sorted atsource. Sorting at source leads to smaller quanti-ties of waste, increased recycling, and byexample and practice, to a more responsiblemanagement of the remaining waste.

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Figure 5.50 Development plan for Bergen, Norway.

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6 Finally, the design of the built environment isgiven priority in the management of Norway’senvironmental cities. The aim is to achieve gooddesign of the physical environment through theprotection of the built environment, the devel-opment of public places and the preservation ofthe cultural heritage, making such sites andbuildings more accessible to the public. As awhole, the environmental city should make theresident community aware of its identity andhistoric roots.29

Each of Norway’s environmental cities, while follow-ing the overall aims of the project, has adapted theconcept to its own particular site and local condi-tions. The application of the six priority areas hasproduced a different result in each location. InGamle Oslo, the environmental city covers a run-down inner city area where the aims are: to rejuve-nate the local economy; to upgrade a degradedenvironment; and to encourage an inner city popula-tion to take effective community action. The projectis building upon developmental possibilities inherentin its historic setting. For example, an extensivearea of archaeological remains is being developed asa park which is an attraction to tourists in additionto being a valuable green area for residents. Anexisting school, once closed for administrative andfinancial reasons, has been reopened in response tocommunity pressures. This is seen as a major rever-sal in the fortunes of the neighbourhood, providinga new focus for local activities. Perhaps the mostinteresting feature of this project is the removal ofthrough traffic by the unusual procedure of reduc-ing the width of major roads and converting the

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Figure 5.51 Development plan for Kristiansand.

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Figure 5.52 Development

plan for Fredrikstad.

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Figure 5.53 Development

plan for Tromsø.

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closed carriageways into linear parks (Figures 5.54to 5.58). Bergen and Kristiansand are cities with afine architectural heritage (Figures 5.59 to 5.61).Both cities are intent on maintaining that heritage.In Bergen the old market area Bryggen is undergo-ing extensive but sensitive rehabilitation using tradi-tional materials and employing traditional construc-tion methods (Figures 5.62 to 5.65). The older partsof Bergen are also undergoing extensive and impres-sive upgrading. The streets are being returned tothe pedestrian, following the principles of theDutch woonerf, which aims to reduce traffic speedsby the introduction of ramps and chicanes. Theseareas are still served by the motor car but itsrequirements no longer dominate the urbanlandscape (Figures 5.66 to 5.70). Kristiansand, inaddition to its wonderful timber street architecturekept in immaculate condition, also boasts a state-of-the-art sewerage treatment facility, which is burieddeep in the hill side. A key to Norway’s plans for

the environmental cities is the development of trans-port strategies, thereby reducing the need formovement which relies on the private car. Theconcept of the ecological city is well-developed inNorway but it still remains for the NorwegianGovernment to take the politically difficult decisionof reducing the expenditure on roads considerablyand to divert those resources to developing masspublic transport systems.

DESIGN CONCEPTS DRAWN FROM HISTORY

History can be a useful source for design ideas. Thepast, with its many wonderful examples of citydevelopment, can be a source of great inspiration.Even misinterpretation or misunderstanding of pastevents can provide a fruitful mine of ideas foranalogy and concept formation. John Wood theElder, when replanning Bath in the eighteenth

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Figure 5.54 Gamle Oslo:

environmental upgrading.

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Figure 5.55 Gamle Oslo:

archaeological park.

Figure 5.56 Gamle Oslo:

reopened inner city school.

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Figure 5.57 Gamle Oslo:

conversion of major road

into a linear park.

Figure 5.58 Gamle Oslo:

conversion of major road

into a linear park.

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Figure 5.59 Kristiansand.

Figure 5.60 Kristiansand.

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century, wished to return to that city’s great Romanpast for inspiration. He wrote in grand terms ofbuilding gymnasia, a circus and a Roman town ofsplendour. This was his vision. The reality wassomewhat different. His circus, a lovely three-storeyhousing development is, as Summerson points out,

the Roman Circus turned inside out and, further-more, would fit many times into its great precursorin Rome (Figures 5.71 to 5.73). Wood may havemisinterpreted the scale and grandeur of ancientRome, but using this idea as a starting point heproduced a masterpiece of urban design. It was a

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Figure 5.61 Kristiansand.

Figure 5.62 Byggen,

Bergen.

5.61 5.62

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design for speculative housing for the wealthymiddle class, visiting or living in an eighteenth-century spa town.

The difficulty and danger for the designer usinghistory rather like a collector of flotsam from abeach, is choosing examples from which can bedeveloped concepts relevant for today. Any designconcept taken from history, or indeed from any

source, must be relevant for the present concernwith environmental protection and resource conser-vation. The concept of the city as a three- or four-storey solid form enclosing and enfolding urbanspace has much to commend itself as an energyefficient form: so too, is the Medieval concept oflinear development with long deep lots on bothsides of an access road, which maximizes the

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Figure 5.63 Byggen,

Bergen.

Figure 5.64 Byggen,

Bergen.

5.63 5.64

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Figure 5.65 Byggen,

Bergen.

Figure 5.66 Old Bergen,

traffic calming.

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1 3 4

Figure 5.67 Old Bergen,

traffic calming.

Figure 5.68 Old Bergen,

environmental

improvements.

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number of units per given length of infrastructure.30

In assessing the utility of a concept for sustainabledevelopment, its aesthetic value is not critical: moreimportant is the concept’s compatibility with theorganic model of the city.

CONCLUSION

The organic metaphor for the city has certain limita-tions. The city is not a tree.31 Cities do not grow,reproduce and heal themselves. The agents for

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5.69 5.70

Figure 5.69 Old Bergen,

environmental

improvements.

Figure 5.70 Old Bergen,

environmental

improvements.

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change are men and women: humankind with itsgreed, its intelligence, as well as a sometimes surpris-ing degree of generosity. Describing the city in terms

of its heart, lungs and arteries does not help in theanalysis of the problems of city centre decline, pollu-tion and gridlock on city streets. Such terms for theparts of the city based on human anatomy, however,may have value in suggesting ideas for problemsolution through analogy.32 For analytical purposes,the most fruitful metaphor from nature is the ecosys-tem, particularly the tropical rain forest. The rainforest is a stable arrangement of flora and fauna,delicately balanced, requiring no inputs of energyand capable of dealing with its own pollution. Suchopen systems can be analysed and their componentsdefined in terms of their relationship to othercomponents. Systemic analysis, which need notnecessarily be mathematical modelling, is the test forthe validity of concepts today where the ethos is the

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Figure 5.71 Bath, The

Circus.

Figure 5.72 Bath, The

Circus.

Figure 5.73 Comparison of

The Circus at Bath with the

Coliseum, Rome.

5.72

5.71

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necessity to find solutions to urban problems whichadd no further burden to a global ecosystem underconsiderable strain.

REFERENCES

1 Lynch, K. (1981) A Theory of Good City Form, Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.

2 Le Corbusier (1946) Towards a New Architecture, London:Architectural Press; (1948) Concerning Town Planning,London: Architectural Press; (1967) The Radiant City,London: Faber and Faber; (1971) The City of Tomorrow,London: Architectural Press. Leger, F. (1975) The machineaesthetic: the manufactured object, the artisan and the artist,Bulletin de l’Effort Moderne, Paris, and quoted in T. Bentonand C. Benton with D. Sharp, eds, Form and Function,London: Granada (1979). Sant’Elia, Antonio (1914) The newcity, Nuove Tendenze, Exhibition Catalogue, FamigliaArtistica, Milan, May–June, and quoted in Form andFunction, ibid.

3 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) Urban Design: Green Dimensions,Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

4 Geddes, P. (1949) Cities in Evolution, London: Williams andNorgate; Mumford, L. (1938) The Culture of Cities, London:Secker and Warburg; (1946) Technics and Civilization,London: George Routledge; (1961) The City in History,Harmondsworth: Penguin.

5 Kopp, A. (1970) Town and Revolution, trans. T. E. Burton,London: Thames and Hudson.

6 Lloyd Wright, F. (1957) A Testament, New York: HorizonPress; (1958) The Living City, New York: Mentor Books.

7 Alexander, C. (1975) The Oregon Experiment, New York:Oxford University Press.

8 Lovelock, J. (1995) The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of OurLiving Earth, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn.

9 Ibid.

10 Mollinson, W. (1992) Permaculture: A Designers’ Manual,Tyalgum, Australia: Tagari Publications.

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

13 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) op. cit.

14 Both quotes are taken from Mollinson, W. (1992) op. cit.,The first is from Koestler (1967) and the second is fromNewsweek (1977).

15 Mollinson, W. (1992) op. cit.

16 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) op. cit.

17 McKie, R. (1974) Cellular renewal, Town Planning Review,Vol. 45, pp. 274–290.

18 Alexander, C. (1975) op. cit.

19 Alexander, C., Neis, H., Anninou, A. and King, I. (1987) ANew Theory of Urban Design, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

20 Ibid.

21 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) op. cit.

22 Alexander, C. et al. (1987) op. cit.

23 Mollinson, W. (1992) op. cit.

24 Based on letters from David Gale.

25 Taken from a personal communication, Derek Latham andCompany Limited, November 1997.

26 Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design: Street and Square,Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; The Local GovernmentManagement Board (LGMB) (1993) CommunityParticipation in Local Agenda 21, Luton: The LocalGovernment Board; and LGMB (1996) Creating CommunityVisions, Luton: LGMB.

27 World Commission on Environmental Development (1987)Our Common Future: The Brundtland Report, Oxford:Oxford University Press.

28 Ibid.

29 Norway, Ministry of Environment (1994) FiveEnvironmental Cities: A Short Description of aDevelopment Programme, Oslo: Ministry of Environment.

30 Moughtin, J.C. (1996) op. cit.

31 Alexander, C. (1965) A city is not a tree, ArchitecturalForum, April, pp. 58–62, May, pp. 58–61.

32 De Bono, E. (1977) Lateral Thinking, Harmondsworth:Penguin, and Gordon, W.J.J. (1961) Synectics: The Develop-ment of Creative Capacity, New York: Harper Row.

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INTRODUCTION

Moderate- to large-scale urban design projects areaimed at improving social, economic and infrastruc-ture conditions rather than focusing on the singleobjective of physical urban renewal. For instance,projects aimed at regenerating inner cities areplanned as a series of interrelated actions in whichthe increase of employment levels is interlinkedwith sustainable improvement in general. For thistype of project the issue of methods and techniquesneeds to be considered from an economic andsocial perspective. There is the need to integratethe traditional urban design evaluation instrumentswith methods and techniques which can give aninsight into the social, economic and environmentalimpacts the project is intended to produce.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF URBAN DESIGNPROJECTS

The most important technique used to carry out aneconomic evaluation of urban design projects iscost–benefit analysis. This assessment is necessarywhen there are several alternative proposals among

which decision-makers have to choose or wherethey have to appraise the feasibility of one singleproject.

The overall objectives to be achieved throughthe project are the starting point of this assessment.As stated in Chapter 1 the goals of urban design arethreefold: ‘to design and build urban developmentswhich are both structurally and functionally soundwhile at the same time giving pleasure to thosewho see development’. These three main goals areguided by the main aim of sustainable development.These general principles are then to be tailored tothe local situation. For the successful achievementof project objectives these objectives should bedefined in measurable terms.1 Ill-defined objectivescan produce a misunderstanding about what theprogramme is meant to achieve. Widespreadproblems arise when objectives are presented in avague form. When the objectives are stated in aclear and measurable form an ex-ante assessment interms of cost–benefit analysis can be carried outmore easily.

The cost–benefit analysis is an evaluation methodbased on the estimation of costs and benefits aspecific project produces, in relation to the statedobjectives. The cost–benefit ratios of severalprojects are compared in order to choose the most

6PROJECT EVALUATION

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economically efficient project, that is the one whichproduces the lowest ratio.

The types of costs and benefits vary according tothe type of project. For instance, costs and benefitsinvolved in transportation projects differ from thoseof housing renewal schemes. According to Schofieldthe benefits of urban renewal include increased siteproductivity, neighbourhood spillovers and reducedsocial costs, while costs comprise site acquisitioncost and expenditure to redevelop the site.2 Of allthese estimates of cost, the most difficult to measureare the social costs, such as crime reduction.

In Urban Design: Street and Square, there is acase study of urban design from Belfast.3 The mainobjective of the Markets Area project ‘was toprovide a pleasant residential environment for theexisting people of the Markets ... In specific termsit meant the rehousing of 2200 people on at least9.5 ha (21 acres) of land in two- and three-storeyterraced housing ... Other goals included therehabilitation of some of the better-quality housing,to relocate small industries in the area, to minimizepedestrian–vehicular conflict and the physicalseparation of the Upper and Lower Markets, toprovide a shopping centre to act as a focus and,finally, to provide a primary school campus’.4 Foreach of these goals the costs and benefits involvedwere different. The choice between two alternative

options to achieve the same goal was based on thegrounds of economic efficiency. For instance, thesinking of Cromac street was abandoned in favourof the simple widening of the street at ground levelbecause of the prohibitive costs involved in the firstoption.

Zoppi carried out a cost–benefit analysis of theCentral Artery/Third Harbour Tunnel project inBoston.5 The costs of the project were distinguishedin fixed and variable costs. The former includes landcosts, development costs, construction costs andadministration costs, what Schofield calls projectresource costs; while the variable costs are thosewhich are sustained for maintenance during theproject’s life time.6 The benefits of the project werecalculated as intrasectoral and intersectoral benefits.Among the intrasectoral benefits there are thereduced vehicle operating costs, decrease in thenumber of accidents and the reduced costs in travel-ling time for the transportation of goods and passen-gers; these are user benefits, while the increase inregional income is an intersectoral benefit.

Central to the cost–benefit analysis is the selec-tion of the appropriate discount rate to make costsand benefits calculated at different years compara-ble. This rate is the level at which future costs andbenefits are converted into present-day values.7

Table 6.1 presents Zoppi’s results of this analysis. It

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Table 6.1 Results of the cost–benefit analysis.

Discount rate Fixed costs Difference between Difference between(%) (in 1987 millions benefits and variable net benefits and fixed

of dollars) costs (net benefits) (in costs (in 1987 millions1987 millions of dollars) of dollars)

5 4842 6795 19536 4970 4364 –6067 5110 3938 –11728 5246 3388 –18589 5385 2594 –2791

10 5521 1651 –3870

Source: Zoppi, 1994.

