INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Bio-Technology is a research oriented science, a combination of Biology and

Technology. It covers a wide variety of subjects like Genetics, Biochemistry,

Microbiology, Immunology, Virology, Chemistry and Engineering and is also

concerned with many other subjects like Health and  Medicine, Agriculture and Animal

Husbandry, Cropping system and Crop Management, Ecology, Cell Biology, Soil

science and Soil Conservation, Bio-statistics, Plant Physiology, Seed Technology etc.

Bio-Technology is the use of living things, especially cells and bacteria in industrial

process. There is a great scope in this field as the demand for biotechnologist are

growing in India as well as abroad.

There are many applications of biotechnology such as developing various

medicines, vaccines and diagnostics, increasing productivity, improving energy

production and conservation. Biotechnology's intervention in the area of animal

husbandry has improved animal breeding. It also helps to improve the quality of seeds,

insecticides and fertilizers. Environmental biotechnology helps for pollution control and

waste management.

Although nowadays often associated only with advances in medical therapeutics

and production of pharmaceuticals, biotechnology is much more generally defined as

‘the application of microorganisms/cells or components thereof (e.g., enzymes) for the

production of useful goods and services’. As such it has a particularly important role to

play in the development of sustainable industrial processes. For example, a recent

McKinsey report cited in The Economist (2004) estimates that 5% of global chemical

sales are derived in part currently from industrial biotechnology and it is projected that

this will more than double by 2010. The report suggested that some of these new bio

based processes will result from the emerging techniques of recombinant DNA

technology, metabolic engineering, functional genomics and proteomics,

bioinformatics, and so on, which are rapidly outpacing advances in the more traditional

and catalytic-based chemical processes. Others are likely to be stimulated by the needs

of improved pollution control and the potential for using renewable, agricultural-based

raw materials.

Most of the information that has led to the emergence of biotechnology in the

present form has been generated during the last five decades. The setting up of a

separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT) (www.dbtindia.nic.in ) under the

Ministry of Science and Technology in 1986 gave a new impetus to the development of

the field of modern biology and biotechnology in India. More than 6000

biotechnologists of higher skill are required  in India as per the report from the Human

Resource Development Ministry. To overcome this vast requirement the department of

Biotechnology (DBT) has highlighted the need to set up a regulatory body for the

maintenance of standard education under the name of 'All- India Board of

Biotechnology Education and Training' under the AICTE .  

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in

agriculture, food science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological

Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of biotechnology:

"Biotechnology has contributed towards the exploitation of biological organisms

or biological processes through modern techniques, which could be profitably used in

medicine, agriculture, animal husbandry and environmental cloning."

Biotechnology is a popular term for the generic technology of the 21st century.

Although it has been utilized for centuries in traditional production processes, modern

biotechnology is only 50 years old and in the last decades it has been witnessing

tremendous developments. Bioengineering is the science upon which all

Biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new approaches and

modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons

enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of

theirsystems.

Contrary to its name, biotechnology is not a single technology. Rather it is a group of

technologies that share two (common) characteristics -- working with living cells and

their molecules and having a wide range of practice uses that can improve our lives.

Biotechnology can be broadly defined as "using organisms or their products for

commercial purposes."  As such, (traditional) biotechnology has been practices since he

beginning of records history.  (It has been used to:)  bake bread, brew alcoholic

beverages, and breed food crops or domestic animals

 But recent developments in molecular biology have given biotechnology new

meaning, new prominence, and new potential.  It is (modern) biotechnology that has

captured the attention of the public.  Modern biotechnology can have a dramatic effect

on the world economy and society

One example of modern biotechnology is genetic engineering.  Genetic

engineering is the process of transferring individual genes between organisms or

modifying the genes in an organism to remove or add a desired trait or characteristic. 

Examples of genetic engineering are described later in this document.  Through genetic

engineering, genetically modified crops or organisms are formed.  These GM crops or

GMOs are used to produce biotech-derived foods.  It is this specific type of modern

biotechnology, genetic engineering, That seems to generate the most attention and

concern by consumers and consumer groups.  What is interesting is that modern

biotechnology is far more precise than traditional forms of biotechnology and so is

viewed by some as being far safer.)

ADVANTAGES

OF

BIOTECHNOLOGY

The use of enzymes are specificity, stereo specificity, activity under mild

conditions, possibility of producing ‘natural’ products, no pollutants, and

biodegradability.

In today's era, when people are exposed to so many physical disorders,

biotechnology plays a vital role in developing medicines, vaccines,

energy production, and conservation. To keep pace with the competitive

world, India has launched a comprehensive programme in biotechnology

to make use of the resources available. In India the Department of

Biotechnology (DBT) was established in the year 1986 under the

ministry of Science and Technology.

It is imperative that India has to keep up with the increasing demand for

food from the ever expanding population. Agricultural land is also

shrinking. Genetic engineering of plants to increase their yield is the way

to go in future.

Biotechnology can be used in a wide range of economic activity ranging

from environment, animal husbandry, medicinal and aromatic plants, bio

fuels, aquaculture and products like silk and leather.

Various microorganisms are now being isolated and examined for

properties useful for oil extraction.

Micro-organisms evolve gases, notably carbon dioxide, that could aid in

depressurizing an oil well.

An ideal microbe would use the less valuable parts of oil as a carbon

source to produce surfactants or emulsifiers to lower the viscosity of the

oil allowing it to be pumped to the surface.

Several problems complicate this scenario.

No micro-organism has yet been found that degrades only the less useful

components of oil; microorganisms usually also degrade the compounds

important to the petroleum industry.

Some microorganisms will not degrade the oil at all, but these micro-

organisms need to have a carbon source, usually molasses, pumped into

the well, and this increases the cost of production.

Microbes currently being studied survive only under conditions of

moderate heat, salinity, and pressure .

Given the wide variability in geological deposits, these micro-organisms

have limited usefulness.

However, there is substantial evidence that the oil reservoir is not as an

untenable, restrictive environment for micro-organisms as some

laboratory studies would indicate.

Microorganisms can, in fact, be isolated from deep reservoirs, and they

may have developed specialized mechanisms to cope with low amounts

of oxygen.

Other micro-organisms have been isolated that do not need oxygen for

growth.

Further study of these organisms may lead to the development of micro-

organisms useful to the petroleum industry

PRESENT

SCENARIO IN

INDIA

MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

Throughout its history, the Indian government has created policies to help

enable the manufacturing of conventional and modern biotech products at affordable

prices. Presently, private companies in India dominate the bio manufacturing sector,

while new and existing institutes are being created and funded by the government. To

educate and train future workers, biotech courses are being offered at graduate,

postgraduate, and Ph.D. levels; private institutions are also supporting these efforts.

The Indian government is working to create an alliance between private industry

and research institutes. With the help of local governments, biotech parks are being

created to assist small and medium level enterprises with start-up funds. With private

companies investing little for research and development, alliances between private

industry and institutes for basic research has been small, even with help from the Indian

government. However, in the next decade, with collaboration from the Indian

government and private companies, there should be a significant increase in the

development of conventional biotech industry, and modern biotech drugs may be

produced once Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) expire.

BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Experts in United States anticipate the world’s population in 2050 to be

approximately 8.7 billion persons. The world’s population is growing, but its surface

area is not. Compounding the effects of population growth is the fact that most of the

earth’s ideal farming land is already being utilized. To avoid damaging environmentally

sensitive areas, such as rain forests, we need to increase crop yields for land currently in

use. By increasing crop yields, through the use of biotechnology the constant need to

clear more land for growing food is reduced.

Countries in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere are grappling with how to continue

feeding a growing population. They are also trying to benefit more from their existing

resources. Biotechnology holds the key to increasing the yield of staple crops by

allowing farmers to reap bigger harvests from currently cultivated land, while

preserving the land’s ability to support continued farming.

Malnutrition in underdeveloped countries is also being combated with

biotechnology. The Rockefeller Foundation is sponsoring research on “golden rice”, a

crop designed to improve nutrition in the developing world. Rice breeders are using

biotechnology to build Vitamin A into the rice. Vitamin A deficiency is a common

problem in poor countries.

A second phase of the project will increase the iron content in rice to combat

anemia, which is widespread problem among women and children in underdeveloped

countries. Golden rice, expected to be for sale in Asia in less than five years, will offer

dramatic improvements in nutrition and health for millions of people, with little

additional costs to consumers.

Similar initiatives using genetic manipulation are aimed at making crops more

productive by reducing their dependence on pesticides, fertilizers and irrigation, or by

increasing their resistance to plant diseases .

Increased crop yield, greater flexibility in growing environments, less use of

chemical pesticides and improved nutritional content make agricultural biotechnology,

quite literally, the future of the world’s food supply.

As biotechnology has become widely used, questions and concerns have also

been raised. The most vocal opposition has come from European countries. One of the

main areas of concern is the safety of genetically engineered food .

In assessing the benefits and risks involved in the use of modern biotechnology,

there are a series of issues to be addressed so that informed decisions can be made. In

making value judgments about risks and benefits in the use of biotechnology, it is

important to distinguish between technology-inherent risks and technology-transcending

risks. The former includes assessing any risks associated with food safety and the

behavior of a biotechnology-based product in the environment. The latter involve the

political and social context in which the technology is used, including how these uses

may benefit or harm the interests of different groups in society.

The health effects of foods grown from genetically engineered crop depend on

the composition of the food itself. Any new product may have either beneficial or

occasional harmful effects on human health. For example, a biotech-derived food with a

higher content of digestible iron is likely to have a positive effect if consumed by iron-

deficient individuals.

Alternatively, the transfer of genes from one species to another may also transfer

the risk for exposure to allergens. These risks are systematically evaluated by FDA and

identified prior to commercialization. Individuals allergic to certain nuts, for example,

need to know if genes conveying this trait are transferred to other foods such as

soybeans. Labeling would be required if such crops were available to consumers.

Among the potential ecological risks identified are increased weepiness, due to

cross- pollination from genetically modified crops spreads to other plants in nearby

fields. This may allow the spread of traits such as herbicide-resistance to non-target

plants that could potentially develop into weeds. This ecological risk is assessed when

deciding if a plant with a given trait should be released into a particular environment,

and if so, under what conditions.

Other potential ecological risks stem from the use of genetically modified corn

and cotton with insecticidal genes from Bacillus thuringiensis  (Bt genes). This may

lead to the development of resistance to Bt in insect populations exposed to the biotech-

derived crop.

There also may be risks to non-target species, such as birds and butterflies, from

the plants with Bt genes. The monitoring of these effects of new crops in the

environment and implementation of effective risk management approaches is an

essential component of further research. It is also important to keep all risks in

perspective by comparing the products of biotechnology and conventional agriculture.

The reduction of biodiversity would represent a technology-transcending risk.

Reduced  biological diversity due to destruction of tropical forests, conversion of land

to agriculture, overfishing, and the other practices to feed a growing world population is

a significant loss far more than any potential loss of biodiversity due to biotech-derived

crop varieties. Improved governance and international support are necessary to limit

loss of biodiversity .

What we know from our understanding of science and more than a decade of

experience with biotech-derived plants is the following .  There is no evidence that

genetic transfers between unrelated organisms pose human health concerns that are

different from those encountered with any new plant or animal variety. The risks

associated with biotechnology are the same as those associated with plants and microbes

developed by conventional methods.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL BIOTECHNOLOGY POLICY

National governments and international policy making bodies rely on food

scientists and others to develop innovations that will create marketable food products

and increase food supplies. Governments also rely on scientific research because they

are responsible for setting health and safety standards regarding new developments.

International organizations can suggest policy approaches and help develop

international treaties that are ratified by national governments.

Economic success in the competitive international market demands that food

production become more efficient and profitable. National governments and

international organizations support food biotechnology as a means to avoid global food

shortages. Many policy making bodies are also trying to balance support of the food

biotechnology industry with public calls for their regulation.  Such regulations are

necessary to protect public health and safety, to promote international trade, conserve

natural resources, and account for ethical issues. .

The majority of processed foods on the market contain soy or corn ingredients

that come from GM plants. To date none have posed a food safety risk. The chief safety

concerns are the potential to alter nutrient content or introduce allergens. Federal

agencies involved in biotechnology regulation include the U.S. Department of

Agriculture (USDA) which evaluates agricultural production processes for all foods; the

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which evaluates whole non-animal foods

(seafood), food ingredients, and food additives; and the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA), which evaluates plants with insecticidal properties .

Developers of GM plants and biotech-derived foods are required to consult with

FDA prior to the commercialization of the product. This consultation procedure entails

a science-based safety assessment of the product that focuses on the protection of the

consumer, developer, and the environment. Thus developers, have a strong incentive to

cooperate fully with FDA and the other agencies prior to marketing their products.

MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY WORK

All organisms are made up of cells that are programmed by the same basic

genetic material, called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).  Each unit of DNA is made up of

a combination of the following nucleotides -- adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T),

and cytosine (D) -- as well as a sugar and a phosphate.  These nucleotides pair up into

strands that twist together into a spiral structure call a "double helix."  This double helix

is DNA.  Segments of the DNA tell individual cells how to produce specific proteins. 

These segments are genes.  It is the presence or absence of the specific protein that

gives an organism a trait or characteristic.

More than 10,000 different genes are found in most plant and animal species.

This total set of genes for an organism is organized into chromosomes within the cell

nucleus. The process by which a multicellular organism develops from a single cell

through an embryo stage into an adult is ultimately controlled by the genetic

information of the cell, as well as interaction of genes and gene products with

environmental factors.

When cells reproduce, the DNA strands of the double helix separate. Because

nucleotide A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C, each DNA strand serves as

a precise blueprint for a specific protein. Except for mutations or mistakes in the

replication process, a single cell is equipped with the information to replicate into

millions of identical cells.

Because all organisms are made up of the same type of genetic material (nucleotides A,

T, G, and C), biotechnologists use enzymes to cut and remove DNA segments from one

organism and recombine it with DNA in another organism. This is called recombinant

DNA (rDNA) technology, and it is one of the basic tools of modern biotechnology .

rDNA technology is the laboratory manipulation of DNA in which DNA, or fragments

of DNA from different sources, are cut and recombined using enzymes. This

recombinant DNA is then inserted into a living organism. rDNA technology is usually

used synonymously with genetic engineering. rDNA technology allows researchers to

move genetic information between unrelated organisms to produce desired products or

characteristics or to eliminate undesirable characteristics.

