Application of 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography for ... · the dam. The dam failed in August...
Transcript of Application of 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography for ... · the dam. The dam failed in August...
DOI:10.23883/IJRTER.2018.4016.JEVAS 110
Application of 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography
for Diagnosing Leakage in Earth Rock-Fill Dam
Vijayshree Horadi 1, Chaitanya Krishna Jambotkar 2
1 8TH SEM Student in Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, K.L.E.I.T, Hubli, India. 2 Asst. Prof. in Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, K.L.E.I.T, Hubli, India.
Abstract—Early electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a 1D device which is divided into electrical sounding and electrical profile. The vertical electrical and horizontal electrical changes in
different underground depth are reflected by the two methods respectively. They can obtain the
geoelectric data too little to reflect the complicated geological conditions. With the development of
CT imaging technology, technique for tomography of electrical exploration is developed. It shows
that electrical resistivity tomography technology has developed rapidly and used widely in the field.
3D electrical resistivity tomography can obtain more data than 2D. 2D electrical resistivity
tomography only can obtain information along the survey line direction, but 3D electrical resistivity
tomography can obtain information in horizontal and vertical direction, and using the volume
rendering image processing technology the more accurate results can be achieved. Flood and
drought disasters occur frequently that cause heavy losses in India in recent years, and the irrigation
and water conservancy infrastructure exposed are very weak. We must vigorously strengthen the
construction of water conservancy. We must consolidate the reinforcement results of large and
medium-sized dangerous reservoirs, and speed up the reinforcement pace of small dangerous
reservoirs, as soon as possible to eliminate the hidden danger of reservoirs, recover the control
capacity of flood, and enhance the regulation capacity of water resources. The leakage is a common
dangerous in earth rock-fill dam. Through access to literature, we find that many water conservancy
projects are not properly dealt with the leakage problem results in a series of accidents. The problem
of the leakage in the dam is more and more serious in reservoir, and the space distribution of the
leakage channel is understood by 3D electrical resistivity tomography detection technology, which
provides a scientific basis for the next step of the analysis. It can be concluded that, the 3D electrical
resistivity tomography can be used to understand the development of the leakage channel and the
diagnosis effect is good when earth rock-fill dam is leaking.
Keywords— Electrical Resistivity Tomography, Dam leakage, rock fill dam.
I. INTRODUCTION
More than 16 percent of 18,000 reservoir dams in Korea are reported to have leakage problems and
need to be repaired. Recently, resistivity monitoring has been applied to wide range of engineering
and environmental problems with the help of automatic/rapid data acquisition, data communication
and effective interpretation software. Resistivity survey and long term monitoring at an embankment
dam can provide helpful information about leakage zones.
Resistivity monitoring is based on the fact that a change in the porosity leads to the changes in water
content and fine particles, which alter the electrical resistivity. At every embankment dam, internal
erosion always occurs as time passes. The internal erosion generally develops into piping over a long
time by backward erosion and concentrated leak, and finally leads to dam failure. Thus internal
erosion and piping are major cause of embankment dam failure. Internal erosion initially results in an
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increased porosity due to loss of fine particles in the core. Resistivity is known to be very sensitive to
the changes in porosity in embankment dams. Thus resistivity monitoring is a reasonable method to
find out the leakage zone. However, resistivity is strongly influenced by seasonal variation of
temperature, TDS of reservoir water and water level (SJÖDAHL et al., 2008). Also, various noises
prevent accurate measurement of resistivity. These make it very hard to accurately interpret
resistivity monitoring data.
In the resistivity monitoring, significant challenges still remain in data acquisition system, noise
suppression and time-lapse inversion for more detailed and quantitative interpretation. Here, we will
present various problems occurring in the resistivity monitoring for the detection of leakage zones at
embankment dams.
