Aquaculture needs you!

Ronald W. Hardy, Director

Aquaculture Research Institute

How solid science is

needed by the

aquaculture industry

Tuna farming in Mexico – example of

poor aquaculture practice

Topics to be covered

• Global aquaculture – scale and scope

• Aquaculture’s contribution to the food supply– Three examples: salmon, tilapia, shrimp

• Challenges associated with aquaculture’s growth– Water resources

– Feed resources

• Science – academics & critical thinking– Science-based and value-based approaches

– Scientists must strive to improve aquaculture, being critical is not enough

– Examples of current research in fish nutrition

Global Aquaculture

Marine net pen

Shrimp pondsShellfish

Examples of aquaculture production systems

Tuna farm in Mexico

Idaho trout farm

Scale and scope of aquaculture

• Currently a $97 billion global business growing at 9% per year

worldwide

• Supplies half of fishery products (traditional fishing supplies the

other half)

• Major source of income and foreign exchange for many

countries

• Major source of protein for over 3 billion people

• Average per capita fish consumption is 16.7 kg/yr (~37 pounds);

US is half of this average

• In Bangladesh, for example, 8% of diet may be fish and the rest

consists almost entirely of rice

World fisheries landings and aquaculture production

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Aquaculture

Catch for food

Fish meal

Estimated

Million metric tons

Leading aquaculture producing countries

Countries Production, metric tons (2006)

China 34,429,122

India 3,123,135

Viet Nam 1,657,727

Thailand 1,385,801

Indonesia 1,292,899

Bangladesh 892,049

Chile 802,410

Japan 733,891

Norway 708,780

Philippines 623,369

United States ~500,000

Aquaculture production by country

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China

India

Viet Nam

Thailand

Indonesia

Bangladesh

Chile

Japan

Norway

Philippines

USA

MMT

Aquaculture production by species groups

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6,000,000

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metric tons

Our global food supply

PRODUCTS Million metric tonsCereals 1,886

Sugar crops 1,580

Root and oilseed crops 1, 271

Fruits, vegetables and others 1,358

TOTAL PLANT PRODUCTS 6,095

Milk and eggs 675

Meat and meat products 303

TOTAL ANIMAL

PRODUCTS

978

Fisheries landings 64

Aquaculture 51

ALL TERRESTRIAL FOOD 7,188

Comparison of global food sources

US meat and fish consumption (pounds/person/yr)

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Chicken Beef Pork Turkey Fish Lamb

per capita consumption

Chicken

Beef

Pork

Turkey

Fish

Lamb

Top ten consumed seafood in the USA (pounds/person)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Tuna 3.5 Shrimp 3.4 Shrimp 3.7 Shrimp 4.0 Shrimp 4.2 Shrimp 4.1 Shrimp 4.4

Shrimp 3.2 Tuna 2.9 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 3.4 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 2.9

Pollock 1.6 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 2.2 Salmon 2.2 Salmon 2.4 Salmon 2.0

Salmon 1.5 Pollock 1.2 Pollock 1.1 Pollock 1.7 Pollock 1.57 Pollock 1.5 Pollock 1.6

Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.0 Tilapia 1.0

Cod 0.8 Cod 0.6 Cod 0.7 Cod 0.6 Tilapia 0.8 Tilapia 0.9 Catfish 0.97

Clams 0.5 Clams 0.5 Crab 0.6 Crab 0.6 Cod 0.6 Crab 0.6 Crab 0.66

Crab 0.4 Crab 0.4 Clams 0.5 Tilapia 0.6 Crab 0.6 Cod 0.6 Cod 0.5

Flatfish 0.4 Flatfish 0.4 Tilapia 0.5 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.4 Clams 0.4

Scallops 0.3 Tilapia 0.4 Flatfish 0.4 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3

Tilapia 0.3

Farmed species in red

US Fish Consumption (pounds/person/yr)

Aquaculture production driven by demand for seafood

• Landings from capture fisheries peaked– Stocks have been overfished

• Costs to grow fish declined– More efficient feeds– Shorter production cycles – Lower losses to disease

