Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year978-3-7643-8880-5/1.pdf · These warm-hearted words from Dr....

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Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year

1a. The celebration of Rudolph Virchow’s 80th Birthday

A personal impression by Sir Felix Semon,Berlin, October 13th, 1901

With additional comments by other correspondents.The British Medical Journal ii, October 19th: 1180–1182 (1901)

“COMMON admiration for great and good men draws nations together, andcommon pursuit of noble and scientific objects makes a brotherhood of intellec-tual interest.” These warm-hearted words from Dr. Pye-Smith’s contributiontowards the international “Virchow Number” of the Berliner klinische Wochen-schrift may fitly be taken as giving the keynote to the days through which we areliving at the present moment. Unique as the man, in whose honour we are assem-bled here, are the celebrations on the occasion of his eightieth birthday, whicha kind fate has permitted him to see in full and undimmed vigour of mind andbody. From almost every European country, from America, from Japan, haverepresentatives of all the manifold interests with which Virchow’s name hasbeen and for ever will be connected, hurried to Berlin to “lay their wreaths at thegreat pathologist’s feet,” foremost amongst them, it need hardly be said, membersof that profession which, without difference of nationality, looks upon him as itsbrightest, proudest ornament. It would be impossible for me, not having the offi-cial list of guests at my command, to enumerate all the distinguished guests anddelegates who have flocked to Berlin. Suffice it to say that, besides representativesof all the German universities, societies, learned bodies, municipal corporations,Great Britain and Ireland are represented by Lord Lister (Royal Society andnumerous other institutions), Sir Felix Semon (Royal College of Physicians), Mr.Howard Marsh (Royal College of Surgeons), Dr. Rose Bradford (Royal Medicaland Chirurgical Society), Mr. Watson Cheyne (Pathological Society), ProfessorMuir (University of Glasgow), and Dr. Graham Brown (Royal College of Physi-cians of Edinburgh); France by Professor Cornil; Italy by His Excellency ProfessorBaccelli, Minister of Agriculture, and by Professor Maragliane; the Nether-lands by Professor Stokvis;Austria by Professors Toldt,Weichselbaum, and var-ious other delegates; Denmark by Professor Salomonsen; Norway by ProfessorArmauer Hansen; Switzerland by Professor Ruge; Russia by Professor von


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Raptschewski and several other men of science. In fact, there is hardly a singlecountry which has not sent one or several representatives.

The festivities were ushered in by a dinner on Friday evening, given by Pro-fessor Posner, one of the editors of the Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, whichwas of an absolutely international character.The hostess sat between Lord Listerand Professor Baccelli, next to whom in turn were placed Virchow himself andProfessor von Leyden, whilst opposite were the Rector of Berlin University andProfessor Gerhardt.Then followed, harmoniously mixed, a profusion of medicaltalent of all countries. The host, in a polyglot speech, drank to the health of allhis guests, and Professor Baccelli most felicitously replied:“To the Queen of theBanquet, to the Emperor of Pathology, to the Senate of Science”. Lord Listertoasted host and hostess, and the Rector of Berlin University, Professor Hart-nack, the absent Mrs. Virchow. This brought Virchow himself to his feet, and weenjoyed the somewhat unusual pleasure of his proposing the health of a dignityof the Church. (Professor Hartnack is a Professor of Theology.) It was latebefore the company separated, soon to assemble again at the Hotel Bristol, whereat an informal meeting under Professor Waldeyer’s presidency all arrangementswere made for the official celebration.

The latter from beginning to end was so extraordinary of its kind, that as yetbut three things stand out prominently from the kaleidoscopic impressions whichoverwhelmed us yesterday: the conviction that surely never before had a richerlife been lived than Virchow’s, the joy and gladness that on the evening of sucha life the achievements of this unique man are universally acknowledged with-out a single dissentient voice being heard, the thankfulness that such a manshould have been spared to the world in such astonishing vigour of mind andbody as this “Grand Old Man of Science”. For to begin with the last-namedfact, surely it was astonishing that in the morning this octogenarian should haveon the eve of his eightieth birthday treated the audience, which he had invitedto his pathological museum, the pride and the joy of his old age, to a wonderfulretrospect of the past, and a sketch of the future of pathology, made in a speechof one and a-half hour’s duration, a speech made without notes, should have satthrough and have made at a two hours’ dinner in the evening one of the mostfelicitous and humorous dinner speeches ever heard, and should after this havelistened and replied – standing almost the whole time – to speech-making,which lasted from 9.30 to 12.30 p.m. without any interruption, saying a kindword or two to almost everybody who had come to do him honour.