A. History of Dam Failures
A few case histories of dam failures in India and in USA are described briefly below.
i. Kaddam Project Dam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Built in Adilabad, Andhra in 1957 - 58, the dam was a composite structure, earth fill and/or rock fill
and gravity dam. It was 30.78 m high and 3.28 m wide at its crest. The storage at full was 1.366 *
108 m3. The observed floods were 1.47 * 104 m3/s. The dam was overtopped by 46 cm of water
above the crest, inspite of a free board allowance of 2.4 m that was provided, causing a major breach
of 137.2 m wide that occurred on the left bank. Two more breaches developed on the right section of
the dam. The dam failed in August 1958.
ii. Kaila Dam, Gujarat, India
The Kaila Dam in Kachch, Gujarat, India was constructed during 1952 - 55 as an earth fill dam with
a height of 23.08 m above the river bed and a crest length of 213.36 m. The storage of full reservoir
level was 13.98 million m3 . The foundation was made of shale. The spillway was of ogee shaped
and ungated. The depth of cutoff was 3.21 m below the river bed. Inspite of a freeboard allowance of
1.83 m at the normal reservoir level and 3.96 m at the maximum reservoir level the energy
dissipation devices first failed and later the embankment collapsed due to the weak foundation bed in
1959.
iii. Kodaganar Dam, Tamil Nadu, India
This dam in the India, was constructed in 1977 on a tributary of Cauvery River as an earthen dam
with regulators, with five vertical lift shutters each 3.05 m wide. The dam was 15.75 m high above
the deepest foundation, having a 11.45 m of height above the river bed. The storage at full reservoir
level was 12.3 million m3, while the flood capacity was 1275 m3/s. A 2.5 m free board above the
maximum water level was provided. The dam failed due to overtopping by flood waters which
flowed over the downstream slopes of the embankment and breached the dam along various reaches.
There was an earthquake registered during the period of failure although the foundation was strong.
The shutters were promptly operated during flood, but the staff could only partially lift the shutters,
because of failure of power. Although a stand-by generator set was commissioned soon, this could
not help and they resorted to manual operation of shutters. In spite of all efforts, water eventually
overtopped the embankment. Water gushed over the rear slopes, as a cascade of water was eroding
the slopes. Breaches of length 20 m to 200 m were observed. It appeared as if the entire dam was
overtopped and breached.
iv. Machhu II (Irrigation Scheme) Dam, Gujarat, India
This dam was built near Rajkot in Gujarat, India, on River Machhu in August, 1972, as a composite
structure. It consisted of a masonry spillway in river section and earthen embankments on both sides.
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The embankment had a 6.1 m top width, with slopes 1 V : 3 H and 1 V : 2 H respectively for the
upstream and downstream slopes and a clay core extending through alluvium to the rocks below. The
upstream face had a 61 cm small gravel and a 61 cm hand packed riprap. The dam was meant to
serve an irrigation scheme. Its, storage capacity of 1.1 * 108 m3. The dam had a height of 22.56 m
above the river bed, a 164.5 m of crest length of overflow section, and a total of 3742 m of crest
length for the earth dam.
The dam failed on August 1, 1979, because of abnormal floods and inadequate spillway capacity.
Consequent overtopping of the embankment caused a loss of 1800 lives. A maximum depth of 6.1 m
of water was over the crest and within two hours, the dam failed. While the dam failed at a peak
discharge of 7693 m3/s, the figure was revised to 26,650 m3/s after failure, with a free board of 2.45
m given, providing also an auxiliary spillway with a full capacity of 21,471 m3/s. The observed
actual flood depth over spillway crest was 4.6 m with an observed 14,168 to 19,835 m3/s, while the
design depth over spillway crest was 2.4 m.
v. Nanaksagar Dam, Punjab, India
Situated in Punjab in northwestern India, the dam was constructed in 1962 at Bhakra, with a
reservoir capacity of 2.1 * 106 m3. An estimated maximum discharge of 9,711 m3/s had occurred on
August 27, 1967, due to heavy monsoon rains that were heaviest in twenty years. This caused dam to
fail. The water that gushed through the leakage created a 7.6 m breach, which later widened to 45.7
m. The condition of the reservoir had worsened, causing a 16.8 m boil downstream of toe, which was
responsible for the settlement of the embankment. As the dam was overtopped, causing a breach 150
m wide. A downstream filter blanket and relief wells were provided near the toe but were insufficient
to control the seepage. The relief wells each 50 mm in diameter were spaced at a distance of 15.2 to
30.4 m.
vi. Panshet Dam: (Ambi, Maharashtra, India, 1961 - 1961)
The Panshet Dam, near Pune in Maharashtra India, was under construction when the dam had failed.
It was zoned at a height of 51 m and having an impervious central core outlet gates located in a
trench of the left abutment and hoists were not fully installed when floods occurred at the site of
construction. The reservoir had a capacity of 2.70 million m3.