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is apparent that the results change radically inrelation to the selected discount rate. While with adiscount rate of 5 per cent the project is economi-cally efficient because the difference between netbenefits and fixed costs is positive; with a discountrate equal to or greater than 6 per cent the projectis not economically viable. Another important issuein cost–benefit analysis is the assessment of theintangibles, i.e. those elements for which it is diffi-cult to quantify their value, for instance ‘the qualityof life’. In conclusion, cost–benefit analysis is animportant tool in the assessment of the economicviability of a project. At the same time, it is difficultto account for those elements which improve theindividuals’ well-being. The Balance Sheet Methodand the Goals Achievement Matrix are twotechniques which derive from, and improve oncost–benefit analysis.8 The two techniques are notexplained here as they are based on the same

principles as cost–benefit analysis; the interestedreader can consult the above-mentioned literature.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Central to sustainable development is the assess-ment of urban projects in terms of their environ-mental and social impacts, as a study of theeconomic viability of the project would give only apartial picture of the project’s impacts. It is recog-nized that the term ‘environment’ should includeboth physical and socio-economic dimensions.According to Glasson et al., the consideration ofphysical elements exclusively, as is the case withthe Department of Environment checklist ofenvironmental components, is too restrictive.9 Table6.2 shows both types of components to be takeninto account when trying to assess the full extent of

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Table 6.2 Environmental assessments: components.

Physical environment (adapted from DoE 1991)Air and atmosphere Air qualityWater resources and water bodies Water quality and quantitySoil and geology Classification, risks (e.g. erosion)Flora and fauna Birds, mammals, fish, etc.; aquatic and terrestrial vegetationHuman beings Physical and mental health and well-beingLandscape Characteristics and quality of landscapeCultural heritage Conservation areas; built heritage; historic and archaeological

sitesClimate Temperature, rainfall, wind, etc.

Socio-economic environmentEconomic base – direct Direct employment; labour market characteristics; local/non-

local trendsEconomic base – indirect Non-basic/services employment; labour supply and demandDemography Population structure and trendsHousing Supply and demandLocal services Supply and demand of services; health education, police,

etc.Socio-cultural Lifestyle/quality of life; social problems (e.g. crime);

community stress and conflict

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project impacts. For instance, an urban regenerationproject can have potentially negative effects(increasing air pollution), and beneficial socio-economic effects (increasing levels of local employ-ment) or vice versa. The inclusion of both compo-nents implies that techniques that deal with theassessment of both types of impact are needed.

A tool to determine potentially negative environ-mental effects is Environmental Impact Assessment.The term environmental impact assessment impliesa package of methods aimed at both identifying anyimpact of policies, programmes, plans and projects,and assessing their effects on the environment and

human health.10 Environmental impact assessment isdefined as a process through which significantenvironmental impacts are assessed and taken intoaccount in the planning, design, authorization andimplementation of all relevant types of action. Ascan be seen from Figure 6.1, this process supportsdecision making through the screening, scoping,identification, prediction and evaluation of keyimpacts of projects, and through the preparationand review of environmental impacts statements.

A similar process can be applied to policies,plans and programmes, which is called ‘strategicenvironmental assessment’. The aim of this assess-ment is to ensure that consideration of environmen-tal impacts is taken into account at the decision-making level, that is when policies and plans areformulated. This assessment will ensure that alterna-tive approaches can be taken into considerationbefore a definitive decision is made about a particu-lar project.

Environmental impact assessment is normallyapplied to certain kinds of development categoriesin relation to three features, viz. type of develop-ment, scale of development and the site of thedevelopment. The European Community Directive337/85 on environmental impact assessment speci-fies in its Annex I the types of project for whichthe elaboration of an environmental impact assess-ment is mandatory. These projects include oilrefineries, power stations but also construction ofmotorways, express roads and trading ports whichare more often part of an urban design project.Annex II lists the projects which are submitted toenvironmental impact assessment only if theregional authorities require it. This second Annexincludes infrastructure projects which have morerelevance for the types of project considered in thisbook, such as urban-development projects, andtramways for passenger transport. This secondAnnex has created controversy because of the possi-bility that potentially harmful projects areoverlooked if the decision of EIA is left to localauthorities.11 In the UK, the European Community

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Figure 6.1 The EIA

process.

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Directive was implemented by Section 71A of theTown and Country Planning Act 1990 and Section26B of the Town and Country Planning Act inScotland, and the Town and Country PlanningRegulations 1995. The recent publication ofDirective 11/97/EC requires various amendments tothe UK legislation.12 Below is a summary of thenecessary changes to environmental assessmentprocedures.

1 More formal screening procedures are necessarywith criteria which are based on: the project’scharacteristics, its location in relation to sensi-tive areas and the nature of any impact.

2 Competent authorities, at the request of thedeveloper, will be expected to give an opinionabout the information to be included in theenvironmental statement.

3 The environmental statement is to contain anoutline description of the alternatives studiedand an indication of the main reasons for choos-ing the proposed option.

4 Decisions must take account of public consulta-tions and the reasons for the decisions should bemade public.

5 Member States may set up a single procedure todeal with projects which involve both environ-mental assessment and integrated pollutionprevention and its control.

6 A number of changes have been made to theclassification of projects which appear in AnnexI and Annex II. In future a greater number ofdevelopments will require a more rigorousenvironmental assessment.

IDENTIFICATION OF IMPACTS

The classification of environmental impact assess-ment techniques can relate to their organizationalcharacteristics or to the distinction between magni-tude and significance of impacts. Magnitude refersto the size of the impacts, while significance is

related to the importance of impacts for decisionmaking. There are five main categories of assess-ment techniques: checklist, matrix, overlay, networkand quantitative methods.13 These techniques arenormally utilized to identify the impacts of differenttypes of projects on the environment. The followingis a short description of the techniques; this willnot be exhaustive of all aspects of the techniques.How these techniques fit within the field of urbandesign method and techniques will be examined.

The checklist technique (Figure 6.2) consists ofconstructing several lists which enumerate the

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Figure 6.2 Checklist for

assessing impacts of urban

developments.

1 Local economyImpact on public financesImpact on businessesImpact on employmentChange in land valuesImpact on support grants of other agenciesImpact on land tenure

2 Local environmentImpact on air qualityImpact on water resources (surface/ground)Changes in noise and vibrationImpact on greenbelt and open spacesImpact on natural habitats, species andvegetationChanges in land use and densities

3 Aesthetic and cultural valuesImpact on urban patternsVisual impacts and effects on buildingsImpact on cultural heritage and designatedareasImpact on amenity and personal securityImpact on community cohesion and identityImpact on minority groups and equalopportunities

4 InfrastructureImpact on public utilitiesImpact on public services and facilitiesImpact on emergency servicesImpact on traffic conditionsImpact on public transportImpact on health and safety

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expected impacts of the project. It can be qualita-tive or quantitative. Qualitative checklists show theexpected impacts in relation to several environmen-tal aspects. Quantitative checklists use coefficientsand formulae to assess the impact made upon theenvironment.14 Different types of checklists can berecognized, from purely descriptive to more quanti-tative in the identification of expected impacts.15

The limitations of a checklist approach are due toits generality, and for this reason it is employedwhen a full and in-depth analysis of impacts is notrequired. The types of project which can beassessed using the checklist technique are, forinstance, those involving water resources, forexample housing projects which might alter naturalwater habitats. Leone and Marini recommend theuse of indices to describe the ecosystem situationbefore and after project implementation.16

The matrix technique, allowing cross-analysisbetween the activities of the projects and theenvironmental characteristics of the area where theproject is to be implemented, includes the consider-ation of the cause and effect relationships. Thedifferences between matrices are due to thequantity and quality of variables included in thematrices. The environmental characteristics areusually classified in three categories: physical andchemical features, biological characteristics andsocial variables. Matrices have been used to assessthe environmental impacts produced by large scaleprojects such as airports or major urban regenera-tion schemes.

The overlay technique is a cartographic method.Several thematic maps are overlaid in order todescribe the environmental quality of the area andto verify whether the project is compatible with thecharacteristics of the area. The techniques devel-oped by McHarg can be included in this category.17

The basic procedure is based on the preparation ofseveral maps, showing the environmental compo-nents which are expected to be affected by thedevelopment project. Each map is shaded accordingto the degree of impact caused by the project on

the environmental component considered. Theshadow will range from the lightest tone to indicateno impact to the darkest tone for significantnegative impacts. Then these maps will be superim-posed showing the areas in the darkest tone asunsuitable for the proposed development. Thistechnique has been further improved with thedevelopment of Geographical Information Systems(GIS), which allow the handling of a great deal ofdata. In addition, the use of GIS enables theconstruction of several hypothetical scenarios ofdevelopment in a shorter time than doing itmanually. The limits of this method are threefold.Firstly, it does not assess secondary impacts.Secondly, there is no distinction between reversibleand irreversible impacts. Finally, it does not takeaccount of whether the impact takes place or not.Despite these limitations, this technique is suitablein the case of new urban housing developments, forinstance, to give information on the types of soils orthe natural habitats affected by the development.

Methods of impact identification based upon theuse of networks try to estimate project impactsusing, as the starting point, the single actions whichform the project. Each action generates direct,indirect and primary and secondary impacts, whichthis technique tries to depict. According to Glassonet al. this technique can only be used to nominallyidentify impacts, since it does not give insight intothe magnitude or significance of impacts.18

Quantitative techniques are based on theproduction of indices to measure the changescaused by the project. The technique developed bythe Batelle Columbus Laboratories identifies a scorefor each of the four components of the environmen-tal impacts to be assessed, namely: ecology, environ-mental pollution, aesthetics and human interest. Theaim is to assess through mathematical functions thechanges induced by the project. If the new score isgreater than the original one there is a negativeimpact.19

The important issue is which technique isrelevant for urban design schemes. This question is

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very much related to the nature of the project. Anew housing development, an urban renewalscheme, or a transport-related project are assessedthrough the employment of different techniques.Not only is the choice of the technique determinedby the nature of the project but also by the size ofthe project, whether a moderate- or a large-scaleproject, and last but not least, by time constraints inpreparation of the assessment.

CASE STUDY: NOTTINGHAM LRT

The Nottingham Express Transit Project is a light-train transportation project. The line linksNottingham City Centre and the northern part of theNottingham conurbation.20 The objective of theproject was to serve the transport needs of the areawithout jeopardizing the equilibrium betweenenvironment and economy. The project wasenclosed in Annex II of the 1988 Town and CountryPlanning Regulation on the assessment of environ-mental effects. However, a full environmental impactassessment was carried out because the preparationof such an assessment is required for all projectspresented in Parliament. The project was grantedRoyal Assent in 1994, but the process itself startedin 1988. It included the preparation of feasibilitystudies which examined several of the projects’features, such as engineering feasibility, cost, roadcongestion and the potential environmental impacts.Public participation was sought to define theNottingham Express transit route. A checklisttechnique was used to carry out the assessment. Theproject impacts, assessed both at the constructionand operation stage, were: transport and traffic,noise and vibration, land use and planning, contami-nated land, spoil and waste, air quality, visual intru-sion and landscape, community issues, water qualityand ecology. Significant impacts on the environmentat the construction stage were identified and a seriesof mitigation measures in terms of good constructionpractices were suggested. The study identified a

number of concerns. In particular, consideration wasgiven to the implications of land-take of open space,the visual impact in areas of high scenic value, andnoise and vibration in tranquil residential areas. Thestudy found considerable scope for mitigatingimpacts through engineering solutions, changes tolayout, modification to operating specifications, andby rigorous control of certain aspects of detaildesign. The study concluded that the positive benefi-cial effects outweighed the negative impacts whichwere reduced to a minimum by the mitigationmeasures. The environmental impact study was notconcerned with secondary impacts because thesewere considered far beyond the scope of theenvironmental assessment. The Nottingham ExpressTransit Project has gone through the several steps ofan environmental impact assessment process fromscreening to project approval. It would, however, beof use to carry out an ex-post assessment to evaluatethe extent to which the environmental impactassessment was correct in predicting project impactsand in preventing irreversible damages to theenvironment.

PREDICTION OF ECONOMIC IMPACTS

To predict economic impacts, mathematical modelscan be employed.21 For instance, using severaltechniques based on regional multiplier theories,the effects that a new injection of investmentproduces on an economy can be predicted. Threetypes of analysis can be carried out: economic baseanalysis, regional multiplier analysis and aninput–output analysis. These analyses are linked tothree regional multiplier theories. These three maintheories, namely, economic base theory, regionaltrade multipliers and input–output models, can beused to explain the income and employment effectsin an economy owing to an exogenous change suchas a financial investment. For instance, an urbanregeneration project produces direct, indirect andinduced economic impacts.

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The economic base theory is based on the distinc-tion made between basic and non-basic economicactivities. The first type of activity is orientedtowards export, which is assumed to be the mainfactor in creating or supporting a wealthy economy.The second type of activity serves a local market andit primarily constitutes services for local residents.This theory assumes that an investment in basic activ-ities will have a positive income and employmenteffect on non-basic activities, thus benefiting the localeconomy. The main limitation of this theory is that itoverlooks the role of imports. It does not take intoaccount that the beneficial effect of an investment inbasic activities can be limited by the leakages ofexpenditure in the form of imports. Other limitationsconcern the difficulty of defining the distinctionbetween basic and non-basic activities, and the diffi-culty of selecting and defining the study area.

The regional trade multiplier theory considersthat an investment of a certain amount into aneconomy will increase the income of the economy,determining an increase in consumption. In turn,this increase in consumption is transformed intosomeone else’s income which will be again spent.This chain of effects will take place several timesbefore the effect of the initial injection ends. Thetermination of these effects is due to the three mainleakages that this theory takes into account. Theseare: savings, taxation and imports. For instance, aninitial investment in the construction sector willspread to other economic sectors such as manufac-turing and industry, because of goods and servicesbought from these sectors by the agriculture sector

Input–output models trace the impact of aninvestment in one sector of the economy throughthe income and employment repercussions in allthe other economic sectors. Input–output analysiscan be used as a descriptive tool. This breaks downan economy into its sectoral components and givesinformation on the transactions taking placebetween them. The main problems related to theuse of input–output analysis are data limitation andthe assumption about the constant coefficients.

Input–output analysis is a descriptive tool andalso gives an insight into those industrial sectorswhich produce the highest economic effects as aresult of investment. Economic base analysis andregional multiplier analysis are based on a highlyaggregated approach which does not give accountof specific economic sectors and inter-industryrelations. In the light of these considerations, therest of this section will give a closer insight intoinput–output analysis.

Input–output analysis is one technique whichcan give, at the appraisal phase, an insight into anequitable distribution of the economic effectscaused by development programmes. The firstpractical work on input–output analysis is due toWassily Leontief. The aim of this technique was theanalysis of the structural interdependence within aneconomy. According to Richardson, input–outputtables perform two main functions.22 On the onehand, they provide a descriptive tool for highlight-ing the relationship between input and output, andbetween industries and sectors of an economy. Onthe other, they offer an analytical approach formeasuring the impact of a change in final demandon the output and income of an economy.

