PART 4

Append ix : E c o n o m i c geology: exp lo ra t ion for coal, oil and

minera ls , 449

Index o f place names , 455

Glossa ry o f s t ra t ig raph ic names , 463

References , 477

G e n e r a l Index , 515

Alkahornet, a distinctive landmark on the northwest, entrance to Isfjorden, is formed of early Varanger carbonates. The view is from Trygghamna ('Safe Harbour') with CSE motorboats Salterella and Collenia by the shore, with good anchorage and easy access inland. Photo M. J. Hambrey, CSE (SP. 1561).

Routine journeys to the fjords of north Spitsbergen and Nordaustlandet pass by the rocky coastline of northwest Spitsbergen. Here is a view of Smeerenburgbreen from Smeerenburgfjorden which affords some shelter being protected by outer islands. On one of these was Smeerenburg, the principal base for early whaling, hence the Dutch name for 'blubber town'. Photo N. I. Cox, CSE 1989.

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The CSE motorboat Salterella in Liefdefjorden looking north towards Erikbreen with largely Devonian rocks in the background unconformably on metamorphic Proterozoic to the left. Photo P. W. Web, CSE 1989.

Access to cliffs and a glacier route (up Hannabreen) often necessitates crossing blocky talus (here Devonian in foreground) and then possibly a pleasanter route up the moraine on to hard glacier ice. Moraine generally affords a useful introduction to the rocks to be traversed along the glacial margin. The dots in the sky are geese training their young to fly in V formation for their migration back to the UK at the end of the summer. Photo W. B. Harland, CSE 1990.

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Appendix Economic Geology: Exploration for coal, oil and minerals

W. B R I A N H A R L A N D & A N T H O N Y M. S P E N C E R

23.1 Coal, 449 23.2 Petroleum, 451

23.3 Metalliferous minerals, 453 23.4 Non-metalliferous minerals, 454

The incentive for most geological exploration has been related to the possibility of mineral wealth. Some has been undertaken by industry, other as a result of national interest. A great deal of academic research, particularly since 1960, has been financed by industry. It is impossible with financial pressures so strong to disentangle the presentation of research as between 'fundamental ' and 'applied'. This section, summarizes the explicit search for hydrocarbons (coal and petroleum) and metalliferous and other minerals which in various ways has been alluded to in the preceding chapters. It is not intended as a comprehensive survey.

23.1 C o a l

Coal seams crop out extensively in Svalbard and, being conspic- uous in cliffs and talus, have been exploited in surface workings for fuel by whalers and hunters from the earliest days.

The potential for mining and export and the political implications was increasingly realised from the later years of the Nineteenth Century. Until the status of Spitsbergen and Bjornoya was settled, coal was a political consideration and when the Treaty protected international commercial rights, economic facts slowly displaced political manoeuvring until the present situation where purely commercial considerations hardly make mining coal for export competitive. Coal occurrences may also have a potential for natural gas, possibly with similar competitive limitations with the present perception of offshore resources.

Coal, being the only mineral effectively exploited, has focused research on coal-bearing strata. This review treats coal in situ from a stratigraphic-regional viewpoint beginning with the youngest seams. Further discussion in a stratigraphic context can be found in the regional and historical chapters. Hitherto coal has been relatively easy to exploit above sea-level (for bunkers and export) and, within the permafrost zone of mountains, freezing tempera- tures avoided problems with water. Deep mining would need substantial resources and has been considered seriously perhaps in only one locality, Gipsdalen (Helovnori 1983).

Pavlov & Yevdokimova (1996) noted extensive analysis of Svalbard's coals. Perhaps the principal impression is of the burial and local tectonic history. The Early Carboniferous coals of Pyramiden and Bjornoya gave ash rich in A1203. Reserves were estimated at 836 x 106t with 96% represented by gas or coking coals. Of the above 208 x 10 6 t, 138 x 10 6 t and 490 x 106 t of coal reserves are respectively. Early Carboniferous, Barremian and Paleogene. Similarly Yevdokimova (1996, p. 99) noted that Carbonifer- ous (Mississippian) coals derived from lycopsids, selaginellas and pteridos- permaphytes whereas Paleogene coals depended on plane, yew, cypress, pine etc. All were classified as humid (see also Yevdokimova 1980; Yevdoki- mova, Vorokhovskaya & Birukov 1986).

Paleogene coal. Oligocene or latest Eocene coals occur in graben sequences on the west coast of Spitsbergen.

The Forlandsundet Basin on the east side, especially at Sarsoyra, exposes the Balanuspynten Formation whose Sarsbukta member contains coal and plant fragments defining thin seams of up to 15cm. Thin seams of coal were also recorded in the west by Atkinson (1962) at McVitiepynten. Although there is no prospect of mining coal the several km of such facies may generate significant gas as has been confirmed by the Norsk Polar Navigasjon A/S well at Sarstangen (Petroleum Economis t 1975).