But to remain in order and do my duty as faithful chronicler of events. Atnoon yesterday (Saturday) a most distinguished audience thronged, on the“Jubilar’s” own invitation, the amphitheatre of his museum. Secretaries of State,representatives of the German Army Medical Service, all his professorial col-leagues, delegates from every civilised country, former assistants, now great menthemselves, and pupils galore sat, as of old, at the master’s feet and listenedspellbound to his broad-minded, philosophical statements concerning the mean-

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ing of the word “pathology”, to his historical description of the development of hisscience, to his spirited defence of the views which he has unwaveringly heldthroughout his long life, to the sketch of the aims which he hopes will be stead-fastly followed in his Institut, even when his strong hand – absit omen – shouldno longer guide it. It was a wonderful feat, and we all felt we had been privi-leged to be present at a historical occasion.

At the end of Virchow’s oration, Surgeon – General Schäfer, the head of theCharité Hospital, with which the Pathological Institute is connected, expressedto him in warm, well-chosen words the thanks of the authorities of the hospital,and in conclusion our great teacher gave a demonstration of a series of beautifulphotomicrographs of animal and vegetable parasites thrown upon a screen.Afterthis the audience dispersed to admire the treasures of the museum, broughttogether and arranged with never – resting industry mainly by himself.

But if the morning was most interesting it was surpassed by the evening. At6 P.M. a company of 200, including Virchow’s family, sat down to dinner in theFestraum of the beautiful new abode of the Prussian House of Commons. Fromamongst the numerous speeches made I single out for special mention theheartfelt words of three hale and hearty contemporaries of Virchow’s, Drs.Körte, Langerhans, and Meyer, who told us of their recollections of “young”Virchow, who testified to the influence he had exercised upon their develop-ment, who praised him as a husband, a father, a lover of his domestic pets. Andmost interesting in the same connection was the speech made by Privy Coun-cillore1 Althoff, who had unearthed from the archives of the Cultus–Minis-terium,Virchow’s application for matriculation, dated Easter, 1839, the Germanessay he wrote on this occasion, entitled, “A Life Full of Work and Labour isno Burden but an Enjoyment”, and the report he received after examination.The latter, Dr. Althoff stated, was “somewhat monotonous”, there being noother terms in it than “excellent”, “very good”, “most satisfactory”. Even in“singing” he had satisfied his masters! It was a charming idea of the speaker’sto have had the two first-named documents reprinted, adorned by a portrait ofthe “Jubilar” at the age of 6 (!), which already foreshadows the massive fore-head and the penetrating eyes of the future man (although the nose, he humor-ously observed, had since been improving), and to distribute the whole underthe title “Little Virchow” amongst the company.

After dinner we all adjourned to the imposing meeting room of the PrussianHouse of Commons, where meanwhile a large and distinguished company, in-cluding many ladies in brilliant toilettes, had assembled, and now the ceremonyproper of the occasion began. It was a never-to-be-forgotten picture.The wholescientific world had assembled it seemed to do honour to one man. A never-ending stream of bearers of the most illustrious names, decked with glitteringstars and decorations, clad in the picturesque uniforms of many nations, bear-ing addresses, medals, pictures executed in Virchow’s honour, passed our dearold master, who for once in his life had donned his own high decorations, and