Genetic engineering is the technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to

a DNA molecule in order to change the information it contains. By changing this

information, genetic engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is

capable of producing. Genetic engineering is used in the production of drugs, human

gene therapy, and the development of improved plants

For example, an “insect protection” gene (Bt) has been inserted into several

crops - corn, cotton, and potatoes - to give farmers new tools for integrated pest

management. Bt corn is resistant to European corn borer. This inherent resistance thus

reduces a farmers pesticide use for controlling European corn borer, and in turn requires

less chemicals and potentially provides higher yielding Agricultural Biotechnology.

Although major genetic improvements have been made in crops, progress in

conventional breeding programs has been slow. In fact, most crops grown in the US

produce less than their full genetic potential. These shortfalls in yield are due to the

inability of crops to tolerate or adapt to environmental stresses, pests, and diseases. For

example, some of the world's highest yields of potatoes are in Idaho under irrigation,

but in 1993 both quality and yield were severely reduced because of cold, wet weather

and widespread frost damage during June. Some of the world's best bread wheat’s and

malting barleys are produced in the north-central states, but in 1993 the disease

Fusarium caused an estimated $1 billion in damage.

Scientists have the ability to insert genes that give biological defense against

diseases and insects, thus reducing the need for chemical pesticides, and they will soon

be able to convey genetic traits that enable crops to better withstand harsh conditions,

such as drought

The International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural Biotechnology (ILTAB)

is developing transformation techniques and applications for control of diseases caused

by plant viruses in tropical plants such as rice, cassava and tomato. In 1995, ILTAB

reported the first transfer through biotechnology of a resistance gene from a wild

species of rice to a susceptible cultivated rice variety. The transferred gene expressed

resistance to Xanthomonas oryzae, a bacterium which can destroy the crop through

disease. The resistant gene was transferred into susceptible rice varieties that are

cultivated on more than 24 million hectares around the world .

Benefits can also be seen in the environment, where insect-protected biotech

crops reduce the need for chemical pesticide use. Insect-protected crops allow for less

potential exposure of farmers and groundwater to chemical residues, while providing

farmers with season-long control. Also by reducing the need for pest control, impacts

and resources spent on the land are less, thereby preserving the topsoil

Major advances also have been made through conventional breeding and

selection of livestock, but significant gains can still be made by using biotechnology

Currently, farmers in the U.S spend $17 billion dollars on animal health.

Diseases such as hog cholera and pests such as screwworm have been eradicated. Uses

of biotechnology in animal production include development of vaccines to protect

animals from disease, production of several calves from one embryo (cloning), increase

of animal growth rate, and rapid disease detection

Modern biotechnology has offered opportunities to produce more nutritious and

better tasting foods, higher crop yields and plants that are naturally protected from

disease and insects. Modern biotechnology allows for the transfer of only one or a few

desirable genes, thereby permitting scientists to develop crops with specific beneficial

traits and reduce undesirable traits

Traditional biotechnology such as cross-pollination in corn produces numerous,

non-selective changes. Genetic modifications have produced fruits that can ripen on the

vine for better taste, yet have longer shelf lives through delayed pectin degradation

Tomatoes and other produce containing increased levels of certain nutrients,

such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and or beta carotene, and help protect against the risk of

chronic diseases, such as some cancers and heart disease.

Similarly introducing genes that increase available iron levels in rice three-fold is a

potential remedy for iron deficiency, a condition that effects more than two billion

people and causes anemia in about half that number

Most of the today's hard cheese products are made with a biotech enzyme called

chymosin. This is produced by genetically engineered bacteria which is considered

more purer and plentiful than it’s naturally occurring counterpart, rennet, which is

derived from calf stomach tissue.

In 1992, Monsanto Company successfully inserted a gene from a bacterium into

the Russet Burbank potato. This gene increases the starch content of the potato. Higher

starch content reduces oil absorption during frying, thereby lowering the cost of

processing French fries and chips and reducing the fat content in the finished product.

This product is still awaiting final development and approval.

Modern biotechnology offers effective techniques to address food safety

concerns. Biotechnical methods may be used to decrease the time necessary to detect

food borne pathogens, toxins, and chemical contaminants, as well as to increase

detection sensitivity. Enzymes, antibodies, and microorganisms produced using rDNA

techniques are being used to monitor food production and processing systems for

quality control

Biotechnology can compress the time frame required to translate fundamental

discoveries into applications. This is done by controlling which genes are altered in an

organized fashion. For example, a known gene sequence from a corn plant can be

altered to improve yield, increase drought tolerance, and produce insect resistance (Bt)

in one generation. Conventional breeding techniques would take several years.

Conventional breeding techniques would require that a field of corn is grown and each

trait is selected from individual stalks of corn.

The ears of corn from selected stalks with each desired trait (e.g, drought

tolerance and yield performance) would then be grown and combined (cross-pollinated).

Their offspring (hybrid) would be further selected for the desired result (a high

performing corn with drought tolerance). With improved technology and knowledge

about agricultural organisms, processes, and ecosystems, opportunities will emerge to

produce new and improved agricultural products in an environmentally sound manner.

In summary, modern biotechnology offers opportunities to improve product

quality, nutritional content, and economic benefits. The genetic makeup of plants and

animals can be modified by either insertion of new useful genes or removal of unwanted

ones. Biotechnology is changing the way plants and animals are grown, boosting their

value to growers, processors, and consumers

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Environmental biotechnology is concerned, both with the implications and

applications of biotechnology in the wider context of environment. Due to rapid

industrialization, urbanization and other developments, there is a constant threat to the

clean environment and to the depleting natural resources. In this connection, a reference

mayhemadetothefollowingtwoconferences:

(i) The First Conference on the Human Environment was held in 1972 at

Stockholm, where Late Smt. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India

called poverty to be the biggest pollutant.

(ii) After 20 years, in June 1992, United Nations Conference on Environment

and Development (UNCED) was held in Brazil, where heads of the states

from 166 countries participated' to examine the issues involved and the

solutionspossible.

While on the one hand, there is an increasing problem of control of

environmental pollution, there is also a problem of conservation of nature

and natural resources. Both these problems are receiving constant attention

ofenvironmentalists.

(iii) Among implications, there is also att alarm due to release of genetically

engineered organisms in the atmosphere and also due to the release of

effluents from biotechnological companies, so that the environmentalists are

having a debate on the effects of developments in biotechnology on the

environment.There is also a debate on the safety of the use of the products of

biotechnology, an area described as biosafety. Among applications, on the

other hand, efforts are also being made to use biotechnology to protect the

environment from pollution and to conserve natural resources.

(iv) At a time, when the gap between those who have plenty and those who do

not have even the minimum is widening, both ends of this spectrum i.e.

plenty and poverty are contributing to environmental degradation. It is,

therefore, necessary that the developing and developed countries jointly find

a path of development which "meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their need" (World

Commission on Environment and Development). Efforts are being made to

achieve this objective through a variety of approaches, and biotechnology is

certainly one of them. In this and the next three chapters, environmental

implications and applications of biotechnology for environment will be

discussed.

(v) In recent years, we have witnessed a debate on the environmental.

implications of biotechnology. In this debate, risks involved in the use of

biotechnological approaches have often been emphasized (or even

overemphasized) and the adequate guidelines for safety have been suggested

andenforcedbylaw.

(vi) However, there have also been rapid developments in the applications of

biotechnology, which may help in controlling environment pollution, thus

giving a cleaner and sustainable environment in future. According to one

estimate in USA, the US market for environmental clean up applications was

expected to grow at an average rate of 17%, while that for microbes and

enzymes was expected to grow by only 7% every year. Besides others, these

applications for environment clean up include mistreatment methods for

effluents and toxic wastes. However, these treatments, it is feared, could be

problematic, where they involve deliberate or accidental release of

genetically modified microbes to the environment. These applications of

biotechnology in environment management (pollution control) and the risks.

Applications of

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is one of the most exciting and revolutionary sciences of this

century. It can be defined as the technological application that uses biological systems,

living organisms or derivatives, thereof, to make or modify products or processes for

specific use. The advent of biotechnology has opened up a wide horizon in the field of

biological research. Biotechnology also proves its immense applications at every step of

human life such as, health care, crop improvement, development of valuable products

and abatement of environmental problems. The book is comprised of fourteen chapters

based on updated information on various aspects of biotechnology e.g. microbiology,

biochemistry, cell biology, genetics, molecular biology, physiology and tissue

engineering, environment, health, where biotechnology finds tremendous application.

All the chapters have been written by eminent academics and well known scientists in

the field, thus ensuring a good balance between theory and practice. The information

covered in the book are focused on following aspects: Applications of biotechnology in

exploitationofmicrobialdiversity.

Abatement of environmental problems and pollution control using

biotechnological approaches. Utility of biotechnology in public health care, human

welfare and medical biology. Applications of biotechnology in crop improvement and

development of resistant crops. Use of biotechnology in conservation of biological

resources. Assessment of hazardous compounds in the environment. Use of

biotechnology in remediation of diseases and drug designing. Further extensive

illustration and highlighting of major applications of biotechnology make this book

invaluable to biotechnologist, microbiologist as well as students dealing with applied

microbiology, industrial microbiology, metabolic engineering, environmental

biotechnology, stress biotechnology and cell and tissue engineering.

Environmental biotechnology is concerned, both with the implications and

applications of biotechnology in the wider context of environment. Due to rapid

industrialization, urbanization and other developments, there is a constant threat to the

clean environment and to the depleting natural resources. In this connection, a reference

may he made to the following two conferences:

Introduction, The decibel scale, effects of noise - physiological effects - acute and

chronic, psychological effects, noise control programme in industries - measurement of

noise levels, noise control criteria - annoyance, interference with communication,

hearing loss criteria, permissible exposure limits, equipment used for noise

measurement - different types of meters and analysers, approaches for noise control,

noise control in industrial establishments - administrative controls and engineering

controls, suppression at source, path control, sound absorption, sound insulation,

vibration control, acoustic enclosures, noise barriers, mufflers or silencers, acoustic

plenums, vibration isolation, damping, lagging, protection of the personnel - ear plugs,

ear muffs, helmets, personnel isolation, acoustical absorptive materials, noise sources

and control in industrial plants.

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CONTROLLING

WATER POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION

Water treatment has assumed importance in recent years with the increasing

demand on this limited resource and pollution parameters arising out of discharge from

untreated/partially treated effluents. As such, R&D effects for improving the

conventional system and evolving new technologies for waster treatment have

necessarily received attention more than ever before. These have resulted in

development of several modified and new products which are significant from the view

point of pollution control, water conservation, energy generation, resource recovery and

such other attendant benefits.

Water treatment technology is an area of vital importance in the Indian context.

WATER - AN ELIXIR OF LIFE

Water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource comprising of

hydrogen and oxygen and covers around 70% of earth surface.

Water in its Biological occurrence, is a complex system of chemical species.

Compared to other liquids, water has a high capacity to absorb and store heat is a

excellent liquid solvent.

High surface tension imparts a uniqueness to water for physical and biological

processes.

Highly versatile solvent for dissolving varied compounds like simple salts or

even minerals.

AQUATIC LIVE FORMS

Without the seemingly invaluable compouninvaluable compound

comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on earth would have been non-

existent

The need to maintain clean water for both humans and animals has

become a major, even a critical concern

Till 1972, there were no uniform national laws governing water quality

Two very significant national laws, the 1972 Clean Water Act and 1974

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

were passed and these laws have been updated over the years.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study are:

a) To study the current status of biotechnologies for water treatment in the world

and the country.

b) Assessment of technology options available, their financial aspects and

feasibilities leading to selection of preferred options.

c) Suggested action plan and identification of agencies/groups/individuals for

implementation of the same.

SCOPE

The scope of the study has been designed to cover the following aspects:

a) Basic water treatment biotechnology.

b) Water quality criteria-national and international.

c) Raw water treatment biotechnologies/national and international.

d) Domestic wastewater-national and international

e) Industrial wastewater- national and international.

f) Technology gaps and options available.

g) Sources ad recommended technology options

h) Action plan and agencies involved in implementation

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The socio-cultural roots of our present environmental crisis lie in the paradigms

of scientific materialism and economic determinism which fail to recognize the physical

limits imposed by ecological systems on economic activity. The economies must

expand within ecosystems which have limited regenerative capacities.

Contrary to the neoclassical theory of continuous material growth, economic

activities directly undermine the potential for development through the discharge of

residuals. The entrenchment with quantitative growth as a major instrument of social

policy is thus quite paradoxical.

Discernible positive movement towards the overall inspirational goal of

sustainable development warrants pursuance of a n effective R&D programmer in

environmental science and technology to enable solutions to the backlog and future

environmental problems emanating from developmental imperatives in various socio-

economic sectors. Accordingly it is of utmost importance for the government to launch

missions on environmental biotechnology, in order to meet the basic needs of safe

drinking water and hygienic sanitation facilities for the people.

WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

Major contaminants in surface and ground water sources, harmful for human

health are bacteria, guinea worm, faucal coli forms and excess dissolved solids apart

from hardness and turbidity. It is helpful to understand the water quality standards laid

down by ISI and as per Water Act 1974 and Environment Act 1986. Annexures III-VIII

include these water quality standards for various uses.

BOILER FEED WATER

A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two principal parts: the

furnace, which provides heat, usually by burning a fuel, and the boiler proper, a device in

which the heat changes water into steam. The steam or hot fluid is then recalculated out of

the boiler for use in various processes in heating applications.

The water circuit of a water boiler can be summarized by the following pictures:

The boiler receives the feed

water, which consists of varying

proportion of recovered

condensed water (return water) and fresh water, which has been purified in varying

degrees (make up water). The make-up water is usually natural water either in its raw

state, or treated by some process before use. Feed-water composition therefore depends

on the quality of the make-up water and the amount of condensate returned to the boiler.

The steam, which escapes from the boiler, frequently contains liquid droplets

and gases. The water remaining in liquid form at the bottom of the boiler picks up all

the foreign matter from the water that was converted to steam. The impurities must be

blown down by the discharge of some of the water from the boiler to the drains. The

permissible percentage of blown down at a plant is strictly limited by running costs and

initial outlay. The tendency is to reduce this percentage to a very small figure.

