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A S H RA E J O U R N A L

rior to the late 1800s, rotating shaft power was limited mainlyto trains and ships. There were wind and water mills for pump-ing water and grinding grains and some steam-driven waterpumps and ventilation fans. However, few people lived in windyregions or near fast-moving streams. Some ventilation fan de-signs for mine shafts were powered by man, wind or waterpressure.

Early RefrigerationRefrigeration was provided by ice from frozen ponds and

rivers in the more northern climates. This ice was harvested andstored in winter and then sold during warmer weather. Ice tradebecame a major industry in the United States. Frederic Tudor ofBoston started shipping ice to warmer climates in 1815. He be-came known in 1864 as the �Ice King of the World,� and Bostonice was shipped to every major seaport in South America, theFar East, China, the Philippines, India and Australia.1

As pollution around the cities increased, particularly in theform of sewage run-off, the market emerged for artificial ice. Useof steam boilers to drive the thermodynamic process cycle andproduce ice was growing rapidly. Daniel L. Holden and J. An-drew Muhl built and operated mechanical refrigeration plantsin 1865 and 1867 in San Antonio, Texas. Holden designed im-provements to the Carré absorption units of Paris, which madeSan Antonio in 1867 and New Orleans in 1869 the southernregional leaders in making artificial ice2 (see Figure 1).

The areas that could harvest �natural� ice tried to convincepeople that the �artificial� ice was somehow unnatural and tobe avoided. But the areas that were producing manufacturedice were able to convince people that �natural� ice was con-

By Bruce L. Flaniken, P.E.Member ASHRAE

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This is the second article in our special series. As we ap-proach the year 2000, these articles commemorate a cen-tury of innovation in the HVAC&R arts and sciences andsalute the start of a new millennium, which will undoubtedlybring further progress.

taminated. As costs came into line with the natural ice costs,producers of artificial ice were able to make significant inroadsinto the northern monopoly on ice.3

Ice delivery was hard work. Imagine lugging around a 300 to400 lb (140 to 180 kg) block of ice on your shoulder like theyoung man above!4 By 1909, ice was produced in approximately2,000 refrigeration plants.5

Heating: From Stoves to SteamHeating was provided by wood-burning fireplaces, which

were later replaced with cast-iron radiant stoves that burnedwood and/or coal. As cities became more populated, fire con-trol became much more important. Fireproof construction wasmandated by some city codes after several large and costlyfires destroyed central districts.

Steam boilers became a standard for heating buildings. Cen-tral district steam plants that sold steam to buildings were de-

Application of Electric PowerIn HVAC&R Systems

From Blocks of Pond Ice to Hermetic Motors

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Application of Electric PowerIn HVAC&R Systems

About the AuthorBruce L. Flaniken, P.E., heads the mechanical departmentfor Callins, Haggard & Associates Consulting Mechanical,Electrical & Plumbing Engineers, Corpus Christi, Texas. Heis a past chapter historian of ASHRAE Region 8.

The First Century of Air Conditioning

Application of Electric PowerIn HVAC&R Systems

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veloped. The steam boilers were large andexpensive to operate and required super-vision and maintenance. Coal-handlingbunkers and stokers also constituted aportion of the overhead.

As steam-driven engines developedas a reliable means of rotating shaft powerand heat sources, they began to be usedas the power source for refrigeration andventilation systems (see Figure 2). Of thesteam engines used for this purpose in1914, more than 90% exceeded 15 millioncalories/hour (63 MJ).

Facilities that had a large steamboiler used the steam to provide forventilation with large, low rpm centrifu-gal fans because they could convertthe steam to rotary shaft work. Smaller,steam-driven piston engines were de-veloped for the purchasers of centraldistrict steam to convert steam to ro-tary shaft horsepower for all manner ofequipment (see Figure 3).

Wood- and coal-burning steam-driven vehicles were developed in thelate 1890s. An experienced operatorcould achieve sustained vehicle move-ment or sustained rotation of the steam-driven power take-off wheel from a coldstart after about 1 ½ to 2 hours of hardwork. The engines were quite power-ful, but they weighed several tons. TheStanley Steamer automobile was fairlyimpressive in appearance, size andspeed.

