Apuntes inglés

Alejandro

English Teacher

1 http://english.alejandro-ace-translator.co.cc

Comparatives and superlatives

Utilizamos los comparativos para hacer comparaciones sobre dos o más cosas, mientras que con los superlativos

destacamos una cosa de un grupo de la misma clase.

Patterns

Las estructuras que siguen los adjetivos y los adverbios para hacer comparaciones son las siguientes:

A = B as + (adjective/adverb) + as She is as intelligent as her sister.

A ≠ B not as/so + (adjective/adverb) + as He doesn't run as fast as the other players.

A > B A is bigger than B.

A < B A is not as big as C.

A > B+C A is the biggest letter in the group.

D > ever D is the biggest letter I’ve ever seen.

Never < E (Subject) + (perfect verb) + such [a] I have never seen such a big letter.

E that… (Subject) + (verb) + (adjective/adverb) +

that… It was such a big letter that…

Utilizamos el presente perfecto para hablar de experiencias pasadas del hablante.

Form

1 or 2 syllables +er / +est

old

brave

sad

happy

older

braver

sadder

happier

oldest

bravest

saddest

happiest

More than 3 syllables + more / + the most

useful

interesting

carefully

quietly

more useful

more interesting

more carefully

more quietly

the most useful

the most interesting

the most carefully

the most quietly

Recuerda las formas irregulares de los siguientes adjetivos y adverbios:

Adjective Adverb Comparative Superlative

good well better best

bad badly worse worst

little less least

many/much much more most

far further/farther furthest/farthest

Modifications

La mayoría de oraciones pueden convertirse de un tipo a otra según cómo empecemos a escribirla.

Mary is taller than Judy.

Judy is shorter than Mary.

Mary isn’t as short as Judy.

Judy isn’t as tall as Mary.

This book is more interesting than the other book.

The other book is less interesting than this book.

Alejandro

English Teacher

http://www.alejandro-ace-translator.es

Contrast clauses

Las oraciones subordinadas concesivas expresan contraste y oposición entre ideas.

but, yet, although

Podemos utilizar yet y although para mostrar contraste. Although es más típico de textos formales. Podemos

enfatizarlos con still y anyway. Además, but puede sustituirse por yet en el escrito.

Maria felt ill, but she went to school.

Although she was ill, Maria went to school.

Maria went to school although she was ill.

even though, though

Utilizamos even though al igual que although para dar más énfasis, y though a la mitad y al final de oración en

escrito y habla informal.

Even though she felt very ill, Maria went to school.

Maria went to school. She was ill, though.

Maria went to school though she was ill.

while, whereas

While y whereas pueden utilizarse en escrito y habla formal para comparar dos hechos y enfatizar las

diferencias entre ellos.

While/Whereas some experts expect the Government to win the election, most believe that the

opposition will win.

despite, in spite of

Ambos se utilizan para contrastar, pero van seguidos de un sustantivo o un verbo en gerundio.

Podemos usar la misma estructura que although añadiendo the fact that.

Despite/In spite of being ill, Maria went to school.

In spite of her illness, Maria went to school.

Despite the fact that Maria was ill, she went to school.

Alejandro

English Teacher

1 http://www.alejandro-ace-translator.co.cc

Modal verbs

Características

Son un grupo de verbos que, además de auxiliar, muestran la actitud o sentimientos del hablante ante una

situación. Por ejemplo, expresan la probabilidad o necesidad de algo, o si el hablante pide o se ofrece a hacer

algo. El mismo verbo modal puede utilizarse de forma diferente, y por tanto, tiene distintos significados.

Son verbos incompletos, es decir, les faltan los tiempos verbales. No tienen participio ni infinitivo, por lo que no

tienen pasiva ni tiempos perfectos. Por este motivo utilizan otros verbos para completar su conjugación.

Reglas ortográficas

Afirmativa Negativa Interrogativa

Tienen una forma única, ni añaden

–s en la 3ª persona del singular.

Se forma añadiendo not al verbo

auxiliar.

