Appendix A: Power Supply HP E3614A

This appendix will explain the proper usage of the power supplies (Hewlett Packard E3614A).

Lets first know its controls and indicators.

1. LINE Switch: Pressing this switch turns th esupply on, or off.

2. VOLTAGE control: Clockwise rotation increases output voltage.

3. CURRENT control: Clockwise rotation increases output current.

4. DISPLAY OVP/CC SET Switch: Pressing this switch causes the volts display to show voltagesetting for overvoltage shutdown and the AMPS display to show the current control set value.

5. OVP adjust Screwdriver Control: While pressing the DISPLAY OVP/CC SET switch, rotatingthe control clockwise with a small, flat-blade screwdriver increases the setting for overvoltage shutdown.

6. VOLTS Display: Digital display of actual output voltage, or OVP shutdown setting.

7. AMPS dDisplay: Digital display of actual output current, or output-current setting.

8. CV LED Indicator: Output voltage is regulated when lighted. This means the power supply isoperating in the constant voltage mode.

9. CC LED Indicator: Output current is regulated when lighted. This means the power supply isoperating in the constant current mode.

10. OVP LED Indicator: Output is shutdown by the occurrence of an overvoltage when lighted. Re-moving the cause of overvoltage and turning the power off, then on, resets the power supply.

11. OUTPUT Connectors: There are three connectors labeled as output. During this lab in all theexperiments we will use only the two connectors labeled with a plus and a minus signs.

This power supply has two operating modes, the constant voltage operation and the constant current oper-ation.

A-1 Constant Voltage Operation.

To set up the power suppply for constant voltage operation proceed as follows:

1. Turn on the power supply and adjust the voltage control for the desired output voltage (Be sure outputterminals are open).

2. While depressing DISPLAY OVP/CC SET switch, adjust the current control for the desired currentlimit.

3. With power off connect the load to the output terminals.

4. Turn on the power supply. Verify that CV LED is lighted. During actual operation, if a load changecauses the current limit to be exceeded, the power supply will automatically cross over to constantcurrent mode and the output voltage will drop proportionately.

A-1

A-2 Constant Current Operation.

To set up the power supply for constant current operation, proceed as follows:

1. Turn on power supply.

2. While depressing DISPLAY OVP/CC SET switch, adjust the CURRENT control for the desired outputcurrent.

3. Turn up the VOLTAGE control to the desired voltage limit.

4. With power off connect the load to the output terminal.

5. Turn on power supply and then verify that CC LED is lighted. (If CV LED is lighted, choose ahigher voltage limit. A voltage setting that is grater than the current setting multipliedby the load resistance in ohms is required for CC operation). During actual operation, if aload change causes the voltage limit to be exceeded, the power supply will automatically cross over toconstant voltage operation and the output current will drop proportionately.

6. Adjusting the current value can be made while the power is on and the circuit connected by using thecurrent control; there is no need to depress the DISPLAY OVP/CC SET switch.

A-2

Appendix B: Digital Multi-Meter HP34401A.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the digital multi-meter (Hewlett Packard 34401A). You willlearn how to measure voltage and current in both DC and AC, resistance, frequency and period.

B-1 Measuring Voltages.

• DC: To measure DC voltages we proceed as follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the DC V switch.

3. The instrument has diferent measurement ranges in the manual mode (MAN) and also can beoperated in the automatic mode (AUTO). The different ranges are:

– 100 mV.– 1 V.– 10 V.– 100 V.– 1000 V.

4. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, HI and LO.

• AC: This instrument measure the RMS value of the AC signal. To measure AC voltages we proceedas follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the AC V switch.

3. The instrument has diferent measurement ranges in the manual mode (MAN) and also can beoperated in the automatic mode (AUTO). The different ranges are:

– 100 mV.– 1 V.– 10 V.– 100 V.– 750 V.

4. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, HI and LO.

B-2 Measuring Currents.

• DC: To measure DC currents we proceed as follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the shift switch followed by the DC I switch.

3. The instrument has diferent measurement ranges in the manual mode (MAN) and also can beoperated in the automatic mode (AUTO). The different ranges are:

– 10 mA.– 100 mA.– 1 A.– 3 A.

B-1

4. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, LO and I.