• Rising incomes in developing countries– Eating more fish

• Shifts in eating habits in developed countries– Healthful eating - beef consumption decreased, fish consumption

increased

Research enabled aquaculture growth thus far

• Nutrition: estimates of dietary nutritional requirements of

salmon and catfish

– Dr. John Halver (my professor) developed a test diet to which all vitamins & amino acids

could be added in excess except one being studied

– One vitamin at a time was added at various levels and fish response (growth, enzyme

activity, etc.) was measured

– This was a major advance in fish feed formulation and production

• Life-cycles of new species were closed

– Farmers no longer relied on wild fish to stock farms

– Researchers developed techniques to spawn fish and rear tiny larvae

• Disease prevention

– Vaccines to prevent fish diseases

– Development of specific genetic markers for disease resistance

Further research needed for aquaculture to grow

• Feeds and nutrition

– Complete elimination of marine resources in feeds

– Determine dietary nutrient requirements for fish other than salmonids

– Increased nutrient retention

• Must close life cycles of species such as tuna

– Been done in Japan and Australia

– Combination of reproductive physiology and larval rearing

• Disease prevention

– Improved detection of pathogens in fish, esp. broodstock

– Biosecurity, especially in recirculation systems

Three top farmed fish consumed in the USA

• Salmon (freshwater & marine)– Mostly Atlantic salmon (native to north Atlantic ocean)

– Big producers are Norway, Chile, Scotland, Canada

• Shrimp (marine)– Primarily Pacific white shrimp and tiger shrimp

– Thailand, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico supply US markets

• Tilapia (freshwater)– Several species – mainly Nile tilapia

– China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mexico, Costa Rico supply US market

Salmon farming

Expanded greatly over the past 20 years

Salmon is affordable and available year round

Economic boon to coastal communities

Farmed salmon is harvested

and in stores in 48 hrs

Quality is consistently high

Effect of salmon aquaculture for the consumer

• Quantity of salmon has tripled(capture + farmed)

– Farmed is 1.5x of global supply and 8x the supply of wild salmon for ‘white-tablecloth’ (not canned or smoked)

• Consumer intake of omega-3 fatty acids increased

– Positive effects on CVD, neonatal development, other conditions

• Levels of contaminants in farmed salmon– Essentially zero mercury

– Very low levels of PCBs and other persistent organic pollutants

Salmon destined for fillet market (not canned or smoked)

0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000

Wild Chinook

Wild Coho

Wild Sockeye

Total Farmed

Million metric tons

Challenges for salmon farming

• Maintain healthful levels of omega-3 fatty acids while lowering fish oil levels in feeds– Need new sources of omega-3 fatty acids besides fish oil

• Improve biosecurity, especially in Chile and China– Chile production reduced ~90% by a virus (ISA) imported from Norway

– New vaccine for ISA, plus new rules on fish transfers

• Reduce environmental impacts– Metabolic and fecal wastes from farming that cause local impacts below pens

on the sea floor

– Escapees that could colonize natural salmon streams and compete with native salmon stocks

Shrimp farming

• Two major species of farmed shrimp– Litopenaeus vannamei (Pacific white shrimp – Pacific coast, Ecuador to

Mexico) – smaller size (30-50 count)

– Penaeus monodon (tiger shrimp – Asia) – larger size (7-12 count)

• Shrimp farming occurs in salt/brackish-water ponds in coastal areas

• Viral diseases are a huge problem for shrimp farmers– Associated with poor water quality and overcrowding

– Pacific shrimp are less susceptible than tiger shrimp

• Asian shrimp farmers switched to Pacific shrimp over the past few years

Farmed shrimp production (Pacific white shrimp)

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Metric tons

Switchover to Litopenaeus vannamai in Asia

Shrimp farming

• Farmed shrimp have the highest value of any aquaculture production species group