Early VentilationIn other areas, ventilation was almost

non-existent. Natural ventilation was con-trolled by the building orientation andplacement of windows to catch the pre-vailing breezes. High ceilings and large,open central staircases with ventilateddomes provided some assistance to gra-vity and Mother Nature. Ventilation didnot truly take off until after the mid-1880s,when the use of steam and electricity hadspread. An exception was a kerosene-powered fan sold by the Whirlwind Fan

Figure 1: Holden�s improved ice plant. The structure in the center is a condenser with a �zig-zag� heat exchanger (from Scientific American, May 22, 1880, p. 322).

Figure 2: Early steam fan from B. F. Sturtevant Co. (from Heating and Ventilation, June1895, p. xvii).

Company. The sales slogan for this unitboasted, �It will give you greater effi-ciency and enable you to do more andbetter work.�

The electrical industry was growingrapidly. New patents and ideas for resi-dential electrical appliances were beingadvertised as the best or most natural wayof life. The world was rather unsophisti-cated and uneducated, but some of thebiggest changes to affect humankindwere taking place. The development ofsteam and electric-powered equipmentsurged ahead due to better understand-ing of electrical, mechanical and thermo-dynamic principles.

Direct or Alternating Current?The competition between direct cur-

rent (DC) and alternating current (AC)was fierce. Thomas Edison was a primeproponent of DC power because of hisinvolvement in the design and marketingof direct current lighting, power distribu-tion and motors. He felt that AC powerwas only good for electrocutions. DCpower did provide a flicker-free light andcould vary the speed of a motor by vary-ing the voltage. Its major drawback, how-ever, was its inability to transmit via wireover long distances.

George Westinghouse, Jr. was the prin-cipal proponent of AC power. The flickerproblem with incandescent lighting wasresolved by using more cycles per sec-

J a n u a r y 1 9 9 9 A S H R A E J o u r n a l 3 9

H I S T O R Y

ond, ranging from 133½ to 25 cycles persecond.6 The various voltages and cyclesfor AC power transmission were beingtested, and the ones that worked bestwere retained.

By 1914, most frequencies above 60cycles per second had been abandoned,but it took another 20 to 25 years for 60cycles per second power to become thestandard in the United States. Some othercountries settled on 50 cycles per second.

Generally, the only electrical load of acentral power generator plant was thestreet lighting at night in the central busi-ness district. Some single-phase, induc-tion-type motors with brushes and com-mutators became popular, especiallyamong small industries in suburbantowns.

Use of small electric fans, curling irons,irons for laundry, washing machines andhair dryers increased the use of electricpower, particularly during the idle day-time period when the generators wereunder-utilized.7,8 This trend has reversedin the present day. Modern utility com-panies now offer premiums to shift thedaytime power consumption to eveninghours because their generating capacityis underutilized at night.

Single-phase induction and synchro-nous motors for AC power were popularwith the public (see Figure 4). To prop-erly start synchronous motors, however,required experience.9 The power utilitycompanies liked the synchronous motorsbecause they could be operated with a1.0 or higher leading power factor to help

correct the lagging power factor of theutility distribution system.10 Automaticstarters were developed later. Because itwas difficult to control the motor speed,almost all the applications used belt-driveconnections to drive the machinery.

Advances in Motor TechnologyThe physicist and inventor Nikola

Tesla began working on AC electrical de-signs as a college student in Croatia dur-ing the 1870s. At this time, it was thoughtimpossible to construct a motor withouta commutator. Tesla worked as a tele-phone engineer before quitting to developin his mind a complete alternating currentpower system with generators, transform-ers and motors. He then took a job as an

Figure 4: Precursor to open drip-proof motors (from Engineering Review, Feb. 1902,p. xxi).

electrical engineer, but no one was inter-ested in his seemingly incredible ideas.He developed working models of genera-tors and motors while on a long-term as-signment in Strasbourg, then part of Ger-many. Tesla moved to the United Statesin 1887, at age 31, where he filed for 25patents covering virtually the entire fieldof alternating current generation, distri-bution and polyphase, brushless induc-tion AC motors. Shortly after, he sold hispatents to George Westinghouse, whoimplemented widespread use of alternat-ing current.11

Prior to 1891, there had been no dem-onstration of electrical transmission of anyconsiderable amount of power over anyconsiderable distance. A demonstrationof the capability to transmit 100 hp (75kW) of AC electricity a distance of 106miles (171 km) from Lauffen to Frankfurtin Germany was staged in 1891 for a tech-nical exhibition. The wye-connected,three-phase generators were wound for55 volts and driven by hydraulic turbines.A transformer increased the voltage toapproximately 30,000 volts.