Se forma invirtiendo el orden entre

sujeto y verbo.

I can He can She can I should → I should not Should I? Can we?

Nunca pueden ponerse dos verbos modales juntos.

Los modales van seguidos de la base del infinitivo sin to.

Do you can meet me tomorrow?

He can will meet you tomorrow.

He must go.

You should buy a new car.

Alejandro

English Teacher


can / could / be able to

Significados

Habilidad y capacidad Petición Posibilidad y sugerencia

He can speak English very well.

He was able to win a medal.

Can I use your phone?

Could I talk with you?

You can get the bus from here.

She could come here to have

lunch.

Pedir o dar permiso Ofrecimiento Prohibición –

Can I go out tonight?

Yes, you can go out tonight.

Can I help you?

Could I serve you a cup of tea? You can’t smoke here.

Was/Were able to se utiliza para hablar de un logro en una ocasión del pasado, es decir, tiene el significado de

managed to.

Could + have + Participio de pasado lo utilizamos para indicar que teníamos la posibilidad de hacer algo en el

pasado, y de hecho, no lo hicimos.

may / might

Significados

Pedir permiso Prohibición – Posibilidad

May I go out tonight?

Might I play with Tom? You may not smoke here.

You may go out later.

It might rain tomorrow.

Ofrecimiento

May I help you?

May I serve you a cup of tea?

must

Significados

Órdenes y obligaciones externas Prohibición –

I must visit my mum now, she’s in

hospital.

You must save the princess!

You mustn’t smoke here.

Can se utiliza para el presente, y could para el pasado, y presente como forma de cortesía.

Be able to tiene el mismo significado que can, pero es necesario conjugar el verbo to be.

Alejandro

English Teacher


have to


I have to write.

He has to write.

I had to write.

I don’t have to write.

He doesn’t have to write.

I didn’t have to write.

Do I have to write?

Does he have to write?

Did you have to write?

Significados:

Obligación Ausencia de necesidad –

He has to start school next year. They don’t have to do it now.

need


I need to buy some food.

She needs to find a solution.

I don’t need to buy any food.

I needn’t buy any food.

Need I come with you?

Do I need to come with you?

Significados:

Necesidad + Ausencia de necesidad –

I need to buy some food. He didn’t need to buy any food. 1

He needn’t have bought any food. 2

En este caso, need en negativo tiene dos significados diferentes según el uso. En el caso 1, no necesitaba

comprar comida, y por tanto, no lo hizo; mientras que en el caso 2, no necesitaba haber comprado comida, es

decir, la compró sin haber sido necesario.

Por tanto, utilizaremos didn’t + verbo en hechos no necesarios en el pasado, y needn’t + have + Participio de

pasado cuando hagamos referencia a algo que no tenía por qué haberse hecho.

Se conjuga como un verbo normal, por tanto, emplea todos los tiempos verbales y necesita el auxiliar

do/does/did para hacer la negativa e interrogativa.

Need puede utilizarse como un verbo normal en todos los tiempos, pero también puede utilizarse como

modal en las formas negativa e interrogativa.

Alejandro

English Teacher


should / ought to

Significados

Consejo Predicción Sugerencia

You ought to go to a dentist.

He shouldn’t be rude to everybody. He should be home by ten. Should I open the window?

Para referirnos al pasado, utilizamos should/ought to + have + Participio de pasado.

will

Significados

Ofrecimiento Petición educada

It’s very cold here. I’ll switch the

heat on. Will you do it for me?

shall

Significados

Ofrecimiento Sugerencia

Shall I open the window? Shall we go to the disco?

would

Significado

Ofrecimiento

Would you like some more cake?

Alejandro

English Teacher


Oraciones de imposibilidad

Utilizaremos el verbo modal can’t para expresar algo que es imposible.

Presente Pasado

You’ve just had lunch. You can’t be hungry!

Can’t/couldn’t + have + Participio de pasado

She left home at 10:00. She couldn’t have caught the

10:05 train.