The Calypsostranda Basin, which is about 4 km along the coast, extends about 700m from the shore. The Skilvika Formation (Livshits 1967; Thiedig et al. 1979), 115.5m of mainly silts and shales with plant remains, contains many thin coal horizons which were the basis of short lived exploitation at Calypsobyen. Seams are mostly only a few cm, but three attained 0.28, 0.46 and 0.65m thickness.

The Central Basin is a N-S brachy-syncline of the Van Mijenfjorden Group with six units CB6 to CB1, top to bottom, as described in Chapter 4.2 and ranging from mid-Eocene back to Paleocene.

Of the six formations coal has been recorded in CB6, CB3 and CB1, and of these CB1 is by far the most important (e.g. Lyutkevich 1937; Major & Nagy 1972; Manum 1956; Pavlov & Panov 1980).

The Aspelintoppen Formation (CB6), occurring at the tops of mountains in the middle of the Central Basin, contains thin seams near the base, and below sediments formed in a mobile environ- ment with slumping related to the uplifting West Spitsbergen Orogen. No seams thicker than 30 cm have been recorded.

The Grumantbyen (Sarkofagen) Formation (CB3) contains a seam of a few cm and was recorded by Croxton & Pickton (1976) in the Berzeliusdalen area; Livshits (1965) noted a 1 m seam in the Barentsburg region. The opportunity at Grumantbyen was exploited (e.g. Lyutkevich 1937b; Shkola et al. 1980). Exploration of Heer Land (Pavlov & Panov 1980) and Nordenski61d Land (Croxton & Pickton 1976) has not led to exploitation.

The Paleocene Firkanten Formation (CB1) is the principal source of coal in Svalbard, being mined at Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Sveagruva. Major & Nagy (1972) named five seams (from the top) Askeladden, Svarteper, Longyear, Todalen and Svea. They pointed out that the Todalen is typically less than 60 cm and the Askeladden seam though well developed has a high sulphur content (Major et al. 1992).

From Longyearbyen mines have successively exploited the seams often high in the mountains, in successive blocks between the valleys with numbered mines, old numbers 1 and 2 occur on the mountain sides at the opening of Longyeardalen. New numbered mines 1 (and '1') on both sides of Adventdalen half way up the valley; No. 3 (the latest to be reworked) due south of Longyear/Svalbard Lufthavn at Hotellneset; No. 4 near the head of Longyeardalen; No. 5 on the south flank of Endalen to the southeast; No. 6 due east at the nose of Karlundhfjellet between Todalen and Bolterdalen and the presently working No. 7 east of Bolterdalen 11 km ESE of Longyearbyen. The later mines up Adventdalen and No. 3 were served by road after the cable system was discontinued. In each case the coal was stored through the winter at Hotellneset and shipped out in the summer. These mines have been practically exhausted and the only viable coal mine is at Sveagruva, also in the Firkanten Formation, where a 5 m seam presents opposite problems in mining (Pewe et al. 1981; Myrvang & Utsi 1989). With so well serviced a settlement at the capital Longyearbyen and with shipping difficult at Sveagruva, the project for a road between the two settlements was under consideration; miners fly each 10 days. Coal mining even with present-day efficiency, is hardly self-supporting in Svalbard.

Similarly the mine at Barentsburg (Kotlukov 1936) has exhausted the original concession and a further concession has been leased to the south. The economic case without political support may be difficult to maintain.

The mine at Grumantbyen also in the Firkanten Formation was abandoned after the Second World War when most mines were destroyed to prevent their use by the other side. (For the history of this mine see Samoilivich 1913, 1920; Samoilivich et al. 1927; and a more recent exploration borehole - Shkola et al. 1980.)

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450 APPENDIX

The Ny-Alesund coalfield. This had been worked from the surface since whaling days with early exploration claims. Systematic mining developed between about 1917 to 1962 when the mine was finally abandoned after the worst of a series of accidents, even though significant extensions of the mine had been planned.

The Ny-Alesund coalfield is shown in Fig. 9.3 where the Ny- Alesund Subgroup comprises two formations. The upper (Brogger- breen) formation with the Bayelva Member has four mined seams, and below it the Leirhaugen Member has the Agnes Otelie seam at the base. The lower (Kongsfjorden) formation divides into two barren sandstones and conglomerate members above an unconformity. Below this is the Kolhaugen Member with a number of seams.