Between June 18 and July 12, 1961, the recorded rainfall was 1778 mm. The rain caused such a rapid
rise of the reservoir water level that the new embankment could not adjust to the new loading
condition. The peak flow was estimated at 4870 m3/s . Water rose at the rate of 9 m per day initially,
which rose up to 24 m in 12 days. Due to incomplete rough outlet surface the flow through was
unsteady which caused pressure surges. Cracks were formed along the edges of the right angles to
the axis of the dam causing a subsidence of 9 m wide. An estimated 1.4 m of subsidence had
occurred in 2.5 hours, leaving the crest of the dam 0.6 m above the reservoir level. Failure was
neither due to insufficient spillway capacity nor due to foundation effect. It was attributed to
inadequate provision of the outlet facility during emergency. This caused collapse of the structure
above the outlets.
vii. Khadakwasla Dam (Mutha, Maharashtra, India, 1864 - 1961)
The Khadkawasla Dam, near Pune in Maharashtra, India was constructed in 1879 as a masonry
gravity dam, founded on hard rock. It had a height of 31.25 m above the river bed, with a 8.37 m
depth of foundation. Its crest length was 1.471 m and had a free board of 2.74 m. The dam had a
flood capacity of 2,775 m3/s and a reservoir of 2.78 * 103 m3. The failure of the dam occurred
because of the breach that developed in Panshet Dam, upstream of the Khadkawasla reservoir. The
upstream dam released a tremendous volume of water into the downstream reservoir at a time when
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the Khadkawasla reservoir was already full, with the gates discharging at near full capacity. This
caused overtopping of the dam because inflow was much above the design flood. The entire length
of the dam spilling 2.7 m of water. Vibration of the structure was reported, as the incoming flood
was battering the dam. Failure occurred within four hours of the visiting flood waters.
viii. Tigra Dam: (Sank, Madhya Pradesh, India, 1917 - 1917)
This was a hand placed masonry (in time mortar) gravity dam of 24 m height, constructed for the
purpose of water supply. A depth of 0.85 m of water overtopped the dam over a length of 400 m.
This was equivalent to an overflow of 850 m3s-1 (estimated). Two major blocks were bodily pushed
away. The failure was due to sliding. The dam was reconstructed in 1929.
ix. Teton Dam, Teton river canyon, Idaho, USA, NA – 1976
The construction began in April, 1972, and the dam was completed on November 26, 1975. The dam
was designed as a zoned earth and gravel fill embankment, having slopes of 3.5 H : 1 V on the
upstream and 2 H : 1 V and 3 H : 1 V on the downstream, a height above the bed rock of 126 m, and
a 945 m long crest. The dam had a height of 93 m, a crest width of 10.5 m, and had side slopes of 1
V : 3 H on the upstream side and 1 V : 2.5 H on its downstream side. It had a reservoir capacity of
3.08 * 108 m3. The embankment material consisted of clayey silt, sand, and rock fragments taken
from excavations and burrow areas of the river's canyon area. It had a compacted central core.
Narrow trenches 21 m deep, excavated in rock and compacted with sandy silt and a deep grout
curtain beneath a grout cap the central zone were the measures taken to control the foundation
seepage.
The dam failed on June 5, 1976, releasing 308 million m3 of reservoir water. A flood at an estimated
peak discharge in excess of 28,300 m3/s had occurred. The peak outflow discharge at the time of
failure was 4.67 * 104 m3/s. A breach 46 m wide at its bottom and 79 m deep had formed. The time
of failure was recorded as four hours. The cause of failure was attributed to piping progressing at a
rapid rate through the body of the embankment. The two panels that investigated into the causes of
failures were unanimous in agreement that the violence and extent of failure completely removed all
direct evidence of the details and sequence of failure. However, the main findings suggested that
erosion on the underside of the core zone by excessive leakage through and over the grout curtain
was the cause of destruction. "Wet seams" of very low density in the left abutment extended into the
actual failure area. These caused local deficiencies in the compaction of the fill, and might have been
the locus of the initial piping failure.
Earlier on the day of failure, leaks were observed about 30 m below the top of the dam. After four
hours, efforts to fill the holes failed and the dam breached by the noon time. The fundamental cause
of failure was regarded as a combination of geological factors and design decisions, which taken
together allowed the failure to occur. Numerous open joints in abutment rock and scarcity of more
suitable materials for the impervious zone were pointed out by the panel as the main causes for the
failure of the dam.
x. Malpasset Dam
An arch dam of height 66 m, with 22 m long crest at its crown. When the collapse occurred, the dam
was subjected to a record head of water, which was just about 0.3 m below the highest water level,
resulting from 5 days of unprecedented rainfall. The failure occurred as the arch ruptured, as the left
abutment gave away. The left abutment moved 2 m horizontally without any notable vertical
movement. The water marks left by the wave revealed that the release of water was almost at once.