Oraciones de seguridad

Utilizaremos el verbo modal must para expresar algo de lo que estamos completamente seguros.

Presente Pasado Futuro

Mary has an exam soon. She must

be studying hard.

Must + have + Participio de pasado

Nobody answers the phone. They

must have already gone.

Certainly / Probably

We’ll probably be arriving at 12.

Oraciones de probabilidad

Aquí se utilizan varios verbos modales, y cada uno tiene un cierto grado de probabilidad, desde el 0% hasta el

100%. Estudia esta tabla de probabilidades:

100 % Certeza will

80 % Deducción must; can’t

60 % Expectación should

30 % Duda may; might; could

0 % Certeza won’t

Presente y futuro Pasado

Who’s knocking at the door? It must be my brother.

It could rain tomorrow.

Modal (duda) + have + Participio de pasado

I can’t find my keys anywhere. You might have left

them in your office.

Alejandro

English Teacher


Relación de verbos modales

Permiso

Pedir permiso Can I? May I?

Dar/denegar permiso

can('t)

may/may not

Hablar sobre permiso

Presente

can('t)

be allowed to

Pasado

could(n't)

be allowed to

Obligación

Afirmativa

Autoridad del hablante

must

Objetivo have to

Ausencia

Autoridad

needn't

don't need

Externa don't have to

Habilidad

Presente

can('t)

be able to

Pasado

could(n't)

be able to

managed to

Prohibiciónmusn't

can't

Consejo

Afirmativo

should

ought to

had better

Negativo

shouldn't

oughtn't to

Posibilidad may; might; could

DeducciónCerteza must

Imposibilidad can't

Alejandro

English Teacher


La voz pasiva

Características

La voz pasiva se utiliza frecuentemente como matiz impersonal, y por tanto se utiliza muy a menudo en el

estilo periodístico, científico… La diferencia entre la voz activa y la pasiva es externa, ya que en el fondo

significan lo mismo.

Estructura

Sujeto ‘to be’ Participio de pasado Complementos

El objeto directo de la

oración anterior pasa a ser

el nuevo sujeto.

Conjugado en el mismo

tiempo que en el verbo de

la oración activa.

Verbo de la oración activa

en participio de pasado.

Complemento agente (si es

necesario), circunstanciales…

The Town Hall is going to be rebuilt.

Complemento agente

En las oraciones pasivas, el sujeto activo se suele convertir como Complemento agente (acompañado de la

preposición by). Se utiliza en los siguientes casos:

Cuando el agente es necesario o es alguien conocido.

Para introducir información nueva.

Como Complemento circunstancial de modo (+ gerundio) by paiting…

En el resto de casos, añadir el Complemento agente no sería incorrecto, pero quedaría redundante.

Someone/A painter/My sister is painting the house. The house is being painted by a painter.

The house is being painted. The house is being painted by my sister.

Conversión

Activa The porter carries the bags.

Suj → by + C. agente

Vb → to be + part.

Obj → Suj

Pasiva The bags are carried by the porter.

Eje

mp

lo d

e c

on

ve

rsió

n A

cti

va

→ P

asiv

a

uti

liza

nd

o e

l ve

rbo

do

to do

→

to be

done

do is

did was

will do will be

would do would be

am/is/are doing is being

was/were doing was been

will be doing will be being

would be doing would be being

has done has been

had done had been

will have done will have been

would have done would have been

have been doing has been being

had been doing had been being

would have been doing would have been being

Alejandro

English Teacher


‘I was given’

En inglés existe una construcción pasiva consistente en el complemento indirecto de la oración activa

convertido en sujeto de la pasiva.

The Queen gave a medal to the pilot The Queen gave the pilot a medal

A medal was given to the pilot. The pilot was given a medal.

Something was given to someone. Someone was given something.

Los verbos más comunes que responden a esta estructura son:

give, send, pay, lend, hand, sell, promise, show, offer, teach, owe, award, grant, allow, leave, feed…

‘It is said’

También podemos utilizar otra estructura utilizando verbos del estilo indirecto cuando no necesitamos saber

quién es el que habla.