The Ny-Alesund Subgroup certainly correlates with the Paleo- cene Firkanten Formation in the Central Basin and possibly the upper part with the overlying Basilika Formation. Indeed, although currently separated from the Central Basin by the Broggerhalvoya fold and thrust front, in pre-Eocene time it appears to have been continuous and correspondingly is classified with the Van Mijen- fjorden Group.

The seams vary greatly in thickness even within the c. 5 km 2. explored in five boreholes and many pits up to 1928. Orvin's account of the coalfield is the best available. Midboe worked on the mine records after that until closure of the mine, but his work has not yet been published except for extracts (used here) from SKS reports (Dallmann et al. 1996). Orvin (1934) recorded in detail sections, analyses and volume estimates of every available excava- tion (pp. 85-161) from which the following is abstracted.

KB2 is roofed by the Kapp Starostin thrust. It could be equivalent to KB1. ?8 m separation from the

KBI Seam which is too thin to be economically interesting. 30 m below is the Ragnhild Seam, which was thin and cut by the Kapp Starostin overthrust

and not effectively worked. 36 m below this the Josefine Seam, extended up to 135m beneath the overriding thrust. Up to

2 m undivided coal was worked. 20 m below this is the Agnes-Otelie, which was largely worked out and was cut by the overriding

thrust surface. Totalling nearly 2 m of coal it was divided by up to 0.4 m of sandstone. Separated from the seam below by 70-80 m is the

Advoeat Seam. This seam is divided by as many as 5 shale partings, is variable and proved unworkable economically.

Sofle Seam varies in thickness and with shale partings, the coal itself totalling up to 3 m. 8-12m below is the lowest seam. This is the

Ester Seam, which is the most important in the coalfield of more uniform thickness, of up to 2-3 m with thin shale partings and greatest area. It rests on the 'Bottom shale' (Triassic Vardebukta Formation).

Cretaceous coal. The Helvetiafjellet Formation, of probable Barre- mian age, is the only Cretaceous unit with a record of coal.

The formation crops out throughout the rim of the Central Basin and commonly shows traces of coal in the typical sandstone facies of the upper (Glitrefjellet) member. The only records of significant exploitation refer to the outcrops east of Adventfjorden, c. 90 cm, mainly at Advent City (now a ruin) and Moskushamna. Hoel (1929) had reported reserves of 1500 x 106t of l m seams within 600 m of the surface (above and below sea-level) but from the investigation of Smith & Pickton (1976) in the mountains between Adventdalen and Sassendalen, including the eponymous mountains, it appears that Advent City mined the best seam between 1904 and 1908. At the mine is a lower seam of 40cm separated by 9 cm of shale from an upper seam of 50 cm. Generally, however, the seams are further divided and, with an ash content of 14% to more than 19%, have proved uneconomic.

To the north of Isfjorden, at Bohemanneset, the last effort to mine Cretaceous coal between 1920 and 1921 was made. Coal below sea-level was noted by Hoel at Grumantbyen (Harland, Pickton & Wright 1976).

Jurassic coal was reported earlier (Stevenson 1905) but has not been noted recently.

Trassic coal. Thin coals have been reported from the Late Triassic (?Carnian) De Geerdalen Formation, of sandy deltaic facies (Klubov, Aleksejeva & Drosdova 1967). Klubov (1964, 1965) had mapped coal in this unit at Wilhelmoya, Barentsoya and Edgeoya, and Pchelina & Panov (1966) noted coals around Wichebukta and upper Sassendalen. It appears that one seam from 0.10 to 0.40 m is widespread and, with allochthonous plant material, now has a high carbon content. No exploitation has been attempted (Harland, Pickton & Wright 1976).

Early Carboniferous (Mississippian) coal. Coal measure 'Kulm' or 'Culm' facies are typical of the Billefjorden Group both in central Spitsbergen and Bjornoya. They have been actively mined at Pyramiden and Tunheim respectively (Dibner 1986; Antevs & Nathorst 1917).

In Bjornoya, of the three (Ursa Sandstone facies) members of the Roedvika Formation, the lower (Vesalstranda) member is of Famennian age, and the middle (Kapp Levin) and upper (Tunheim) members are Tournaisian. Only the Tunheim member coals have been mined (at Tunheim), but coals are also found in the upper 60 m of the Vesalstranda Member. At Tunheim coal is exposed in the cliffs of the east coast and of the many seams only one or two are workable. Mining ceased in 1925 for combined reasons of divided seams, difficult loading from a cliff top and low prices internationally (Horn & Orvin 1928). Of the many seams in the lower (Vesalstranda) member all are too thin so that their likely wide extent underground has no economic interest (Gjelberg 1978; Pavlov et al. 1983).