The volume of water relieved was 4.94 Mm3 of water. 421 lives were lost and the damage was
estimated at 68 million US dollars.
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II. ELETRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY
Early electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is 1D and divided into electrical sounding and
electrical profile. The vertical electrical and horizontal electrical changes in different underground
depth are reflected by the two methods respectively. They can obtain the geoelectric data too little to
reflect the complicated geological conditions. With the development of CT imaging technology,
some scholars have applied the technique of tomography to electrical exploration. Loke, M.H. used
quasi Newton method to improve the speed of calculation of the least square method; Feng Rui, the
electrical resistivity tomography technology is applied to the hydro geological investigation which
has achieved good results; J.E. Chambers estimated river sand and gravel deposits by using 3D
electrical resistivity tomography. It shows that electrical resistivity tomography technology has
developed rapidly and used widely in the field. 3D electrical resistivity tomography can obtain more
data than 2D. 2D electrical resistivity tomography only can obtain information along the survey line
direction, but 3D electrical resistivity tomography can obtain information in horizontal and vertical
direction, and using the volume rendering image processing technology the more accurate results can
be got. Zhou Xiaoxian , by comparing 2D and 3D observation experiment, the results show that the
resolution of 3D electrical resistivity tomography is obviously better than the 2D; Shi Longqing, the
water rich state of the working floor is analyzed by using horizontal and vertical slice in 3D electrical
resistivity tomography. This leads to electrical resistivity tomography which has developed gradually
from 2D to 3D.
Flood and drought disasters occur frequently that cause heavy losses in China in recent years, and the
irrigation and water conservancy infrastructure are exposed very weak. We must vigorously
strengthen the construction of water conservancy. We must consolidate the reinforcement results of
large and medium-sized dangerous reservoirs, and speed up the reinforcement pace of small
dangerous reservoirs, as soon as possible to eliminate the hidden danger of reservoirs, recover the
control capacity of flood, and enhance the regulation capacity of water resources. China plans to
reinforce the water conservancy project that has been the built during the period of “the 13th Five-
year”. Within the next two years, China’s average annual investment is expected to reach 600 billion.
This series of measures for the normal operation of the national economy and the guarantee of
national sustainable development has played an important role, but also makes full use of the
comprehensive benefits of the water conservancy facilities for flood control, irrigation, power
generation etc. In a word, the state pays more attention to water conservancy project reinforcement.
The leakage is a common dangerous in earth rock-fill dam.
Through access to literature, we find that many water conservancy projects are not properly dealt
with the leakage problem results in a series of accidents. The problem of the leakage in the dam is
more and more serious in Liuhuanggou reservoir, and the space distribution of the leakage channel is
understood by 3D electrical resistivity tomography detection technology, which provides a scientific
basis for the next step of the treatment .
A. Construction of ERT
The basic principles of electrical resistance tomography (ERT) are to take multiple measurements at
the periphery of a process vessel or pipeline and combine these to provide information on the
electrical properties of the process volume.
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Figure 1 Construction of ERT
ERT is applied to visualize multiphase unit processes to develop understanding; optimize
performance and provide a basis of control. The most common processes relate to mixing,
separation, flow and reactions.
Figure 2 Principle of ERT
An ITS electrical resistance tomography system consists of
Sensor array: These are sets of electrodes grouped in measurement channels. Each of which
delivers a cross-sectional image. The electrodes can be set in 8, 16 or 32 electrode groups and these
are most often configured in a linear or circular array. The electrode array is held in place by the
sensor body. Both can be made of robust materials to operate under challenging process conditions.
Instrument: ITS provides two main instrument platforms, p2+ which is robust, operates up to
8 measurement planes and highly configurable and the v5r which operates 2 measurement planes at
high speeds. The v5r can operate at higher conductivities than the p2+.
Software: this provides three functions. Firstly it configures the instrument to fit the process
conditions.
B. Working of ERT
Figure 3 Working of ERT
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Geo electrical measurements are used to determine the specific electrical resistivity ρ of the ground.