• AC: This instrument measure the RMS value of the AC signal. To measure AC currents we proceedas follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the shift switch followed by the AC I switch.

3. The instrument has diferent measurement ranges in the manual mode (MAN) and also can beoperated in the automatic mode (AUTO). The different ranges are:

– 1 A.– 3 A.

4. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, LO and I.

B-3 Measuring Resistance.

This instrument can measure the resistance in two modes, the two wire mode and the four wire mode. Herewe will use only the two wire mode. To measure resistance proceed as follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the Ω 2W switch.

3. The instrument has diferent measurement ranges in the manual mode (MAN) and also can be operatedin the automatic mode (AUTO). The different ranges are:

• 100 Ω.

• 1 kΩ.

• 10 kΩ.

• 100 kΩ.

• 1 MΩ.

• 10 MΩ.

• 100 MΩ.

4. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, HI and LO.

B-4 Measuring Frequency.

To measure frequency we proceed as follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the Freq switch.

3. This instrument is able to measure frequency from 3 Hz to 300 kHz.

4. The AC signal level has to be from 100 mV to 750 V.

5. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, HI and LO.

B-2

B-5 Measuring Period.

To measure Period we proceed as follows:

1. Turn on the DMM.

2. Push the shift switch followed by the Freq switch.

3. This instrument is able to measure period from 0.33 sec to 3.3 µ sec.

4. The AC signal voltage level has to be from 100 mV to 750 V.

5. The probes are to be connected on the connectors labeled Input VΩ, HI and LO.

B-3

Appendix C: Oscilloscope.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the Oscilloscope (Hewlett Packard 54600B). You will learnhow to use the oscilloscope to measure different signal parameters such as rms, peak, peak to peak andaverage or DC voltages and currents as well as some other parameters such as phase, frequency and period.For the instructions on how to measure phase see Measurements using cursors in section C-4.

C-1 Setting things up.

First of all we need to know some things that have to be set up before we start measuring any parameter.

• Probe Attenuation factor: This factor changes the vertical scaling of the oscilloscope so that themeasurement results reflect the actual voltage levels at the probe tip. To check or set up this factordo the following.

1. Press the 1 buttton or the 2 button depending on what channel you will be using, or repeat thesteps for both channels if you will use both.

2. Press the Probe key as many times you need to match the probe you are using.

• The ground: If you are using the function generator and the oscilloscope in the same circuit nd youhave a cable that comes from the function generator’s SYNC connector to the Oscilloscope’s externaltrigger connector, then both instruments share the ground.

The above means that you can not connect the oscilloscope ground in a different node from the functiongenerator’s ground node. In other words all of your voltage measurements are going to be related tothat node. If you need to measure a voltage in a component which none of its pins are connected toground then you have to measure the voltage in one pin and then the voltage in the other pin andsubtract one measurement from the other. Also you can disconnect the cable mentined before and dothe measurement on the component itself since now you can have the freedom to place the oscilloscopeground wherever you want in the circuit. The last approach can give you problems due to trigger, tosolve it read the trigger section in this appendix.

• To display a signal automatically: The oscilloscope has an Autoscale feature that automaticallysets up th eoscilloscope to best display the input signal. Using Autoscale requires signals with afrequency greater than or equal to 50 Hz and a duty cicle greater than 1%.

When you press the Autoscale key, the oscilloscope turns on and scales all channels that have signalsapplied, and it selects a time base range based on the trigger source. The trigger source selected isthe highest numbered input that has a signal applied. (If a signal is connected to the external triggerinput, then it is selected as the trigger source).

• Trigger:As we have told above, the trigger source can be the channel 1, channel 2 or an externalsource. In most of our experiments, if not all of them, the trigger will be the external source. Thetrigger signal is used to tell the oscilloscope when to start showing the signals on the screen. So if youselect different trigger source you will see in a different way the same signal. To change the triggersource do the following.

1. Press the Source button.

2. Select the trigger source you want to use by pressing the appropriate key.

C-1

C-2 Measuring Voltages.

Once we have the signal we want to measure displayed on the screen we can now do the measurements.

• RMS voltage: Measuring the RMS voltage is very easy all you have to do is the following.

1. Press the voltage button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the V rms key.

And the RMS value will be displayed on the screen.

• Average or DC voltage: This value is also easy to measure all you have to do is:

1. Press the voltage button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the V avg key.

And the avg value will be on screen.