In the Billefjorden area there is undoubtedly extensive Mississippian coal for which a potential may exist in Gipsdalen (Helovuori 1983). This would be the only substantial prospect in a coalfield beneath sea-level. Coal is exposed near Brucebyen south of Adolfbukta, but the principal outcrop has been extensively mined at Pyramiden where thick seams have been claimed (Lyutkevich 1937b). The area has been described by Cutbill, Henderson & Wright (1976). In the succession (at Birger Johnsonfjellet), with revised classification and nomenclature, the original Svenbreen Formation has been divided with the upper red beds which are included in a new Hultberget Formation within the overlying Gipsdalen Group. Thus in the Billefjorden Group, the (upper) Mumien Formation shows at least three coal seams in the upper (Birger Johnsonfjellet) member largely of carbonaceous shales. The lower (Sporehogda) member is of coarser sandstone and conglom- erate facies with plant remains, but no coal. The (lower) Horbyebreen Formation has at least three more seams of poor coal near the top of the Hoelbreen Member, and at least one seam near its base. The underlying Triungen Member is coarser grained without coal.

Devonian coal. Svalbard may claim two of the few occurrences of Devonian coal anywhere. Already noted are the seams of Famennian age in Bjornoya which are of no economic interest (e.g. Gjelberg 1978). Similarly in Mimerdalen, up-stream from Pyramiden, is the late Devonian 'brown coal'-type outcrop (Horn 1941; Vogt 1941). It is not known to have been worked, and if there were a slight potential it is too near to Pyramiden to compete.

Sturtian 'anthracite'. Sturtian is taken here (from Harland et al.

1990) as the period preceding Vendian and possibly extending back to about 800 Ma. The formation in question is the H6ferpynten Formation of Hornsund which is most likely coeval with the Akademikerbreen Formation of Ny Friesland and which might have an age of around 750 • 50 Ma. It was surprising, therefore, when Birkenmajer, Frankiewicz & Wagner (1992) reported 'Late Proterozoic anthracite coals'.

These are not seams, but high-grade hydrocarbons appearing to be metamorphosed organic material in irregular voids or vugs in dolostone. Two occurrences were noted (i) in the Andvika Member

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APPENDIX: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 451

(dolostone with cherts) of the H6ferpynten Formation at H6fer- pynten south of Hornsund and (ii) in a similar dolostone at Krakken just east of Vestre Torellbreen and possibly related to the (?coeval) Dunoyane Formation.

The organic material has been interpreted according to coal routines as of algal origin in a lagoonal setting. It is clearly a bituminous substance which indicates the most extreme alteration suggested at 500~ and pressure of 20 000 MPa. There are multi- phase graphite crystallites.

Graphitic phyllites and schists of presumed Vendian age are not uncommon and the implication is for genesis of petroleum in late Proterozoic carbonates which are abundant in Svalbard (Danyush- evskaya e t al. 1970).

Other references are included below.

General, historical, political, economic. Adadurov (1927); Ahlmann (1941) Andersson (1917); Berr (1914); Breuer & Zimmelund (1922); Burov (1919); De Geer (1899, 1012); Deutscher Seefischerei-Verein (1900); Dillner (1913); Gothan (1937); Harland et al. (1976); H6gbom (1913); Hoel (1916, 1920, 1922b, c, 1924, 1925, 1938, 1966); Horn (1928, 1930); Kotlukov (1933); Lyutkevich (1937); Mewins (1900, 1901); Odelberg (1916); Ohlson (1979); Olsen (1929); Orheim (1982); Pavlov & Evdokimova (1996); Reusch (1913); Simmerbach (1917, 1919); Zaytzev (1917, 1921).

Mining. Brugmans (1987); Cadell (1920); Hanoa (1993); Hoel (1922a); Mansfield (1919); Misnik & Belousov (1983); Myrvang & Utsi (1989); Orheim (1979); Pewe et al. (1981); Statistiske Centalbyrft (1916); Wer- enskiold & Oftedahl (1922);

Geochemical/composition. Horn (1929); Pavlov (1964, 1065); Yevdoki- mova et al. (1986); Yevdokimova (1996).

Environment and coalification. Abdullah et al. (1988); Horn (1929); Hughes et al. (1976); Manure & Throndsen (1978); Pavlov et al. (1980).

Exploration. Bugge et al. (1990); Orheim (1982).