• Shrimp are available year round and are relatively inexpensive

• Shrimp farming has transitioned from large ponds to intensively managed smaller ponds– Higher feed inputs and intensive water quality management

– Productivity increased from 300 kg/hectare to 12,000+ kg/hectare

• Industry reduced dependence on wild broodstock– Able to rear shrimp broodstock to maturation with high reproductive performance

– This allows genetic improvement and production of specific pathogen-free post-larvae for stocking

– (natural progression – needed for many other species)

Tilapia aquaculture

• Tilapia are native to Africa – many species

• Now raised around the globe– Major food source in food-deficit and developing countries

– Grown in tropical or semi-tropical areas (also in geothermal water in Idaho)

• Have digestive system similar to a pig or chicken– Post-juveniles grow well on all-plant diet

– So do fry but growers use fish meal–based diets

• Yield of edible fillet is 32-33% of live weight– Compares to 50% for salmon, trout or shrimp

– Good potential to recover and utilize processing byproduct

• Good candidate for organic production

Tilapia grown in geothermal water in Idaho

Farmed tilapia production 1987-2007

US consumption of tilapia

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metric tons

Why has tilapia production grown so much?

• Demand for white-flesh fish cannot be met from wild catch– Tilapia tastes bland (not fishy)– No bones in fillets

• Tilapia consume low-protein, high grain feeds

• Tilapia are a tough fish– Disease resistant– Tolerate high water temperatures and low dissolved oxygen levels in water

(can’t handle cold)– Grow at high densities

• Tilapia have a short life cycle

• Tilapia are inexpensive to produce

Tilapia products have increased in quality

Processing and trimming

is done by hand

Frozen fillets have a

fresh appearance

Improvements in packaging

Individually Quick Frozen (IQF) fillets

in re-sealable packages

Development of breaded, ready-to-cook products

Tilapia (June 2007, Tesco, UK)

• $18 US per kg whole fish!!!!

Tilapia Orange Juice

Even skins are used to make tilapia leather

Let’s talk about science now

• Aquaculture – not a scientific discipline

• Aquaculture is the application of a range of scientific disciplines and technology to grow aquatic organisms

• Disciplines required by aquaculture include:– Biochemistry/molecular biology/metabolomics/etc.

– General fish biology/life history

– Physiology/reproduction/endocrinology

– Genetics and breeding

– Fish diseases/microbiology/virology/parasitology

Key issues in fish nutrition

• Replacing marine ingredients in fish feeds– Conservation or enhancement hatcheries

– Commercial aquaculture

– Aquarium trade, public aquariums

• Feed costs are 50-60% of operating costs of fish farms and key determinate of profitability

• Environmental effects of fish farms totally depend on feed efficiency and nutrient retention

Global fish feed production

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Feed Production (mmt)

Amount of fish meal (gold) used in

aquafeeds has also increased

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Global fish meal production is static

• In 1970s, >90% of fish meal was used in poultry and swine feeds

• Today, fish feeds use 65% of annual fish meal production– Use in poultry and swine feeds is about 32%

• Use in fish feeds has displaced use in livestock and poultry feeds

• Except for higher recovery and utilization of seafood processing waste, FM production will not increase

Good news – FM levels in feeds are lower

• The percentage of fish meal used in fish/shrimp feeds has gone down dramatically– More information on use of alternative protein sources

• Amino acid digestibility• Appropriate dietary levels

– More precise feed formulation

– Wider range of supplemental, feed-grade amino acids

• Now, economics favors reducing fish meal levels even more

Fishmeal and soymeal prices (USD/mt)

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Fishmeal

Soymeal

Bad news – total FM use is higher

• Production of species requiring high protein feed is way up– Increase offset improvements in lowering the percentages FM in feeds for various species

• Increasing intensification of freshwater pond production in Asia– use of feeds containing fish meal for carp, tilapia, etc.