A conventional input–output transactions table isdivided into four quadrants (Figure 6.3). The firstrecords the intraregional transaction taking placewithin an economy between the several economicsectors. The second quadrant shows the sales byeach sector to the final demand which indicates theultimate destination (i.e. consumption, export) ofproduction for each economic sector. The thirdquadrant contains the cost of inputs to the economicsectors of an economy. The final quadrant representsthe utilization of primary inputs by final demand.

The first, top left-hand quadrant shows the inter-action of the processing sectors. The purchasingsectors are shown across the top of the table, whileselling sectors are listed down the left side. Thehorizontal rows indicate the destination of theoutput of the sector in the left-hand column to allother sectors named on the column headings. In

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this first quadrant all endogenous sectors areincluded, the term ‘endogenous’ referring to sectorswhich are shaped by the internal structure of theeconomy.

The second, top right-hand quadrant containssales by each sector to the final demand. This is theautonomous sector. Changes which occur in thefinal demand spread their effects to the rest of thetable. It is basically composed of four columnswhich indicate exports, government purchases,gross private capital formation and household.23 Theexport column shows the level of export of eachsector during the period examined by the table. Thegovernment purchases column represents the levelof purchases by government from each of the sale

sectors. The gross private capital formation showthe quantities of sale purchased by buyers who usethem for private capital formation. Finally, thehousehold column shows the purchases for privateconsumption from each of the selling sectors.

In the third, bottom left-hand quadrant, thepayments sector shows the cost of inputs for eachof the purchasing sectors. Usually, five basic rowscomprise this quadrant: gross inventory depletion,imports, payments to government, depreciationallowances and household. The gross inventorydepletion row shows the amount of stored finalgoods or raw materials which have been used bythe sector named at the top of the table. Similarly,the imports row shows the amount of imports

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Figure 6.3 Simplified

input–output transaction

table.

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purchased by each sector. The payments to govern-ment row represents the purchases by each sectorof government services. The depreciationallowances row approximates the cost of plant andother equipment used up in the production ofgoods. Finally the household row can be expressedas the value-added portion in each sector, such aswages, salaries, interest; in other words, it can bethought of as the payments of labour input by theeconomic sectors.

The fourth, bottom right-hand quadrant expressesthe level of primary inputs used by final demand.This quadrant shows the links between the exoge-nous sectors so defined because they are not deter-mined by the local economy. This fourth quadrantis usually utilized as a balancing element to equaltotal output to total inputs. For this reason it doesnot hold an important role in input–output analysis.

A tool of this type is helpful as a regional analyti-cal framework but also at an urban level to calculateincome and employment effects of a new injection ofinvestment. For instance, the measurement of theeconomic effects expected to be generated by theIntegrated Mediterranean Programme of Calabria, inSouthern Italy, has been calculated using aninput–output analysis.24 The Programme, a five-yearproject, came into force on 1 January 1988 andended on 31 December 1992. The European Unionfinanced 40.37 per cent of the total investment andthe Italian State 59.63 per cent of the total budgetaryresources. The Integrated Mediterranean Programmefor Calabria comprises five sub-programmes: agricul-ture, industry, tourism, fisheries and programmeimplementation. The main purpose of the analysiswas to assess how far the programme’s economiceffects benefit the more deprived areas of the Regionat the construction stage. The analysis has shownthat the direct, indirect and induced income to beproduced in the more deprived inland areas was farless than that produced in the relatively wealthierareas where most of the urban renewal projects werelocated. This was mainly because the investment waschannelled towards those economic sectors which

did not represent the larger income multipliers andwhich could cause greater economic effects locally.

The main limitations in using an input–outputanalysis are due to the high costs in building survey-based input–output tables and the overestimation ofmultipliers in non-survey-based tables.

Nevertheless, Batey et al. have utilized aninput–output analysis to assess the socio-economicimpacts of the construction of an airport upon alocal economy.25 Since the use of input–outputanalysis is a costly operation, it is probably bestreserved for large-scale projects.

CONCLUSION

The assessment of alternative urban design projectsor of a single project requires the investigation ofnumerous aspects of projects’ impacts, from acost–benefit analysis to a complete environmentalimpact assessment of the project. The attention wasfocused on the use of techniques and methodswhich allow such an assessment. The results ofthese assessments support decision makers as anyproject requires a trade-off between economic,environmental and social impacts. An importantelement is the involvement of the public as soon aspossible in the assessment process. Since theproject will affect those who live in the area wherethe project is to be implemented, it is essential toinvolve the public at an early stage of the assess-ment process, and to give them the opportunity totrade-off between alternatives.

REFERENCES

1 United Nations (1978) Systematic Monitoring andEvaluation of Integrated Development Programmes: ASource Book, New York: Department of Economic andSocial Affairs.

2 Schofield, J. (1987) Cost–benefit Analysis in Urban andRegional Planning, London: Allen & Unwin.

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3 Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design: Street and Square,Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

4 Ibid.

5 Zoppi, C. (1994) The Central Artery: Third Harbour TunnelProject, in Schachter, G., Busea, A., Hellman, D. and Ziparo,A. (Eds) Boston in the 1990’s, Rome: Gangemi.

6 Schofield, J. (1987) op. cit.

7 Bateman, I. (1991) Social discounting, monetary evaluationand practical sustainability, Town and Country Planning,June, pp. 174–176.

8 Lichfield, N. (1975) Evaluation in the Planning Process,Oxford: Pergamon.

9 Department of the Environment (1989) EnvironmentalAssessment. A Guide to the Procedures, London: HMSO;and Glasson, J., Therival, R. and Chadwick, A. (1994)Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment,London: UCL Press.

10 Munn, R.E. (1979) Environmental Impact Assessment,Chichester: Wiley.

11 World Wide Fund for Nature (1989) Reform of theStructural Funds. An Environmental Briefing, Godalming:WWF-International.

12 Commission of the European Communities CouncilDirectives 97/11/EC of 3 March 1997.

13 Ziparo, A. (1988) Pianificazione Ambientale eTrasformazioni Urbanistiche, Rome: Gangemi; Thompson,M.A. (1990) Determining impact significance in EIA: areview of 24 methodologies, Journal of EnvironmentalManagement, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 235–250; Glasson, J.R. etal. (1994) op. cit.

14 Bruschi, S. (1984) Valutazione dell’Impatto Ambientale,Rome: Edizioni delle Autonomie.

15 Glasson, J.R. et al. (1994) op. cit., and Ziparo, A. (1988) op.cit.

16 Leone, A. and Marini, R. (1993) Assessment and mitigationof the effects of land use in a lake basin, Journal ofEnvironmental Management, Vol. 39, pp. 39–50.

17 McHarg, I.L. (1969) Design with Nature, New York: TheNatural History Press.

18 Glasson, J.R. et al. (1994) op. cit.

19 Ibid.

20 Nottinghamshire County Council (1991) GreaterNottingham Light Rapid transit Environmental Statement,Nottingham: Nottinghamshire County Council.

21 Glasson, J.R., et al. (1994) op. cit.

22 Richardson, H.W. (1972) Input–Output and RegionalEconomics, London: Redwood Press Ltd.

23 Miernyk, W.H. (1965) The Elements of Input–OutputAnalysis, New York: Random House.

24 Signoretta, P.E. (1996) Sustainable Development inMarginal Regions of the European Union. An Evaluationof the Integrated Mediterranean Programme Calabria,Italy, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nottingham.

25 Batey, P.W., Madden, M. and Scholefield, G. (1993) Socio-economic impact assessment of large-scale projects usinginput–output analysis: a case study of an airport, RegionalStudies, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 179–191.

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The communication of ideas is central to the designprocess. Ideas, however good they may be, remainstill-born until they are expressed in terms whichengage the support of key actors in the develop-ment process. For this purpose, ideas which infusean urban design project, together with a supportingargument, have to be expressed with clarity,economy and enthusiasm. The presentation of urbandesign proposals often involves reports and sets ofdocuments similar in form and content to thoseprepared for planning projects. Urban designreports may include a description of the survey, itsanalysis and a fully evaluated final proposal with itscost. This written material is accompanied by maps,drawings, photographs and models. The proposalmay then be presented in a number of arenas anddefended at Public Inquiries and planning appeals.

The style adopted for report writing is of theutmost importance. One can use this written reportas an opportunity to sell the idea to client andpublic. For this purpose a simple, straightforwardtext is the most effective. The main reason for anyreport is ‘to get an idea as exactly as possible out ofone mind into another’.1 Sir Ernest Gowers’ bookThe Complete Plain Words remains one of the bestguides to the process of writing: The CompletePlain Words, together with Fowler’s Modern

English Usage, Roget’s Thesaurus and The ShorterOxford English Dictionary should be essential refer-ence material for the report writer.2 The reportwriter’s job is to convey his or her ideas to othersin the most efficient and economical form. Writingis, for the professional designer, simply, an instru-ment to make the reader apprehend readily andprecisely the meaning of a report.

There are features, commonly found in reportwriting, which obstruct this process of precisecommunication. One such feature is the longshopping list of points, the text moving from oneboring list to the next, putting to sleep even themost avid report reader. It may be more appropriateto place such lists of points in boxes or tables, refer-ring only to their main features in the text. Usingthis approach, the list of items does not interruptthe main thrust or flow of the argument, whichshould be presented in readable prose. Emphasis, inthe form of emboldened lettering; asterisks, oftenreferred to as ‘bullet points’ in some managementtexts; or underlining, should be used infrequently.Points of emphasis should be evident from the text.Verbosity is a common fault found in report writing.The art of writing is to express the idea with theutmost economy of words. The basic rules for goodwriting are: to use one word rather than many; to

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use, where possible small words rather than longones; to avoid both jargon and colloquialisms, sinceboth of these tend to confuse rather than to clarify.Robert Louis Stevenson said that: ‘The difficulty isnot to write, but to write what you mean, not toaffect your reader, but to affect him precisely as youwish’.3

Language is in a state of constant change,possessing a momentum which is quite irresistible.It is impossible to stop the progress of language.During the progress of language the meanings ofwords change, new words become fashionable andare accepted into standard speech while othersbecome moribund and disappear from the language.In Britain, unlike France, there is no committee ofwise people which ratifies the addition of newwords to the English language nor does such a bodysign the death certificate for a word, finally consign-ing it to history. Public opinion decides all thesequestions. This country’s vocabulary is part of itsdemocratic institutions. What is generally acceptedwill ultimately be accepted as correct. Choosing theright word to convey a precise meaning using alanguage which is always changing is an art form,the practice of which requires regular revision andupdating. Even some of the details in Gowers’excellent book, The Complete Plain Words, as hehimself would admit, must be read with care. Thebook, however, is important for the principles ofgood writing which it presents. For this reason, it isessential reading for the writer of professionalreports: ‘... it is the duty of the official in his use ofEnglish, neither to perpetuate what is obsolescentnor to give currency to what is novel, but, like agood servant, to follow what is generally regardedby his masters as the best practice for the timebeing. Among his readers will be vigilant guardiansof the purity of English prose, and they must not beoffended. So the official’s vocabulary must containonly words that by general consent have passed thebarrier, and he must not give a helping hand to anythat are still trying to get through, even though hemay think them deserving’.4 Report writing for

urban design projects is conservative in its approachto language, being more like the prose of the CivilService than that of the novel or even the text bookwhere the use of English may be more innovative.

Reports are written in sentences. They are notpresented in notes taking the form of unfinishedphrases separated by a multitude of dashes andstructured with interminable asterisks or ‘bulletpoints’. Good prose is a careful mixture of long andshort sentences. Most sentences, however, shouldbe short. The short sentence is less confusing forthe reader than the long sentence. It can thereforeexpress the writer’s meaning more precisely. TheOxford English Dictionary defines a sentence as: ‘Aseries of words in connected speech or writing,forming the grammatically complete expression of asingle thought ... such a portion of a compositionor utterance as extends from one full stop toanother’.5 For those wishing to make their meaningclear the sentence should express one idea. This ismost easily achieved using the short sentence. Longsentences tend to attract verbiage and end as ameandering stream of words.

Reports would be unreadable if they were notdivided into paragraphs. A paragraph is essentially aunit of thought. Paragraphs should be composedwith sentences having ideas which illuminate itsmain thought. The paragraph should have a begin-ning, a middle and an end. The first sentence ofthe paragraph introduces the main thought.Sentences in the middle of the paragraph expandthe theme. The last sentence in the paragraphrestates and rounds off the particular unit ofthought. The chief thing to remember is thatparagraphing is used to make the text readable andto facilitate precise understanding. Paragraphs ofone sentence are unusual and should only be usedto give emphasis to a particularly important state-ment. Generally, however, the use of the singlesentence paragraph should be avoided and itshould never be used in series. At the otherextreme, paragraphing loses its point if theparagraphs are excessively long.

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The report is arranged into sections. A section ofthe report is the equivalent of a chapter of a book.A section is a significant part of the report. It isusually an account of a particular step in the designprocess, such as a description of the survey or anaccount of its analysis. The section, like theparagraph, has a beginning, a middle part and anend. The first paragraph sets out the content of thesection. The middle part is composed of paragraphs,each of which develop one theme of the section.The concluding paragraph summarizes the maincontents of the section and points the way to thenext section. The reason for structuring the reportinto sections is to present information in manage-able and cohesive units for clarity and ease ofreading. Before starting to compose a particularsection it is useful to list the themes which willform the basis of the paragraphs. The list of theseideas should be organized so that one topic leadslogically to the next. If the author cannot state theidea in each paragraph simply then it is unlikelythat the reader will understand what he reads. Ifthe idea in each paragraph is unclear, or if eachparagraph does not lead rationally to the next ideathen the text is unlikely to present a coherent andprecise account to the reader.

The detailed structure of an urban design projectmay take a number of forms: it varies to suit therequirements of the type of project. Normally,however, it contains information on three mainsubject areas. The first subject is a description ofthe survey or investigation. The second mainsubject area covers the analysis of the survey mater-ial. The final subject area is the synthesis of ideasleading to the proposed solution. Urban design is aniterative process, that is, the designer does notfollow the stages of the process in a linear fashion,completing the survey, then proceeding to its analy-sis, followed by synthesis or design. The nature ofthe problem may at first be unclear. The definitionof the problem may be discovered by confrontingthe limited evidence available with a number ofpartial solutions. Both problem definition and

solution unfold together during this process of itera-tion. To describe this cyclical design process blowby blow would result in a confused and confusingreport. For the sake of brevity and clarity the designprocess is presented as if it were a linear progres-sion from project inception to the distillation of thesolution. All the return loops and untidy abortiveendeavours which are inevitable in the designprocess are simplified.