People say the bridge is unsafe. It is said that the bridge is unsafe.

It (passive verb) that (active clause).


say, report, mention, announce, think, believe, understand, agree, decide, know, find, expect, hope, regret,

fear, intend, arrange…

‘He is said to’

La construcción anterior también puede construirse con un infinitivo.

People say the bridge is unsafe. The bridge is said to be unsafe.

(Subject) + (passive verb) + (to-infinitive)


say, report, think, believe, understand, know, find, expect, intend, suppose, mention, announce, agree, decide,

hope, regret, fear, arrange…

‘Have something done’

Esta estructura se refiere a servicios realizados por una persona o un profesional y a hechos sufridos,

normalmente no agradables.

The technician repaired our video recorder. We had our video recorder repaired by a technician.

(Subject) + (have) + (something) + (verb) by (someone)

A burglar has stolen our passports. We have had our passports stolen by a burglar.

(Subject) + (have) + (something) + (verb) by (someone)

Cualquier verbo puede responder a esta estructura, pero los más comunes son aquellos que pueden referirse

a servicios o a hechos negativos.

Alejandro

English Teacher

1 http://www.alejandro-ace-translator.es

Reported speech

A menudo contamos a la gente lo que otras personas han dicho. Para ello, empleamos el estilo indirecto

reported or indirect speech. Casi nunca informamos de las palabras exactas, sino que damos un resumen

general de lo dicho.

Sandra speaking to Petra: ‘Bye, Petra, it’s been great seeing you again. I’ll call you sometime

next week when I get a chance.’

↓

Petra reporting the

conversation to Roberta: ‘I saw Sandra yesterday. She said she’d call me next week.’

Normalmente cambiamos los tiempos verbales y las referencias, como puede ser la gente, los lugares y el

tiempo.

Changes

Verbs Adverbs

Directo → Indirecto Directo → Indirecto

Presente simple1

→

Pasado simple here

→

there

Presente continuo Pasado continuo now then

Pasado simple2 Pasado perfecto simple this that

Pasado continuo Pasado perfecto

continuo these those

Presente perfecto

simple Pasado perfecto simple tonight that night

Presente perfecto

continuo

Pasado perfecto

continuo today that day

Pasado perfecto

simple/continuo

Pasado perfecto

simple/continuo tomorrow

the following day

the next day

Futuro Condicional yesterday the day before

the previous day

can could next/last … the … after

may might ago before

must 3 had to

shall should

Los demás verbos modales no cambian.

Reported speech speakers

En el estilo directo podemos mencionar al hablante al principio o al final de la oración. Ten en cuenta la

posición de la coma o el punto en relación a las comillas.

Jack said, ‘We’re going to miss the train.’

‘We’re going to miss the train,’ said Jack.

1 Si se habla de algo que siempre es cierto, no es necesario cambiar los tiempos. 2 Ten en cuenta que si hay varios verbos en pasado en la oración, el estilo indirecto a veces puede cambiarse o no,

dependiendo de si da lugar a malentendidos. 3 must no cambia a had to en estilo indirecto cuando es negativo o verbo modal de deducción.

Alejandro

English Teacher


Resumir

Normalmente se tiende a resumir lo que dice la gente al hacer el estilo indirecto.

‘Look, actually, tell him I’ll give him a call or email him next week, OK?’

↓

She said that she’d get in touch next week.

Oraciones enunciativas

Las oraciones enunciativas se unen a la oración introductoria mediante el nexo that, sumándole los cambios

anteriores.

Directo → Indirecto

Mary said: “I like music”.

→

Mary said that she liked

music.

He said to me: “I haven’t

been to this place before”.

He told me that he hadn’t

been to that place before.

“He saw her yesterday”,

said Mary.

Mary said that he had seen

her the day before.

Oraciones interrogativas

Informamos las preguntas con los verbos ask, wonder y want to know. Los cambios son los mismos que los

anteriores.


‘Where do you live’ he asked.