Oil Water Separator - Desorber

Disrober uses gravitational phase separation principle to separate oil and

water/liquid and does not use electric power or filters. The system consists of a heavy

sludge separator and oil separation is done using CP interceptors and a coalescence

separator. Both the separated oil and liquid can be utilized or disposed.

 

Desorber 1000 LPH front

FEATURES

 

No electricity required

No filters needed

No operating cost

No maintenance cost

Suitable for any liquid

Robust, compact, and re-locatable

Can be integrated with existing systems without modifications

  AREAS OF APPLICATION  

Petroleum refineries, lube blending plants

Oil drilling services

Mineral and vegetable oil plants

Automobile units and service stations

General engineering industries and machining centres

Industries employing industrial washing machines

Perfumery and essential oil industries

Industrial houses

Effluent treatment plants and sewage treatment plants

WATER OIL SEPARATOR - HYDROFREE  

Hydro Free uses coalesce columns to separate free water from Petroleum

products like unraced Oil, LSHS, Diesel etc. The liquid with water is pumped through

the unit and water gets separated at the bottom of the unit which is drained periodically.

The coalesce units are made form Stainless steel material.

 

FEATURES

 

One time investment

Made from High quality SS material

Filter cleanable and back washable

No maintenance cost

Suitable for any liquid

Robust, compact, and re-locatable

Can be integrated with existing systems without modifications

  AREAS OF APPLICATION

 

Petroleum refineries, lube blending plants

Oil drilling services

Mineral and vegetable oil plants

Automobile units for LSHS and Furnace oil storage depots

Petrol Stations

Chemical industries using fuel liquids

petroleum storage depots

USE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE REMOVAL OF OIL AND

GREASE DEPOSITS

The oil spills from oil tankers on land surface as well as in seas and

oceans are a major environmental hazard. This not only kills the aquatic flora

and fauna by destroying the habitat but also creates health problems for the local

inhabitants. Traditionally chemical dispersants are being used as remediation efforts.

However these chemical dispersants are also toxic in nature and they persist in

the environment for a long time. The present techniques of washing the oil off the

gravel and cleaning the area of oil spills, is very expensive and time consuming. In

order to overcome some of these problems, the oleophilic fertilizers are being developed

which allow rapid growth and multiplication of microbes which further leads to the

increase in the biodegradation process for removal of oil. In recent years, using genetic

engineering, oil utilizing microorganisms have been produced which can grow rapidly

on oil.

The genetically engineered microbes for cleaning oil spills are mixed with straw.

At the site of oil spill, the straw mixed with microbes are scattered over the oil spilled

area. The straw soaks the oily water and the microbes break the oil into non-toxic and

non polluting materials thereby cleaning up the site.

Some of the oil utilizing microbes can also produce surface active compounds

that can emulsify oil in water and thereby removing the oil. A strain of Pseudomonas

aeruginosa produces a glycolipid emulsifier that reduces the surface tension of oil-water

interface which helps in the removal of oil from water. This microbial emulsifier is

nontoxic and biodegradable and has shown promising results in the laboratory

experiments.

Some of the microorganisms which are capable of degrading petroleum include

pseudomonades, various corynebacteria, mycobacteria and some yeasts. The two

methods for bioremediation of oil spills are: a) using a consortium of bacteria, and b)

using genetically engineered bacteria/microbial strains. (discussed under the topic of

bioremediation) Both bacterial and fungal cultures from the petroleum sludge have been

isolated. The fungal culture could degrade 0.4% sludge in 3 weeks. Degradation of

petroleum sludge occurred within two weeks when the bacterial culture (Bacillus

circulars CI) was used. A significant degradation of petroleum sludge was observed in

10 days when the fungus + B. Circulans and a prepared surfactant were exogenously

added to petroleum sludge.

Odor Concentrations of the inlet and outlet air. Samples were collected in a Teller bag and sent to a laboratory.( St-Croix Sensory Inc., Lake Elmo MN) for

determination of the odor concentration, using the ASTM 679-99 standardized method at an airflow of 20 l min-1.

Reduced sulfur compounds other than hydrogen sulfide, samples were collected and measured by Air toxics Lts., (Folsom ,CA) using standardized method ASTM D 5504. This method used GC-MS and measured the concentrations of 19 different organic reduced sulfur compounds.

The system performance results for 2 and 4 months after start-ups are provided in Table . These results demonstrated reactor performance of greater than 99% removal of hydrogen sulphide, and 96% removal of doors.

In early 2004, after approximately 9 months of operation, the airflow to the reactor was increased beyond design to 2,590 m3 h-1 . After 3 weeks of acclimation at the new airflow rate, with a cooler air temperature of 12oc.

POLLUTANT UNITINLET

CONCENTRATIONOUTLET

CONCENTRATIONREMOVAL(%)

Hydrogen sulfide (48h before taking bag samples)

ppbv 10,000-87,000 100-500 99

Hydrogen sulfide (in bag

samples)ppbv 17,000 320 98

Organic reduced sulfur

compounds

Methyl mercaptan

ppbv 430 16

Carbonyl sulphide

ppbv 0 16

Isopropyl mercaptan

ppbv 0 13

Total reduced sulfur

ppbv 430 45 90

Odor concentration

(8weeks)D/T 5,500 690 87

Odour concentration(4 Months)

D/T 7,800 310 96

Performance at higher airflow

D/T 7,800 30 96

Hydrogen sulfide

ppmv 9.4 0.013 99.9

Odor concentration

D/T 5,700 540 90.5

Outlet air temperature

F 54

AT 20% more air flow (2,040 instead of 1,700 m3 h-1

Different groups have workde on modeling bio trickling and bio scrubber systems(Rimes and Divinely 2004).Better models, especially on the bioflims, are made include ,besides degradation of pollutants , proceses like growth , death and predation.

Characterization and identification of actively degrading microorganisms in a biological waste gas treatment system can be nowadays better performed using gene probes or phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis in combination with isotope-labelled substrates(Liski and Alerndorf 2002; Steele et al.2004)These research and development activities resulted in improvements of design, construction and operation s of biotrickilin and bio scrubber reactors, of which the possibilities seem without limits.

TREATMENT BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR RAW WATER

Raw water drawn from various sources is not fit enough for human consumption

directly without subjecting it to treatment. Certain gases, traces ofmineral water and

other undesirable substances gets dissolved in the raw water as a result of various

hydrological processes. During runoff on the earth surface, raw water picks up soil,

garbage, sewage, pesticides and other physical, chemical and bacteriological agents

including human and animal wates.

The following treatment method are generally applicable each suing different

technologies:

a) Screening

b) Sedimentation

c) Filtration

d) Disinfection

e) Softening

f Desalination

g) Demineralization

The technologies available in India for treatment of municipal water supplies,

for industry or for large communities are the following:

a) Clarification

b) Filtration

c) Ultra-filtration

d) Flocculation

e) Reverse-osmosis

f) Electrodialysis

g) Water-softening

h) FluorideRemoval

i) Disinfection

j) Iron removal.

The brief details of various biotechnologies for treatment of raw water as

available in out country and in come of the advanced countries is described in Chapter

3. the available technologies and equipment are suitable and adequate for rural sectors

and at small communities level. R&D agencies such as NEERI Nagpur etc. have done

considerable work in this field. The technology gap is in respect to more sophisticated

techniques such a reverse osmosis and ultra filtration including membrane technology

and surface water pollution.

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY FOR WASTEWATER

The objective of wastewater treatment is to remove the impurities and hence

reduce pollution in order to return the effluent to the environment without causing

unacceptable damage to land, air or water bodies and similarly to stabilize and dispose

off the treatment residue. Various pollution parameters such as BOD, COD, TSS,

Nitrogen, Phosphorous, metals, toxic elements, oils and greases have to be taken care

of.

TREATMENT SYSTEM AND PROCESSES

The treatment system discussed in the present report include the following:

a) Secondary biological treatment processes- Aerobic and Anaerobic

b) Low cost treatment systems- Aerated Lagoons, extended aeration, oxidation or

stabilization ponds etc.

c)Organicwastetreatment

d) Tertiary biological treatment systems.

The details of the above processes and the latest biotechnology have been

discussed in Chapter 4 to 10. A few case studies have also been included in these

Chapters for highlighting some of the foreign as well as indigenous biotechnology

presently being utilized.

On the basis of the details presented in Chapters 3 to 10 the following gaps have

been identified:

a)Rawwater

i)Highgradewaterforspecialindustries

ii)Brackishwatertreatment

iii) Surface polluted water.

b)DomesticWasteWaterTreatment

i)Nutrientremoval

ii) Small community waste water treatment plants.

c)IndustrialWasteWaterTreatment

i)Useofmicrobesfordigestionoforganicwastes

ii) Complex waste water in industries using multiple processes.

d) Sludge Disposal Technologies – Landfill, Hydrolysis, incineration, pyrolysis.

WASTE-WATER TREATMENT

A waste-water treatment process is a combination of separate treatment

processes or units designed to produce an effluent of specified quality from a

waste-water of known composition and flow rate

Pre-treatment of industrial waste-waters is often necessary to prevent damage

to sewers or the treatment processes employed. It can be done at source and is

achieved mainly by flow balancing, neutralization and fat/oil suspension.

TREATMENT OF TANNERY INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER TDS

- “ TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS”

• "Dissolved solids" refer to any minerals, salts, metals, captions or anions

dissolved in water. This includes anything present in water other than the

pure water (H20) molecule and suspended solids. (Suspended solids are

any particles/substances that are neither dissolved nor settled in the

water, such as wood pulp.) caption and anion composition

• In general, the total dissolved solids concentration is the sum of the

captions(positively charged) and anions (negatively charged) ions in the

water.

• TDS is based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of water. Pure H20 has

virtually zero conductivity. Conductivity is usually about 100 times the

total captions or anions expressed as equivalents. TDS is calculated by

converting the EC by a factor of 0.5 to 1.0 times the EC, depending upon

the levels. Typically, the higher the level of EC, the higher the

conversion factor to determine the TDS.

WATERPOLLUTIONPREVENTION:

Water is one of the greatest resources on the earth. It is essential to life and it is

found in every living being. Without water all living creatures would cease to exist.

Water not only nurtures but helps to create life as well. Its importance can not and

shouldnotbeoverlooked.

Clean water is essential, so water pollution prevention is important. It involves

teaching about the causes of water pollution and what harm comes from polluted water.

Teaching about water pollution prevention helps to ensure that the waters of the world

arekeptcleanandhealthy.

COLLECTION OF FLOATING MATERIALS:

DRILLINGFLUIDS

These skids are manufactured in accordance to rig operator requirements and

involve De-gassers, Shale Shakers, De-Sanders, De-Sifters, Mud Cleaners, Cuttings

Dryers, Decanter Centrifuges, Flocculation Units, and Drill Cuttings Conveyors. These

are supplied in single units, in multiple units, or combinations thereof, which are fully

incorporated and integrated into a functional skid for rig installation.

OILYWATER

These skids are manufactured in accordance to water treatment requirements and

application. The system normally involves the incorporation of feed pumps, screen

filters and high-speed 3 - phase centrifuges. In general a single centrifuge for the

treatment of oily water could range from 15 to 50 m³/hr per unit supplied. Greater

capacity is achieved by multiples of units installed in tandem. 

OILY SLOPS

These plants are manufactured in accordance to the definition of slops, which

vary from diesel oil to crude oil, or in mixture of several types of oils. The system

normally involves the incorporation of a heat supply, feed pumps, screen separators,

(possibly) 2-phase decanters and high-speed 3-phase centrifuges. The 3-phase

centrifuge is the piece that determines the plant capacity. In general a single centrifuge

for the treatment of oily slops would range from 5 to 10 m³/hr per unit supplied. Greater

capacity is achieved by multiples of units installed in tandem.

OIL WELL COMPLETION BP EXPLORATION

• Oil well drilling uses “mud” to lubricate the drilling string and to coat the insides

of a bore hole with a layer of “cake”.

• After a well is drilled, the cake must be removed or “broken”. Traditional breakers

are strong acids or other harsh chemicals.

• Enzyme breakers were developed especially for advanced horizontal drilling

procedures.

• Advantages of enzyme breakers are high specificity, lower risk of formation

damage, even degradation of filter cake, and using enzymes reduces acids or petro

chemicals in water/mud discharge.

OILYSLUDGES

These plants are manufactured in accordance to the definition of sludge to be

treated. Sludge’s vary widely in composition coming from all sources of oily waste

streams. They can be single source sludges of crude oil tank bottom cleanings dumped

and stored in a tank or an earth pit. Or they can be an endless combination of oily waste

coming from all different sources - mixed, dumped and stored together awaiting

treatment. Smudges are commonly inconsistent, contaminated with miscellaneous

debris, are thick and viscous complicating their treatment, especially as they influence

equipment thruput capacity.

The sludge treatment system normally involves the incorporation of a heat

supply, feed pumps, (possibly) bulk hoppers with conveyors, screen separators, 2-phase

decanters and high-speed 3-phase centrifuges. In sludge treatment the final 3-phase

centrifuge is the piece of equipment that determines the plant capacity. In general a

single centrifuge for the treatment of sludges would range from 2½ to 7½ m³/hr per unit

supplied. Greater capacity is achieved by multiples of units installed in tandem. 

OILFIELD FILTRATION

The “Oilfield Division” of Twin Filter is a market leader, and known for its filter

expertise in the oil and gas industry. Twin Filter has systems and consumables supplied

to more than 80 countries.

EXPERTISE

We design and manufacture filtration solutions for the oilfield and petrochemical

industries, on - and offshore. Our field experienced engineers are constantly improving

and designing equipment to handle new filtration solutions.

COMPLETIONFLUIDSFILTRATION

Clean completion fluids are essential for a successful completion of an oil or gas

producing well. Twin Filter engineers and manufactures a full range of equipment for a

reliable and effective filtration service such as: vertical pressure leaf (VPL) filter, filter

press, slurry skid, duplex cartridge filter unit, slurry skids, pump units, DE powder

handling. Our absolute and nominal rated cartridges will complete the total scope of

products.

WATERINJECTION:

For increase of oil production; seawater, aquifer or produced water can be

injected into the reservoir. This water needs to be free of solids, oxygen, bacteria and

other impurities. Twin Filter supplies packages for permanent and temporary water

injection such as: lift pumps, chemical injection, automatic self cleaning filter, multi

media filter, cartridge filter, high pressure pumps, and high pressure well head filter.

PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT AND WASTE WATER

TREATMENT

Current environmental laws are becoming more stringent and discharge limits

are getting lower every year. Our solutions; hydro cyclones, (compact) flotation units,

coalesce systems, coaxial separator, walnut shell filters, cartridge and media absorption

for polishing waste and produced water.

AUTOMATIC SELF CLEANING FILTER UNITS

Our range of automatic self cleaning filter units are applied in a wide range of

applications. Skid mounted system for pipeline flushing, cooling water filtration. The

complete packages can be manufactured in different construction materials from carbon

steel lined to super duplex. Water flow rates of 5000 m3/hr can be treated with one

single unit. Solids down to 10 micron can be removed fully automatic without any

consumable.

OTHEROILFIELDFILTRATIONSOLUTIONS

Twin Filter manufactures a full range of products for Gas filtration and

separation, Amine & Glycol filtration, Diesel filters, Drinking water units, RO systems,

RO pre-filtration and many other filtration and treatment solutions.

WORLD WIDE SUPPORT

Our strength and reputation has been built on customer service, reliability,

experience, industry knowledge and after sales. Wherever in the world, you can count

on our support 24 hours a day. We have worldwide stock. In addition to our standard

scope of supply, we also hold a large rental fleet of equipment.

POLLUTEDOILYSEMISOLIDS

These plants are manufactured in accordance to the definition of oily materials

to be treated, which range from drill cuttings to polluted soils. These materials are

generally earth solids with oily liquid retained on the solids particles. Normally oily

solids are not pump able and are only considered for treatment in a G-force separation

system if the polluted solids are saturated with free liquids capable of being separated

by conveyor, screen separators and 2-phase decanters. The use of 3-phase centrifuges is

applied only if the solids waste is washed creating liquid volumes needing separation

from the wash water.

This allows for the wash water to be recycled. Tractor bucket, skips and

conveyors generally handle the mobilization of these materials. The solids treatment

system normally involves the incorporation of bulk hoppers with conveyors, wash

tanks, screen separators, 2-phase decanters and possibly high-speed 3-phase centrifuges.

In general oily semi solids are treated more in line with residence time on or through the

equipment employed and in this system the 2-phase decanter generally dictates the

throughputs capacity. In general a single decanter for the treatment of fluidized semi

solids would range from 2 to 4 m³/hr per unit supplied. Greater capacity is achieved by

multiples\ofunitsinstalledintandem.

TYPESOFWATERPOLLUTIONPREVENTION

The ways in which water is polluted can happen due to the actions of man,

animal or nature. In some cases pollution is completely preventable but in other

situationsitisnot.

Waste from humans and animals pollute water ways. It can be in the form of feces,

trash or anything else left behind. Water pollution can also be from chemical or other

hazardous matters which run off or otherwise find their way into the water sources.

Nature’s pollution of water is through the overgrowth of plants or the

introductionofbacteriawhichrapidlygrowsinthewater.

IMPORTANCEOFWATERPOLLUTIONPREVENTION

Water is very important to life. Therefore polluted water is a huge concern.

Water pollution prevention helps to ensure there is enough clean water to allow for

healthy growth and development of the earth, humans and animals.

Water pollution prevention assures that pollution is kept to a minimal and that any

pollution is cleaned up so that the water can remain safe.

Polluted water can lead to serious problems with disease and death of plants and

vegetation, humans and animals. Depending upon the type of pollution, the effects can

be very difficult to remedy which is why prevention is key.

PREVENTIONMETHODS

Prevention of water pollution is done in various ways. Legislation through

government bodies helps greatly. The Clean Water Act of 1970 helped to initiate the

building of wastewater facilities to ensure waste water and water for consumption never

mixed.

The Clean Air Act of 1972 provided for state water standards to be set ensuring

safe drinking water. Additionally, the control of surface pollution was a focus because

pollution above ground can go into the groundwater which is the main source of all

drinking water.

Prevention measures to stop chemicals from entering the water include

regulation of industrial dumping and waste. Waterways are also maintained to high

standards with special regulated organizations keeping them clean.

All of these methods help to ensure that there is plenty of safe drinking water

and that waterways are kept clean for the animals and plants to use without worry of

pollutionrevention

ACTION PLAN AND AGENCIES INVOLVED

In order to bridge the technology gaps, an action plan has been drawn and

presented in Chapter 13. this action plan also includes the role of various R&D

organization, industry, and financial organization such as Asian Development Bank,

Manila ands World Bank etc.

Annexure IX includes various directories of major water and wastewater

treatment companies all over the world.

It is importance that these organizations play complementary roles for

facilitating the adoption and adaptation of the technologies to the Indian environment.

The action plan and agencies involved are given in Chapter 13 of this report. Some of

the major actions are summarized below:

a) The criteria for beneficial uses of water be studied by Bureau of Indian Standards.

The necessity and time frame for modifying the same be assessed.

b) Evolve a strategy to overcome technology gaps mostly by indigenous development.

In exceptional cases assistance of foreign consultants or even collaboration be

considered.

c) Adequate technology for treatment of raw water is available at

household/village/town level. It is essential that the participation of the community is

complementary to the efforts of the State and Central Governments. For this purpose

suitable measures such as financial support, tax benefits and education are necessary.

d) Pollution Control is a very important activity and needs to be taken up as a mission.

‘Stick and Carrot’ policy be adopted to ensure that the industry adheres to the laid down

effluent discharge standards.

e) In view of the overall constraints of finances, the allocation for the sewage treatment

is limited. The facilities of the World Bank, Asian Development Bank and IDBI be

utilized to the maximum.

f) Water treatment technology cannot be viewed in isolation and has to be related to the

overall activity of water management. An apex body be formed to deal with major areas

such as R&D, financial allocations, Import policy, taxation policy, industrial policy and

overall coordination/monitoring.

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CONTROLLING AIR

POLLUTION

AIRPOLLUTION:

Introduction, classification of air pollutants, air pollutants and their effects, acid

rain, photochemical smog, particulates, Characteristics and biochemical effects of some

air pollutants, sources of some important air pollutants and their effects.

Effects of air pollutants on man and environment, interdependence of human

activities, meteorology and air pollution, wind speed and wind direction, atmospheric

stability and temperature inversion, plume characteristics under different lapse

conditions, precipitation and humidity, air quality standards, air monitoring,

atmospheric sampling and analysis, analytical and instrumental techniques used in the

estimation of atmospheric pollutants, air pollutants from industrial and other sources, air

pollution from automobiles, air pollution control.

AIRFILTRATION

The Air division of Twin Filter is specialized in the purification of air and other

gasesinabroadvariationofmarkets.

EXPERTISE

Besides standard particulate filters, Twin Filter is specialized in the removal of

gases en microbiological contamination from air and other gases. We have more than 20

years of experience in supplying dry chemical scrubbers for the removal of corrosive,

toxic and/or odorous gases. We are also the producer of the Futura electro potential

filter, which is the only compact filter to remove fungi’s and spores without the risk of

introducingozone.

ODOUR CONTROL IN SEWAGE SYSTEMS

Twin Filter provides solutions for the control and elimination of odour

emissions. Odours from sewer pump stations, waste water treatment plants and general

industrial sources are neutralized by a combination of different technologies. The goal is

astenchfreeenvironment.

CORROSION CONTROL FOR COMPRESSORS AND PROCESS

AUTOMATION

Dust and especially acid gases cause corrosion on circuit boards, frequency

drives and compressors. By eliminating these gases, Twin Filter saves maintenance

costs and improves equipment reliability. Twin Filter guarantees a G1 air quality behind

thefilter.

INLINE FILTERS FOR COMPRESSED AIR AND BIO- OR

NATURAL GAS

Twin Filter has a large range of inline filter systems for the following

applications:

-Removal of particulate contamination from compressed air and nitrogen

Systems.

- Removal of H2S and particulate contamination from biogas and natural

Gas.

-ATEXzoneseparation

Inline filters are built according to customer specifications.

AIR POLLUTION- CONTROL

Particulate collection- Characterization of particles and Aerosol Size

distribution- distribution- mechanism and effectiveness of collocation. fractional &

overallefficiency.

Particle mechanics-movement of aerosol particles in still -- particle trajectories,

motion due to diffusion, trajectories of particle in moving gas- Aerodynamic capture

Application of High chimney for Pollutant Dispersion- Ground level concentration.

Industrial ventilation-principle, types, local exhaust Hood & duet, design, Fan selection

and Performance, Air Pollution Modeling, Settling Chamber, laminar flow, turbulent

flow. dust removal and efficiency.

Centrifugal collectors- Principle and mechanism of Particle- gas separation,

dust removal and efficiency, Design of cyclones in serial arrangement. Cyclone in

parallel arrangement, compression of separation efficiency.

Filtration - Basic principle and mechanism of collection Types of Filter,

Fibrous filter, granular bed filter, and fabric filter. properties of filter media, Air-cloth

ratio, cleaning, Separation efficiency, Design calculation, Design and operation of wet

dust liquid drops, wet scrubber- column, Rotating Disc, Jet./or tex. Venture scrubbers,

cyclone scrubbers, Dust collection efficiency, Pressure drop, design calculation,

compression and selection of wet dust scrubber, Industrial mist removal equipment and

application, Baffled mist separator, Pressure separator and centrifugal separators-

separation efficiency and comparison.

Considerations in selection of collector system, Energy requirement, efficiency,

cost estimation - comparison of performance of different collection systems. Industrial

application of air pollution control system in Foundry and other manufacturing

industries.

ROLE IN THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT

Methane is an important greenhouse gas that can contribute to climate change.

The present concentrations of methane are nearly three times higher than several

hundred years ago. Today, more than 60% of the atmospheric methane comes from

human activities, including rice agriculture, coal mining, natural gas usage, biomass

burning, and raising of cattle. Methane affects the stratospheric ozone layer and the

oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere, which in turn control the concentrations of many

man-made and natural gases in the atmosphere.

This book brings together our knowledge of the trends and the causes behind the

increased levels of methane. Based on the scientific information on the sources and

sinks, and the role of methane in climate change, strategies to limit emissions can be

designed as part of a program to control future global warming. The contents are as

follows:

Atmospheric methane: an introduction.

Record of atmospheric methane.

The ice core record of atmospheric methane.

The isotopic composition of atmospheric methane and its sources.

Formation and consumption of methane.

Biological formation and consumption of methane.

Sources and sinks

Can stable isotopes and global budgets be used to constrain atmospheric

methane budgets?

Methane sinks, distributions, and trends.

Sources of methane: an overview.

Methane emissions from individual sources: ruminants and other animals; rice

agriculture.

Factors controlling emissions: biomass burning, wetlands, waste management,

fossil fuel industries.

Geological sources of methane.

The environmental role of methane and current issues.

Methane in the global environment.

Biotechnology

using Air Pollution

Control

INTRODUCTION

Bio technology offers the most economical and environmentally benign method

for air pollution control when dealing with the removal of odorous and toxic

contaminants from Industrial and municipal airstreams. When emitted in

large amounts, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and inorganic odorous

compounds create hazards to the eco system and health effects to humans.

Substances such as ammonia, amines, hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan,

dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide cause door nuisance in the environment.

Increase in population density, new development of housing and industrial

facilities create a growing need for air pollution control systems that

provide nuisance - free , breathable air. This chapter provides an overview of

various bio technological methods used in odor and air pollution control.

The need for the removal of odours and VOCs is driven by regulatory

issues,

generally enforced as a result of public complaints about poor local air quality

and through emission monitoring by the enforcement agencies.

In the early 1990s, it was not an easy task for an industry to select a biotechnology

systems reduce odour or VOC air emissions as a means of compliance. In Chapter 2, the

details on door and VOC control laws, regulatory measures to handle citizens’

complaints, performance standards required for biological treatment systems,

and review of regulations in several countries are discussed.

Biotechnology offers one of the most economical and environmentally benign

methods of air pollution control for industrial and municipal airstreams. Volatile

organic and inorganic odorous compounds from various industries are emitted in large

quantities and create hazards to the ecosystem and health effects to humans. Thus, the

demand for odor and air pollution control systems that provide nuisance-free, breathable

air is constantly growing.

An international board of authors from universities, research institutes, and

industries describe various biotechnological methods ranging from laboratory, to pilot

evaluation and to full-scale process implementation. Topics include bioprocesses for the

treatment of odors and air pollutants in wastewater treatment plants, rendering plants,

chemical production facilities, and food and flavor manufacturing facilities. In addition

to the basic microbiological and engineering aspects, the design, modeling and control

of bioreactors are also presented.

METHODS OF ODOR AND VOC CONTROL

The treatment of off-gases has been practiced for years and is primarily based

on non-biological methods such as condensation, activated carbon adsorption,

absorption |scrubbing , and incineration. In the condensation process,

cooling and compression condense contaminant vapours’ from air. This

process

is economical for higher boiling point compounds and more concentrated

airstreams . In the adsorption process, pollutants are adsorbed onto adsorbents

(i.e., activated carbon). This process is effective when the concentration in the

Airstreams is low. Regeneration of the adsorbents is done using steam or hot

air.

DIFFERENT METHODS FOR PREVENTION OF AIR

POLLUTION

The prevention of air pollution is world wide concern. There have been many

investigations into what causes air pollution and the exact methods that work best in the

preventionofairpollution.

Through the use of many different methods air pollution is becoming easier to

control. It is only through various measures, though, that the prevention of air pollution

impossible.

GOVERNMENTROLE

The government plays a very important role in prevention of air pollution. It

is through government regulations that industries are forced to reduce their air pollution

and new developments in technology are created to help everyone do their part in the

preventionofairpollution.

Legislation, such as the Clean Air Act, helps to make sure that the main

culprits of air pollution are properly regulated and mandatory laws are in place to ensure

that air pollution prevention is taken seriously. The government also helps by

continuously making regulations stricter and enforcing new regulations that help to

combatanynewfoundsourceofairpollution.

INDOORAIRPOLLUTION

Indoor air pollution may seem like an individual concern, but it actually is

not just something to worry about in your own home. Indoor air pollution contributes to

outdoor air pollution. In the prevention of air pollution it is important to understand

aboutindoorairpollution.

Indoor air is much easier to clean up and regulate than the air outside.

However, if you do not know what causes indoor air pollution then you certainly can

notpreventit.