The report starts with an abstract, sometimescalled an executive summary. This is the part of thereport which most people read. It should thereforebe composed with great care. The executivesummary is written particularly for the busy politi-cian who wants to know the key information in thereport without taking time to read the fulldocument. Others may read the executive summaryand then turn to read particular sections of thereport which they believe are of interest or are ofgreatest significance. Sir Winston Churchill isreported as saying that an idea which cannot besummarized on one side of foolscap is not worthconsidering. This may be an extreme position totake on this subject, nevertheless, the core of theidea should appear at the start of the executivesummary. It should be brief and preferably

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Figure 7.1 Urban design

report: list of contents.• EXECUTIVE SUMMARY• CLIENT’S BRIEF including goals,

objectives and programme• INVESTIGATION including site surveys

and study of design precedents• ANALYSIS of the survey and other

evidence gathered• PROBLEM STATEMENT including

generation of alternative solutions• EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES• DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLAN• IMPLEMENTATION including cost,

delivery of the plan, phasing andarrangements for monitoring

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expressed in one paragraph. The executive summary,however, may extend to several pages depending onthe length of the report. It may summarize eachsection and end with a paragraph on cost, phasingand other details of implementation.

The report may take a number of forms. Figure7.1 shows one possible structure. In addition to thesubstantive matter in the various sections, informa-tion has to be given to the reader so that he or shecan find a way round that information. For thispurpose a short introduction describing the formatof the report and indicating the content of eachsection is most useful. The report should alsocontain the usual list of figures, bibliography,sources of information, appendices and index.

CASE STUDY: LEICESTER CITY COUNCIL

If the report is written for a local authority byofficers working for that authority there will bedocuments which give guidance about the style andcontent of reports. Leicester City Council, forexample, has a Report Writer’s Guide, and a Guideto Plain English. This latter booklet is produced bythe Policy Unit of the Chief Executive’s Office andgives advice on ‘how to express yourself clearly andsimply and how to avoid jargon and officialese’.6

The first document gives practical information aboutcontent, the requirements of reports prepared forparticular committees and references to Codes ofPractice, Standing Orders, or Financial Regulations.This, or a similar document prepared by anotherlocal authority, is essential reading for thoseworking in the field of urban design in the publicsector.

Figure 7.2 gives a list of contents for a typicalreport presented to a committee of a local authority.The advice given in Leicester is to keep the reportshort: ‘The Elected Members are busy people who,in most cases, have to perform their Council dutiesin addition to their everyday jobs. As their time isprecious, they appreciate receiving committee

reports which are short, clear and concise.’ Reportwriters are further advised: ‘to make the fullestpossible use of plans/diagrams where these areappropriate. These can often explain issues moreeasily than words’. The aim at Leicester is to keepthe report to no more than five double-sided pages.Anything larger than that is presented as a shortcovering report and the full text attached as anappendix.

Reports in Leicester start with a summary andrecommendations, the key to understanding themain content. Other sections which are of particularsignificance are: the policy implications; support forthe ideas from other officers after consultation; the

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1 5 4

Figure 7.2 Report layout:

Leicester City Council.1 Summary2 Recommendations (sections 1 and 2 may

be combined)3 Equal Opportunities Implications4 Policy Implications5 Details of Consultations6 Background Papers7 Report8 Director of Personnel and Management

Services’ Comments9 Director of Computer Services’ Comments

10 Cycling Implications11 Environmental Implications12 Reason for Referral to Policy and

Resources Sub-Committee*13 City Treasurer’s Comments*14 Reason for Treating the Report as

Confidential**

* Only required for reports which have financial

implications.

** Only required for reports recommended for

consideration in private in accordance with the

Local Government (Access to Information) Act

1985.

7.2

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implications of the proposals for special areas ofconcern which in Leicester include equal opportuni-ties, cycling and the environment. Finally the finan-cial implications of the proposal have to be madeclear, together with the views of those responsiblefor budget control. The aim at Leicester is toprepare quality reports efficiently and only innumbers necessary for effective communicationbetween Officers, Elected Members and generalmembers of the public. The first advice to thewould-be-writer is: ‘Satisfy yourself that a report isneeded and that the matter cannot be dealt with inany other way’.

VISUAL PRESENTATION

A project report is usually accompanied andsupported by visual material. In the case of urbandesign the visual material explaining the project isas important as the written report: in many casesit is more important. The old saying that adrawing is worth a thousand words is particularlyapposite for the practice of urban design. Thereare a number of ways that an urban design projectcan be illustrated using visual material. The mostusual method of illustrating ideas in urban designis the drawing in all its many different forms. Thedrawing has a long tradition as a means of illus-trating townscape and town developments and isstill the main means of communicating ideas inurban design. Canaletto, for example, developedtremendous skill in depicting the street scenes ofVenice. His drawings and paintings remain aninspiring model for those wishing to illustrate themodern city (see, for example, Potterton, Pageantand Panorama, The Elegant World ofCanaletto7). The drawings may be accompaniedand supplemented by models, photographs, colourslides, video and tape recordings. The choice ofpresentation technique depends very much on theaudience at which it is aimed, the type of projectand venue for display.

There are four main types of drawings used inurban design. They are: those drawings used torecord information; those used in analysis; thoseused for the presentation of ideas; and finally thosedrawings used to implement a particular action. Thechoice of drawing style and technique depends, inpart, upon the function of the drawing in thedesign process. It also depends upon the way inwhich the drawing will be read, that is, it dependsupon, for example, the distance of the observerfrom the drawing or the surroundings and occasionon which the drawing will be seen.

The photograph is probably the quickest andmost efficient way to record both the street scenesand the architecture of the city. The freehandsketch, however, presents the author with theopportunity to select and emphasize those elementsin the townscape which are important for theparticular project. There are a number oftechniques which can be used for the freehandsketch. This variety of sketching techniques and theability to select and edit material from thetownscape gives the designer control over thepresentation of the thought process leading to thedesign solution. Figures 7.3 to 7.5 illustrate themeticulous record of scenes in the landscape.8 Theyshould be contrasted with Figure 7.6 where acareful choice has been made about those featuresof the townscape which the draughtsman wished toemphasize.9 There is considerably more editing thanin the two earlier drawings. The drawings by Cullenin Figures 3.36 and 3.37 have been edited in a mostrigorous, even dramatic manner to illustrate spatialmovement through urban space. The city is consid-ered by Cullen to be almost a stage-setting throughwhich the observer moves, appreciating theenvironment in serial vision, each view beingpresented as a picture or theatre set.10 The wonder-ful drawings by Wiltshire (Figure 7.7) show anatural gift for editing which enables the artist tocapture the essential character of the place.11

Design drawings for presentation are of threemain types. There are those drawings for public

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1 5 6

Figure 7.3 Landscape

drawing.

Figure 7.4 Landscape

drawing.

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exhibition or for board room presentations. Thereare those drawings for reproduction in report formand finally those used to make slides for projection.It is sometimes possible, but not always desirable, touse the same set of drawings for all three purposes.This course of action certainly avoids duplication ofwork but drawings designed to be seen at a

distance of two metres may not reduce well forreproduction in a report which is designed to beread at less than half a metre. The three techniquesof presentation require different styles of drawing.The drawing for exhibition is large in size and scale.It uses bold techniques with weighty lines, heavytones, panels of large lettering, and possibly also the

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Figure 7.5 The foot of

Wastwater.

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1 5 8

Figure 7.6 Siena by

Francis Tibbalds.

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Figure 7.7 Drawing by

Wiltshire.

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limited use of vivid colour. The aim of the drawingis to catch and hold the attention of an observermoving about in a large space. It is meant to beviewed at a distance of one to two metres and isdesigned to have an impact at that distance. Theillustration for a report is small in size and scale. Itis often in black and white for ease of reproductionand is designed to be read as a page of a book, thatis, at a distance of about twelve inches or thirty

centimetres (Figure 4.8; see Tibbalds et al., 1991).12

Both drawing types are often unsuitable for slidepresentation. Some information included indrawings for reports cannot be read on a slide atnormal seating distances for such presentations.Such material only tends to confuse the observerand obstructs communication. Large-scale drawingsfor exhibition, if bold enough in style, may beconverted into effective slides, provided they

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1 6 0

Figure 7.8 Axonometric by

Francis Tibbalds.

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contain little written information. Before decidingon the techniques to be used in the preparation ofthe final design drawings, the method of presenta-tion should be determined. If the presentation is toinclude a public exhibition, an illustrated report anda talk accompanied by slides, ideally, three sets ofdrawings would be required.

A set of design drawings normally includes alocation map showing the site in relation to the cityor its region; a layout of the site showing accesspoints, internal vehicular and pedestrian circulation,the main building blocks and the landscaping;sections through the site and its buildings showingthe relationship of the floors and the positions of

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Figure 7.9 Axonometric by

Francis Tibbalds.

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1 6 2

Figure 7.10 Piazza del

Popolo, Todi. Drawing by

J.H. Aronson.

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the vertical circulation; outline elevations relatingthe building blocks to each other, to the plantingand to the buildings surrounding the site. Inaddition, axonometric drawings, aerial perspectivesand ground-level perspectives accompany the maindrawings to illustrate the three-dimensional form ofthe development (Figures 7.8 to 7.11). Designdrawings may also be accompanied by scale models,which is a particularly appropriate technique forcommunicating design ideas to the layperson(Figures 7.12 to 7.15). A technique currently beingdeveloped involves the three-dimensional modellingof the city, using computer graphics (Figures 7.16and 7.17). The observer sitting at the computerterminal can set a path through the developmentand create moving images of the city as he or shemoves along the path. In this way, it is possible tosimulate movement through the city’s urban spaceswhere the observer can see the shape of the build-ings, their relationship to each other and to appreci-ate the general quality of the city environment.

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Figure 7.11 Horselydown

Square designed by Julyan

Wickham.

Figure 7.12 Student

model: School of

Architecture, The University

of Nottingham, photograph

by Glyn Halls.

7.11

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1 6 4

Figure 7.13 Student

model: School of

Architecture, The University

of Nottingham, photograph

by Glyn Halls.

Figure 7.14 Student

model: School of

Architecture, The University

of Nottingham, photograph

by Glyn Halls.

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Figure 7.15 Model of

competition entry for The

Indira Ghandi Cultural

Centre, Delhi, India. Design

by Moughtin and model

built by John Stone.

Figure 7.16 Computer

model of Newark,

Nottinghamshire: student

project, The Institute of

Planning Studies, The

University of Nottingham,

by Peter Whitehouse.

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Such computer simulations of the city will soon beas important to urban design as computer-simulatedflight to the pilot. A three-dimensional computermodel of Bath includes the whole of the Georgiancity, the commercial and business centres, a largepart of the residential area and a three-dimensionalterrain model of the surrounding countryside. Themodel is made up of 150 sub-models, each of whichis about the size of a city block. An important useof the model is in development control where theeffect of any proposed development can beexamined to determine how it affects neighbouringbuildings, public space or the rural skyline, which isso important in Bath’s setting (Figure 7.18).

The urban computer model presents a way ofanalysing the present form of development, theimpacts of proposed developments and assessingfuture possibilities. It is also potentially a technique

whereby the whole community can ‘focus and artic-ulate its thoughts on how urban growth and changecan be accommodated’.13

The preparation of drawings, reports and modelsis the responsibility of professional architects,planners and urban designers. At this stage in thedesign process, the role of members of the public isto receive information, to hear the evidence, tounderstand the main arguments for the proposaland to see the implications of the proposed devel-opment. This understanding may be impaired forthose with defective vision. An estimated 250 000people in Britain have a partial, but nonethelessdisabling, loss of vision which cannot be correctedby ordinary spectacles. This may even includesenior decision makers whose vision is failingthrough age. For this section of the community thetask of reading documents and visual displays can

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Figure 7.17 Computer

model of Newark,

Nottinghamshire: student

project, The Institute of

Planning Studies, The

University of Nottingham,

by Peter Whitehouse.

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become difficult and confusing if the informationpresented is unclear and lacks consistency.

The minimum size of lettering that is required fordisplays varies according to distance. Research hasestablished that the relationship between letterheight and viewing distance is linear. As a generalrule, letters and numbers should be at least 10 mmhigh for every metre of viewing distance. No letter-ing should be less than 22 mm in height while textsused in overhead projector slides should not besmaller than 18 point. Considerable research intolegibility has led to the design of typefaces suitablefor presentations. It was found that a mixture ofupper and lower case letters can be read more easily

and recognized more quickly than words consistingentirely of capital letters. People usually recognizewords by their shape, so for example Nottinghamcan be recognised more easily than NOTTINGHAM.Typefaces such as Helvetica, Arial, Universe andTimes are usually considered to be easy to readrather than over-stylized designs. Legibility dependsupon text spacing and, where possible, splitting thetext around illustrations should be avoided.

Because an estimated 9.3 per cent of the popula-tion is colour blind (leading to a particular confu-sion between red and green), and 8 per cent signifi-cantly affected by colour confusion, contrast ismore important than colour for achieving legibility.

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Figure 7.18 Bath computer

model.

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The high-contrast combination of black letters on ayellow background is legible at three times thedistance as a low contrast combination of green andred. Some partially sighted people, however, findthat white or pale colours on a dark backgroundgive a high degree of legibility.

If the public has been involved with the projectthroughout the earlier design stages, a strongconsensus may have developed giving legitimacyand a strong political authority to the proposals.Complete consensus is unlikely and there will bethose individuals and groups whose interest isthreatened. At this stage they will, no doubt, beadvised to lobby political representatives in thehope of having the project rejected or, at least,having it amended favourably. Such groups,depending on the type and scale of the project,may then formally object at a planning appeal,hearing or inquiry. Since it is possible that groupsof objectors may employ professional advisors it iswise for those preparing an urban design project to

have considered the main alternatives to theproposal and to have at their disposal pertinentarguments for the rejection of any alternative. Afailure to defeat such arguments could lead to theloss of the project or the development of an unsat-isfactory compromise.

Assuming a successful outcome to the publicconsultation process, then further drawings arenecessary to instruct legal advisors on landconveyancing for land assembly or subdivision andto instruct contractors to carry out the work. Thesespecialist production drawings for project imple-mentation will usually be prepared by architects,landscape architects, engineers and land surveyorsand not necessarily by the urban designer. Whilethe urban designer may not be directly involvedwith the preparation of working drawings for build-ings, roads or planting, he or she should knowwhen they are required, what form they take andbe able to read and understand their content. Thecontent of such drawings has to be related to thegeneral proposal in order to determine points ofconflict.

Most designers are called upon, from time totime, to make a presentation to members of thegeneral public, colleagues or the client. Suchpresentations are often used to sell the idea of theproject and to seek support for the project.Presentations may also be used to elicit informa-tion from the public and to seek ideas. Thepresentation should be organized with a view toits purpose and the audience to whom it isdirected. A series of public meetings, such asthose described in the Newark study in Chapter 5,are quite different from a presentation to a largeformal gathering or even to a small intimate groupof colleagues. Common to all such presentations isa sound preparation, a thorough knowledge of thesubject matter and an enthusiasm for the project.If the speaker does not believe in the project andits vision then clearly neither will the audience.Some hints at presentation are listed in Figure7.19.14

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1 6 8

Figure 7.19 Good practice

in the presentation of

projects.