→

He asked me where I lived.

‘Do you live in Athens?’ he

asked.

He wanted to know if I lived

in Athens.

Yes/No questions

Se unen a la oración introductoria mediante el nexo if o whether.


“Will you do it?”, she asked

→

She asked if he would do it.

“Do you want one?” I

wanted to know.

I wanted to know whether

she wanted one.

Wh- questions


He asked me: “Why are you

so happy?” →

He asked me why I was so

happy.

They wondered: “How many

children do they have?”

They wondered how many

children they had.

Recuerda que al pasar de interrogativa a afirmativa, cambiamos el orden de las palabras auxiliar + sujeto +

verbo a sujeto + verbo.

Alejandro

English Teacher


Órdenes y peticiones

Una orden directa suelen darse en imperativo. En este tipo de oraciones se puede utilizar tell, pero nunca say.

Para las peticiones utilizamos ask. También suelen utilizarse otros reported verbs que puedes ver más

adelante. Este tipo de oraciones se unen a la oración introductora mediante to + infinitivo. Para negarlo,

ponemos not delante del to.

tell ask

subj. + tell + object (+ not) to …

Paul told his son not to touch that button.

I told him to wait for me.

subj. + ask + object (+ not) to …

subj. + ask + object + for (something)…

Ann asked her sister for the salt.


“Study hard!” mum told me.

→

My mum ordered me to study hard.

‘Can you pass me the salt,

please?’ Lisa said. Lisa asked me for the salt.

Reporting verbs

Hay ciertos verbos que pueden indicar la intención del hablante: una sugerencia, una disculpa, un ofrecimiento,

una promesa, un rechazo…

say vs. tell

Say y tell rigen estructuras diferentes. Normalmente, utilizamos say cuando no existe objeto y queremos

enfatizar en el propio mensaje, mientras que tell lo usamos cuando es importante mencionar el objeto. Sin

embargo, es posible utilizar say con objeto indirecto añadiendo to delante.

say tell

subj. + say (+ to + object) (+ that)…

She said (that) it was worm.

She said to me (that) she comes from Slovenia.

subj. + tell + object (+ that)…

She told me (that) it was worm.

She told me (that) she comes from Slovenia.

say hello/goodbye

say a name

say something/anything/nothing

say a prayer

say a word/a phrase/a sentence

tell (someone) a story/stories

tell (someone) a lie/lies

tell (someone) a joke/jokes

tell (someone) the truth

tell the difference

tell the future/fortunes

tell (someone) the time

Alejandro

English Teacher


verb (+ that)

say, tell, speak; admit, advise, agree, recommend, suggest

verb + to·infinitive verb + object + to·infinitive

agree, decide, offer, promise,

refuse, threaten advise, ask, encourage, invite, remind, warn

verb + gerund verb (+ object) + preposition + gerund

deny, recommend, suggest accuse of, apologize for, blame for,

complain about, congratulate on, insist on,

Alejandro

English Teacher

1 http://english.alejandro-ace-translator.es

Conditional sentences

Las oraciones condicionales son aquellas que nos indican una condición y su consecuencia. Los tiempos

verbales que utilizaremos dependen de si las condiciones y sus consecuencias son reales o imaginarias, o si son

hechos verídicos y están enlazadas con un evento en particular.

Normalmente, la condición viene siempre antes que la consecuencia, en ese caso usaremos una coma; pero en

caso que sea la consecuencia lo que venga antes no usaremos comas.

Type 0

En los ejercicios de tipo 0 se hablará de hechos científicos y cosas que siempre suceden (como hervir o

congelar agua, mezclar pintura, etc.).

If + (Present simple) , + (Present simple): If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

(Present simple) + if + (Present simple): Water boils if you heat it.

Other if·clauses

when Water boils when you heat it.

in case Take an umbrella in case it rains.

in case of In case of fire, break the glass.

as long as You can go out tonight as long as you come back by midnight.

providing that Providing that you come back by midnight, you can go out tonight.