• Conversion from farm-made feeds to pelleted feeds, requiring fish meal– Especially for marine fish in Asia

Fish meal use in salmon feeds

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Percent FM in feeds

Tonnes FM used (x104)

Fish meal use in shrimp feeds

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Percent FM in feeds

Tonnes FM used (x104)

Fish meal use in carp feeds

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Percent FM in feeds

Tonnes FM used (x104)

Sustainable feeds - progress to date

• Fish meal levels in feeds average half of levels used a decade ago

• Fish oil levels also down in feeds for salmon, trout and marine species (major users)

• Researchers around the world are actively testing/developing sustainable alternative protein sources

• New sources of EPA and DHA being developed

But….challenges remain

• Growing world population

• Increasing demand for fish

• Static or declining capture fisheries

• FM and FO levels in feeds must be reduced further

– Aquaculture production will continue to increase

– So will fish feed production

• The easy bit is done– Not difficult to reduce FM levels by half

– Lowering fish meal and fish oil levels further will require a deeper understanding of biochemistry and physiology of fish as well as nutritional requirements

We’ve hit a wall

• Not difficult to produce omnivorous fish species w/o fish meal in feeds (tilapia, carp, catfish)

• Possible to produce salmon/trout using feeds w/o fish meal but…– Sometimes need animal protein (poultry byproduct meal, etc.)

– Best plant protein concentrates are used in human foods - costly

• Problem: balancing all amino acids in all-plant feed doesn’t make the nutritional value of the feed equivalent to fish meal-based feed– What other nutrients or biologically active compounds are in fish meal and

missing from plant proteins?

– Vice-versa with plant proteins

Other challenges with fish feeds

• Maintain healthful levels of omega-3 fatty acids while lowering fish oil levels in feeds– Need to understand the dynamics and drivers of long-chain PUFA

deposition in fish

• Reduce metabolic and fecal wastes– Plant ingredients have more fiber and non-soluble carbohydrates (NSPs)

that are indigestible

– Substituting plant proteins for FM alters tissue protein metabolism

• Maintain economic FCRs– Cost of feed compared to value of products

Critical research needs in fish nutrition

• Nutritional Requirements– We only have estimates for salmonids, catfish, carp and shrimp

– No clue on the other 190 species being farmed

• Ingredients, Formulation, and Processing– As levels of fish meal and oil are reduced, we lose essential amino acids,

vitamins & minerals (especially phosphorus)

– As levels of plant-derived proteins increase, we add fiber, non-soluble polysaccarides, anti-nutrients, phytate-phosphorus and create an imbalance of essential amino acids

– This increases the environmental impacts of fish farming

• Digestion, Metabolism, and Utilization– Amazing how little we know about intestinal transporters, nutrient

signaling, energy allocation, drivers of muscle growth, etc.

Next step – integration of disciplines

• Gene expression, proteomics and metabolomics

– Determine how nutrients affect metabolic pathways, muscle growth, energy allocation, immune function, etc.

– Use high-throughput data generation coupled with new computational software & data mining tools for pathway building and developing large biomolecular networks

• Combine molecular approach with cellular and physiological response data to understand effects of nutrients and diet components

• Selective breeding using marker-based selection– Develop strains of fish have improved performance when fed plant-

based feeds– Use molecular tools to follow improvements and avoid co-selection for

undesirable traits

Progress to date (trout, my lab)

• “All-plant protein” trout feeds– Developed over 6 years of experimentation

– Growth of trout is equivalent to fishmeal-based feeds, but only with selected family lines from our breeding program

– Sensory analysis shows no effect on fillet quality

– Mercury is nearly undetectable; POPs lower than English muffin

– Feed cost is in the ball-park, so feed cost per unit gain is close

• BUT…protein retention lower than on FM diets– Higher loss of nitrogen to the environment

• Successful all-plant trout diets were less successful for Atlantic salmon– Growth reduced and feed conversion ratio higher

– However, this was not with selected strains of Atlantic salmon

What might be the cause of lower protein retention?