1 Consider the audience and its needs.2 Assemble the facts in the light of (1)

above, taking into account the complexityof the material.

3 Develop sufficient and suitable visualaids.

4 Make available supporting informationsuch as drawings and photographs.

5 Introduce the subject by outlining itscontent. End in the same way byreminding the audience of the main pointsdiscussed.

6 Be enthusiastic about the subject.7 Be natural.8 Maintain eye contact with the audience.9 Be prepared for questions during and at

the end of the session.10 Involve your audience.

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CONCLUSION

The presentation of urban design ideas takes anumber of forms depending upon the informationto be communicated and to whom. When dealingwith the public, such information, whether writtenor visual, should be simple and direct. Britain is amulti-cultural society where several minoritylanguages are spoken. Projects sited in areas wheresuch languages are spoken should consider thepreparation of important project information in thelocally spoken minority languages. This is acommon feature of most planning work in localauthorities. It is an example allied professions andprivate developers might follow. Drawn communica-tion for the implementation of projects requiresprecision. Such drawings are needed for the calcula-tion of land areas, volumes of materials and theprecise physical location of each element of theproject. The preparation of production drawingsrequires a number of different professional skills.These skills are seldom found in the same personand they are often not found in the same urbandesign team. Clearly, production drawings shouldconform to both the spirit and purpose of theproject design. It is, therefore, in the interest ofthose working in the field of urban design to beconversant with the varied forms of maps anddrawings used for the purpose of project implemen-tation.

REFERENCES

1 Gowers, Sir Ernest (1962) The Complete Plain Words,Harmondsworth: Penguin.

2 Fowler, H.W. (1981) A Dictionary of Modern EnglishUsage, 2nd Edn, Revised by Sir Ernest Gowers, London:Book Club Associates; Roget, M. (1962) Roget’s Thesaurus,Abridged R.A. Dutch, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

3 Gowers (1962) op. cit.

4 Ibid.

5 Little, W., et al. (1952) Shorter Oxford English Dictionary,Revised Edn, C.T. Onions, Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

6 Leicester City Council (undated) Report Writer’s Guide andGuide to Plain English, Leicester: Leicester City Council.

7 Potterton, H. (1978) Pageant and Panorama, The ElegantWorld of Canaletto, London: Book Club Associates.

8 Wainwright, A. (undated) A Lakeland Sketchbook, Kendal:Westmorland Gazette, and Hutchings, G E. (1960)Landscape Drawing, London: Methuen.

9 Tibbalds, F. (1962) Making People-Friendly Towns, Harlow:Longman.

10 Cullen, G. (1961) Townscape, London: Architectural Press.

11 Wiltshire, S. (1989) Cities, London: Dent and Sons.

12 Tibbalds, Colbourne, Karski, Williams in association withTouchstone (1991) National Heritage Area Study:Nottingham Lace Market, Nottingham: Nottingham CityCouncil.

13 Day, A. (1994) New tools for urban design, The UrbanDesign Quarterly, No. 51, July.

14 Cole, G.A. (1996) Management: Theory and Practice,London: D P Publications.

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INTRODUCTION

This chapter returns to the theme of structuring thedesign process to ensure a successful outcome, butit approaches the subject from a slightly differentview point. The material for this chapter is derivedfrom business studies but, where appropriate, thoseideas have been adapted and applied to the builtenvironment. This chapter focuses on the basicconcepts of project management. The practices andtechniques that can assist in transforming ideas intoreal undertakings are discussed, together with anassessment of the software currently available. Ofkey importance is the difference between the tradi-tional approach to project management and themodel advocated here which focuses not only onthe intrinsic management process but on the exter-nal factors which affect the development, manage-ment and implementation of any project.

DEVELOPMENT OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Managing projects is an activity which dates back tothe early history of man. Great projects, such as the

pyramids, the building of ancient cities, theplanning of the Great Wall of China and otherwonders of the ancient world, required carefulplanning and implementation. Project managementthen was used as a powerful way of controllingcommunities and to coerce them towards a clearlyestablished goal. The ancient projects involvedenormous numbers of people, with extremely highratios of labourers to managers. Ancient megastruc-tures such as the Mayan Ceremonial Centres withtheir majestic temples were built with the involve-ment of the whole community, guided by the visionof secular and sacred authorities. The length of timetaken to build these great structures covered severalgenerations. The focus on the ultimate goal,however, was never lost.

The building of ancient cities required propermanagement in order to achieve complex anddetailed specifications. How, for example, did theIncas erect so accurately the massive walls ofMachu Picchu? How were the gigantic Hindutemples at Angkor built in such close conjunctionto its complex of waterways? All these undertakingsrequired detailed specifications of the work to becarried out, the material to be used, as well asguarantees and methods of organizing the

8PROJECT MANAGEMENT

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distribution of tasks. Clearly, these projects wereprocured with great consciousness of the impor-tance of time, cost and quality which are thecornerstones of project management.

There are numerous examples of the achieve-ments of project management throughout history;the Medieval cathedrals representing the dominanceof faith over territories, the architecture of theeighteenth century representing classic perfection,or the great triumphs of urban planning in the latenineteenth century representing the steady increaseof engineering sophistication. It was, however, thegreat wars in the twentieth century which gavenew impetus to the development of scientific waysof organizing and undertaking complex operations.New project planning techniques emerged as wellas new approaches to general management. HenryGantt’s bar chart used for production scheduling atthe Frankfort arsenal in 1917 became an essentialtool for project management and it is still widelyused in an essentially unaltered form. Critical pathanalysis developed by Wright in 1918 to show therelationships between activities is another exampleof a technique which plays an essential role inmodern management.1

Although many of the early codifications of prin-ciples and practices were developed in the first halfof the twentieth century, project management in itsmodern form extends back only thirty to forty years.The project management processes and techniquesused in the Manhattan Atom Bomb project(1940–1945), became the model for the managementof later projects such as the Polaris Missiles(1955–1960) and the Apollo Moon Programme(1960–1970). The evolution of project managementand its new role as a defined professional disciplinein its own right is now universally apparent as newroads or bridges open, as major buildings rise, asnew computer systems come on line or as spectacu-lar shopping centres and urban projects unfold. Theuse of its principles and practices can assist in theelimination of the need to rely on luck to attain asuccessful outcome for a project.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES ANDPRACTICES

The Code of Practice for Project Management of theChartered Institute of Building2 defines projectmanagement as:

the overall planning, co-ordination and control of aproject from inception to completion aimed atmeeting a Client’s requirements in order toproduce a functionally and financially viable projectthat will be completed on time within authorisedcost and to the required quality standards.

In other words, a ‘project’ is a process of creating aspecific result; a means to an end. Project manage-ment deals with the co-ordination and integration ofthe process. A project can be further defined as anon-routine activity; a separate undertaking havingtime, cost, quality constraints and objectives. Aproject usually involves multiple disciplines in newand complex activities with clear start and enddates. It involves greater risks than operationswhich are simply ‘business as usual’ and canbecome an agent of change.

Paralleling the method outlined in previouschapters for urban design, the life cycle of aspecific undertaking in project management termscan be subdivided into four major stages, namely:‘Project Definition Stage’, ‘Project Planning Stage’,‘Project Implementation Stage’ and ‘Project ClosureStage’ (Figure 8.1). These stages and the activitiesthat take place at each stage are described below.

PROJECT DEFINITION STAGEMost projects emerge from a strategic objective orinvestment aim established by an individual or anorganization. In project management terms theindividual or the organization responsible for formu-lating the preliminary project concepts is referred toas the client or project sponsor. The client isresponsible for defining the business requirements;justifying funding; setting success criteria; reviewing

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progress and project environment; and ensuring thatthe project benefits are realized.

At the early stages of a project the client de-velops a set of basic assumptions in answer to thefollowing questions:

• Why is the project being considered?• What are the benefits to the business or the

organization?• What are the minimum achievements which

must be attained?• What are the constraints?• What are the success criteria?• What are the relative priorities in terms of time,

cost, and quality/performance?

Once the strategic or investment aims and projectobjectives are understood, the activities that arenecessary to bring about the implementation of theproject can be determined. With this in mind, thefirst step in the project definition stage is for theclient to establish a clear statement of purpose. Inproject management terms this strategy document isknown as client requirements definition (CRD). Thedefinition of the client’s requirements is the client’sformal statement of the aims of the particular enter-prise and the project objectives. It provides anoutline definition of the project scope, and moreimportantly, defines the essential requirements to bemet. The definition of the client’s requirementsoutlines the reasons for the project.

Once a clear statement of the client’s require-ments is formulated, the client has to focus onimplementing the project. Depending on the size ofthe venture, it is usually at this stage that a projectmanager is appointed with the specific responsibil-ity of establishing the route which best meets theclient’s aspirations, within the constraints that areset. The project manager will discuss with the clientthe available options and initiate feasibility studiesto determine the best route to be adopted. The Codeof Practice for Project Management emphasizes thatthe project manager, both acting on behalf of, and

representing, the client has the duty of providing acost-effective and independent service, selecting,correlating, integrating and managing different dis-ciplines and expertise, to satisfy the objectives andprovisions of the project brief from inception tocompletion. The services provided must be to theclient’s satisfaction, safeguard his/her interests at alltimes, and, where possible, give consideration tothe needs of the eventual user of the completedproject.3 The local community may be the eventualuser or purchaser of the project. Ways must befound to involve the community positively in the

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Figure 8.1 Project stages.Project Definition:

Strategy Documents

Technical Requirements

Analysis, Research, Considerations

Organization & Control

Project Planning:

Work Breakdown Structure

Project Network

Project Schedule

Master Plan

Cost Plan

Project Closure

Completion Procedures

Handover Procedures

Closure Plan

Training

Post-Implementation Reviews

Project Implementation:

Control Procedures

Project Reviews

Product Reviews

Change Control

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development of a project, particularly if they arelikely to be the users. This issue was discussed inearlier chapters.

In the field of urban design the project managermay, of course, be the person leading the designwork, although much will depend on the nature ofthe project or the client’s available expertise andinterests. The project manager, who may be

educated in any of a number of disciplines, has thecontinuous duty of exercising control over projecttime, cost and performance. To achieve suchcontrol it is important to produce a project brief,referred to in project management terms as theProject Requirements Definition (PRD) document.

The Project Requirements Definition is the fulldefinition of what the project is about. It includesthe items shown in Figures 8.2 and 8.3. The itemsin Figure 8.2 follow directly from the client’srequirements while those in Figure 8.3 areconcerned primarily with the definition of asuccessful outcome.

This vital strategy document is used by theproject manager to obtain the client’s decision andfull authorization for the project. It provides acontract between the client and the projectmanager and forms the baseline for changes. Itprovides the starting point for developing a detailproject plan and provides a reference point forreview and audits at later stages of the project. Theterm ‘Project Requirements Definition’ is used inbusiness jargon; in many ways it is equivalent to theagreed design brief to which the urban designerworks. The rigour of the design brief andprogramme in urban design would be greatlyenhanced by the inclusion of measurable criteria fordetermining a successful outcome.

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Figure 8.2 Client

requirements.• Client’s aims, performance specifications

and project description• Project’s business priority or strategic

objective• Project objectives (time, cost and quality)

and their relative priorities• Constraints and success criteria

• Project scope• Project deliverables• Functional requirements, to meet the

performance specifications• Acceptance criteria of end product• Project identification and coding• Assumptions required to deliver end

product

Figure 8.3 Project

requirements.

Figure 8.4 Relationship

between scope for change

and cost of change.

Am

ount

of

cont

rol

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As project development progresses, the controlover project outcome decreases and the cost ofsaving time, or removing errors, increases. Thevalue of early definition and the relationshipbetween scope for change and the cost of change,set against the timescale of a project, is describedgraphically in Figure 8.4.

It is useful, at this stage, to undertake a thoroughanalysis of project risks. The technique for identify-ing and quantifying aspects of the project that couldlead to losses is known as Risk Analysis. Risk can bedefined as exposure to adverse consequences. Risksexist in all forms of project and are normally of aphysical or financial character. Physical risks relateto loss of, or damage to, goods and property, andfinancial risk relates to loss of money. Most projects,including those in urban design, are businessventures; the risks are therefore concerned withfinancial losses rather than physical hazards. Wherephysical risks are involved the project managershould consider taking out insurance cover. Theanalysis of risk gives an increased understanding ofthe project. It allows the formulation of more realis-tic plans, in terms of both cost estimates andtimescales. It identifies the party best able to handlea risk and leads to the use of the most suitable formof procurement strategy. It also allows the assess-ment of contingencies that actually reflect the risk.

Risk may be internal or external to the project.Some examples of internal risk are shown in Figure8.5. External risks are shown in Figure 8.6.

It is helpful to identify both the internal andexternal risks and their potential impact on theproject objectives. External risks are always muchharder to deal with than internal ones. A projectmanager can usually control internal risks, but canonly react to external ones. Where risks can beidentified, the project manager can take action tolessen their impact on the project. This can bedone firstly, by identifying and assessing risk;secondly, by managing the risk to minimize theadverse effects, and thirdly, by monitoring andevaluating the risks. Risk assessment helps in

quantifying or ranking the risks according to howlikely they are to arise and in predicting their effect.This can be done by producing a risk assessmenttable which not only identifies the risks most likelyto occur, but also outlines the actions which willcontain or eliminate them (see Figure 8.7).

As most risks are ultimately measured in financialterms, the techniques usually used for assessingrisks are of a monetary nature.4 They include:

• break-even analysis;• cost–benefit analysis;• multiple criteria analysis.

Some of these techniques have been described inearlier chapters. Having analysed risks, it is wise toprepare strategies that minimize the adverse effectson the project if the risks materialize. This is knownas risk management.

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Figure 8.5 Internal risks.

Figure 8.6 External risks.

• The project goal: it may be too ambitious• The project plan: the activities may be

poorly perceived and the interactions notwell understood

• The project organization: it may be poorlystaffed and managed badly

• The project methods: they may fail toprovide adequate controls

• The client: support can be withdrawn orinterference with the running of theproject can take place

• The market environment: marketpreferences may change and make theproject less attractive

• The supporting links: suppliers can beunable to deliver according to scheduleor may be affected by industrial disputes

• The competition: competitors mayinstigate rival bids or projects in adjacentareas

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Some examples of risk management strategiesthat can be developed are shown in Figure 8.8.