Some things that contribute to indoor air pollution are smoking, appliances, the

use of chemicals and animals. You can prevent indoor air pollution by not smoking

indoors, not using harmful chemicals, buying new energy efficient appliances and

keepinganimalsoutside.

PREVENTAIRPOLLUTION

Prevention of air pollution can be done in many ways. Some of the larger scale

methods of preventing air pollution include urban planning, technology development

and legal regulations.

Urban planning involves designing traffic patterns to flow outside of populated

areas. It also includes working with the design of roadways to prevent congestion and

stop and go traffic situations. The more a vehicle sits and idles, the more pollution it is

creating.

Technology is one of the greatest tools in preventing air pollution. The creation

of new vehicles that produce less pollution is a major step towards clean air.

Legal regulations are one very effective way to ensure that all possible measures

are taken to prevent air pollution. The government sets regulations that prevent

individuals and businesses from doing anything that can cause air pollution if it is not

absolutely necessary. These regulations also help to reduce pollution in the cases where

the polluting activity can not be avoided.

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CONTROLLING

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION

Human activities – industrialisation, urbanisation, agriculture, fishing and

aquaculture, forestry and silviculture as well as petroleum and mineral extraction – have

profound impacts on the world’s environment as well as on the quality of life. As a

result, there is a growing appreciation that nationally, regionally and globally the

management and utilisation of natural resources need to be improved and that the

amounts of waste and pollution generated by human activity need to be reduced on a

large scale. This

will require a reduction and, if possible, elimination of unsustainable patterns of

production and consumption. As a result, emphasis is growing on industrial

sustainability because this is increasingly recognised as a key means of bringing about

such reduction of environmental impacts and improving quality of life.

INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Industrial biotechnology applies the techniques of modern molecular biology to

improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impacts of industrial processes

like textile, paper and pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example, industrial

biotechnology companies develop biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to synthesize

chemicals. Enzymes are proteins produced by all organisms. Using biotechnology, the

desired enzyme can be manufactured in commercial quantities.

Commodity chemicals (e.g., polymer-grade acryl amide) and specialty

chemicals can be produced using biotech applications. Traditional chemical synthesis

involves large amounts of energy and often-undesirable products, such as Hall. Using

biocatalysts, the same chemicals can be produced more economically and more

environmentally friendly. An example would be the substitution of protease in

detergents for other cleaning compounds. Detergent proteases, which remove protein

impurities, are essential components of modern detergents. They are used to break down

protein, starch, and fatty acids present on items being washed. Protease production

results in a biomass that in turn yields a useful byproduct- an organic fertilizer.

Biotechnology is also used in the textile industry for the finishing of fabrics and

garments. Biotechnology also produces biotech-derived cotton that is warmer, stronger,

has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency, and wrinkle- and shrink-

resistance.

Some agricultural crops, such as corn, can be used in place of petroleum to

produce chemicals. The crop’s sugar can be fermented to acid, which can be then used

as an intermediate to produce other chemical feedstock’s for various products.

It has been projected that 30% of the world’s chemical and fuel needs could be

supplied by such renewable resources in the first half of the next century. It has been

demonstrated, at test scale, that bio pulping reduces the electrical energy required for

wood pulping process by 30% (11).

THE APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY TO

POLLUTION PREVENTION

ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Cleaning of environment through nature’s scavengers

Environmental BiotechnologEnvironmental Biotechnology employs a diverse

set of methodological approaches to explore and exploit the natural bio diversity

of microorganisms and their enormous metabolic capacities

The field includes the application of microorganisms for - improvement of

environmental quality - discovery of microorganisms with metabolic potentials

that can be employed for industrial applications - use of molecular methods for

assessing the natural distribution of microbes in the environment and the

ecological function they perform

ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

Micro-organisms have several uses in the environment, and new biotechnology

can potentially be used to improve these micro-organisms. One application is in the

control of pollution and treatment of toxic wastes. As discussed in this chapter, micro-

organisms are currently used in pollution control, and the potential applications of

biotechnology to treat liquid and solid wastes are numerous. Additionally, techniques

are beginning to be used to select micro-organisms that can degrade extremely toxic

compounds. In the mining Indus - try, microbes are used to leach metals from mine

dumps and concentrate metals from dilute solutions, and there are possibilities for using

biotechnology to improve the efficiencies of these processes. A third environmental

application of biotechnology is in enhanced oil recovery.

About 50 percent of the world’s subterranean oil is either reserves trapped in

rock or is too viscous to pump. It is possible that either micro-organisms themselves or

microbially produced compounds could be injected into oil wells to release the trapped

oil. None of the environmental applications Of new’ biotechnology are ready to be

marketed, and there are still many technological problems to be overcome.

Nevertheless, several companies are pursuing research and development (R&D) in these

environmental applications, and their development will progress over the next several

years.

INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

The application of life sciences in conventional manufacturing.

It uses genetically engineered bacteria, yeasts and plants - - whole cell systems

or enzymes

In most cases results in:

– lower production costs

– less pollution

– resource conservation

POLLUTION CONTROL AND TOXIC WASTE TREATMENT

Waste products and the pollution problems associated with such products have

been art of human existence since the dawn of civilization. Troublesome wastes are of

three types: those in the atmosphere, those in aqueous systems, and solids, In the

treatment of both liquid and solid wastes, there are significant opportunities for the use

of biotechnology. Indeed, most liquid and solid wastes have been dealt with for

millennia by nat - ural biological processes, Moreover, humans in their initial attempts

to control such wastes have generally resorted to contained biological systems,

particularly for the treatment of liquid wastes. The possibilities for using biological

systems tocontrol atmospheric pollution, in contrast, are rather limited. The discussion

here, therefore, focuses on the applications of biotechnology in the treatment of liquid

and solid wastes.

TREATMENT OF NONTOXIC LIQUID AND SOLID WASTES

Of the conventional microbiological systems for the treatment of liquid wastes now

in use, the most complex is that found in publicly owned water treatment plants. There

are four basic unit operations in a wastewater treatment plant:

primary processing;

secondary processing;

tertiary processing; and

digestion.

The primary treatment step removes solids from the wastewater. These solids

(sludge) are then either disposed of or sent to a sludge digester, and the wastewater is

forwarded to second .

APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Industrial use of biological systems (whole

cells or enzymes)

Waste recycling

Chirac synthesis

Textile treatment

Food enzymes

etc., etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL

BIOTECHNOLOGY

THE FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SPHERES

Introduction

The Hydrosphere

The Atmosphere

The Ecosphere

The Biosphere

The Astrosphere

Cycles of Matter

INTRODUCTION

Environmental Biotechnology encompasses all the biotechnological approaches

applied to the management of environmental problems. It employs genetic engineering

techniques to improve the efficiency of microorganisms to reduce the burden of toxic

substances ill the environment. To be more specific, environmental biotechnology is

concerned with the application of biotechnology in the context of environment and at

the same time implications of biotechnological development to the environment also

will be encompassed.

Visitors to the CEPA Environmental Registry, by month, 2005-2006 to 2007-2008

Control of feral pests such as foxes, mice, rabbits and carp 

Control of exotic weeds

Bioremediation of areas polluted by heavy metals, explosives, oil or toxic

chemicals.

Selected and modified plant varieties could be used to take up and accumulate

heavy metals, like arsenic, from the soil. Modified soil-dwelling microbes could

be used to digest certain contaminants, turning them into harmless substances

Conversion of waste into useful products, such as manure into plastic or fish food, or

using it as a source of energy

Treatment of solid waste and waste water

Bioindicators for environmental pollutants such as heavy metal toxins and

chemical contaminants 

Detection, removal and treatment of toxins in water, air, food and soil

Many of these applications use GM microbes that work by digesting or producing

substances.

APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

• Replacement of fossil fuels by renewable raw materials, for example:

– Cargill Dow polymers - polylactides

– Eastman and Genesco –

ascorbic acid

– DuPont and Genesco - 1,3-propanediol

– Biofuels - bioethanol, biodiesel

ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES

Waste can be considered as any material or energy form that cannot be

economically used, recovered or recycled at a given time and place. Growth in human

populations has generally been matched by a greater formation of a wider range of

waste products, many of which cause serious environmental pollution if they are

allowed to accumulate in the ecosystem.

In rural communities recycling of human, animal and vegetable waste has been

practiced by man for centuries, providing in many cases valuable fertilizers or fuel. In

urban communities where most of the deleterious wastes accumulate efficient waste

collection and specific treatment processes have been developed since it is impractical

to discharge high volumes of waste into natural land and waters. The development of

these practices in the last century was one of the main reasons for the spectacular

improvement in health and well being of the community.

Mainly by empirical means a variety of biological treatment systems have been

developed, ranging from cess pits, septic tanks and sewage farms to gravel beds,

percolating filters and activated sludge processes coupled with anaerobic digestion. The

primary aims of all of these systems or biotreaters is to alleviate health hazards and to

reduce the amount of oxidizable organic compounds and thus produce a final effluent or

outflow which can be discharged into the natural environment without producing any

adverse affects.

Biotreaters rely on the metabolic versatility of mixed microbial populations for

their efficiency. The fundamental feature of biotreaters is that they should contain a

range of microorganisms with the overall metabolic capacity to degrade any compound

entering the system. Controlled use of microorganisms has lead to the virtual

elimination of such water-borne disease as typhoid, cholera, and dysentery in

industrialized communities.

ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. Environment : Basic concepts and issues.

2. Environmental Pollution : Types of pollution, Methods for measurement of

pollution; Methodology of environmental management – The problem solving

approach and its limitations.

3. Air pollution and its control through biotechnology.

4. Water pollution and its control : Water as a scarce natural resource, Need for

water management, Measurement of water pollution, Sources of water pollution,

Waste water collection, Waste water treatment – Physical, chemical and

biological treatment processes.

5. Microbiology of waste water treatments: Aerobic process, Activated sludge,

Oxidation ditches, Trickling filters, towers, rotating discs, rotating drums,

oxidation ponds.

6. Anaerobic processes: Anaerobic digestion, Anaerobic filters, Up flow

anaerobic sludge blanket reactors.

7. Treatment schemes for waste waters of dairy, distillery, tannery, sugar,

antibiotic industries.

8. Microbiology of degradation of Xenobiotics in environment: Ecological

considerations, decay behaviour & degradative plasmids; Hydrocarbons,

substituted hydrocarbons, oil pollution, surfactants, pesticides.

9. Bioremediation of contaminated soils and waste land.

10. Biopesticides in integrated pest management.

11. Solid wastes: Sources and management (Composting, wormiculture and

methane production).

12. Global environmental problems: Ozone depletion, UV-B, Green house effect

and acid rain, their impact and biotechnological approaches for management.

Acid rain is still with us. Although it is a problem that people have worked

diligently to solve, there are still many problem areas throughout the world. In reality

the focus of acid rain research has shifted, and this book adds new vision to the topic. It

contains papers, selected from Acid Rain 2005, the 7th International Conference on Acid

Deposition, that take a broad perspective of the issues, emphasizing a number of

themes:

-        the emission, concentration and deposition of pollutants

-        nitrogen and trace elements in ecosystems and their effects on forests,

water and soil

-        studies of material damage and recovery

-       critical loads

The book is aimed at scientists and researchers who are working in the area of

acid rain and its effects, and on nutrient cycling. This latest research will be of value to

those concerned with the mitigation of acid rain effects.  

ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Environmental biotechnology is the used in waste treatment and pollution

prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many wastes

than conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods for land-

based disposal.

Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result.

Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the

chemical components of waste products. Environmental engineers use bioremediation,

the broadest application of environmental biotechnology, in two basic ways. They

introduce nutrients to stimulate the activity of bacteria already present in the soil at a

waste site, or add new bacteria to the soil. The bacteria digest the waste at the site and

turn it into harmless byproducts. After the bacteria consume the waste materials, they

die off or return to their normal population levels in the environment.

Bioremediation, is an area of increasing interest. Through application of biotechnical

methods, enzyme bioreactors are being developed that will pretreat some industrial

waste and food waste components and allow their removal through the sewage system

rather than through solid waste disposal mechanisms.  Waste can also be converted to

biofuel to run generators. Microbes can be induced to produce enzymes needed to

convert plant and vegetable materials into building blocks for biodegradable plastics .

In some cases, the byproducts of the pollution-fighting microorganisms are

themselves useful. For example, methane can be derived from a form of bacteria that

degrades sulfur liquor, a waste product of paper manufacturing. This methane can then

be used as a fuel or in other industrial processes.

BIOTECHNOLOGY IN PAPER INDUSTRY IN REDUCING

POLLUTION CONTROL

In paper industry, the current pulp bleaching technologies are being replaced by

a better technology. The objective of all pulp processing operations, is to efficiently

remove lignin without damaging valuable cellulosic fibres.Various chemical and

mechanical processes are currently used to release cellulose from its encasing lignin

matrix (this process is called pulping), but they suffer from serious disadvantages-

including damage to cellulosic fibres, high costs, high energy use and corrosion.

In this connection, a ligin degrading and modifying enzyme (LDM) isolated

from Phanerochaete chrysosporum was found useful, since it may reduce energy costs

and corrosion thus increasing the life of the system and also reduce environmental

hazards associated with bleach plant effluents.

Bioreactors have been designed, where environmentally problematic processes

have been replaced by those which are environment friendly. Arrangements have also,

been made to treat effluents from this system.

BIOTECHNOLOGY IN PLASTIC INDUSTRY IN REDUCING

POLLUTION CONTROL

Conventional process for plastic industry uses oil based raw materials. Alkenes

like ethylene and propylene, produced from these raw materials, arc first converted into

alkene oxides, which are then polymerized to form plastics, such as polypropylene (used

for making containers) and polyethylene (commonly called polythene).

The use of these raw materials has inherent danger of escaping into the atmosphere, thus

causing pollution. Therefore, it is suggested that in plastic industry raw materials like

sugars (glucose) should be used, which can be enzymatically (or through direct use of

microbes), converted into alkene oxide to be used in this industry. Methylococcus

capsulatus has also been successfully used for converting alkene into alkene oxide.

REDUCING ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF PAPER INDUSTRY

Bleaching of chemical pulp is an important step in paper industry. Pulp

bleaching is normally performed as a sequence of treatments in order to achieve

brightness. chlorination, alkaline extraction, chlorinedioxide treatment are some of the

most common bleaching stages. In recent years, oxygen bleaching under alkaline

conditions has also been used.