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who stood there erect, modestly listening to every word said in his praise, atower of intellectual strength, and yet with a kind smile on his lips, a warmword, a firm shake of his hand for everybody who had come to congratulate him.It was a marvellous, an unforgettable sight! How much must this man, longthough his life has been, have done, that the whole world should thus haveunited to do him honour! That thought, I believe, must have impressed itselfwith ever-increasing force, upon every witness of this imposing ceremony;that thought prevented it, in spite of its length, from ever becoming tedious;that thought filled us all with ever-growing respect and admiration for thisunique man, as deputation after deputation passed and testified to what Vir-chow had been to them, what he had done for them. Never before had itbecome so clear to me what a giant we had come to do honour to. Politics, art,science, medicine, public health, municipal interests, hospital management,anthropology, geography, archaeology, palaeontology, natural sciences – allthese various great interests, in each of which an ordinary mind would feelample scope in employing all its time and talents, have been embraced by thismaster mind; on each of them has he impressed the stamp of his personalityupon its development; in each of them his name is mentioned with respect andadmiration. It was a pageant of a unique kind that passed before us last night.First a most gracious autograph letter from the German Emperor recording allthat Virchow had done for Germany’s greatness and bestowing the Great GoldMedal for Science upon him – a spontaneous act of appreciation, which was mostwarmly welcomed by all. After this, deputations from the Prussian Ministry forPublic Instruction, headed by the Secretary of State himself, from the ScientificDeputation for Medical Affairs, from the governing body of the Royal Museums,from the Prussian Ministry of War, from the Italian Government, from thePrussian Houses of Parliament, from the Berlin Academy of Sciences, from theUniversity of Berlin, from the Medical Faculties of all German Universities,from the general practitioners of Germany, from the municipal authorities ofBerlin, from his native town Schivelbein, from the village Virchow, from all theBerlin and many other German Medical Societies, from Anthropological andNatural Science Societies in all parts of Germany, from the German Society forPisciculture – formed the first part of the procession.

After a short interval the foreign deputations paid their reverence to themaster. Need I say that nobody was more warmly acclaimed than our ownrevered leader, Lord Lister, who most warmly testified to the feelings of venera-tion, gratitude, and esteem in which Virchow is held in Great Britain and Ireland.Addresses from Virchow’s past and present assistants, and presentations of worksspecially written in honour of the occasion, brought this wonderful celebrationat last to an end; but not before the last speaker, Professor B. Fraenkel, haddrawn attention to the fact that it was no longer the eve of Virchow’s 80th birth-day, but the 80th birthday itself which had dawned, for it was half an hour aftermidnight when the last speech had been made. A most enthusiastic “Hoch!”, in

The order of the ceremonies

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which the whole assembly joined upstanding – and the never-to-be-forgottenofficial celebration was at an end.Today Professor Waldeyer has invited a numberof the foreign delegates to luncheon, and Virchow himself will unite his familyand a few friends round him at dinner; but this is to be of a strictly private char-acter, and the chronicler’s pleasing duty ends here with heartfelt wish that our“Jubilar” may long be spared in equal vigour of mind and body to his family, tohis friends, to his country, and the whole world, which loves and admires him.e1 see ‘Translator’s Notes”, this volume.

Tributes from foreign countries

The special number of the Berliner klinische Wochenschrift to which Sir FelixSemon refers is dated October 14th. It opens with an address in elegant Latinby Guido Baccelli, In Regio Romano Archiathenaeo Clinices Medicae Profes-sor. Next comes a paper, the joint production of Professors Weichselbaum andZuckerkandl of Vienna “On Virchow’s Influence on the Development of Path-ological Anatomy, Public Health, and Anthropology in Austria”; then follows ashort note, Souvenirs d’ Autrefois, by Professor Cornil of Paris, recalling thetime which he spent working under Virchow in 1862; then the paper by Dr. Pye-Smith on “The Influence of Virchow on Pathology in England”, from which SirFelix Semon quotes; then a paper on Virchow and Medicine in the Netherlands,by Professor Stokvis of Amsterdam; next one on Rudolf Virchow and RussianMedicine, by Professor W. Schervinsky of Moscow; next on Rudolf Virchow andSwedish Pathology, by Professor Carl Sundberg of Stockholm; next on RudolfVirchow and Danish Medicine, by Professor C. J. Salomonsen of Copenhagen;then a short note by Professor Georg Karamitzas of Athens, on Rudolf Virchowand Greek Medicine; then an article by Professor A. Jacoby of New York onRudolf Virchow and American Medicine; and, finally, a description of the Path-ological Museum of the University of Berlin by Professor O. Israel.

The order of the ceremonies

(From our Special Correspondent in Berlin.)