• Peak to Peak voltage: This is another easy to do measurement.

1. Press the voltage button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. press the V p-p key.

• Other kind of measurements: You can perform different measurements using the cursors. Tomeasure using the cursors do the following.

1. Press the Cursors button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the V1. This will make appear one cursor and a voltage reading. That reading is thevoltage from the cursor to ground. You can move the cursor using the knob below the Cursorsbutton. This knob will move the previously selected cursor only.

4. Press the V2. This will make appear another cursor and a voltage reading will be on screenrelated to the voltage from the new cursor to ground. An additional value will be on screen andthat is the difference between cursors readouts.

C-3 Measuring Currents.

The only way this instrument can measure current is using the indirect way. That is using a resistor ofknown value measuring the voltage on that resistor and the use the Ohm’s Law to find the current value.So all the voltage measurement procedures apply to current also.

C-2

C-4 Measuring time related parameters.

The different time related parameters we can measure using the oscilloscope are the frequency, the period,Duty cycle, The Rise time and the Fall time as well as delay between signals therefore phase can also bemeasured.

• Frequency: To measure frequency do the following.

1. Press the Time button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the Freq key.

• Period: To measure the period do the following.

1. Press the Time button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the Period key.

• Duty Cycle: To measure the Duty cycle proceed as follows.

1. Press the Time button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the Duty Cy key.

• Rise time: to measure the Rise time proceed as follows.

1. Press the Time button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the Next Menu key.

4. Press the RiseTime key.

• Fall time: to measure the Fall time proceed as follows.

1. Press the Time button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the Next Menu key.

4. Press the FallTime key.

• Measurements using cursors: The use of cursors help us to measure the delay between signals orsome other time related parameters. To perform measurements using cursors do the following.

1. Press the Cursors button.

2. Use the Source key to select whether the measurement is going to be made on the channel 1 orchannel 2.

3. Press the T1 key. This will make appear one cursor and a time reading. That reading is the timebetween the zero seconds point and the cursor’s point. You can move the cursor using the Knobbelow the Cursors button. This Knob will move the previously selected cursor only.

C-3

4. Press the T2 key. This will make appear another cursor, and a time reading will be on screenrelated to the time between the zero seconds point and the new cursor’s point. Two additionalvalues will be on screen one of them will be the difference between time measurements and theother will be the inverse of that measurement. Note that if you select the source of measurementfor T1 as channel 1 and the source for T2 as channel2 the difference readout can be the delaybetween the two signals, then that delay can be used in combination with the period value tofind the phase value. The period will represent 360 degrees and all you have to do is find theequivalent in degrees for the delay value.

C-4

Appendix D: Function Generator.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the Function Generator. you will learn how to set up thefunction generator to get sine, square, triangle or ramp signals. How to set up the frequency, the Amplitude,Offset voltage and the Duty Cycle.

The default settings for this instrument are:

• Waveform: Sinewave.

• Frequency: 1 Khz.

• Amplitude: 100 mV.

• Offset: 0 V.

The Function Generator is very easy to use since all its functions have an specific button. If you want to setup the waveform just look for the button with the desired waveform, Drawing of a sinewave, squarewave,trianglewave and rampwave, and press it.

All is left is to set up the parameters for that waveform.

If you want to set up the Frequency, Amplitude, Offset or the Duty Cycle you need to follow the sameprocedure. Just do as follows.

• Press the (Freq, Ampl, Offset, or Duty Cy) button.

note: To select Duty Cy press first the shift button followed by the Duty Cy button.

• You can either follow step 1 or step 2.

1. – Turn the knob and the blinking digit will change. You can also change that digit using the ∨or the ∧ button.

– You can select another digit by using the > or the < button.

2. – Press the Enter number button.– Type the numer you want to set.– Press the Enter button.

Note 1: This function generator has a 50Ω output impedance. It has been set up to deliver the set upamplitude voltage when a load of 50Ω is attached to it. So if your circuit has a big input impedance you aremost likely to find that the function generator is delivering twice the voltage you set up.

Note 2: Most of the times when you run a LabView program that controls the function generator. The frontpannel buttons stop responding. In order for you to be able to control the function generator manualy pressthe blue button labeled shift.