It is good practice to closely monitor activitieswhich have a high risk classification. Special atten-tion should be given to exceptional issues,milestones and target achievements. Some monitor-ing techniques are described later in this chapter.Risk analysis is an iterative process. Therefore, risksare reassessed at least once during the project’s lifecycle when changes to the likelihood or the serious-ness of risks might require amendments to the riskanalysis and contingency plans.

The project definition stage provides the frame-work that enables the effective execution of the

project. Issues such as the project brief, organiza-tion, control systems, analysis of risk and projectinterfaces are established. Time and money spent, atthis stage, will be repaid in the overall success ofthe project.

PROJECT PLANNING STAGEThe objective of the project planning stage is totranslate the overall project aims into a series ofidentifiable activities which can be set out in alogical way that will achieve the desired end.Project requirements such as schedules, deadlines,resources, as well as budget and cost constraints,have to be clearly defined. The ultimate objective ofthe planning stage is to produce a total projectplan. To do this it is necessary to develop in amethodical way the key elements that form theproject plan; these are the ‘work breakdown struc-ture’, the ‘project network’, the ‘project schedule’,and the ‘cost plan’.

The work breakdown structure is a list of allmajor activities and sub-activities that form theproject. It has built-in levels to allow a clear identifi-cation of the actual work that must be performed tomeet the project requirements. Each major activityis divided into sub-activities and sub-sub-activitieshelping in this way to completely define the projectscope. The work breakdown structure assists inrelating all the elements of work to each other and

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Figure 8.7 Risk analysis

table.

Figure 8.8 Risk

management strategies.• Addition of contingencies; by adding extra

budget allocations to cover risks if theyarise

• Avoidance of risk; by passing on risks tosub-contractors or the client

• Reduction of risk; by including testingand other project activities that willdiscover technical risks before the projectis completed

• Insurance against risk; by taking outinsurance if the risks have a knownstatistical nature

Risk Description Risk Assessment Cost Implications Risk Proposed ManagementClass of High Risk

High Average Low High Average Low

Planning permission Yes Yes 5 Contract experiencedrefused planner

Construction delays Yes Yes 6 Seek compensation clause within contract

Construction Yes Yes 2 Ensure insuranceaccidents policies exist

Unforeseen ground Yes Yes 3 Undertake adequateconditions survey of ground

conditions

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to the project. It also helps in defining workpackages, establishing cost breakdown structures,organizational breakdown structures and projectestimates, permitting the development of theproject network and programme. The work break-down structure should specify clear deliverables foreach activity. In practice, when all the activitiesidentified in the work breakdown structure arefinished, the project is completed. The work break-down structure assists in establishing in detail‘what’ has to be achieved in terms of meeting theproject requirements. It also helps in identifying‘who’ is accountable for achieving it, ‘how’ it isgoing to be achieved in terms of detailed action and‘when’ it is going to be achieved in terms ofmilestones and target dates (see Figure 8.9).

The critical path is one of the techniques mostcommonly used in building a project network. Onceall the detailed activities have been identified, it ispossible to create a network which shows thedependencies of activities and work packages. Acritical path shows the sequence of the projectactivities and how they depend on each other. Italso reveals those activities which are critical forcompleting the project on time. This sequence ofactivities, known as the critical path, determineshow long the project will take to complete. Anydelays to the activities on the critical path will delaythe overall completion of the project.

With simple projects it is possible to find thecritical path by ascertaining the duration of theactivities that form the project and the sequentialpath that these activities follow. With morecomplex projects, project management software isused to undertake these arithmetic calculations. Bynetworking the activities of the project it is possibleto have a clearer understanding of the critical activi-ties which can constrain the project’s success. Italso enables the project duration to be optimized byfocusing on the activities that form the critical path,as it is these that can affect the progress of theproject (see Figure 8.10).

Once the work breakdown structure has beendefined and the network has been established, it ispossible create the project schedule. The projectschedule contains key information regarding theviability of completing the work in the giventimescales with the given resources. It identifies keyevents which, if late, could delay the programmeand the project milestones or those points againstwhich progress can be monitored.

Gantt charts or bar charts are particularly usefulfor displaying a schedule of project activities in acascading form, whilst showing in a graphical waytheir durations and their start and finish dates(Figure 8.11). Gantt charts are also useful for illus-trating who is responsible for given activities and fordisplaying key events and project milestones. They

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Figure 8.9 Work

breakdown structure.

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can be used as a powerful communication tool forimproving the understanding of a project and forproviding management focus. Gantt charts are usedas project master programmes as they permit theorganization of even the most complex project inmanageable and measurable chunks of activities.

The project plan needs to be complemented by acost plan. The objective of a cost plan is to providethe best estimate of the final cost of the project. Itassists in planning when money will be spent and

on what. It is the basis of the final budget and thelimit of expenditure. The cost plan should include acash flow plan and payment profile based on themaster programme. It should allow for contingen-cies, professional fees, direct costs and other opera-tional costs. It also aids in setting up detailed costcontrol procedures for all stages of the project.

In planning a project it is important to realizethat the involvement of the project team in theplanning process is as important as the plan

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Figure 8.10 Critical path

diagram.

Figure 8.11 Gantt chart for

a building project.

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produced. John Harvey-Jones, recollecting theexperiences of a UK firm and a Japanese firm eachcharged with the responsibility of constructingchemical facilities for ICI of similar size andcomplexity, recounts that the UK firm’s construc-tion had reached the roof at eaves level before theJapanese team began site construction work. Yet,the Japanese team handed over a fully operationalplant before the UK team finished. While the UKteam was busily building the Japanese were stillplanning. A possible explanation of what washappening can be related to the planning system of‘Ringi’ used by the Japanese.5 In this system, aproposal is passed around the responsible team,each member of the team being free to amend anypart of the proposal. Every time the proposal isamended it is recirculated around the whole team,with each still able to amend in each iteration. Theproposal is not finally adopted until every memberof the team is able to subscribe fully to theproposal. When it is finally adopted, each iscommitted fully to its implementation.

Whatever implementation system is used, it isclear that effective teams lead to successful projects.Although project management is strongly associatedwith control systems, project management is alsoabout integrating a group of people, gaining theircommitment and motivating them towards clearlyestablished goals. The project team, on the otherhand, should be geared towards supporting theproject manager in carrying out his/her responsibili-ties. For a project team to function properly, it isnecessary that the project team concept is conveyedto all concerned. Clearly defined and measurableproject objectives, as well as clearly identified rolesand responsibilities of each team member, providethe formula for a successful team.

Team members are often unaware of how theircontributions affect the project and on manyoccasions team members tend to become defensiveand keep to themselves any problems they mayhave with the project. They then solve their ownproblems in an independent way. This can be

avoided by conveying a common understanding ofthe project and ensuring that the team members areaware of the inter-relationship between all tasks andactivities. The use of the work breakdown structure,the project network and critical path as communica-tions tools can illuminate everyone’s contribution tothe project objectives. It is wise to promoteteamwork by involving the project team in problemsolving and brainstorming, undertaking social activi-ties, encouraging feedback within the team, carryingout regular performance reviews of all teammembers and developing the team through team-building exercises. The promotion of a workingenvironment which encourages an interchange ofideas and shared responsibility will ultimatelybenefit the project.

It is recognized above that setting clear objec-tives is the first step in ensuring that the projectteam operates as an effective and focused unit.Objectives should therefore be realistic, challenging,worthwhile, agreed and written down. The acronymSMART is used to describe an approach to objectivesetting. It is used to ensure that objectives areproperly set. SMART stands for: specific, measur-able, achievable, relevant (to the project objective),and timed (with clear timescales and deadlines). Ahigh level of commitment is best achieved when allmembers of the team are involved in the setting ofclear and measurable objectives.

To ensure that all the details concerning theproject and key documentation are kept together itis normal practice to create a project handbook.The project handbook provides a central point ofreference for up-to-date project documentation andshould be accessible to any person authorized bythe project manager. All details concerning theproject should be maintained in the projecthandbook, properly organized into relevant sections.Some of the sections that a project handbookshould include are shown in Figure 8.12. Theproject handbook should be established at thebeginning of every project and should be kept up-to-date throughout a project’s life cycle.6

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PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION STAGEThe key to successful project management is toactually follow the project plan and keep track ofhow the project is progressing. This is achievedthrough leadership, team commitment and bymaking the achievement of required progress andsuccess highly visible. To assist the implementationof the project, it is worthwhile to look at thevarious forces that will, or could, affect implementa-tion. These can be split into the ‘driving forces’

which are likely to support key events leading toproject completion, and the ‘restraining forces’ orthose aspects which could restrict or hamperprogress towards set milestones. When this analysisis completed, actions can be identified to reducethe influence of the restraining forces and increasethe influence of the driving forces (see Figure 8.13).

Projects rarely go exactly as planned and animportant part of project control is keeping theproject plan up-to-date. The project plan is updatedso that the effects on the critical path of changesand delays can be assessed. Projects can sufferchanges resulting from a variety of reasons. Some ofthe more common ones are: inaccurate initialestimating; unforeseen price rises of material, labouror services; changes to the original plans/specifica-tions; overruns of time and cost.

In order to make certain that the project isproceeding as scheduled, it is necessary to monitorand evaluate project progress to ensure the comple-tion of the work as planned. There are two levels ofmonitoring and evaluation that need to be consid-ered, namely ‘progress review’ and ‘product review’.

The aim of the ‘progress review’ is to measureproject progress and compare it with the plan.Variations from the plan should be evaluated andcorrective action considered. Actions resulting fromthe progress review should aim to correct any varia-tions rather than attempting to manage the conse-quences. After identifying a problem in the progressreview it is good practice to obtain general agree-ment on the nature of the problem and appoint amember of the team with the specific task ofsolving the problem within an agreed timescale andwith a specific mechanism for reporting back.

‘Product reviews’ can involve a number ofpeople from a variety of professions. A review of aspecialized design, for instance, may involve theproject manager, the designer, an external expert.The timing of the product review is dependent onthe project schedule. A product is available forreviewing when the activity involved in producingthat product, or part of the product, is completed.

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Figure 8.12 Project

handbook content.• Financial information; including

contracts of authorization, projectexpenditure, billing, budget and cash-flowrecords

• Planning and control information;including top-level project plan, masterprogramme, schedules and quality controlreview records

• Standards; including specific projectstandards and authorization for changesand deviations from agreed standards

• Project personnel information;including details of project personnel withkey dates, experience, contactinformation

• Logs and records; including projectdiary and log recording positionstatements, key decisions, key events,review reports and project statistics

• Project documents; including the client’srequirements definition (CRD) andproject’s requirements definition (PRD),design reports, technical specifications,test specifications and correspondence

• Other documentation; includingdocumentation relevant to specific issuesnot allowed in the above sections. Forexample, leases of office equipment,portakabins and communicationconnections.

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Product review can be tied to the payment profileas assurances are required that the work has beencompleted to specific requirements before it isaccepted. Product review allows early identificationof risks, weakness and errors, as well as majorproduct deficiencies. Projects in the field of urbandesign are usually structured in a number of phaseslinked to the termination of specific tasks, such asanalysis, drawings, models. Major progress reviewsoccur at the end of each phase so that deficienciesin project design and management can be amendedin the light of experience.

The project manager, acting for a client or for thedesigner, is responsible for ensuring that the finalproduct meets the technical specifications and fordetermining whether the work is completed satisfac-torily so that the next phase may proceed. In someinstances, changes would need to take place to allowthe project to progress. Changes, however, have tobe managed rigorously to ensure that the projectprogresses to plan. If left uncontrolled, the rate ofchange will exceed the rate of progress, with furthereffect on budgets and funding. Uncontrolled changeoften results in loss of project confidence and a lossof morale amongst the project team members.

A strict and formal procedure is required toenforce identification and definition of changes, justi-fication for changes and evaluation of changerequests. Formal authorization or rejection of changeneeds to be well documented and fully authorized

by the client. It is the responsibility of the projectmanger to ensure that change control proceduresare in place and that the implementation of changeis closely monitored. Once a change has beenaccepted the project requirement definitiondocument and the project plan need to be updated.

Change control documentation should include achange request form (Figure 8.14), a changeappraisal form and a change register document.Change control is crucial to project success andshould be properly catalogued and filed to avoidunfunded disputes and litigations at later phases ofproject implementation.

To aid control of the project implementationstage, project progress meetings take place atrelevant intervals to review achievements againsttargets on all aspects of the project and to initiateaction by appropriate parties to ensure adherenceto the project plan. It is good practice to produceproper agendas and effective minutes to ensurefollow-up action by those concerned.

PROJECT CLOSURE STAGEAs stated earlier in this chapter, the ultimate aim ofproject management is to achieve a co-ordinatedand satisfactory completion of all work phaseswithin time, cost and quality requirements. Theproject closure stage includes activities such as thetermination of contracts with external suppliers andcontractors, the production of a final financial state-

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Figure 8.13 Driving and

restraining force table.Driving Force Proposed Action1 Political support 1 Lobby politicians2 Project suppliers 2 Agree common strategy for promoting project3 Community which benefits 3 Create community consultative panel

Restraining Force Proposed Action1 Pressure groups 1 Improve information to other stakeholders and clarify

misconceptions2 Cashflow limitations 2 Review payment profile3 Team members’ apathy 3 Undertake team building exercise

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Figure 8.14 Change order

form.

Change Order Form

Project ID: Date:

Client Authorization: Dated:

Master plan and cost plan amended on:

Change implemented on:

Authority for change: Discretionary/Non-discretionary:

Client ID: Distribution list

Project Name::

Description of change:“What”:

Requested by:“Who”:

Cost and time implications:

Change to be paid by:

Recommended action:

Reasons for change:“Why”:

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ment of the project and the completion of theproject handbook.

The practical completion and handover proce-dures should be detailed by the project manager inthe project closure plan covering aspects of accep-tance of works, completion of unfinished ordeficient works, commissioning and test reports,maintenance schedules and working instructions.Proposals for training project operators and usersshould also be included.

A key activity of the project closure stage is ensur-ing that a plan for ‘post-completion project evalua-tion’ is in place to allow feedback from those thattook part in the project. The post-implementationreview process is designed to examine the entireproject retrospectively, with the purpose of identify-ing what lessons can be learned through its manage-ment and the process followed, and whether or notthe original client requirements were met in full, orin part. The results of the review are usually put intoa report. In many cases, a review cannot examinewhether the strategic or business objectives havebeen met, since many of these are long-term objec-tives spanning several years. However, the strengthsand weaknesses of key project plan elements can beassessed, so that future benefits for other projectscan be derived. However, the most important aspectof this final stage of the project cycle is to ensurethat the project closure is properly celebrated inorder to acknowledge the efforts of everyone whocontributed to defining, planning and implementingthe project. Celebrating achievements demonstratesthat people’s work is valued.