Stratigraphic. Paleogene: Manum & Throndsen (1978); Throndsen (1982). Mesozoic: Dypvik (1980); Mork & Bjoroy (1984); Embry (1989); Krajewski (1989). Cretaceous-Jurassic: Bjoroy & Vigran (1980); Bjoroy et al. (1979); Dypvik (1985); Gramberg & Ronkina (1988); Hvoslef et al. (1986); Zakharov & Kulibakina (1988). Triassic: Bjoroy & Hall (1983); Bjoroy et al. (1979,1980); Dypvik (1979); Falcon (1928); Forsberg & Bjoroy (1983); Throndsen (1979). Permian-Carboniferous: Cameron & Goodarzi (1992); Emery (1989); Kano (1992); Lonoy (1988); Staff & Wedekind (1910); Stemmerik et al. (1994); Stemmerik & Larsen (1993). Neoproterozoic: Danyushevskaya et al. (1970).

Geochemical/composition. Bjoroy (1977); Bjoroy & Vigran (1979); Bjoroy et al. (1980, 1983, 1987); Dypvik (1980); Hvoslef et al. (1986); Isaksen (1996); Krajewski (1989); Schou et al. (1984); Voytov et al. (1979, 1981).

Subsurface environment. Birkenmajer (1992); Dypvik (1979); Hughes et al.

(1976); Manum et al. (1977); Pedersen (1979); Throndsen (1979), (1982); Zakharov & Kulibakina (1994).

Hydrocarbon occurrences. Bakken et al. (1994/5); Lammers et al. (1995); Max & Lowrie (1993); Voytov et al. (1979, 1981).

Stuctural constraints. Dalland (1979), Breach & Rowan (1992); Dengo & Rossland (1992); Ronnevik & Jacobsen (1984); Spencer et al. (1984); Sverdrup & Bjorlykke (1992).

Exploration. In Barents shelf (not Svalbard). General: Bergsager (1986); Nagy (1965, 1968); Pedersen (1977); Spencer (1984); Winsnes (1975); Yevdokimova (1980). Regional: Bjoroy et al. (1980, 1983, 1987); Dalland (1979); Heafford (1992); King (1964); Ronnevik (1981, 1983); Ulmishek (1985). Potential: Bergsager (1986); Bleie et al. (1982); Bro et al. (1991); Dalland (1979); Halbouty (1986); Harland (1969a); Leith et al. (1992); Nottvedt et al. (1992); Nys~ether & Saeboee (1979); Oljedirektoratet (1996); Rasmussen et al. (1995); Wells: Bjoroy et al. (1981); Bugge et al. (1990); Gramberg et al. (1985); Kornfield (1965); Leythaeuser et al. (1983); Shkola et al. (1980); Shvarts (1985).

Comparisons elsewhere. Cameron & Goodanzi (1992); Dibner & Krylova (1963).

2 3 . 2 P e t r o l e u m

Confirmed by 17 wells Svalbard has been disappointing in the search for petroleum and for various reasons, not least the tack until recently of subsurface structural information and the lower porosities in reservoirs that might otherwise have been promising. This results partly from the Eocene orogeny in the west. Mesozoic latitudes reached about 70~ by the end of Triassic time so that later biogenic productivity may not have been encouraging, though higher atmospheric CO2 may have obtained (Fig. 23.2).

On the other hand Svalbard comprises a varied sedimentary sequence that is commonly regarded as an exposed sample of typical successions beneath the Barents Sea. There is reason for this in that Svalbard may be regarded as the uptilted corner of the Barents shelf (e.g. Harland 1969) resulting from a reversal of mantle cooling and contraction at that corner which approximates the ultimate fission that developed into the Arctic and Greenland Sea basins.

The petroleum potential of the cover sequence (Carboniferous through Paleogene) has been mentioned in passing in the foregoing chapters and is summarized in Spencer's contribution below. The basement as defined in this work is not generally considered in this respect. Early Paleozoic strata containing carbonates have gen- erally suffered extensive Caledonian tectogenesis. Where in west Spitsbergen they have escaped such intense tectonism the facies are not so rich in carbonates.

Late Proterozoic successions in the east especially are rich in carbonate facies with significant but uneconomic biogenic compo- nents and traces of bitumen often mentioned in Russian literature.

The following works relevant to petroleum and petroleum geology have been taken from the selected bibliography and arranged alphabetically.

P e t r o l e u m e x p l o r a t i o n (A. M. S). Exploration is conducted under the rules for mining set out in the Svalbard Treaty of 1920, with applicants 'staking' licence areas each up to 10 km 2. These are then registered with the Bergmester for Svalbard who regulates all exploration activity, but utilizes the Norwegian Petroleum Direc- torate for resource assessment and for technical assessment of the safety aspects of drilling. Exploration licence areas have durations of five years: they are retained by undertaking geological studies, seismic surveys or by drilling. In contrast to the Norwegian Shelf,

r-.,k~,mhukenl ~+0" ~ ++~"' 3,r+-,, m~ ' . . . . . . ~.4o' ' ' 7+: "~:K, Jadehuken il \~ IJ~'v'~' ".+