The great day of the Virchow celebration has come and gone, an “Indian sum-mer” day of brilliant sunshine, the first after a long spell of rain and storms. Togive an account of all the festive functions, which filled the day from forenoon tolong past midnight, with only a short interval during the afternoon, would beimpossible within the limits of a short letter.This may be said at once: Never yethas homage so wide, so general, and so deeply felt been paid to any private indi-vidual before. And this too: In that illustrious assemblage, the “fine flower” of


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medical science throughout the world, no personality was more interesting, morecharacteristic than the unbent, spare and wiry little figure of the octogenarian,with his keen but passionless face, his level voice and sober demeanour, as hestood for hours in his Pathological Museum, and again for hours at night in theAbgeordnetenhaus, without a trace of excitement or fatigue, up to the very lastmoment. The day itself had its prologue, a dinner in honour of Virchow and theforeign delegates, given by Professor Posner (who was secretary and chief mov-ing spirit of the Berlin Virchow Committee), on Friday evening, October 11th.

Virchow’s address

On the October of 12th the official proceedings began at 11.30 in the PathologicalMuseum. Here Virchow received the Prussian Cultusminister, Dr. Studt; theCabinet Ministers, Count Posadawsky, von Thielen, and Möller, with several oftheir heads of department and Geheimrath; von Leuthold, Army Surgeon inChief, with the General Army Surgeons Schjerning, Stahl, and Schaper, Ober-bürgermeister Kirschner, and other official personages. Dr. Studt made a speech,presenting a marble bust of Virchow, which is to remain in the museum. Then amove was made to the Lecture Hall, which meanwhile had entirely filled, all theforeign delegates and the whole medical world of Berlin being present. Need-less to say, that a tremendous reception was accorded to Virchow as he steppedup to his laurel-wreathed lecturer’s desk. He began by words of thanks and wel-come, and then led up to the subject of his address: The History of Pathology.For more than an hour he spoke, touching upon malformations, upon trichinosis,tuberculosis, etc., and upon the enlightenment to be gained on all these subjectsby the collections of the Pathological Museum.After the address a large numberof microscopic preparations were thrown on the screen, and finally GeneralarztSchaper rose to speak as the representative of the Charité Hospital, of whichthe Pathological Museum forms a part. For fifty-seven years, he said, theCharité had been the scene of Virchow’s incomparable labours. Might he liveto see the completion of the entire Pathological Institute so admirably plannedby him.

A stand-up lunch and inspection of the treasures of the five-storeyed museumunder Virchow’s leadership closed the morning’s proceedings at about half-pastthree. It may be interesting to note here that no fewer than 20,883 objects arearranged on view in the museum, while upwards of 2,000 more have still to beplaced there.

The banquet

At half-past six a “small and intimate” banquet of 220 covers united the Virchowfamily with the foreign delegates, and chief personages of the Virchow celebra-tion. Lord Lister and Baccelli, the Italian pathologist and Cabinet Minister, wereperhaps the most remarked amongst the guests.

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Count Posadowsky gave the German Emperor’s health; Geheimrath Körte,Virchow’s oldest friend, gave the toast of the day; and other after-dinner speeches,affecting and jocular by turns, followed. Direktor Althoff, of the Cultusminis-terium, made an agreeable and unexpected diversion by presenting Virchowwith a pamphlet, Der kleine Virchow, containing a portrait of the 7-year-oldchild and the school-boy’s matriculation essay on the motto: “A Life full ofWork and Labour is no Burden, but a Boon”.

Addresses of delegates

Meantime the guests, who were to witness the great official function of theevening, had assembled in the Parliament Hall, the ladies in the galleries andboxes above. The banqueters from the dining hall slipped in groups and tooktheir places, and at a quarter to nine (true to the Akademische Viertelstunde) aflourish to trumpets announced and welcomed the entrance of Virchow. Andthen began a series of addresses and presentations from all quarters of theglobe, the mere enumeration of which would fill pages – in truth, a grand anduniversal homage to intellectual achievement! As the hours passed, medals, pic-tures, caskets, and rolls of addresses accumulated on the chairs and tables aroundVirchow, until at last he stood – for he stood through it all, the wonderful youthof 80! – fairly surrounded by them.

Professor Waldeyer gave the opening address – a fine and spirited speech,at the close of which he presented a document setting forth the gift of 50,000marks (£2,500), collected by colleagues near and far, as a contribution to theVirchow-Stiftung for the assistance of scientific research.

The Cultusminister Studt read aloud a letter from the German Emperor,words of congratulation and grateful appreciation of Virchow’s great lifework,with the bestowal of the Great Gold Medal for Science.

A congratulatory telegram from the Imperial Chancellor, Count von Bülow,was also read.