• Mismatched amino acid profiles

– Plant proteins are deficient in EAA, such as soy (MET), corn (LYS), wheat (ARG)

– Some have high levels of branched chain amino acids, like blood meal

(isoleucine) and corn gluten (leucine)

• Other differences

– Plant proteins contain phytoestrogens, phytic acid, other antinutrients

– Plant proteins lack taurine, andogens and bone minerals

– Animal proteins are mainly muscle, and thus are structurally complex, whereas

plant proteins are not

– FM takes longer to digest and appear in the blood compared to plant proteins

How can genomics help us understand the effects of these differences?

• Tissue culture (mouse liver cells) show altered mTOR

expression when cells are given the amino acid leucine

• Studies showing elevated expression of stress genes in

trout when soy proteins are fed (liver again)

• Researchers in Scotland report BOTH higher protein

synthesis rates and degradation rates when fish are fed

soy protein compared to FM. WHY??

Study to compare FM with soy protein

• Design soy-based feeds with exaggerated amino acid imbalances (branched-chain amino acids)

• Look at expression of genes that are central players in metabolism

– mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) which is the central component of a complex signaling network regulating cell growth and proliferation

– REDD1, which indicates metabolic stress

• Others that indicate metabolic shifts

– carnitylpalmitate transferase– acetyl CoA dehydrogenase– PPARα, PPARβ. PPARγ– glucose-6-dehydrogenase, fructose 1,6-biphosphate, pyruvate carboxylase– TNFα (more immune-related but responding to nutritional input)

Simplified schematic of TOR cascade

TOR expression responds to a variety of inputs

• Feeding FM or soy diets with exactly the same AA profile leads to different TOR expression

• REDD1 is one factor that regulates TOR cascade

• REDD1 expression is elevated with cellular stresses, like hypoxia, energy depletion

• Not known how dietary AA communicate to REDD1 or any components of TOR cascade

• However, both respond to differences in dietary protein source, at least at the transcriptional level

Regulation of TOR cascade in cells: possibly related phytoestrogens in soy proteins

REDD1 stimulates

TSC complex and

blocks mTOR

Outcome of our genomics work so far

• Identified genes involved in protein synthesis and degradation in trout (anabolic and catabolic pathways in muscle)

• Measure gene expression for elongation and desaturation of fatty acids – important for alternate dietary lipid work

• Gene expression associated with bone mineralization and phosphorus status– Important as we reduce fishmeal in feeds

• Carbohydrate (glucose) metabolism

• Immune response factors

• But…these are in isolated systems in known pathways and do not show interactions among pathways or systems

Next level of effort - pyrosequencing

• High-throughput transcriptome evaluation

• Construct target-specific transcriptome libraries

• Use novel software to construct, expand and analyze pathways from gene expression data

• Identify cellular processes affected by – Diet

– Alternate ingredient

– Nutrient level for requirement studies

• Major advance is that this software identifies interactions among isolated systems or pathways affected by diet or treatment, not just the ones we know to look at– Developed from medicine and pharmacology

Nutrient requirements

• For a century, research has been based on “one nutrient – one disease” cause-effect connection– All are short latency, discrete conditions affecting a single tissue

– Rickets/osteomalacia (vit D), beriberi (thiamin), pellegra (niacin)

• Dietary requirements (MDRs) are minimum intake to prevent deficiency signs– No reason why intake to prevent short-latency diseases prevents long-

latency conditions

• Intake needed to prevent “modern” diseases likely higher than MDR– Increased vitamin D intake associated with lower risk of diabetes,

hypertension, various cancers, multiple sclerosis and periodontal disease, to name a few

Nutrient requirements…

• Now recognized that many nutrients act through multiple mechanisms (pleiotropic) and affect multiple pathways and processes– Vitamin D is classic example

• This calls for a re-assessment of nutrient intake recommendations (fish, animals & humans) which will result in significantly higher dietary intake recommendations– Based on responses of multiple tissues and organs

– Could use gene expression but better to use pathway analysis from transcriptome data to discover new relationships and responses

– Must couple with physiological and perfomance assessment• Weight gain• Enzyme activity• Stress response• Immune function