During bleaching of pulp, therefore, huge amounts of chlorine are ultimately

converted to chlorinated organic compounds, which, to a substantial degree, are

discharged to receiving waters, imposing a great threat to the environment.

Toxic chlorinated compounds are measured as total organic chlorines (TOCI) or

absorbable organic halogens (AOX). Normally 5 kg of TOCI/AOX is discharged per

tonne of bleached -pulp, in addition to, 300 different organic compounds and dioxins. In

view of this, more stringent restrictions are being imposed on release of waste bleach

waters, so that there is an urgent need to, reduce the impact of pulp bleaching on the

environment.

MICROBIAL ENZYME TECHNOLOGY AS AN ALTERNATIVE

TO CONVENTIONAL CHEMICALS IN LEATHER INDUSTRY

Department of Biotechnology, Central Leather Research Institute, Adyar,

Chennai 600 020, India

Leather industry contributes to one of the major industrial pollution problems

facing the country, and the pollution causing chemicals, viz. lime, sodium sulphide, salt,

solvents, etc. arise mainly from the pre-tanning processes of leather processing. In order

to overcome the hazards caused by the tannery effluents, use of enzymes as a viable

alternative has been resorted to in pre-tanning operations such as soaking, dehairing,

bating, degreasing and offal treatment. This review focuses on the use of microbial

enzymes as an alternate technology to the conventional methods, and highlights the

importance of these enzymes in minimizing the pollution load.

Environmental pollution has been a major irritant to industrial development.

Chemical and chemical-based industries are the prime targets of the environmentalists

for their crusade against pollution, and leather industry has also not been left out of the

reckoning. The generation of pollution is significantly high in the pre-tanning

operations compared to the post-tanning operations1. The chemicals mainly responsible

for pollution in pre-tanning processes are lime, sodium sulphide, and caustic soda apart

from common salt and degreasing chemicals. In fact, one third of the pollution caused

by the leather industries results from the wastes generated during dehairing operations2.

The wastes from the tanneries are let out into the drains which in turn empty into the

main sewerage causing hazard to those who use this water. Many tanneries have been

forced to close down because of their noncompliance with the standards laid down. In a

short span of time, Indian leather industry has faced serious challenges such as German

ban on pentachlorophenate, certain azo dyes, formaldehyde, etc. on one hand, and court

order for compliance with environmental regula-tions on the other.

The attention of tanners is focused towards revamping the processing methods,

recovery systems, and effluent treatment techniques to make leather processing eco-

friendly. Intensive efforts are being directed towards using a viable alternative

technology for pre-tanning processes using enzymes. This could be one of the ways of

solving the industrial pollution problems resulting from tannery effluents.

CONVENTIONAL LEATHER PROCESSING

The raw hide has to undergo a series of chemical treatments before it turns into a

flattering leather. This includes soaking, liming, dehairing, deliming, bating, degreasing,

and pickling1. For all these steps, the chemicals used are quite toxic. Thus due to these

pretanning operations, the leather processing industry is one of the worst offenders of

the environment.

The principal leather making protein, collagen, exists in hides and skins in

association with various globular proteins, viz. albumin, globulin, mucoids; and fibrous

proteins such as elastin, keratin, and reticulin. During leather manufacture, the

noncollagenous constituents are removed partially or completely in the various pre-

tanning operations; the extent of removal of these constituents decides the

characteristics of the final leather.

Besides chemical treatment, certain enzymatic treatments are also necessary to

get optimum results. One such treatment, bating, is the only step in leather processing

where enzymatic process cannot be substituted by chemical processes. The process of

bating gives certain desired characteristics to the finished leather. Earlier, the process

was carried out using dog dung or manure6. The use of this was not only unhygienic but

fermentation could also not be controlled.

In pre-tanning operations, the hides and skins are first subjected to a water soak.

For loosening the hair7, the oldest method is the ‘sweating’ process – a natural autolysis

or breakdown process. It is a mild putrefaction process induced at random. Since the

type and quantity of the putrefying bacteria cannot be controlled, the process itself

eludes control. Moreover, since the sensitivity to attack the epidermal proteins and the

fibrous proteins of the corium by the proteolytic enzymes is more or less the same, the

sweating may result in serious damage to the hide surface. Dehairing is used to be

followed by opening up of fibre structure in ‘liming’. The dehaired hide is transferred to

an alkaline solution of lime milk where swelling occurs and the nonfibrillar proteins are

dissolved. After mechanical removal of the subcutaneous tissue, deliming is performed

in order to remove the adsorbed lime from the hide and to eliminate the lime swell.

The fat present in the hide skins is removed either as soluble lime soap or hydrolysis

products like fatty acids. Kerosene, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and white spirit are used

in the degreasing system which add to the toxicity of the environment and effluents.

ENZYMES IN PRE-TANNING

An important enzyme used in pre-tanning processes belongs to the group of

proteolytic enzymes, proteases. Obtained by microbial fermentation, the proteases are

meant for use in the leather industry for dehairing, bating and soaking processes, and in

the detergent industry for breaking down proteinaceous matter caused by body

secretions, food stuffs, and blood.

Although enzymes from plants, animals, and microbial sources have been used

for decades, large-scale use of microbial enzymes received a boost only in 1960s

following the introduction of fermentation technology. The enzymes or enzymatic

formulations need not be pure but must be cheap compared to that of commercial

chemicals used in leather industry.

Hides and Skins

Soaking in plain water

Alkaline swellingLiming with Caoh3 & Na2s

Pikling with mineral

Deliming with NH4 cl

Bating with enzyme Degreasing with alkaline

Degreasing with acid Chytome transfer

finishing

Animal proteases and microbial proteases from bacteria and fungi are used in the

pre-tanning processes of leather manufacture. The most important criteria for their

selection are their specificity, pH activity range as well as pH and thermal stability. If an

enzyme is to act uniformly, it must be able to diffuse into the hide and this is obviously

acheived with skins rather than with hides. In the latter case, an accumulation of enzyme

at the surface of the grain occurs. A pronounced difference between the pH value of the

solution and that of the hide is also possible.

The animal proteases are mixtures of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and various

peptidases which may contain amylase or lipase as secondary enzymes. Mainly for

economic reasons, enzymes from microorganisms have come to play a significant role

in recent years and enzyme products of microbial origin are already being produced on a

wide scale.

Since microorganisms can be made to propagate rapidly and profusely, they are

an ideal source for enzymes. Mainly, neutral and alkaline proteases are obtained from

bacteria, which differ in their pH activity range. Fungal proteases are also classified

according to the pH activity range : fungal acid proteases act between pH 2.5 and 6.0

and can be derived from A. satoi. These are used for bating prior to pickling and serve

to open up the fibre structure. Fungal alkaline proteases14 belong to the same group of

serine proteases as alkaline bacterial proteases. However, these are more heat sensitive

and are quickly deactivated above 60° C. Fungal neutral proteases are mainly obtained

from

ASPERGILLUSORPENICILLIUMSPECIES

Table shows the various enzymes produced by various microorganisms used in the

leather industry.

Process Enzyme Microorganism

Soaking Protocase A spergilus parasitiscus. A

flavus, A.oriza, and Bacilus

subtains Rhizopus

rhizopodiformis.

Dehairing Protocase

A spergilus falut

aspergillus sp.Bacillus

subluls , Lactobacillus.

Bating Protoease

A.Parasticus S.Rimosus

and B.Licheniformis , B.

subulis, penicilium

janthinellim.

Degreasing LipaseRhizopous nodosus.

A.oryzaer and A.flaus

Apart from bacterial and fungal proteases, specific proteases like keratinases are

known. Keratinases which hydrolyse keratins, are obtained from Streptomyces fradiae

and can be used for dehairing.

Lipases are used

(i) In the oil and fat industry to modify fats for use in foods;

(ii) In detergent compositions;

(iii) For fatty acid production, lipid synthesis via reversal of hydrolysis

and lipid modification by interesterification, and

(iv) In degreasing of hides and skins.

ENZYMES IN SOAKING

Soaking is the first operation in the tannery wherein the hides and skins are cleaned and

softened with water. Wet-salted or freshly slaughtered hides and skins do not require

any chemical agent for their proper soaking4. Soaking is necessary for solubilization and

elimination of salts and globular proteins contained within the fibrous structure of hides

and skins. It is carried out under alkaline conditions at low temperature between 10° C

and 20° C in water treated with antiseptics such as sodium hypochlorite, sodium

pentachlorophenate, formic acid, etc.1. It is accelerated by some of the nonionic

detergents and additives such as sodium sulphide or sodium tetrasulphide.

The advantages of enzymatic soaking include loosening of the scud, initiation of

the opening of the fibre structure, and production of leather with less wrinkled grain

when used at an alkaline pH of less than 10.5 (ref. 6). Use of enzyme preparation in

soaking of rabbit skins improves the softness and elasticity, and increases the area yield

of the fur by 3.3% while reducing the processing time by 10–20 h (ref. 18).

Grimm has described a soaking method using proteolytic enzymes and

carbohydrases in the pH range of 5.5 to 10.0. Enzymes from Aspergillus parasiticus, A.

flavus, A. oryzae, and Bacillus subtilis have been used alone or in mixtures. Rokhvarger

and Zubin suggested the use of carbohydrase from the mold culture A. awamori in

soaking. Botev et al. have reported the use of bacterial amylase for soaking dried wool

lamb skins.

Alkaline proteases of bacterial and fungal origin have been used for soaking

which reduces the need for the liming chemicals by 30–60% . Soaking of dried furs in

an aqueous bath containing 1% acid proteinase from Rhizopus rhizopodiformis and

sodium bisulphite at 25° C for about 20 h has been reported by Asbeck et al. Orlita and

Beseda25 have tested three commercial bacterial alkaline protease preparations for the

soaking of salted cow hides. Thus, use of enzyme preparations results in a decrease in

soaking time.

Soaking is usually carried out using a combination of proteolytic enzymes that are

optimally active in the neutral or alkaline pH range. For enzymatic soaking, the average

soaking period for salted raw stock is about 4 h and for dried raw stock is about 8–10 h

(ref. 26). A water soak without auxiliary agents takes 24 h for salted hides, and 36–48 h

for dried hides.

ENZYMES IN DEHAIRING

Dehairing is one of the main operations in the beamhouse. Five methods of dehairing

are generally adopted, viz.

(i) clipping process,

(ii) scalding process,

(iii) chemical process,

(iv) sweating process, and

(v) enzymatic process

Of these, the most commonly practiced method of dehairing of hides and skins

is the chemical process using lime and sodium sulphide. However, the use of high

concentrations of lime and sodium sulphide creates an extremely alkaline environment

resulting in the pulping of hair and its subsequent removal. While one cannot question

the efficacy of this process, its inherent disadvantages have to be taken note of.

Significant amongst these are:

(i) It contributes in no small measure to the pollution load. Beamhouse

processes generally account for 70–80% of the total COD of effluent

from all leather making processes. About 75% of the organic waste from

a tannery is from the beamhouse and 70% of this waste is from hair

which is rich in nitrogen. These figures clearly illustrate the contribution

made by the lime and sulphide process towards pollution.

(ii) Sulphide is highly toxic with obnoxious odor. If left untreated, it can

cause major problems in the sewers.

(iii) The severe alkaline condition is a health hazard for the workers.

 Enzymatic dehairing is suggested as an environmentally friendly alternative to

the conventional chemical process6. The enzyme digests the basal cells of the hair bulb

and the cells of the malphigian layer. This is followed by loosening of hair with an

attack on the outermost sheath and subsequent swelling and breakdown of the inner root

sheath and parts of the hair that are not keratinized28. Advantages of enzymatic

dehairing are:

 

(i) Significant reduction or even complete elimination of the use of sodium

sulphide.

(ii) Recovery of hair of good quality and strength with a good saleable value.

(ii) Creation of an ecologically conducive atmosphere for the workers.

(iv) Enzymatically dehaired leathers have shown better strength properties

and greater surface area.

(v) Simplification of pre-tanning processes by cutting down one step, viz.

bating.

(vi) A significant nature of the enzymatic dehairing process is the time factor

involved. The lime-sulphide process takes about 16 h, whereas the enzymatic

dehairing would be also completed between 12 and 20 h .

 Proteolytic enzymes are of great commercial importance, contributing to more

than 40% of the world’s commercially produced enzymes. Approximately 50% of the

enzymes used as industrial process aids are proteolytic enzymes. Proteolytic enzymes

are more efficient in enzymatic dehairing than amylolytic enzymes.

Microbial proteases are derived from a wide variety of yeasts, molds, and

bacteria. Yeast proteases are mainly intracellular in nature and therefore these enzymes

have not gained significant commercial interest. The protease from A. flavus was earlier

being used for dehairing, and later it was reported that simultaneous dehairing and

bating is possible with the protease of A. flavus . Gillespie has observed that the enzyme

preparation from cultures of A. oryzae, A. parasiticus, A. fumigatus, A. effusus, A.

ochraceus, A. wentii, and P. griseofulvum exhibit marked depilatory activity on sheep

skins.

CLRI has developed Clarizyme, an alkaline serine protease, produced by A.

flavus used for the dehairing of skins and hides. A. flavus grows rapidly on wheat bran

and produces large amounts of extracellular proteases. Extensive trials carried out in

CLRI tannery have confirmed the successful use of this enzyme as a depilatory agent.

The use of this enzymatic depilation process completely eliminates the use of sulphide,

a toxic pollutant.

The fungal culture, Conidiobolus sp., isolated at NCL, produces high yields of

extracellular alkaline protease. The enzyme is active at pH 10.0 and is being tried for

many industrial applications. Enzymes derived from bacteria have gained much

commercial interest , because of their easy production capabilities by submerged

cultivation, high yield of enzyme, short duration for production, and easy recovery of

the enzyme.

Proteolytic enzymes derived from a large number of Bacillus sp. and

Streptomyces sp. have been used in dehairing of hides and skins. A lime and sulphide-

free process of dehairing has been developed for the manufacture of suede from sheep

skins using protease from B. subtilis. Schlosser et al. have reported a method of

depilation in an acid medium containing Lactobacillus culture.