Type 1

En las oraciones condicionales de tipo 1 se habla de cosas que son muy probables de que sucedan, por

ejemplo imperativos, predicciones, condiciones... siempre en presente y futuro.

If + (Present simple) , + (Future simple) If you don’t take the exam, you’ll fail the subject.

(Future simple) + if + (Present simple) You’ll fail the subject if you don’t take the exam.

(Imperative) + and + (Future simple) Buy me a diamond ring and I’ll love you forever.

Other if·clauses

unless We will go out unless it rains.

Otherwise You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late.

Modal verbs If you carry too many bags, you might drop the eggs.

Type 2

Las oraciones de tipo 2 hablan de condiciones imaginarias, es decir, aquellas que en el momento de

hablar son muy poco probables. Los hablantes utilizan oraciones en presente, normalmente consejos.

If + (Past simple) , + (Conditional simple): If I knew her address, I would send her a postcard.

(Conditional simple) + if + (Past simple): I would buy a new car if I had more money.

Other if·clauses

If I were you If I were you, I’d call the police.

Modal verbs I could buy a new car if I had more money.

Alejandro

English Teacher


Type 3

En este tipo de condicionales hablamos sobre hechos pasados que no pueden cambiarse, por tanto, la

condición es imposible de realizar y su consecuencia es imaginaria. Los ejercicios siempre están en

pasado.

If + (Past perfect) , + (Conditional perfect): If I had studied, I wouldn’t have failed the exam.

(Conditional perfect) + if + (Past perfect): I wouldn’t have failed the exam if I had studied.

Other if·clauses

Modal verbs If I had brought some more money, I could have taken a taxi.

I wish/If only + (Past simple) I wish I had more money.

I wish/If only + (Past perfect) I wish I had met her before.

I wish/If only + (Cond. simple) If only he would stop laughing…!

Alejandro

English Teacher


Relative clauses

Las oraciones de relativo son frases cortas que comienzan con unas palabras denominadas pronombres

relativos, que definen o describen cosas. Los hay de dos clases:

Especificativas ‘defining’

Las utilizaremos para identificar exactamente a qué persona, cosa o lugar nos estamos refiriendo. La información

siempre es necesaria para que la oración tenga sentido.

The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

Podemos pensar que existe más de un doctor y que sólo nos referimos al que nos ha tratado.

Explicativas ‘non-defining’

Las usaremos para añadir información adicional a la oración. No es necesaria, por tanto, al eliminarla, no pierde el

sentido de la oración. Siempre van entre comas.

Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor.

En este ejemplo podemos pensar que existe más de un doctor y que sólo nos referimos al que nos ha tratado

utilizando un pronombre relativo.

Pronombres relativos

Sujeto1 Objeto Posesión

Persona who / that who / whom / that whose

Objeto which / that which / that whose / of which

Lugar where / in which

Tiempo when

Omitir el pronombre relativo

Debes diferenciar si la proposición hace referencia al sujeto o al objeto de la oración:

Sujeto

The doctor treated me. He told me not to worry.

The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

Objeto

I spoke to the doctor. He told me not to worry.

The doctor that I spoke to told me not to worry.

Podemos omitir el pronombre en una especificativa

que se refiere al objeto. The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.

Sin embargo, no podemos omitirlo en una que se

refiera al sujeto. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

En las oraciones explicativas, siempre debemos

mantener el pronombre.

Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and

sculptor.

También podemos omitir el pronombre después de un

superlativo. That was the best meal I’ve ever eaten!

1 Who y which no se pueden sustituir por that en las non-defining.

Alejandro

English Teacher


Combinar oraciones

Los rephrasing de las oraciones de relativo consisten en combinar dos o más oraciones mediante pronombres

relativos.

A bus goes to Cairo. It leaves from here.

The bus that goes to Cairo leaves from here.

A woman teaches us music. She also plays in an

orchestra.

The woman who teaches us music also plays in an

orchestra.

We took a road. It led to an ancient temple. The road (that) we took led to an ancient temple.