THE ROLE AND USE OF PROJECTMANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

The extensive use of computer applications as toolsto assist most project management functions hasbecome a usual occurrence. It is therefore essentialto keep abreast of developments in this area inorder to select and recommend appropriatepackages for use on a project. It is particularly

important to make sure that systems used byproject team members are compatible to facilitateelectronic exchange of data. E-mail and teleworkingare examples of new ways of facilitating and accel-erating communications exchange between parties.

Project management software can assist inmanaging time and cost aspects of projects. It canprovide a consistent approach to project planningand can provide management focus by illustratingthe various stages of the project in graphical form.When selecting a particular software package, it isnecessary to consider how user-friendly andfunctional the application is and to what extentstaff training is necessary. Consideration should alsobe given to quality and performance standards andthe value for money that it provides.

The most popular project management softwarecurrently available in the market includes CASuperproject, Microsoft Project, Timeline, ProjectManager Workbench and Schedular. Most of thesepackages offer good value for money and provideuseful function cover. Microsoft Project is probablythe most user-friendly and provides the ability tovisualize projects very effectively. It links to spread-sheets, databases and it is powerful enough to dealwith complex projects. Software is updatedregularly and new versions can offer improvements,therefore the buying of software requires muchthought and research. Before committing a projectto a particular software package, it is important toensure that a number of packages have been triedand demonstrated and that the training and supportoffered is to the project manger’s satisfaction.

MANAGEMENT OF PROJECTS: THE NEWMODEL

As described earlier in this chapter, the evolution ofproject management has been closely related toengineering management processes and the develop-ment of system engineering in the defence andaerospace industry. These systems have been comple-mented by developments in modern management

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theory, particularly in organizational design and teambuilding. Quantum leaps in computer technology andthe simplification of its use for all professions havealso benefited the general running of projects.Notwithstanding these great advances, the conceptsand techniques of project management described inthis chapter are often not sufficient for the overalltask of managing projects successfully. The successfulaccomplishment of projects may well require detailedattention to other factors not addressed by the tradi-tional project management approach.7 The manage-ment of political forces; the timing of decisions,which is something quite different from the theoryand practice of project scheduling; the role of effec-tive negotiation; consultation processes, environmen-tal issues; sustainability strategies are subjectsfrequently ignored by some pragmatic projectmanagement professionals. The new model currentlyemerging for the successful management of projectswhich may be more appropriate for urban design,focuses on broader areas which go beyond the morenarrowly defined areas of ‘project management’. Thechange of emphasis from ‘project management’towards ‘management of projects’ requires thisemergent professional discipline to address not onlythe traditional core project management topics suchas scheduling, cost control, work breakdown struc-tures and team building, but also the new dimensionsof the subject such as strategy, politics, ethics,standards and the environment. Ultimately, these arethe variables which enable a project to happen.

CONCLUSION

This chapter has examined some of the issuesinvolved in the implementation of projects. Projectmanagement methods and techniques can comple-ment the gentler aspects of design method discussedin this book, such as generating ideas, co-operation,participation, environmental protection and conserva-tion in general. Implementation, of its nature, oftenrequires a brusque approach overriding objections

once goals have been agreed. This rather aggressivemanner of working originated from war-time experi-ences. Martial terminology, reflecting a militaryorigin, was transposed into business managementculture which appears as: attacking the problem, thethrust of strategy, marshalling resources, the target,aim and even bullet points. Implementation cannotbe neatly separated from the stages prior to theconstruction gangs entering the site. This chapteraccepts this wider view of implementation and hastherefore examined the subject through the eyes ofthe project manager. The dilemma facing the urbandesigner is how to achieve a productive marriagebetween the creative nature of the design processand the harsher realities of making a project happenwithin the constraints of market value, profit marginand value for money. Aiming at the right target,which in this book is defined as sustainable develop-ment, is more sensible than pursuing a misguidedobjective, however effective the strategy.Nevertheless, the hard-headed techniques of theproject manager are needed to ensure delivery of thecommunity’s environmental objectives.

REFERENCES

1 Urwick, L. and Brech, E. (1970) The Making of ScientificManagement, New York: Pitman.

2 Chartered Institute of Building (1996) The Code of Practicefor Project Management, London: CIOB and AW Longman Ltd.

3 Ibid.

4 Brigadier, G. and Winpenny, J. (1987) PlanningDevelopment Projects, London: HMSO.

5 Bevan, O. (1991) Marketing and Property People, London:Macmillan.

6 Morris, P. (1994) The Management of Projects, London:Thomas Telford.

7 Nottinghamshire County Council (1993) ProjectManagement Framework Document, Nottingham:Nottinghamshire County Council.

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This book is a discourse on the process of urbandesign for sustainable development and its method.It is not an exhaustive account of the techniquesused in urban design. Where techniques have beenincluded in the text they are used to illuminate theprocess and method. A short book of this type,inevitably, raises more questions than it answers.Readers are invited to consider for themselves someof the apparent contradictions and paradoxes raisedby this text. The book makes no claim to be thedefinitive study of urban design method. It is anintroduction to the subject and therefore requiresthe reader to consider, for himself or herself, therole and scope of method in urban design.

The terms method and technique were definedin Chapter 1. Urban design method was then setwithin a theoretical framework. The methodadvocated in this book assumes a synoptic approachto planning and urban design which presupposes arationalist view of problem solving where alterna-tive solutions are assessed against a set of criteriaderived from the project goals and objectives. Themethod outlined in this book has its origins inrationalism and utilitarian philosophy; nevertheless,the process has been adapted to take account of thedifficulty of seeking solutions to ill-defined design

problems. Solving such problems involves a dialecti-cal process of confronting problem and solution ina dialogue. In this iterative process problem defini-tion is refined by posing part solutions. The methodoutlined in the book is based on a process whichincludes: the definition of goals and objectives; asurvey and its analysis; a synthesis or the generationof alternative solutions; evaluation of alternatives;the process of implementation. It is recognized,however, that when dealing with design, thisprocess is not linear, it is cyclical, possibly requiringseveral return loops to reassess the validity ofdesign objectives, gather additional information,carry out further analyses and adjust the direction ofthe search for a solution.

The synoptic approach to planning and urbandesign is a ‘top-down’ process where goals andobjectives are derived from a higher tier of author-ity, whether it is from the Government, a regionalauthority or a city council. The design or plan isorganized so that it conforms with these larger-scalerequirements. Public participation is central tosustainable development, which is a goal of urbandesign. Public participation, particularly where adegree of power has been delegated to the public,implies a decentralized administration and a ‘bottom-

9CONCLUSION

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up’ planning or design style. The dilemma whicharises when rational synoptic planning is used forplanning a city and a participatory approach isadopted for the design of a neighbourhood in thatcity is illustrated in the case study of the MarketsArea, Belfast, mentioned in Chapter 6 and, inpassing, in Chapter 1.1 There is no easy resolutionof this conflict between a synoptic and a participa-tory process of urban design. This remains an areaof potential conflict which is perhaps best resolvedpragmatically for individual cases.

The process involved in negotiating the brief isexplained in Chapter 2. This is the starting point inthe design process for many consultants in the field.A visit to the local authority to assess the potentialfor development in the area and the requirementsplaced upon a potential site is, or should be, anearly investigation for a developer. For the localauthority and its design staff, however, the prepara-tion of advice for developers may be the result of along process of planning investigations and siteanalysis. The design brief clarifies the goals andparticular objectives for the development, togetherwith a schedule showing the way in which the landwill be used in the project. An agreed design briefat an early stage in the planning of a project canremove some of the difficulties associated withdevelopment control. An agreed strategy for devel-opment between developer and local authorityholds out the prospect of reduced conflict and amore effective project implementation.

Chapters 3 and 4 outline the procedures andtechniques used in the gathering and analysis ofinformation which is directly relevant for the devel-opment project. Chapter 3 deals with site investiga-tion, including the history and development of thesite, townscape analysis, urban legibility, permeabil-ity studies and visual analysis. The precise nature ofthe project determines the scope of the survey andthe emphasis given to individual aspects of theinvestigation. Of particular concern for sustainabledevelopment is the conservation of the builtenvironment and the creation of a local environ-

ment of quality which is largely self-sufficient interms of energy use and daily requirements. Surveyswhich explore the possibility of retaining existingstructures and those which aim to understand thecultural heritage of the local community are ofparticular significance. Also important is the percep-tion of the environment held by residents in thearea. Attempting to gain an understanding of theimage of a place and its legibility is a fundamentalinvestigation for most urban developments.Appropriate development results from an under-standing of present conditions, future possibilities,together with a knowledge of constraints whichlimit the nature and extent of any development.With this in mind the analysis of the problems of anarea are sharpened by a study of its strengths,weaknesses, the threats it faces and the opportuni-ties that may unfold for sustainable development.

Chapter 5 discusses the techniques used for gener-ating ideas for alternative design solutions. Foremostamongst these is the art of developing appropriateanalogies. The organic metaphor for the city is themost useful generic model for sustainable develop-ment. The eco-system is possibly the idea whichgenerates the most practical suggestions for urbandesign and city planning. A number of case studiesare described which illustrate the use of the organicanalogy in urban design, including the eco-city inNorway, a landmark for studies in sustainable develop-ment. Participation is fundamental for sustainabledevelopment. A case study from Newark,Nottinghamshire, is analysed to illustrate the ways inwhich the public can be involved in the design of thelocal environment. The generation of design conceptshas been the province of the professional designer.The invasion of this, the core of design, by the layperson poses some difficult questions for the profes-sional working in this field. These questions include:whose opinion prevails in case of dispute? What if thepopular view excludes from the design process otherson grounds of race or religion? Who arbitrates in thecase of rival communities with conflicting goals? Whatis the role of the designer if it is not design?

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Some of the techniques used to evaluate plansfor urban design projects are outlined in chapter 6.The material in the chapter is limited to thosetechniques of evaluation normally associated withthe social sciences, such as cost–benefit analysis,the planning balance sheet, environmental impactstudies and economic input–output analysis.Technical evaluations for urban design normallyassociated with the architectural and engineeringprofessions, such as daylight, noise and windstudies, though important, cannot be adequatelydealt with in this short book.

The physical, social and economic benefits ofdevelopments resulting from urban design projectsbenefit some groups in the community while thecosts of that development may be imposed on othergroups. Costs of development, often unaccountedand unrecognized, are sometimes imposed upon theenvironment in the form of pollution, the misuse ofnon-renewable resources or the destruction ofvaluable flora and fauna. The equitable distributionof development costs and benefits between genera-tions and within the same generation is a fundamen-tal consideration for those working towards sustain-able development. One of the goals of sustainabledevelopment is the pursuit of inter- and intra-gener-ational equity. Chapter 6, therefore, ends with abrief account of a case study from southern Italy.The case study assesses the distribution of benefitsaccruing from the Integrated MediterraneanProgramme for Calabria. It showed quite clearly thatthe income generated by the Programme was farless for the poorer upland areas of the region thanfor the relatively more prosperous towns along thecoast. Since the Programme was widening theincome gap between the poor and the better off inthe region, then according to this criteria, theProgramme did not fulfil a central goal of sustain-able development.

The implementation of urban design projects isthe theme of Chapters 7 and 8. Chapter 7, arelatively short chapter, deals with communication.Ideas and schemes for development and city

improvement remain dreams until they are imple-mented. Fundamental to the implementation ofvisions for the future is the ability of the designerto express those ideas with great clarity, imagina-tion and enthusiasm, so that others in key positionsin the development industry will give support tothe vision. Chapter 7 outlines the tools available forexpressing urban design ideas. It discusses, inparticular, the style of report writing, effectivepublic speaking, the use of drawings, three-dimen-sional material and the computer in the presenta-tion of the urban design project.

Chapter 8 is also concerned with implementationand outlines project management techniques. Thechapter stresses the need to consider implementa-tion from the start of the project. Thought given tothe setting-up of the project greatly facilitates imple-mentation at the construction stage of the process.In some ways, Chapter 8 mirrors the whole processof design method outlined in Chapter 1 and alsoreturns to emphasize the theme of Chapter 2 whichconsidered that the early agreement of a broaddevelopment agenda gave a necessary overview ofthe complete development process which facilitatesimplementation. This chapter does raise thequestion about the control of the design process.Should control remain with the designer in thetraditional architect–client relationship?Alternatively, is a further layer of managementcontrol so vital to achieve cost-effective environ-mental sustainability that a professional in this fieldis needed to organize the whole process for theclient? The chapter raises this whole question of thecomposition of the design and development teamand the roles adopted by its members.

Project management is goal-directed: it is theaggressive pursuit of the project vision by adoptingthe most direct strategy. The single-minded dedica-tion of the project manager contrasts with thesofter, gentler, non-directive approach out of whichvisions are born. The aggressive pursuit of ends alsocontrasts with attitudes more appropriate at otherphases of the design process. There are times when

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collaboration, consultation and negotiation arenecessary for the successful implementation of theproject. At such times skills, in tact, diplomacy andpolitical bargaining, are appropriate. Successfulurban design method probably results from themarriage of these opposite characteristics, that is,the need to imagine or to see in the mind’s eye a

dream of how the world may be and the disciplinenecessary to achieve that desired future.

REFERENCES

1 See also Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design: Street andSquare, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

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Fig. 1.1 Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design:Street and Square, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, based on a drawing in Markus andMaver.

Figs 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.9, 3.10, 3.25,3.26, 3.27, 5.9, 5.10, 5.71, 5.72 Moughtin, J.C.(1992) Urban Design: Street and Square, Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann.

Figs 1.3, 1.4 Moughtin, J.C. (1992) Urban Design:Street and Square, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann,based on drawings in Wallace, W. (1971) The Logicof Science in Sociology, Chicago: Aldine-Atherton,p. 18.

Table 1.1 Naess, P. (1994) Normative planningtheory and sustainable development, ScandinavianHousing and Planning Research, No. 11, pp.145–167.

Figs 3.9 and 3.10 Wilford, M. (1984) Off to theRaces or Going to the Dogs? Architectural Design,Vol. 54, No. 1 / 2.

Fig. 3.17 Barley, M.W. and Straw, I. F. (undated)Nottingham, in Historic Towns, Ed. M. D. Lobel,London: Lovell Johns-Cook Hammond P. KellOrganization.

Figs 3.18, 3.22 Beckett, J. and Brand, K. (1997)Nottingham, An Illustrated History, Manchester:Manchester University Press.

Figs 3.30, 3.31 Moughtin, J.C., Oc, T. andTiesdell, S. (1995) Urban Design: Ornament andDecoration, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Fig. 3.35 Bentley, I. et al. (1985) ResponsiveEnvironments: A Manual for Designers, London:Architectural Press.

Figs 3.36, 3.37 Cullen, G. (1961) Townscape,London: Architectural Press.