In dehairing, the hair loosening is effected at pH 10.0 using fungal or bacterial

enzymes; the treatment period being approximately 12–16 h, followed by hair removal

using mechanical means. The treatment period can be substantially reduced if the

enzyme solution is fed in from the flesh side under pressure. Enzymatic hair loosening

processes play a role wherever high-quality hair, wool or bristles are to be recovered.

Three methods of application are commonly used in the enzymatic dehairing

process:

(i) paint method,

(ii) dip method, and

(iii) spray method.

In the paint method, the enzyme solution is mixed with an inert material like

kaolin, made into a thin paste, adjusted to the required pH, applied on the flesh side of

hides and skins, piled flesh to flesh, covered with polythene sheets and kept till

dehairing takes place. In the dip method of enzymatic unhairing, the hides or skins are

kept immersed in the enzyme solution at the required pH in a pit or tub. The

disadvantage encountered in this method is the unavoidable dilution of the enzyme

solution. Even though enzyme penetration is observed to be uniform, dehairing at

backbone and neck is not up to the mark. A novel spraying technique has been adopted

for the application of multienzyme concentrate in depilation.

The advantages of this method over the painting and dip methods are that

(i) even concentrated solutions can be sprayed,

(ii) when the enzyme solution is sprayed on the flesh side with force, entry

becomes easier,

(iii) backbone and neck can be sprayed with more amount of enzyme, thereby

making the process quicker,

(iv) there is no effluent arising out of this method, and

(v) after depilation, hair will be almost free from all the adhering skin

tissues.

Of late, dehairing by drumming is being practiced, and industrially this should be

feasible.

ENZYMES IN BATING

Bating is a very important process in which enzymes have been successfully

employed for centuries. The concept of softening hides by treating them in a warm

infusion of animal dung has been termed as ‘bating’ and the product used for such

process is known as a bate.

The main object of bating is to remove some of the nonleather-forming

proteinous materials like albumins, globulin, and mucoids from hides and skins, and to

allow splitting up of collagen fibres to facilitate the penetration of tanning materials and

other processing chemicals, thereby giving the finished leather the desired characteristic

properties like feel, softness, pliability, etc..

Deliming and bating, the subsequent steps in the processing of the pelts after

liming, are really two separate operations although they are usually carried out in one

step and often overlap each other. The principal materials which a bate contains are a

proteolytic enzyme, a carrier for the enzyme like wood flour, and a suitable deliming

agent like ammonium chloride or sulphate or both. The deliming agents are used for the

removal of lime salts which are used during the dehairing process.

The comparatively richer source for the proteolytic enzyme is the pancreas from

bovine and pig. The proteolytic enzymes in the pancreas are present in inactive forms;

chymotrypsin as chymotrypsinogen, trypsin as trypsinogen, and carboxypeptidase as

procarboxypeptidase. A process has been patented for the activation of pancreatic

enzymes by the use of acid protease from A. fumigatus.

Underkofler and Hickey have described a process for the manufacture of

enzyme bate from mold source. Trabitzch have reported the use of enzymes from

Aspergillus species in bating and dehairing. A procedure has been developed for bating

pig skins, using an enzyme preparation from B. subtilis, and bated skins exhibit good

physicochemical properties. Bacterial preparation from S. rimosus and B. licheniformis

have been tested for their bating action and it is found that solubilization of collagen has

been less pronounced under the influence of microbial proteases than under the

influence of pancreatic protease. A combination of both mold and pancreatic enzymes

in suitable proportions will be an ideal bate for different types of leather.

In bating, pancreatic enzymes are used in combination with neutral and alkaline

bacterial or fungal proteases. After loading the drum with the pelts, the float is fed in at

35–37° C and, then, the bating agent containing enzyme, ammonium salts and carrier

material is added.

ENZYMES IN DEGREASING

Degreasing is an essential step in the production of glove and clothing leather. In

this process there is removal of excess natural fats from greasy skins. The presence of

natural grease in raw hides and skins, especially woolly sheep skins, results in various

defects, viz. fatty spues, uneven dyeing and finishing, waxy patches in alum-tanned

leathers, and pink stain on wet blues. During the degreasing operation in the pretanning

process, the fat or grease is removed from the interfibrillary spaces of the skins to

facilitate the even penetration of tanning materials, fat liquors, and dyes, etc. Degreasing

helps to obtain soft and pliable leather for garment manufacture.

Degreasing is carried out after pickling, using aqueous emulsification with

detergents, or by solvent extraction. It is well known that organic solvents like kerosene,

petrol, perchloroethylene and trichloroethylene are highly unsafe and hazardous to the

workers and heavily pollute the environment. The detergents, though not hazardous

while handling and storing, cause serious pollution problems. These detergents and

solvents add to the BOD load of the pickling effluent, and the chlorinated hydrocarbons

and solvents add to the toxicity of the effluent.

Enzymatic degreasing is suggested as a viable alternative to combat the

pollution problems caused by the use of solvents and detergents. Lipases which are

projected as alternatives for solvents and detergents, catalyze the breakdown of fats and

can be obtained from animal, microbial and plant sources. The advantages of using

enzymes for degreasing are the elimination of solvents, reduction in surfactants, and

possible recovery of valuable by-products. The disadvantages are that the lipases do not

remove all types of fats in the same way that solvents do, and they add cost to the

process.

In 1966, Trabitzsch described the potential for lipases in degreasing skins.

Baldano and Shestakova compared the enzymatic and solvent degreasing of pig skin

and have shown that both these methods remove approximately 50% of the grease.

Yeshoda et al. used a fungal lipase for the degreasing of woolly sheep skins, pH range

of 3.2–3.6 at 37° C for 1 h. Subsequently, Yeshoda et al. observed that degreasing and

bating could be carried out simultaneously in the pH range of 7.8–8.0. An acid lipase

from Rhizopus nodosus has been noticed to be very effective in the degreasing of sheep

skins.

Zhang reported use of alkaline lipase in combination with the proteinase and

pancreatin in softening pig skin to improve the degreasing effect. Pfleiderer et al carried

out degreasing of hides by soaking in an acidic bath containing a proteolytic enzyme

(0.01–3.0%), and a nonionic surfactant (0.2–1.5%) or its mixture with anionic

emulsifiers. A combination of proteolytic enzymes and emulsifiers gives optimum

results in wet degreasing of sheep skins.

CLRI has developed a potent fungal lipase from A. niger and a potent bacterial

lipase. Comparative studies on degreasing of sheep skins using the bacterial lipase and

commercial detergent-based degreasing agent Gelon-PK have been carried out.

Improved degreasing results with the bacterial lipase, with added advantages of better

softness, smoothness, and improvement in other physical properties. Furthermore, the

lipase without detergent is observed to show 70% degreasing in 2 h, with the effluent

showing minimal pollution load.

Enzymatic degreasing can be carried out with acidic or alkaline lipases of fungal

or bacterial origin. For degreasing, pickled pelts are kept immersed in an enzyme bath

containing microbial lipase and water pH of 3.6, and left in the same bath overnight at a

temperature of 28–32° C. The degreased pelts are then removed from the bath and

subjected to salt wash twice with water and common salt for 40 min. The washed pelts

are repickled, chrome tanned and taken for further processing. The use of an alkaline

lipase at a pH of 9.0 to 9.3 in the degreasing of pig skin results in short degreasing time

and high degreasing efficiency.

ENZYMES FOR BY-PRODUCTS UTILIZATION AND EFFLUENT

TREATMENT

Enzymes could be used in the treatment of fleshings and effluent from tannery

processes. A combination of hydrolytic enzymes, viz. proteases, carbohydrases, and

lipases would be required. The advantages to be realised include a protein by-product

suitable for animal feed as well as energy conservation and fat recovery. Again, the

major disadvantage would be the cost.

When raw hides are processed to leather, a number of by-products such as native

hide material (claws, tails, necks, fleshings), pelt waste (trimmings, machine fleshings,

gluestock, pelt cuts), and tanned material (shavings, leather cuts, buffing dust, chrome

cuttings) are obtained.

Braeumer et al. have described the enzymatic conversion of glue stock and other

hide offal to technically useful byproducts by hydrolysing the pulverised hide wastes

with an alkaline protease, pH 9.0–13.0, in the presence of urea, and then at pH 2.0–5.0

in the presence of a strong acid. Bronowski et al. have shown that treating fleshings with

pancreatic enzymes instead of heat treatment for separating the fat from the

proteinaceous matter requires much less energy, and the yield is increased from 60–65%

to over 90%.

Sauer has described a process for the utilization of fleshings which consists of the

enzymatic hydrolysis of the proteins, conditioning of the resulting liquid, and separating

the fats and solids present in the hydrolysate. The outstanding feature of the process is a

recovery of 91% of the fat in the fleshings and the application of the hydrolysate

directly to the soil, as a fertilizer. Iliskovic and Mersed62 have described the separation

of fats from the fleshy wastes from cattle hide processing by treatment with enzymes.

The problem of waste treatment can be approached

(i) by getting rid of the pollution by proper effluent treatment, and

(ii) by controlling pollution occurring at different stages of leather

manufacture.

Biotechnology plays an important role in tannery effluent treatment. The

secondary treatment of tannery effluents, which relies on living organisms, is normally

by anaerobic lagoons and aerobic lagoons. Open waste-ponds or anaerobic lagoons are

installed in few south Indian tanneries where the atmospheric temperature (20–40° C) is

suitable for this operation. In these ponds, microorganisms which thrive in oxygen-less

environments are allowed to digest the waste.

Anaerobic lagoons can be used for cleaning wastes coming from both the

vegetable tanning and chrome tanning procedures. Closed type anaerobic systems are

useful for tanneries situated in cold temperatures (5–10° C). Aerobic lagoon is a shallow

water-tight pond of about 2–3 m depth. The wastes are kept for about a week. Fixed or

floating type surface aerators blow oxygen or air into these for helping growth of

organisms. This system requires less land and is economical for larger tanneries located

in urban areas.

The necessity for chromium removal in tannery waste water is another area of

waste management. Microorganisms such as A. fumigatus and species of Pseudomonas

when grown on chrome waste can ‘leach’ out chromium. Pentachlorophenol, a

preservative used for raw as well as semi-processed skins, creates problems during

handling and also during biological effluent treatment. P. aeruginosa could be used

successfully to degrade pentachlorophenol. Other potential techniques for reduction of

pollution load are recycling of immobilized enzymes to hydrolyse the solid waste, and

recycling of immobilized whole cells to absorb or detoxify toxic metals in the effluent.

Indian Leather Industry Foundation (ILIFO), a nonprofit association of major Indian

tanners, and UNIDO’s Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning

Industry in South–East Asia (RePO) have recently launched a research programme to

find uses for treated tannery effluents in agriculture. At present, the experiment is on in

the North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu, where several fruit, flower and vegetable plants

are grown with irrigation from treated tannery effluents.

Like treated effluent, tannery sludge also contains some nutrients which could be

applied to agricultural fields. Disposal of sludge generated in the tannery effluent

treatment process is a major bottleneck in tackling tannery pollution.

APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

• Replacement of fossil fuels by renewable raw materials, for

example:

Cargill Dow polymers

Polylactides

Eastman and Genencor

ascorbic acid

DuPont and Genencor

propanediol

Biofuels - bioethanol, biodiesel

INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

• The application of life sciences in conventional

manufacturing.

• It uses genetically engineered bacteria, yeasts and plants

whole cell systems or enzymes

• In most cases results in:

– lower production costs

– less pollution

– resource conservation

 HOW TO DEAL WITH THE MENACE OF LAND POLLUTION

FROM OIL RIGS

Oil is a commodity which is needed for many purposes in our lives. The uses of

the oil are sometimes off set by the hazards that occur. These hazards can occur on the

ocean waters and also on the land. The land pollution which is the result of this spilled

oil is just as damaging as those of the ocean variety.

As with the ocean variety the land pollution is difficult to remove but every

effort must be made. Like the animals that live and visit the ocean the land animals are

at risk from this pollution. There is also a risk of the oil spill leaking into the

underground water table. When this occurs the rivers and lakes will also get caught to

the flow of the oil that is polluting the surface.

This land pollution can happen when the pipes that carry the oil to the refining plants

will corrode and break. These breaks are what causes the oil to spill onto the land and

then flow everywhere that is in the path of the oil. In some dire cases the oil spill will

occur due to malicious acts.

These acts are in some cases sabotage or terrorist activities. While these are very

serious accidents they are hard to investigate and prove. The most that oil companies

can do is to repair the breaks and posts guards to protect the pipe lines. This operation is

very costly and not very feasible as there are many miles of pipe lines to protect.

While the cases of land pollution from oil rigs or oil pipe lines is not that known there

have been instances where these oil spills have caused the environment massive

damage. The cost to the oil company is also very high. For this reason the different oil

companies are now looking into various other methods of transporting the oil to the

refineries. They are also developing new methods of cleaning up the land pollution that

is caused by the oil spills.

A few of these methods involve the use of naturally biodegradable substances.

These substances are designed to soak up the oil that is lodged in the surface and under

the soil. As a result of using products like the land pollution effects from land oil spills

can be reversed. The land is then free to begin re-growing. The vegetation and the water

table will become clear of any oil.

The work of the groups should continue as oil is a commodity that is still in heavy use.

This makes the possibility of an oil spill a major problem in land pollution. By using

substances like this people can find ways of clearing the long term effects to nature that

are caused by oil spills.

GREASE DECOMPOSITION

Facilities processing meats, poultry, and certain other foods have particularly

difficult problems with grease. Grease problems also appear throughout the wastewater

collection and treatment cycle.

Both pipe collection branches and pump stations are susceptible to the problems

of grease accumulation, which include plugging of lines, accumulation of debris in wet

wells, slippery working surfaces, unsightly conditions, odor, and operational problems

at the facility site. Scum layers on sedimentation tanks and scum mats in digesters cause

additional problems.

The two basic problems are the congealing (solidifying) of the grease and the

difficulty, if not an impossibility, of decomposing the grease once it arrives at the

wastewater treatment plant. Techniques that result in the emulsification and

decomposition of grease would significantly improve the operation of all waste

treatment facilities.

Bacterial formulations have been used in the past for grease decomposition.

Improvement of these cultures might be possible. Additionally, an enzymatic approach,

such as the use of lipases, could improve the operation of waste facilities. However,

because grease contamination generally is in the form of nonaqueous, congealed

deposits. A mechanism for delivering the enzyme to the substrate might solve the

problem, but no approaches for accomplishing this have been postulated.