We spoke to a woman. She gave us directions. The woman (that) we spoke to gave us directions.

Hay que tener cuidado con los cambios en las oraciones.

A girl’s case was stolen. She went to the police.

The girl whose case was stolen went to the police.

A doctor treated me. She told me not to worry. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

I spoke to a doctor. She told me not to worry. The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.

El error más frecuente es el siguiente:

The bus that goes to Cairo it leaves from here.

Al combinar oraciones, no repetimos el sujeto añadiendo otro pronombre. (The bus · · · it)

Alejandro

English Teacher


Conditional sentences

Las oraciones condicionales son aquellas que nos indican una condición y su consecuencia. Los tiempos

verbales que utilizaremos dependen de si las condiciones y sus consecuencias son reales o imaginarias, o si son

hechos verídicos y están enlazadas con un evento en particular.

Normalmente, la condición viene siempre antes que la consecuencia, en ese caso usaremos una coma; pero en

caso que sea la consecuencia lo que venga antes, no usaremos comas.

Type 0

El condicional de tipo 0 se utiliza frecuentemente en verdades generales, hechos o resultados habituales.

Estructura

If + Presente simple, + Presente simple

Presente simple + if + Presente simple

Ice melts if we heat it.

Type 1

Utilizamos los condicionales de tipo 1 cuando ocurren condiciones que pueden ser posibles. También podemos

utilizar el imperativo para expresar esta clase de condición.

Estructura

If + Presente simple, + Futuro simple

Futuro simple + if + Presente simple

Imperativo + and + Futuro simple

If you buy me a diamond ring, I’ll love you forever.

Type 2

Lo utilizamos en las condiciones imaginarias, es decir, aquellas que en este momento son prácticamente

imposibles o muy poco probables. El tiempo utilizado es el Pasado simple, aunque el hablante esté pensando en

el presente o el futuro.

Estructura

If + Pasado simple, + Condicional simple

Condicional simple + if + Pasado simple

I would buy a new car if I had more money.

If I were you, I wouldn’t talk to her anymore.

Además, podemos utilizar was/were para dar consejos.

Alejandro

English Teacher


Type 3

En este tipo de condicionales hablamos sobre hechos pasados que ya no pueden cambiarse, por tanto, la

condición es imposible de realizar y su consecuencia es imaginaria.

Estructura

If + Pasado perfecto, + Condicional perfecto

Condicional perfecto + if + Pasado perfecto

If I had studied harder, I wouldn’t have failed the exam.

Modal verbs with conditional sentences

Podemos utilizar los verbos modales can, could, may, might, must y should en vez de will/won’t o

would/wouldn’t.

If you carry too many bags, you might drop the eggs.

If I had brought some more money, I could have taken a taxi.

Other if-clause words

Unless As long as; Provided/Providing (that)

Tiene la misma función que if, pero

en sentido negativo. Lo utilizamos

en el tipo 1.

Usamos estas expresiones para expresar una idea muy fuerte de

limitación. Siguen la norma del resto de condicionales.

We will go out unless it rains. You can go out tonight as long as you come back by midnight.

In case In case of Otherwise

No tiene el mismo significado que

if, sino que expresa una idea de

precaución. Es decir, la acción del

verbo aún no se ha realizado.

No tiene el mismo significado que

in case, sino que el hecho a ocurrir

sólo se realiza cuando la condición

se activa.

A veces una condición puede

sobreentenderse aunque no se

manifieste.

Take an umbrella in case it rains. In case of fire, break the glass. You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll

be late.

I wish; If only

Utilizado con el Pasado simple, expresa un deseo en el momento de hablar.

Junto al Pasado perfecto, expresa un lamento en el pasado que no puede cambiarse.

Junto al Condicional simple, expresa el deseo de que ocurriera algo para cambiar algo que molesta al sujeto.

I wish I had more money. I wish I had met him before. If only he would stop laughing…!

I’d rather

Suelen ir seguidas de un verbo en Pasado simple, y tienen un sentido de presente.

Para negarlo, se escribe not después de rather.