Figs 3.38, 7.10 From Design of Cities by EdmundBacon. Copyright © 1967, 1974 by Edmund N.Bacon. Used by permission of Penguin, a division ofPenguin Books USA Inc.

Fig. 3.39 Gibberd, F. (1955) Town Design,London: Architectural Press, Revised Edition.

Fig. 3.42 Holford, W. (1956) St. Paul's: Report onthe surroundings of St Paul's Cathedral in the Cityof London, Town Planning Review, Vol. 27, No. 2,July, p. 61.

Figs 3.43, 3.44 Holford, W. (1956) St. Paul's:Report on the surroundings of St Paul's Cathedral inthe City of London, Town Planning Review, Vol.27, No. 2, July, p. 62.

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Figs 3.54, 3.55 Lynch, K. (1971) The Image ofthe City, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. © 1960 by theMassachusetts Institute of Technology and thePresident and Fellows of Harvard College.

Figs 4.6, 4.7 Tibbalds, F. et al. (1991) NationalHeritage Area Study: Nottingham Lace Market,Nottingham: Nottingham City Council.

Figs 4.18–4.24 Michael Hopkins and Partners.

Fig. 5.1 Hugo-Brunt, M. (1972) The History ofCity Planning, Montreal: Harvest House. (Drawn byPeter Whitehouse.)

Fig 5.2 Wiebenson, D. (undated) Tony Garnier:The Cité Industrielle, London: Studio Vista. (Drawnby Peter Whitehouse.)

Fig 5.3 Miliutin, N.A. (1973) Sotsgorod: The Problemof Building Socialist Cities, eds G.R. Collins and W.Alex (trans. A. Sprague) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Fig. 5.4 Fairman, H.W. (1949) Town Planning inPharaonic Egypt, Town Planning Review, April, pp.32-51.

Fig. 5.7 Gibberd, F. (1955) Town Design, London:Architectural Press. (Drawn by Peter Whitehouse.)

Figs 5.5, 5.6 Mollinson, W. (1992) Permaculture:A Designers' Manual, Tagari Publications, PO Box1, Tyalgum, NSW 2484, Australia; E-mail: [email protected]; Fax: 61-2-60-793567.

Fig. 5.8 McKie, R. (1974) Cellular renewal, TownPlanning Review, Vol. 45, p.286.

Figs 5.11, 5.12, 5.13, 5.14, 5.15 From A NewTheory of Urban Design by Christopher Alexanderand Hajo Neis et al. Copyright © 1987 byChristopher Alexander. Used by permission ofOxford University Press Inc.

Fig 5.16 From drawings by Gale & Snowden.Copyright © 1994 Gale & Snowden.

Figs 5.17, 5.18, 5.19 Photographs by AllysonVernon for Gale & Snowden.

Figs 5.20–5.24 Drawings and photographs byDerek Latham and Associates.

Fig. 5.73 Summerson, J. Heavenly Mansions.Copyright The Trustees of Sir John Soane's Museum.

Table 6.1 Zoppi, C. (1994) The Central Artery:Third Harbour Tunnel Project, Rome: Gangemi.

Table 6.2 Glasson, J., Therival, R. and Chadwick,A. (1994) Introduction to Environmental ImpactAssessment, London: UCL Press.

Fig. 6.1 After Glasson, J., Therival, R. andChadwick, A. (1994) Introduction toEnvironmental Impact Assessment, London: UCLPress.

Fig. 6.3 Richardson, H.W. (1972) Input–Outputand Regional Economics, London: Redwood PressLtd.

Figs 7.3, 7.4 Hutchings, G.E. (1960) LandscapeDrawing, London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Fig. 7.5 Wainwright, A. (undated) A LakelandSketchbook, Kendal: Westmorland Gazette.

Figs 7.6, 7.8, 7.9 Tibbalds, F. (1992) MakingPeople-Friendly Towns, Harlow: Longman.Reprinted by permission of Addison WesleyLongman Ltd.

Fig. 7.7 Wiltshire, S. (1989) Cities, London: J.M.Dent and Sons Ltd.

Fig. 7.11 Drawing by Julyan Wickham.Reproduced by permission of Julyan Wickham,Wickham & Associates, London.

Fig. 7.18 Day, A. (1994) New tools for urbandesign, The Urban Design Quarterly, No. 51, p. 21.

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Accessibility, 47Advocacy planning, 9Aerial axonometic, 53Aerial perspective, 53Aerial photographs, 53Alexander, C., 46, 65, 89, 96, 98Analogy, 8Analogy technique, 87, 186Analogy technique, ecological, 99Analysis, constraints, 70Analysis, historical, 27, 65Analysis, planning, 28Analysis, possibilities, 70Analysis, roofline, 56, 57Analysis, site, 27, 28, 186Analysis, street corner, 56, 57Analysis, SWOT, 66, 70, 71, 76–80, 85Analysis, townscape, 27, 42, 58, 65, 186Analysis, trend, 68Analysis, visual, 27, 43, 50, 53, 60, 186Aronson, 53Ashby, T., 65Attoe, W., 66

Bacon, E. N., 65Balance Sheet Method, 141Barley, M. W., 65

Bath, 127Beckett, J., 66Belfast, Markets Area , 140, 186Bentley, I., 48Bergen, 99, 118Betterment, 17, 20, 21Birmingham, Jewish Quarter, 43Boston, Central Artery/Third Harbor Tunnel Project,

140Brundtland Commission, 127Brundtland, G., 4, 118

Calabria, 147, 187Canaletto, 155Capital Challenge, 17Car dependency, 16Cash-flow plan, 178Central Leicestershire retail strategy, 23Change control procedure, 181Check list, 30Chester, 31, 32, 34Circulars, 16Cite Industrielle, 88City Centre action plans, 18City challenge, 17City form, as machine, 87City form, organic, 87

INDEX

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City regions, 91City regions, sustainable, 94Collaboration, 188Communities, self-sufficient, 94Compulsory Purchase Order, 18Computer graphics, 163, 166Concept, cellular renewal, 95Concept, linear development, 132Concept, living neighborhood, 123Conservation of cultural heritage, 27Conservation of energy use, 186Conservation of the built environment, 27, 186Constraints, 70, 186Consultation, 188Cost plan, 176, 178Cost-benefit analysis, 139, 187Cost-benefit analysis, benefits, 139, 140Cost-benefit analysis, costs, 139, 140Cost-benefit analysis, discount rate, 140,141Cost-benefit analysis, intersectoral benefits, 140Cost-benefit analysis, intrasectoral benefits, 140Crime prevention by design, 16, 22Critical path analysis, 172, 177, 179Cullen, G., 22, 43, 51, 52, 66

Day, A., 66Decentralized administration, 185Defended space, 16Department of Environment, checklist of

environmental components, 141Derby, 87, 99Design alternatives, generation, 87Design briefs, 15, 22, 174Design bulletin , 22, 34Design drawings, 161Design guidance, 18Design ideas, generation, 87Development agenda, 187Development Control, 24–25Development costs, 19, 21Development guidance, 15, 18, 19, 24Development, axes of, 31Development, city, 30

Development, Docklands, 34Development, strategy for, 186Dialectical process, 185Districts, 22Driving forces, 180

Eco-system, 186Ecological city, 127Ecological climax, 90Economic activities, basic and non-basic, 145Economic evaluation, 139Edge, 23, 46EIA, see Environmental Impact Assessment, 142English Heritage, 73English Partnerships, 16–17Entropy, 90, 91Environmental area, 60Environmental costs, 3Environmental Impact Assessment, 142, 187Environmental impact assessment techniques,

magnitude, 143Environmental impact assessment techniques,

significance, 143Environmental Impact Assessment, checklist

technique, 143, 145Environmental Impact Assessment, European

Community Directive 11/97, 143Environmental Impact Assessment, European

Community Directive 337/85, 142Environmental Impact Assessment, matrix

techniques, 143, 145Environmental Impact Assessment, mitigation

measures, 145Environmental Impact Assessment, network

technique, 143, 144Environmental Impact Assessment, overlay

technique, 143, 144Environmental Impact Assessment, quantitative

technique, 143, 144Environmental Impact Studies, 3Equity, inter and intragenerational, 187European Community Directive 337/85, Annex 1

and Annex 2, 142

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Evaluation, 185, 186

Facilities, 18, 24Fawcett, P., 86Feasibility studies, 145Figure ground study, 53Fontana, 31Forecast, 67, 68Fredrikstad, 118

Gaian theory, 90Gamle, 99, 118Gantt chart, 177–178Gantt, H , 172Garnier, T., 88Geddes, P., 8, 88,89Generating ideas, 186Genius loci, 27Geographical Information Systems (GIS), 144Gibberd, F., 54, 66Gibson, T., 54, 66Giedion, S., 65Glasson, J., 141Goals, 185, 186Goals Achievement Matrix, 141Gosling, D., 65Grampian conditions, 21-23Greenfield sites, 16, 20, 22

Harvey-Jones, J., 179Haverfordwest, 58–63Hawksmoor, N., 34Healey, P., 22Hierarchical layout, 49–50Holford, W., 56, 57, 66Howard, E., 89

Identify, 43Image, 43, 48, 186Impacts, environmental and social, 141Implementation, 15, 185–188Infrastructure, 17–18Input-output analysis, 145, 187

Input-output, theory, 145Input-output, transaction table, 146, 147Integrated Mediterranean Programme, 147, 187Iterative process, 185

Jacobs, J, 50, 66Jones, I., 34

Kristiansand, 118

Land uses, mixed, 94Land values, 19–21Landmark, 22, 45Le Corbusier, 88Legibility, 22, 27, 73, 167, 186Leicester City , 154Leicester City Council, 23Lenclos, J. P., 54Leontieff, W., 146Lloyd Wright, F., 89Local government spending, 17Local plans, 23London, Greenwich, 33, 34London, Isle of dogs, 33, 34London, Mayfair, 46London, Soho, 46London, St. Ann’s Church Limehouse, 33, 34London, Trafalgar Square, 45, 46Lottery funding, 17Lovelock, J., 90LRT (Light Rapid Transit), 42, 76, 86Lynch, K., 22, 43, 58, 62, 66

Machu Picchu, 171Maintenance, 22Master plan, 18Master programme, 178McHarg, I. L., 144McKie, R., 95Miliutin, N. A., 88Mixed use, 16Model, 54, 55, 57Modernism, 34

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Mollinson, W., 90Mumford, L., 88, 89

Natural surveillance, 22-23Negotiating (the brief), 186New Essex Design Guide, 16Newark, 87, 107Node, 22, 44, 45Norway, 87, 99, 118, 187Nottingham City Council, 145Nottingham Express Transit, 145Nottingham, Bridle Smith Gate, 35, 39Nottingham, Broadmarsh, 37Nottingham, Castle Gate, 35, 39Nottingham, Castle Rock, 35, 44, 45Nottingham, development of, 34Nottingham, Hounds Gate, 35Nottingham, Lace Market, 35, 38, 43, 47, 48, 49, 71-

80, 86Nottingham, Light Rapid Transport, 42Nottingham, Maid Marion Way, 35, 37Nottingham, Market Square, 35, 37, 38, 44Nottingham, Medieval Nottingham, 37, 38Nottingham, Norman Settlement, 35Nottingham, Railways, 35, 40Nottingham, Saxon Settlement, 35Nottingham, suburban centres, 42Nottingham, The University of Nottingham, 79–80,

82, 83, 84, 85, 86Nottingham, Victoria Shopping Centre, 35, 36, 38,

48

Objectives, 185, 186Organic cities, principles, 97Organic metaphor, 186Organic planning, 89, 95, 97Oslo, 99, 118

Participation (see public participation), Path, 22, 43, 44Pemeability, 27, 47, 186Perception of the environment, 186Perceptual structure, 43, 58, 65

Perceptual structure study, 58, 62Permaculture, 90, 91, 100Permeability, 22Perry, C., 89Perspective, 50Perspective, distorted birds eye, 53Planning, 9Planning briefs, 18, 23Planning conditions, 21, 23Planning for real’, 54, 55Planning gain, S106, 15–21Planning Policy Guidance , 16Planning theories , 9–11Pollution, 187Population forecasting, 69Population studies, 68Possibilities, 70, 186Privacy, 47Product review, 180Progress review, 180Project client requirements, 172Project closure stage, 181Project code of practice, 172-173Project definition stage, 172-173Project handbook, 179Project implementation stage, 180Project management, 171, 184, 187Project managementt network, 176, 178Project programme, 15Project management schedule, 176–177Project management sponsor, 172Project management, project team, 178–179Project management, management software, 183Project management, planning stage, 176Project management, post-completion, 183Public art, 22-23Public consultation, 168Public inquiries, 151Public participation, 4–5, 11, 54, 62, 87, 145,

185Public speaking, 187Public transport, 22, 42Punter, J., 22

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Quarter, 45, 46

Radiant City, 88Radical planning, 10Rainaldi, 29Regional multiplier, analysis and theory, 145Report writing, 151-153, 187Restraining forces, 180Richardson, H. V., 146Risk analysis, 175–176Roche, C., 86Rome, 131Rome, Nolli’s Map, 51, 53Rome, Piazza Annunziata, 54Rome, Piazza del Popolo, 28, 29, 45Rome, planning by Sixtus V, 30-32Rome, S. Maria Maggiore, 30Rome, The Spanish Steps, 31

Sangallo, The Elder, 29Scale models, 163Scenario, 67, 69Scientific method, 6–7Second designer, 29Sieve mapping, 70Single Regeneration Budget, 17Sitte, C., 43, 66SMART objectives, 179Soria y Mata, A., 88Sotsograd, 89Straw, F. I., 66Summerson, J., 131Surrey, 87, 99Survey, 67, 186Sustainability, 2-4Sustainable development, 10, 185–187SWOT analysis, 67, 186Synoptic, planning, 9, 185, 186Systemic analysis, 136

Systems analysis, closed system , 93Systems analysis, open system, 93, 94

Town and Country Planning Act, 21Town and Country Planning Act 1990, Section 26B

Scotland, 143Town and Country Planning Act 1990, Section 71A,

143Town and Country Planning Regulations 1988,

Annex II, 145Town and Country Planning Regulations 1995,

143Town trails, 62, 64Transactive planning, 9Trend, 67Tromso, 118Turner, T., 16

Unwin, R., 89Urban design method, 1-2,5,9Urban design technology, 2Urban development, 2Urban fabric, 43Urban form, 34Urban grain, 28Urban realm, 27Urban structure, 28, 34, 43Urban Villages Forum, 16Utilitarian philosophy, 185

Valadier, 28Viability, 19Vision, 187Visual presentation, 155Vitality, 16–17, 22

Wood, J. the Elder, 127, 131Woonerf, 50Work breakdown structure, 176–177, 179

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