Fish oil use in feeds

• Challenge – replace fish oil levels in feeds and maintain healthful omega-3 levels in fillets

• Progress to date (trout)– Developing ‘phase-feeding’ protocols to lower total use of fish oils

• Use plant oil during growth phase, end with fish oil to increase EPA and DHA

– Evaluating trout lines to see if differences exist in fatty acid deposition rates and gene expression that could be used in selective breeding

– Looking at effects of different dietary fatty acid ratios on metabolism and immune responses

18:3n-3 18:4n-3

18:2n-6

18:1n-9

20:4n-3

18:3n-6

20:3n-6

18:2n-9

20:2n-9

20:5n-3

22:5n-3

24:5n-320:4n-6

20:3n-9

22:6n-3

24:6n-3

Δ6 desaturase

Δ5 desaturase

From Fish Nutrition, Ed 3

Biosynthesis of C20 and C22 LC-PUFA from n-3, n-6 and n-9 precursors

linolenic acid

linoleic acid

oleic acid

Docosohexaenoic

acid (DHA)

Eicosapentaenoic-

acid (EPA)

∆6-Desaturase expression in trout family lines

Delta 6 Desaturase

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CX99 CX98 CX51 CX53 CX84 CX80 CX78 CX82 CX55 CX72 CX71 CX75 CX92 CX97 CX77

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Delta 6 Desaturase

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∆5-Desaturase expression in trout family lines

Delta 5 Desaturase

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Fish oil diet

Back to landings and aquaculture production

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Aquaculture

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The past and the future

• Aquaculture production increased by 10x over the past 20 years (1990-2010)– Lifetime of undergraduates in the audience

– Aquaculture production increased 10x

• What will aquaculture look like when today’s infants are undergrads in 2030?– Just to keep up with population growth and per capita intake will require

production to more than double

– Feed production will also have to double

– Freshwater production – cannot double freshwater resources but maybe increase productivity of existing freshwater systems

– Marine and offshore aquaculture? Cost and environmental issues

– Recirculation systems? Cost and efficiency

FM use will not be a problem in feeds

• Single-cell bacteria/yeast products

– Bioprotein from Norway produced on methane

• Duckweed protein concentrate– 80mt/hectare/yr of duckweed

– Native species everywhere

– No competition with food or crop production

– Little water consumption

– Protein concentrate is 65% protein and 86% digestible to fish

• Recovered seafood processing waste

Skills needed to advance aquaculture

• Strong background in integrative biology– Physiology

– Genetics and molecular biology

– Nutrition and biochemisty

– Diseases and immunology

• Critical and creative thinking skills

• Cultural and sociological perspectives

• Value-based and science-based approaches– Values (personal, cultural) are crucial elements of our decisions

– Our cultural values are not always important to other cultures

– Our science is, however, persuasive

• Aquaculture is here to stay – use science to make it better

Biggest Fish Farm in the World

Lake Llanquique, Chile.

The End

Progress over the past decade in finfish aquaculture

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Fish oil is the major driver of FI:FO ratio for salmon

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FM Inclusion where FCR 1.3 and FO 16%

FO Inclusion where FCR 1.3 and FM 24%

b

Global food supply - Aquatic

Category - Aquatic Million metric tonsMarine landings (food only) 53.9

Freshwater landings 10.1

TOTAL CAPTURE FISHERIES 64

Marine aquaculture 23.1

Freshwater aquaculture 27.9

TOTAL AQUACULTURE 51.0

Wild harvest marine plants 1.8

Aquaculture marine plants 15.7

TOTAL MARINE PLANTS 17.5

ALL AQUATIC PRODUCTS 132.5

Aquaculture production in the USA

Species Metric tons production

Channel catfish 276,364

Rainbow trout 27,561

Crawfish 16,788

Atlantic salmon 9,420

Tilapia 7,820

Hybrid striped bass 500

Yellow perch 50

Efficiency compared to swine & poultry

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