Indicando a un objeto indirecto, se utiliza para expresar consejo.

I’d rather you didn’t bring cameras. I’d rather not go to the match, if you don’t mind.

Alejandro

English Teacher

Text organisers

There are many features of texts which help the reader understand how the information in the text is organised.

This term covers a wide range of linking words and phrases which make texts easier to understand. By connector

is meant any word or phrase that can stand alone at the front of a sentence, often followed by a comma.

Adding a point

Also is used to add a point within a sentence. It is not normally used as a connector at the beginning of a

sentence in formal speech and writing.

Cars use up valuable energy resources and also pollute the environment.

As well as + noun/-ing can be used in an introductory clause.

Cars use up valuable energy resources as well as polluting the environment.

As well as polluting the environment, cars use up valuable energy resources.

In addition can be used as a connector

Cars use up valuable energy resources and also pollute the environment. In addition, they

make life unpleasant in big cities.

Contrast or concession

However can be used as a connector at the beginning or end of the sentence. Note that there is always

punctuation on both sides of it (full stop or comma). It cannot be sued to connect two clauses.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy. However, they have their drawbacks.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy. They have their drawbacks, however.

Despite, in spite of + noun/-ing/the fact that + Subj. + Verb introduces a point which contrasts with a

previous statement.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy. Despite being easy to build, they do

have some drawbacks.

But joins two contrasting ideas. The but-clause always comes second.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy but they do have some drawbacks.

While, whereas, whilst

I prefer city life whereas John prefers countrylife.

Although contrasts two sentences.

Although we paid an enormous amount of money for the meal, the food was disappointing.

Though has the same meaning as although. It’s more common in informal speech or writing. It can be

placed before or after the main clause and sometimes at the end. It requires a subject and a verb.

We paid an enormous amount of money for the meal. The food was disappointing, though.

Even though gives extra emphasis between two contrasting ideas within a sentence. It can be placed

before or after the main clause.

Comparing and contrasting

On the one hand, ... (but/while) on the other hand introduce contrasting points.

On the one hand, nuclear power does not add carbon to the atmosphere, but on the other hand

it presents other more serious pollution risks.

On the other hand on its own introduces a new contrasting paragraph.

The job was interesting, but, on the other hand, it was also not very well paid.

Alejandro

English Teacher

Results and reasons

Consequently, as a result (of)

As a result of this neglect, it is now in a poor condition.

Due to is a preposition with the same meaning as owing to, but which can follow be.

Maria had to retire from professional tennis due to a foot injury.

Exceptions and alternatives

Except (for), apart from

Except for Helen, who was still reading her old one, everyone chose a new book.

Everyone chose a new book, apart from Helen, who was still reading the old one.

Sequences

Writers often signal that they are going to make a list of points.

There are a number of ways in which this can be done.

There are several ways of looking at this matter.

First of all, secondly, thirdly… next, finally… are often used to number points in a sequence.

Except for Helen, who was still reading her old one, everyone chose a new book.

Words such as point, issue, problem, advantage can also be numbered.

The first problem facing the government is...

In an argument, there is often a conclusion which can be introduced by in conclusion.

In conclusion, we could say that…

Summarizing

To sum up can be used to introduce a summarizing comment at the end of an argument.

To sum up, it seems clear that…

Giving examples

For example, examples include, to take an example need punctuation before and after.

To take an example, swans fly several thousand kilometres…

e.g. is an abbreviation from Latin exempli gratia.

To take an example, swans fly several thousand kilometres…

Such as introduces an example.

Many birds, such as swans, migrate over long distances.

Replacing words

In other words, to put it in another way are used to introduce a point we want to make clearer by

repeating it in a different way.

Describing types

A kind of, a sort of can describe a type of something.

An okapi is a kind of small giraffe.

Making clear

In other words, to put it in another way are used to introduce a point we want to make clearer by

repeating it in a different way.

I think you should go out more with friends, or perhaps take a part-time job. In other words,

make more of an effort to be sociable.

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