Geo electrical mapping by means of surface measurements is standard practice in archaeological
prospection. In the 1980s and early 1990s, increasing demand for engineering investigation
techniques led to the development of multichannel instruments and new inversion software. The
applications of 2D imaging and 3D tomography became more and more important for visualising and
interpreting complex archaeological structures at various depths. So far, most of the resistivity
models have used flat earth conditions, which are not applicable for archaeological objects related to
a certain topography. 3D resistivity structures associated with an arbitrary surface topography were
computed by T. Günther and C. Rücker using a recently developed 3D-inversion technique. The
reconstruction of a 3D resistivity distribution comprising all single measurements is based on a
sensitivity concept which assigns certain sensitivity to each spatial element. Sensitivities describe the
influence of a spatial cell to each measurement, and these interactions link all cells in the model
space. If the model space is not uniform but uneven at the surface, it must be adjusted. To do so, the
new technique uses an unstructured tetrahedral mesh which allows adaptation to arbitrary model
structures. Thus the geophysical prospection of archaeological objects characterized by a rough
terrain, like the landfill of tells and slag heaps, becomes possible. The sensitivity decreases with the
distance from the surface; therefore, the size of the model cells increases with depth. The resistivity
inversion includes an iterative algorithm which compares the calculated model with the
measurements and gradually improves the computed model.
C. ERT Device and Specification
Figure 4 ERT Device and its specification
The v5r is the newest instrument from ITS, providing customers with:
High speed
High accuracy
Expanded performance envelope
The v5r is a simple to use, high performance device, based on a new voltage-voltage measurement
technique. This means that the instrument is able to respond to changing process environments,
optimizing its performance without the need for re-calibration, and has the added benefit of
delivering a much wider performance envelope, thereby producing high quality data in large vessels
(diameters over 4m) or highly conducting media (brine and other highly ionic substrates).
The high frame rate of the v5r means that it can be used to monitor rapidly evolving processes or
dynamic flow conditions. When used in combination with AimFlow software, data can be used to
determine the flow profile of complex multiphase processes; allowing engineers to discriminate
between laminar, plug and other important flow conditions for deeper understanding and improved
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process control. What’s more, the instrument can be operated with an Ex module to enable sensors to
be deployed in hazardous environments (ATEX certified to EEx ia IIC T6).
When used for concentration measurements, the ability to measure full impedance across a wide
range of phase ratios means the v5r is able to deliver considerable accuracy across a wider
conductivity range compared to other devices.
The v5r delivers data in the standard ITS format, allowing data to be reviewed though ITS’s
tomography Toolsuite. In addition, the v5r operating system provides application support for
engineers who wish to develop utilities through the widely used LabView architecture.
III. APPLICATION EXAMPLE
A. Engineering Survey
Reservoir locate in Jinping village the town of Tiaoshi Chongqing Banan district, dam locate in
YiPing Rive the primary tributary of Yangtze River in the right bank. Liu Huanggou reservoir is type
of a small (2) water conservancy project with flood control and irrigation. 0.2 km2 control basin area
in Liu Huanggou reservoir, the main river channel length 0.8996 km, average down more than 95.92
per thousand. Dam is a homogeneous earth dam, with the maximum dam height 13.25 m, total
capacity 14.06 million∙m2, normal storage capacity 12.46 million∙m2, dead storage 0.51 million∙m2,
designed irrigation area 980 acres, the effective irrigation area 900 acres. The reservoir for V small
(2) water conservancy project, the permanent main building engineering for level 5, secondary
structure for level 5, temporary buildings for level 5.
B. The Layout of Surveying Line and Collect Data
In field investigation the five conditions of exit section the leakage gradient less than the allow
leakage gradient J = 0.45. It shows that the leakage stability of the dam is satisfied with the
requirement of the standard and will not occur leakage failure. But it is still found that there are two
leakage areas in the downstream of the dam. La Youting five survey lines that each survey line using
60 electrodes and the electrode spacing is 1m in the downstream slope. Electrode made of copper
that connects the host through a cable with 32 core, the measurement controlled by program-
controlled multichannel conversion switch in the host that also equipped with a RS232 interface and
a LCD screen 160 × 128 pixels. Putting electrodes into the dam accuracy with tape to make sure
contact with it well. The horizontal spacing of each survey line is 3 m, which is layout in parallel , as
shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6.
Figure 5. The layout of surveying line.
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Figure 6 The measurement in field.