$ 8 ~ ~ rstarlgen - - "'*'"

.. __=_ J__~,L-"I~ L+Jla l . . . . . ) _ (" i 7." Gnantjorden !11 - + T + -+ + Q R e i n a a J s P a s s e t i \ \ "

V a s s [ d a l o n l l _ . / < . . . /~ ~'~ l l l R a r Vass.d+alen, I I l l l Y ~ I I s n a g o%a i ~, i t"

A++n, ".";'" ~ T ms.broon 11 Hopen 7

. . . { ~ . ~ .... . . f l a . . 'II~I0 Hoponl ~,.+ IE~ ................. t+s �9 , ............. ++e + 12+ ~ 124 ~

Fig. 23.1. Plot of major wells in Spitsbergen.

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452

Table 23.1. Deep well data for Svalbard

APPENDIX

Well Location Lat/ Date Company Total Long depth

(m)

Age: at surface at TD

1 Gronfjorden Nordenski61d Land 77 57 34 1963 to 1964 NPN 972 14 20 36

2 Ishogda I* Van Mijenfjorden 77 50 22 1965 to 1966 Amoseas 3304 15 58 00

3 Bellsund Berzeliusdalen 77 47 00 1967 to 1981 NPN 405 14 46 00

4 Hopen It Hopen 76 26 57 1971 Fina 908 25 01 45

5 Raddedalen t Edgeoya 77 54 10 1972 Total 2823 22 41 50

6 Plurdalent Edgeoya 77 44 33 1972 Fina 2351 21 50 00

7 Kvadehuken I Broggerhalvoya 78 57 03 1972 to 1973 NPN 479 11 23 23

8 Hopen IIt Hopen 76 41 15 1973 Fina 2840 25 28 00

9 Kvadehuken II Broggerhalvoya 78 55 32 1973 to 1974 NPN 394 11 33 11

10 Sarstangen Forlandsrevet 78 43 36 1974 NPN 1114 11 28 40

11 Colesbukta* Nordenski61d Land 78 07 00 1974 to 1975 Trust Arktikugol 3180 15 02 00

12 Tromsobreen I Haketangen 76 52 30 1976 to 1977 NPN 990 17 05 30

13 Tromsobreen II~ Haketangen 76 52 31 1987 to 1 9 8 8 Tundra/Polargas 2337 17 05 38

14 Vassdalen II* Van Mijenfjorden 77 49 57 1985 Trust Arktikugol 2481 15 11 15

15 Vassdalen III* Van Mijenfjorden 77 49 57 1988 to 1989 Trust Arktikugol 2352 15 11 15

16 Reindalspasset I* 78 03 28 1991 Norsk Hydro/SNSK 2315 16 56 31

17 Kapp Laila I* Nordenski61d Land 78 06 52 1994 SNSK 504 14 43 38

Early Cretaceous ?

Paleogene ? Triassic ? Jurassic

Triassic Triassic Permian ? Carboniferous Triassic ? Carboniferous ? Permo-Carboniferous ?

Triassic Carboniferous Permian ?Carboniferous Paleogene ?

Paleogene ?

Early Cretaceous ?

Early Cretaceous ?

Paleogene ?

Paleogene Triassic Early Cretaceous Carboniferous Paleogene Early Cretaceous

Data from NPD Annual Reports and Nottvedt et al. (1993, fig.7); NPN, Norsk Polarnavigasjon; SNSK. Store Norske Spitsbergen * Minor shows of oil or gas encountered in well. t Wells discussed in Chapter 5 sections 7 8 and 9.

Tested minor gas from Permian carbonates.

Kulkompani.

there are no rules allowing the release of well information, which is thus held privately by the licensing companies. Seventeen deep exploration wells (Fig. 23.1) have been drilled over the period 1963 to 1994 without encountering commercial hydrocarbons, but little information on their stratigraphy or fluid content has been made public. In the period 1984 to 1992 seismic surveys were conducted in the Central Spitsbergen Basin: comprising about 1000km on land and glaciers and a further 1500 km in the fiords (see Nottvedt et al. 1993, fig. 5). Some lines and structural information from these seismic surveys have been published (Nottvedt et al. 1993; Eiken 1994). Table 23.1 summarizes the deep well data on Svalbard.

Only the last two wells in Table 23.1 date from after the acquisition of seismic surveys in their areas. Of the earlier wells only Ishogda 1 Raddedalen and perhaps Plurdalen are located on closures mapped at the surface. Seismic data have since shown that Ishogda 1 is positioned to the side of the subsurface closure (N~ttvedt et al. 1992). Most of the other wells are located in monoclinal or synclinal areas where a closed trapping structure is probably absent (Gronfjorden 1, Bellsund 1, Hopen, Vassdalen) or in an area where the subsurface structure is unknown (Sarstangen). Few of the wells have been drilled on certain closures. This may be the main explanation for their lack of success, with only one well testing minor quantities of gas and a few others having shows of gas or oil. This also implies that there have been few valid tests of the petroleum prospectivity of the region.