The three copper conductors wereonly 4 mm (0.16 in.) in diameter each. Theincoming power was stepped-down todrive a 60-hp (45-kW), four-pole poly-phase induction motor at a speed of 1,200rpm and supplied power for incandescentlights and some other small motors.12

The AC polyphase motor becamemore popular. The HVAC&R industry wasable to capitalize on its popularity as the

Figure 3: Two single-acting duplexcompressors and steam engine directconnected (from the Victor Ice andRefrigerating Machines, 1899.Stilwell-Bierce & Smith-Vaile Co.,Dayton, Ohio).

4 0 A S H R A E J o u r n a l J a n u a r y 1 9 9 9

Figure 5: Early electric-drive refrigeration compressor (from Ice and Refrigeration, Aug.1895, p. 88).

polyphase motor spread to small, com-mercial applications. Electric power costsin 1897 averaged about $0.10/kWh.13 Theprice dropped to approximately $0.03/kWh in 1950 and is now approaching$0.10/kWh again.

Fans and pumps continued to be di-rect-drive with several available rpm con-figurations. By 1925, the electric motorwas the preferred method of drive, pro-viding 62%, vs. 32% for steam enginedrives, while diesel and gas engines wereused 4% and 2% of the time, respectively.3

As refrigeration systems that were pow-ered by electrical motors became avail-able (see Figure 5) and the electrical in-frastructure developed, the use of natu-ral and artificial ice for refrigerating effectwas discontinued. This was a welcomedevelopment for merchants and consum-ers who had suffered the messiness ofthe ice refrigeration systems.14 The IceRefrigeration Blue Book listed 100 dif-ferent refrigeration equipment options in1909, which increased to more than 260 in1911.15

The use of hermetic motors evolved inthe early 1930s, driven by the competi-tion between General Electric, Frigidaire,Servel and Westinghouse to capture thegreatest portion of the emerging homerefrigerator market and the expandingcommercial refrigeration market. West-inghouse applied a variant of the hermeticrefrigeration compressor to air condition-ing by making a console-style room airconditioner in 1933.16

ConclusionComfort air conditioning has expanded

from the wealthy residential and upscalecommercial establishments to become a

References1. Donaldson, B. and B. Nagengast, eds. 1994.Heat & Cold�Mastering the Great Indoors,22, 23; 45�64; 65�160; 189�243. ASHRAE.

2. �Steam versus electrically driven plants.�Aug. 1925. Ice and Refrigeration, 115.

3. �Prime movers for ice making and refriger-ating plants.� Aug. 1925. Ice and Refrigera-tion, 115.

4. From Ice and Refrigeration, 81. April 1905.

5. Tweedy, E. 1913. �Mechanical refrigera-tion and ice making from a central station pointof view.� General Electric Review (16)8:584�593.

6. A Century of Electric Fans, 22�34. 1957.General Electric.

7. �Refrigeration at the electrical show.� 1908.Ice and Refrigeration (34):32.

8. Kimball, F. 1907. �The utility of the singlephase motor.� General Electric Review9(6):243�244.

9. Hibbard, T. 1925. Refrigerating EngineerReview 11(11):392�398.

10. Newbury, F. and P. Alger. 1934. �The de-velopment of electrical machinery in theUnited States, Part II: transformers and mo-tors.� General Electric Review 35(4):455�464.

11. Nagengast. B. 1982�83. Pioneers in Elec-trical Research, 1�2. ASHRAE Research Pam-phlet.

12. Some Events in the Early Days of thePolyphase Induction Motor. General ElectricHistorical Film Script, 42�49.

13. Thornton, F. Electrical Home Appli-ances�100 Years. National Electrical Manu-facturers Association Engineering Bulletin#45.

14. Goddard, G. Jan. 1908. �Motor-driven re-frigeration machines.� Ice and Refrigeration, 11.

15. �Electrical refrigeration in the ice creambusiness.� May 25, 1912. Electrical Reviewand Western Electrician 60(21):983�987.

16. Nagengast, B. 1998. �History of sealedrefrigeration systems, Part 3.� ASHRAE Jour-nal 40(1): 43�47. nFrom Ice and Refrigeration, Aug. 1905, p. 55.

virtual necessity in contemporary times.It is possible in many areas to go from anair-conditioned home to an air-condi-tioned office in an air-conditioned carwithout experiencing more than a few mo-ments of discomfort from the ambientoutdoor temperature and humidity. Andmodern refrigerators require no one tocarry hundreds of pounds of ice up rick-ety ladders propped precariously againstthe side of a building.

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