The test data are collected by duk-2b high-density electrical instrument, and combined with the
terrain condition select Werner array, each survey line under the condition of Wenner array
instrument can collect 552 points and each point can get the voltage, current and the resistivity data,
five survey lines obtain 2760 points. Each line near the left bank is set to start electrode 1, the
minimum and maximum isolation coefficient are 1 and 16.
C. Inversion Results and Analysis
Putting the data into the computer and calculating the coordinate of each point, then open the
software, after inverting the test results are shown in Figure 7 Four representative resistivity
horizontal sections are selected. In the fifth and sixth layer of the shallow depth, two low resistivity
zones can be found in the downstream slope and in depth of the ninth and tenth layer, we can find
that there is a low resistivity area inside the dam, there is a oblique channel speculated that lead to
the downstream slope in the deep interior of the dam.
Figure 7 The resistivity of horizontal section XY.
In the direction along the dam axis, the resistivity distribution is shown in Figure 2.8. After the each
survey line with the topography, the actual situation of the resistivity distribution of the dam can be
more accurately reflected. We can find low resistivity area is wide that shows the leakage seriously
in deep inside dam in the first layer resistivity profile. From the inside to the outside, we can find that
there are two low resistivity zones in the third layer and fourth layer resistivity profile, the two low
resistivity zones in the fourth layer resistivity profile is basically consistent with the leakage area of
the downstream slope. It shows that again there is an inclined channel to the downstream slope.
Selecting three resistivity profiles in the direction of the vertical axis as shown in Figure 9 Three
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layers lower left part has a low resistivity zone obviously that indicates a wide range of leakage in
the dam. It is found that there is a narrow and low resistivity area in the thirty-first layer, but in the
thirtieth layer and thirty-second layer low resistivity area are not continuity, it shows that there is an
oblique upward channel lead to the downstream slope in the deep interior of the dam.
Figure 8 The resistivity along the dam axis section XZ (topography).
Figure 9 The resistivity of vertical section along dam axis YZ.
Figure 10 The 3D resistivity image
Figure 11 The processing results of volume rendering.
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Figure 12 Strengthen the processing results of volume rendering.
D. Summary of Analysis
Two low resistivity zones can be found in the fourth layer of Figure 5, which is consistent with the
actual situation, but only one leakage channel is found in Figure 6. In order to further understand the
actual situation of the internal leakage channel of the dam by processing the images. Putting the
inversion of the data into the image processing software and making into 3D resistivity image as
shown in Figure 7, and then using the volume rendering technology for processing the image,
through the data conversion and grid processing establish the relationship between the data and
model, using volume rendering function, by means of adjusting the color until only shows the blue
region. the results show that after rotating angle in Figure 9. The blue area caused by leakage in
Figure 10, the leakage area near the downstream slope of the left bank is caused by leakage of deep
inside the dam that there is an oblique upward leakage channel . In order to find the cause leakage
channel of leakage areas close to the right bank of the downstream slope, that strengthen the volume
rendering by adjusting the color range and found that near the right bank inside of the dam has a
upward leakage channel in Figure 11, there is a culvert pipe through the dam combined with dam
plan, it is predicted that the culvert pipe took place leakage phenomenon caused the leakage areas in
the downstream slope.
IV.CONCLUSION
The 3D electrical resistivity tomography is used to fetch the data regarding the development of the
leakage channel and the diagnosis of earth rock-fill dam. In this analysis of the leakage channel in
earth rock-fill dam use of volume rendering image processing technology to further understand the
spatial form of the leakage and provide help to find leakage. 3D electrical resistivity tomography in
the application can provide a wealth of data. The results are intuitive and easy to understand.
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and Gravel Deposit Reserve Estimation Using Three-Dimensional Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Bedrock
Surface Detection. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 93, 25-32.
II. Shi, L.Q., Zhai, P.H., Wei, J.C., Zhu, L., Han, J. and Yin, H.Y. (2008) Application of 3D High Density Electrical
Technique in Detecting the Water Enrichment of Strata. Journal of Shandong University of Science and
Technology, 27, 1-4.
III. Yang, J.F., Deng, J.Z., Chen, H. and K, H.Y. (2012) 3D Direct Resistivity Forward Modeling by the Precondit ion
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IV. Chambers, J.E., Wilkinson, P.B., Penn, S., Meldrum, P.I., Kuras, O., Loke, M.H., et al. (2013) River Terrace Sand
and Gravel Deposit Reserve Estimation Using Three-Dimensional Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Bedrock
Surface Detection. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 93, 25-32.