Nottvedt et al. (1992) have reviewed the petroleum geology of the Central Spitsbergen Basin, which with its thick sedimentary sequence is probably the area of Svalbard with the best petroleum prospectivity. Potential reservoir beds, both sandstones and carbonates, occur there in every System from Carboniferous to Paleogene. Generally speaking, reservoir quality in sandstones is poor in West Spitsbergen, due to quartz cementation, and gradually improves towards east Spitsbergen and the eastern islands. The principal, widespread potential source rocks are the Triassic and Jurassic marine shales (Botneheia, Barentsoya and Janusfjellet formations), each of which can generate oil and gas (Fig. A2). The maximum burial of these source rocks was achieved in late Eocene times and subsequent regional uplift of 2-3 km probably stopped generation. Maturities at Triassic level now range from gas to the oil generation zone (Mork & Bjoroy 1984, fig. 6) with an overall decreasing trend towards the east. Any future hydrocarbon finds here are most likely to be in Mesozoic reservoirs in pre-Tertiary structures that have remained intact during Paleogene compression and Neogene uplift, or in Paleogene compressional structures.

Comprehensive surveys of the whole Norwegian Continental Shelf with respect to (a) petroleum discoveries and (b) petroleum resources were published by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (Berge 1997a, b). These authoritative works place the Svalbard exploration in relation to the whole Norwegian context and in turn in a global perspective.

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APPENDIX: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 453

TERTIARY- PALEOCEINIE

: I MAASTRICHTIAN

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23.3 Metalliferous minerals

Sulphide minerals in particular have attracted the attention of geo- logists and mining companies mainly for their economic potential which has turned out, with minor exceptions, to be nil. Their occurrence is significant in that they are all recorded in one broad zone, as conveniently summarized by Flood (1969), in basement rocks along the western side of the West Spitsbergen Orogen (Fig 3.5.5). Further detail was provided by Kieres & Peistrzynski (1992), Czerny (1992a, b,c) and Wojciechowski (1964). Mention has been made of these deposits in their stratigraphic context in the regional chapters (9, 10 &l 1). Because of differences of opinion as to the age of mineralisation it would have been clumsy to treat the matter successively in four possibly relevant historical chapters and so the general discussion is summarised here.

With few exceptions the host rocks are Precambrian carbonates. This has led to the opinion of Precambrian paragenesis (Birken- majer & Wojciechowski 1964).

Also most occurrences fall within the Paleogene West Spitsber- gen Orogen (e.g Siggerud 1962). This led Hjelle (1962) to define a Tertiary age, citing a possible occurrence in Western Nordenski61d Land of sulphides in the Carboniferous cover to the basement.

The restriction of sulphide mineral concentrates to the broad zone which satisfies these two hypotheses is not an accident of exploration. Metamorphic terranes in Northwest Spitsbergen, in Ny Friesland and in Nordaustlandet have been searched not least for their mineral content and without significant success. The hypoth- esis is put forward here that the distribution of these occurrences is related to the composition of the deeper basement (within the crust

and/or the lithosphere), and that were such basement available in the other areas, with extrusive granitic intrusions, it would have showed, possibly in their aureoles. The reason why such basement was not general throughout Spitsbergen may well be related to the foregoing composite terrane hypothesis for Spitsbergen.

In short, the Western Terrane almost coincides with the sulphide occurrences which onlap marginally to the east. If that terrane originated north of Greenland it contrasted with the two other provinces of north eastern and central eastern Greenland.

This hypothesis might be supported by a survey of mineral occurrences around eastern and northern Greenland and Ellesmere Island, but not disproved. The literature is not adequate for testing because of interest mainly on economic concentrations which need to be considerable for Arctic exploitation (Miles & Wright 1978).

This terrane hypothesis is almost, but not quite, indifferent to the age of mineralisation in the surface exposures. A Paleogene age is favoured because of the structural circumstances of the occurrences. It could be argued that the final docking of the terranes in pre-Carboniferous time with Late Devonian transpression and compression tightened up the sinistral shear zones. The general dextral strike-slip Paleogene regime, in addi- tion to generating its own faults, may have reworked and reopened the earlier faults which only brought forth the metalliferous minerals from appropriate deep basement. A little diffusion or tectonic transport east of the fault zone would account for the few adjacent occurrences there.