D-1

Appendix E: Breadboard.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the Breadboard. There is not much to know about thebreadboard but for those of you who are not familiar with it here it is.

The breadboard is a set of already connected holes. many companies make these boards, which range incomplexity from simple loose strips to complete design systems with power supplies, function generators,switches, potentiometers, etc. already built in. The key for a succesfull use of this breadboard is knowinghow the holes are connected.

Figure 1-5 shows the distribution of the holes in the breadboard and how they are labeled.

Now see the figure 1-6 to see the way the holes are connected between them. The figure uses a line to showthe conections. You can see that it is composed of two different styles of connection strips:

• Component connection strips: This section has holes that are grouped in units of five, where each holein a group of five is connected to all other holes in that group.

• Power connection strips: This section is also grouped in fives, but all groups that are in the same roware connected togeteher forming a bus.

It is recomended you use the power section to connect the power supplies. Usually you connect your powersupplies leads to the binding posts on the board, and then run a wire to the power connection strips. Toapply power or ground to any point in your circuit you place a wire from the closest power connection striphole to the necessary circuit node that you have placed on a component connection strip.

You build your circuit on the component connection strips, by placing the circuit elements on it. You haveconsiderable freedom in component placement, and for simple circuits it is usually helpful to try to mimicthe element layout as shown in your schematic.

note: Some breadboards cut in two the power connection strips. That is the left and right halves will havethe holes in a row connected but both halves are going to be disconnected from each other. If you need tohave a complete row connected you will need to use a wire to connect both halves.

E-1

Figure 1-5: Holes distribution of a breadboard

E-2

Figure 1-6: Holes conections in the breadboard.

E-3

Appendix F: LCR Bridge.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the LCR bridge.

The LCR bridge allows you to measure either inductance, capacitance or resistance. The way you shouldset up the instrument in order to perform the measurements is explained below.

F-1 Measuring Resistance.

1. Set Function to R.

2. Set Loss to Q.

3. Set DC Bias to OFF.

4. Set LCR Range to AUTO.

5. Set Test Signal to 1kHz.

6. Set Circuit Mode to AUTO.

7. Set DQ Range to AUTO.

8. Set Trigger to Int.

9. Connect the resistor and read the value.

F-2 measuring Capacitance.

1. Set Function to C.

2. Set Loss to Q.

3. Set DC Bias to OFF.

4. Set LCR Range to AUTO.

5. Set Test Signal to 1kHz.

6. Set Circuit Mode to AUTO.

7. Set DQ Range to AUTO.

8. Set Trigger to Int.

9. Connect the capacitor and read the value.

F-1

F-3 Measuring Inductance.

1. Set Function to L.

2. Set Loss to Q.

3. Set DC Bias to OFF.

4. Set LCR Range to AUTO.

5. Set Test Signal to 1kHz.

6. Set Circuit Mode to AUTO.

7. Set DQ Range to AUTO.

8. Set Trigger to Int.

9. Connect the inductor and read the value.

hint:You may need to wait some time to get a stable readout.

F-2

Appendix G: Operational Amplifiers.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the Operational Amplifier circuit.

There are some important things you need to know before you start using the Operational Amplifier circuit.Those are,

• Identify the terminals.

• How to connect the power supplies.

• Troubleshooter.

G-1 Identify the terminals.

The terminals of the operational Amplifier can be grouped into three groups,

• Input-Output terminals: These terminals are,

– Positive Input I+.

– Negative Input I−.

– Output Out.

most of the time, when doing analysis, those are the only teminals shown on the diagrams.

• Power terminals: These terminals are,

– Positive Supply Voltage V+.

– Negative Supply Voltage V−.

Those terminals must be connected to a propper power supply.

• Compensation terminals: These terminals can be several things, most common are,

– Offset Balance: These terminals are used to compensate for imbalances that drive the OperationalAmplifier to a nonzero output for a zero input.

– Frequency compensation: These terminals are used to place an external element in order to modifythe frequency response of the amplifier.

The best way to know what is each terminal is consulting the Data sheet for the circuit you are about touse. Another reliable source is the PsPice schematics for that circuit.

G-2 How to connect the power supplies.

The major problem for the students is to understand how to supply the voltages, V+ and V−, and how toget the ground node.

Figure 1-7 show a way to connect two power supplies in order to get the three terminals needed, V+, V− andGND.