COMMERCIAL ASPECTS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN

POLLUTION CONTROL AND TOXIC

Waste treatment In contemporary times, basic developments and improvements

in water treatment have originated primarily in Western Europe and spread through the

Western Hemisphere. Higher population and industrial densities coupled with fewer

water

resources have forced Western European countries to advance the technology at a much

faster pace than required in the United States. In a sense, Western Europe has been the

proving ground for new technologies used for water and wastewater treatment.

Grease buildup in the same tank after 4% months of operation with daily

addition of decreasing bacteria produced through classical genetic selection techniques

making initial assessments of the impact of advanced biotechnology in this area. Japan

is also

conducting a small amount of R&D in this area. In the United States, there probably is

more activity oriented to biotechnology, much of it financed by the U.S. Government, in

the municipal solid waste treatment sector than in either the air or liquid waste treatment

sectors. Additionally, R&D efforts aimed at improving the technology of wastewater

treatment are concentrated in a handful of small bioprocess-oriented companies and

certain academic microbiology laboratories.

Only recently did interactions begin between these research groups and the plant

operators involved in purifying wastewater . In the past, industry has relied primarily on

engineering consultants, not technology-based companies, to address pollution

problems; these consultants haveused the most basic existing technologies for treatment

of organic wastes.

Two potential barriers to the commercial application of novel approaches to the

problems of pollution control and waste treatment are the performance of the products

that are developed and scientific uncertainty regarding their application. For example,

although the technology for highlevel production of enzymes and metallothioneins

certainly exists or can be developed, the performance of these products in the desired

application is as yet untested. If their performance turns out to be poor, then the R&D

effort for commercialization would be much more extensive and might not be worth

pursuing.

Furthermore, although reasonable approaches can be designed to identifyor

develop microa-ganisms for the degradation of organic micropollutants and toxic

wastes, the success of these approaches is uncertain. It is also unclear whether

genetically manipulated micro-organisms or micro-organisms that have been otherwise

selected in the laboratory will be able to survive in a nonlaboratory environment.

Their ability to survive and function in the field will probably be greatest if the desired

degradative activities can be introduced through minimal alteration of a naturally

occurring microorganism. If the technological barriers to commercial application

can be surmounted, the other areas of importance will be markets, Government policy,

and regulation.

Biotechnological improvements in the area of conventional wastewater treatment

processes and slime control would provide economic benefits. If the performance is

satisfactory, markets for these products should develop. The primary limitation to

commercialization will be the rate of acceptance by the treatment plant

operators. In the case of pollution control, whether it be control of organic

micropollutants, heavy metals, or toxic wastes, the primary nontechnological barrier

will be Federal Government policy.

Biotechnological solutions to these problems are likely to be vigorously pursued

only if the Government sets goals and criteria for reducing these contaminants that must

be met by both the public and private sectors, The effort for developing these

biotechnological solutions will probably initially require Federal funding, However, the

requirements could eventually create a demand for a commercial product, and funding

might then shift partially to the private sector.

At the present time, most industries will not fund biotechnological research on

waste treatment problems. They are only interested in licensing or purchasing such

technology if it has already been developed. Another potential barrier to

commercializationof products for pollution control is Government regulation of the

products themselves. In the case of enzymes and other proteins, few significant safety

problems requiring regulation are anticipated, although care must be taken in handling

these products. The application of micro-organisms, in contrast, could involve

significant regulatoryimplications. Since the micro-organisms proposed here will have

the potential for beingreleased into the environment, it will probably be necessary to

establish their safety or to develop methods for their containment at the site of

treatment.

U.S. policy with regard to the regulation of micro-organisms, particularly

genetically manipulated ones, is dynamic. The regulatory constraints that will be placed

on the use of microorganisms in the future, therefore, cannot be accurately predicted.

The benefits of using microorganisms in the area of pollution control to protect human

health will have to be carefully balanced against any perceived dangers associated with

their use.

Land Pollution

PREVENTION OF LAND POLLUTION

Antarctica is one of the least polluted places on earth. When pollution in

Antarctica is found, it can usually be traced to somewhere else in the world. Pollution

has been found there in the snow that is known to be coming from other places in the

worldandthisisagreatfind.

Prevention of pollution in Antarctica is important. Methods used and tested

here are easy to monitor because of the fact that pollution found in Antarctica is not

directly from within Antarctica. Studying the prevention of pollution in Antarctica can

help the whole world advance in the area of pollution prevention.

Pollution prevention involves reducing or eliminating waste at the source by

modifying production processes, promoting the use of non-toxic or less-toxic

substances, implementing conservation techniques and reusing materials rather than

putting them into the waste stream. Preventing pollution provides important economic

and environmental benefits because it eliminates expensive waste management or

cleanup.

 

Worldwide, organizations and governments are working to prevent further

contamination of our land, air, and water. For example, the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) monitors air, water and land pollution. They report that major

threats to the health, productivity and biodiversity of the world's oceans result from

human activities on land in coastal areas and further inland. Eighty percent of the

pollution in the oceans originates from land-based activities.

You can participate in land, water, and air pollution preventions are following :

Reduce: Source reduction is any practice that reduces the quantity and/or

toxicity of pollutants entering a waste stream before recycling, treatment or

disposal. Examples include equipment or technology modifications,

reformulation or redesign of products, substitution of less toxic raw materials,

improvements in work practices, maintenance, worker training and better

inventory control.

Reuse: Is using a product or component in its original form more than once.

Examples include refilling a glass bottle that has been returned, donating clothes

to charity or using a coffee can to hold nuts and bolts.

Recycling: Is the use, reuse, and/or reclamation of waste residuals or hazardous

materials in waste. A material is "used or reused" if it is used as an ingredient in

an industrial process to make a product or if it is used as an effective substitute

for a commercial product. A material is reclaimed if it is processed to recover a

usable product, or if it is regenerated.

Avoid chemicals in your home and yard: Substitute green cleaning practices

for chemical cleaners. If you do use household chemicals or fertilizers, dispose

of them safely.

LAND REMEDIATION AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Land Remediation and Pollution Control conducts research at the basic level as well

as bench- and pilot-scales to explore innovative solutions to current and future land

pollution problems. Our programs include:

field evaluation and demonstration of innovative technologies

verification of externally-acquired data

development and testing of management techniques and disposal practices for

municipal waste sites

a strong technical assistance capability for both Superfund and non-Superfund

contamination

From research through field evaluation, risk management research activities

combine in-house work, extramural activities, and partnerships with federal and state

agencies. Through these programs, Land Remediation and Pollution Control encourages

the development of reliable and cost-effective alternatives for domestic, federal, and

international markets by providing support to:

EPA regional and program offices

state regulatory authorities

other federal agencies

private industry

AQUACULTURE AND MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY

Fish feed based on omega-3-enriched plants such as lupins and chick peas, to

replace use of wild fish as feed

Bigger, faster-breeding domestic species of prawns, salmon and abalone

Production of highly-valued aquaculture products from intensive livestock

wastes

MICROBIOLOGICAL MINING

Micro-organisms have been used to some extent in mineral leaching and metal

concentration processes for many years. For the most part, these processes have been

fortuitous, relying on micro-organisms found associated with mine dumps.

With the recent advent of novel biological techniques, people in the mining

industry and biologists have begun to think about ways to manipulate genetically some

of the microorganisms important in metal recovery processes to increase their efficiency

and allow them to function on a larger variety of substrates.

MINING

Leaching of ores from underground or from waste heaps, using bacteria

Use of biological approaches to extract and recover metal from ores (known as

biomining), and control acid drainage

Coal bioprocessing to improve ways of cleaning coal and converting it for

chemical and energy use

MINING REFINING

BILLETON

(South Africa) has developed a bioprocess (“bio-leaching”) to liberate copper

fromsulphide ore. The bioprocess uses naturally occurring bacteria to oxidise the

sulphur and iron present in the ore at ambient temperature. The conventional process for

isolating the copper from the ore involves transporting the mined ore to a smelter where

the impurities are driven off at high temperature. The bioleaching process is carried out

at the mine site.

This saves the cost and energy required to transport the ore and also eliminates

the emission of large quantities of sulphur oxides, arsenic and other toxic metals into the

atmosphere by the high temperature roasting process. After the copper is extracted from

the acidic leach water, the waste water is neutralised and toxic substances such as

arsenic are immobilised in a stable form stored at the mine site.

The bio-leaching process can be used to process low-grade ores and

arseniccontainingores that could not be processed effectively by high temperature

smelting. The capital cost requirements of the bio-leaching process are 25% less than

for building a smelter. Bio-leaching currently accounts for 20-25% of world copper

production.

BUDEL ZINC

(Netherlands) is a major producer of zinc. The acidic waste water from its zinc

refinery contains zinc and other metals (tin, copper, nickel, manganese, chromium, lead

and iron). The conventional process for treating this waste water involves neutralising it

with lime or limestone, which results in large quantities of gypsum contaminated with

heavy metals. Budel has developed a bioprocess that uses sulphate-reducing bacteria to

capture and recycle zinc and other metals in its waste water as metal sulphide

precipitate.

The metal sulphide precipitate is recycled back into the refinery feedstock.

This process has resulted in a 10 to 40-fold decrease in the concentration of heavy

metals in the refinery 15 wastewater and eliminated the production of metal-

contaminated gypsum which is a hazardous solid waste by-product.

ENERGY

Examples of biotechnology applications in the energy sector occur in both the

conventional fossil-fuel and the renewable energy segments of the industry.

Conventional fossil-fuels are usually extracted from deposits buried below the surface

of the earth. Drilling of oil wells requires the use of substances called drilling fluids or

drilling mud. These substances help lubricate the drill and its pipe as well as hold open

the well bore. Drilling fluids are designed to deposit a low permeability layer on the

surface of the borehole to limit leakage of the drilling fluid into the oil-bearing

formation and to prevent invasion of solids into the oil production zones.

Once the well is drilled to the desired depth, the low permeability layer must be

removed in order to maximise oil production rates. Traditional drilling fluids are muds –

dispersions of clay minerals in water and oil where the clay provides the required

viscosity and the oil provides the lubrication.

These muds pose two problems:

(i) the oil used in their formulation can have negative environmental impacts and

requires Treatment

(ii) the strong acid required to remove the low permeability layer is toxic to the

environment, corrodes equipment and does not uniformly remove the low

permeability layer.

M-I AND BRITISH PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

(United Kingdom) are now using a drilling fluid containing mixtures of bio-

organic polymers such as xanthan gum, which provides viscosity, and starch or

cellulose, which acts as a binder. The formulation also contains an inert solid called a

bridging agent that has a particle size allowing it to bridge pores in the structure of the

rock being drilled.

This formulation is non-toxic and avoids the problems of conventional drilling muds:

(i) there is no oil or other component

which requires treatment before release into the environment; and,

(ii) the enzymes used in removing the

low permeability layer not only perform better but also do not corrode

equipment or pose environmental hazard.

Biotechnology has been used to optimise the characteristics of these enzymes

(cellulase,hemicellulase, amylase and pectinase) to work under the conditions found in a

borehole. Although the use of bio-organic drilling fluid systems is in its early days, it

appears in a number of cases that their performance is satisfactory and permit cost

savings of USD 75 000 – 83 000 per well drilled.

Ethanol is one renewable fuel whose production is increasing rapidly in response

to the need for transportation fuels that produce lower net emissions of greenhouse

gases (GHG). Ethanol is produced by fermentation of sugars (such as glucose) using

brewers’ yeast. The sugar can come from cornstarch. It takes considerable energy to

produce corn, however, so the net reduction in GHG emissions is around 40-50% when

ethanol from corn is used to replace gasoline (petrol). If wood cellulose and waste

materials are used as the source of sugar to produce ethanol, the net reduction in GHG

emissions is larger, around 60-70%.

Therefore cellulose-containing materials are, from a GHG perspective, the

material of choice for producing ethanol. However, the lignin in woody plant material

can prevent full conversion of cellulose into fermentable sugar.

Iogen Corporation (Canada) has developed a process utilising cellulase

enzymesthat maximise the conversion of cellulose into fermentable sugar. The yield and

activity of the cellulose enzymes has been optimised using biotechnology. Iogen is in

the scale-up phase of the technology and indications are that the cost of ethanol

produced in this manner will be competitive with the cost of gasoline produced from oil

costing USD 25 per barrel.

CONCLUSIONS

Biotechnology is applied on a commercial scale in many operations of the forest

products industry. Application of enzymes has become very prominent recently,

because they are highly selective in their action and have a negligible environmental

impact. Wider application of these enzymes are restricted by cost and availability of the

enzymes. This problem will soon cease to exist, given that the cost of enzymes has

decreased considerably over the last decade as the market increased.

A number of companies are now also producing enzymes specifically aimed at

the pulp and paper market. One remaining hurdle, is the perceived incompatibility of

biotechnology with conventional processes. This problem is more difficult to solve

since it is largely due to a lack of understanding of biological systems and a lack of

acceptance that biological products are expected to work under extreme conditions in

mills. It is, therefore, clear that biotechnology can only be developed through

integration and understanding of biological as well as physical sciences.

Industrial Biotechnology is in the

early stages of development.

It’s innovative applications are increasing and spreading rapidly into all areas of

manufacturing.

It is already providing useful tools that allow for cleaner, more sustainable

production methods and will continue to do so in the future.

It is in the interest of both business and government to foster the diffusion of

these innovative applications into many sectors of the manufacturing economy.

This study has raised some pertinent issues in areas such as relevance of quality

criteria with respect to technology gaps and financial implication of implementing the

technology options. It has also highlighted that several technology options are available

in the country and they need to be exploited to the maximum possible extent so as to

mitigate the increasing environmental hazards as a result of water pollution.

Laying down of the priorities and allocation of funds are necessary because the basic

infrastructure for implementation exist in our country.

The tanneries in future will use a combination of chemical and enzymatic processes.

The potential for use of microbial enzymes in leather processing lies mainly in areas in

which pollution-causing chemicals, such as sodium sulphide, lime and solvents, are

being used and conversion of waste products into potentially saleable by-products is

possible.

Future may witness ecolabelled leather/leather products emerging as niche

products, and the experience gained by the Indian leather industry in this area might

greatly help India to emerge as a global leader in leather industry.

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