It is conjectured that this mineralized zone was not part of the Caledonides. Even before Ordovician tectonization the zone had suffered, say Grenvillian, and still earlier orogeny.

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454 APPENDIX

Extensive Russian investigations in Svalbard resulted in detailed chemical analysis of many rocks encountered for both hydrocarbon and metalliferous potential. Abstracts of previously confidential reports gave some convenient summaries (Krasil'shchikov 1996). Some conclusions are noted here.

Turchenko et al. (1996a, b) recorded chalcopyrite in the Northwest corner of Spitsbergen as well as other well known occurrences. In another abstract (Turchenko et al. 1996, p. 95) other mineral occurrences were recorded and were classified into (i) siderophile (ii) chalcophile and (iii) lithophile groups.

(i) Skarn iron formations were noted at Magdalenefjorden and Mag- nethogda; iron-titaniun-vanadiun in gabbroids of Ny Friesland and Chamberlindalen; copper-nickel in peridotites of Chamberlindalen and Jurassic-Cretaceous dolerites of Dickson Land; chromite (in ultrabasic rocks of Oscar II Land). Exogenic goethite-hematite in laterites of Oscar II Land, silicate nickel in Kaffioyra and Sarsoyra and vein siderite at Daudmannsoyra. Siggerud (1962) reported an iron occurrence at Farm- hamna in Oscar II Land.

(ii) Barite-lead-zinc in Bjornoya; lead~inc in Revdalen, Andvika, Kapp Mineral and Kapp Petermann, all the foregoing in veins. Stratiform occurrences were zinc-chalcopyrite, lead-zinc carbonate in western Nor- denski61d Land and Oscar II Land; bornite-chalcocite volcanogenic, and chalcopyrite metamorphogenic at Bockfjorden; metasomatic arsenic-nickel at St Jonsfjorden.

Other occurrences were also recorded. Makar'ev et al. (1996, p.97) reported a variety of results including: 'the

occurrences of gold sulphide ores, as replacements, were found in the central part of the west coast of Oscar II Land. The mineral composition of the ores, high metal (primary gold) content, and apparent 'gold size' suggest a chance of discovering endogenic and exogenic gold occurrences in further prospecting'.

This gold occurrence appears to be related to the shear zone at Kaffioyra and Sarsoya (Ohta, Krasil'shchikov et al. 1995) discussed in Chapters 9 and 12. These sheared occurrences were interpreted here as by Ohta et al. as deriving from the Lovliebreen basic volcanic rocks of Oscar II land. The shear zone of the Kongsfjorden-Hansbreen Fault might be the best prospect for gold.

Many of the metalliferous occurrences along the west coast of Spits- bergen are associated with basic volcanic rocks which are correlated in this work (also Harland, Hambrey & Waddams 1993) as early Varanger

(Vendian) and not as much older (e.g. Mesoproterozoic of Ohta et al.). They all belong to the western terranes with a common basement.

Uranium and thorium were investigated in the black shale of the Janusfjellet Subgroup (Dypvik & Bue 1984). The Cambridge group drilled superficially for traces of uranium in western Dickson Land without success (e.g. Wright & Henderson 1976).

Earlier reports include: Robert (1840-1850), Durochez (1850), Holte- dahl (1912) and Werenskiold (1919).

23.4 Non-metalliferous minerals

Only high-value materials, easy to load and t ransport , are likely to be of economic interest which virtually rules Svalbard out o f commercia l considerat ion.

Sulphates in the form of gypsum and anhydr i te are abundan t and easily accessible, especially in the Ebbada len Forma t ion in Billefjorden. See especially Cutbill & Chal l inor (1965), Hol l iday (1966, 1967) and Johannesson & Steel (1981). A n abortive mine was started in Skansbukta , Billefjorden.

Phosphorite has been considered over a long period, especially Triassic concret ions in the Sassendalen G r o u p further south at Svenskehuset, off Billefjorden, 6 k m E N E of Kapp Thordsen, where a mining par ty perished in the winter 1882-3. Fur ther references include Bugge (1922) and E1-Kammar & Nysa~ther (1980). Jurassic phosphor i te concret ions have been described by Backst r6m & Nagy (1985).

Marble as a decorat ive stone was the subject of a failed enterprise a t tempt ing to mine it at L o n d o n on Blomstrandhalvoya , but was found to be too jointed. (Nor the rn Explorat ion C o m p a n y 1913; Siggerud 1963; Ohlson 1979).

Barite was mined in Bjornoya, yielding 75 tons in 1926 (Horn & Orvin 1928).

Early Paleogene bentonites were described by Dypvik & Nagy (1979) and a discussion of mineral waters m a y be of interest (Postnov 1983). River gravels, a virtually renewable resource, are used for road construct ion.

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