G-1

G-3 Troubleshooter.

Another important thing to know is how to ”debug” your circuit in case it is not working as you expectedor not working at all.

The best thing to do is build your circuit by stages. Starting from the power supplies then the elements andthe last thing conect the signals. Check your circuit between stages.

If you like to build circuits all at once and something is not working properly, follow these steps to find whatis wrong.

1. Check you have the proper power supply voltage attached to your Operational Amplifier/s by measuringdirectly to the Operational Amplifier V+ and V− terminals.

2. Check your gounds, all the grouns should be connected together.

3. Check you have connected the external elements where they should be.

4. Check you have connected the signal to the appropriate place.

5. Check you have connected the measuring instrument, Oscilloscope or Multimeter to the appropriateplace.

6. If everithing looks fine but your ciruit still does not work, there are still two things you can check.

• The breadboard: Check continuity between the external components and the Operational Ampli-fier. You could try placing the circuit on a different breadboard’s area.

• The Operational Amplifier circuit: The last thing we can do is to blame the ciruit. You can checkif the circuit is working by using a voltage follower configuration, which is the simplest one.

7. If all of the above fail call for help. Your TA or your Instructor will be happy to help you.

G-2

Figure 1-7: How to conect the power supplies.

G-3

Appendix H: Source Meter Keithley 2430.

This appendix will instruct you on how to use the Source Meter Keithley 2430.

Below you will find the steps to follow to set up the instrument to either work as a voltage source or as acurrent source.

Voltage Source: To have the source meter working as a voltage source we need to set up the output voltagevalue and the limit for the output current ”compliance”.

To set the output voltage value:

1. Press the V button located in the Source group.

2. Press the EDIT button at the left of the front panel.

3. Make sure the source value is blinking,. If it is not, press EDIT again.

4. To change the source value you need to use the following buttons.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and Down arrows in the source group; they are used to change the digit value.

• < and > : Left and Right arrows in the EDIT group; they are used to brwose between digits.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and down arrows in the range group; They are used to change the range of thesource value.

5. Once you set the value, press enter.

To set the compliance value:

1. Press the EDIT button at the left of the front panel.

2. Make sure the compliance value is blinking,. If it is not, press EDIT again.

3. To change the compliance value you need to use the following buttons.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and Down arrows in the source group; they are used to change the digit value.

• < and > : Left and Right arrows in the EDIT group; they are used to brwose between digits.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and down arrows in the range group; They are used to change the range of thecompliance value.

4. Once you set the value, press enter.

Current Source: To have the source meter working as a current source we need to set up the outputcurrent value and the limit for the output voltage ”compliance”.

To set the output current value:

1. Press the I button located in the Source group.

2. Press the EDIT button at the left of the front panel.

3. Make sure the source value is blinking,. If it is not, press EDIT again.

H-1

4. To change the source value you need to use the following buttons.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and Down arrows in the source group; they are used to change the digit value.

• < and > : Left and Right arrows in the EDIT group; they are used to brwose between digits.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and down arrows in the range group; They are used to change the range of thesource value.

5. Once you set the value, press enter.

To set the compliance value:

1. Press the EDIT button at the left of the front panel.

2. Make sure the compliance value is blinking,. If it is not, press EDIT again.

3. To change the compliance value you need to use the following buttons.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and Down arrows in the source group; they are used to change the digit value.

• < and > : Left and Right arrows in the EDIT group; they are used to brwose between digits.

• ∨ and ∧: Up and down arrows in the range group; They are used to change the range of thecompliance value.

4. Once you set the value, press enter.

Once you have set the source meter as voltage or current source you need to push the ON/OFF button.Check the compliance value in the display. If something blinks there is a problem. There are two possiblecases.

Compliance value too small: If the complliance value is less than the value required at the output thenthe letters CMPL will be blinking. To fix this problem you need to increase the compliance value.

Meter range too small: This instrument has a voltmeter and an amperemeter, if your compliance iscurrent then the amperemeter range has to be in a suitable range if not the letter V or I in the display willbe blinking.

To change the range for the meters select V or I from the MEAS group and then use the ∨ or ∧ arrows intha range group. If the source meter is connected to the circuit and on then you can hit the AUTO buttonin the range group.

H-2

Figure 1-8: Front Panel.

H-3