Loud applause greeted Baccelli, who in the name of the Italian Governmentpresented a picture (the heads of Morgagni and Virchow side by side, with thehexameter motto, Ut quos corda fovent praesentes lumina spectent), and read abeautiful and enthusiastic address written in Latin.Among the speeches thatfollowed – their name is legion – a few stand out in one’s recollection. Harnack,rector of the Berlin University, was eloquent in claiming Virchow as the Uni-versity’s “very own”; Oberbürgermeister Kirschner presented a contribution of100,000 marks (£5,000) to the Virchow Stiftung, and asked Virchow to standsponsor to the new municipal hospital. Dr Langerhans, President of the TownCouncil, read an address full of gratitude for Virchow’s labours for the weal ofthe City of Berlin; Professor von Bergmann – as delegate of the Berlin MedicalSociety – quoted from the minutes to prove that Virchow had read no fewerthan 107 papers at its meetings, and had taken part in its discussions 587 times.


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Professor Cornil, the French delegate, was much applauded.Enthusiastic calls greeted Lord Lister, who said:“Revered master, I am here

as a delegate of the Royal Society of London, of which you are an honouredmember, and on behalf of which I have to present to you a loyal address. I havebeen also requested to hand you addresses from six other societies which greatlyregret that it has been impossible for them to send special delegates. They areas follows: (1) The Anthropological Section of the British Association for theAdvancement of Science; (2) the University of London; (3) the University ofEdinburgh; (4) the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow; (5) theMedico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh; (6) the Royal Academy of Medicinein Ireland.All these bodies join in recognition of your gigantic intellectual powers,in gratitude for the great benefits that you have conferred upon humanity, and inadmiration of your personal character, your absolute uprightness, the couragewhich has enabled you always to advocate what you believed to be the cause oftruth, liberty, and justice, and the genial nature which has won for you the loveof all who know you.The astonishing vigour which you displayed in the addressto which we listened to-day justifies the hope that, when many of us your juniorsshall have been removed from this scene of labour, it may be granted to you tocelebrate your 90th birthday not only in health and honour, but in continuedactivity in the service of mankind”.

A graceful and modest speech was Sir Felix Semon’s, who said that he hadbeen selected to convey the sincere congratulations of the Royal College ofPhysicians of London first because the College considered that it would beagreeable to Virchow to receive its good wishes from the mouth of an old andfaithful pupil, and secondly because by selecting a native of Germany the Collegewished to emphasise the old scientific brotherhood which had so long unitedGerman and British science, and to express its sincere gratitude for the beneficialinfluence that Virchow had exercised no less upon English than upon Germanscience.

It was long past past midnight when Virchow’s former and present assistants,headed by Professors Liebreich (Berlin) and von Recklinghausen (Strassburg)came up at last to offer their homage and congratulations.

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Appendix 1b

Pages in thanks for my friends

By Rudolph Virchow

Virchow’s Archive 167: 1–15 (1902)

Editors’ comments

This is an article of thanks to all those who expressed their best wishes to Virchow on the occasion ofhis eightieth birthday. There is a brief review of his achievements, without any general philosophicalstatement – in self-justification or otherwise.

He may have begun to write this before his accident (on January 5th, 1902), but the article was pub-lished later in the same year.A summary of this article appeared in the Lancet: I pp 321–322 (1902).

Editors’ summary of points

Pages 1–2 general points, how the birthday celebrations were arranged; 3 review of his major scien-tific activities, ‘hunger typhus’ – Dr Obermeyer and the causative spirillum; 4 events of 1848, sanitaryimprovements, Koch, importance of pathological anatomy; 5 achievements in sanitation in Berlin;6 trichinosis, awards of Freedom of the cities of Berlin and Bologna; 7 other civic honours, specificgifts from southern Europe,Australia; 8 from Switzerland, and his contacts with that country; 9 giftsfrom England, Scotland and Ireland, Italy; 10 Scandinavia, Finland, France, Holland, Russia; 11Japan; 12–13 Germany, including Royalty; 14 old friends from youth; 15 the Berlin ManualWorker’s Club, trust in people as an article of faith.

The 13th October of 1901 brought for me not merely a day of celebration ofincomparable magnificence but a whole week of festivities with daily newjoys, which was so rich that I was quite incapable of thanking all participantsindividually. Hence now – surveying it all – it becomes clear how many peoplewere apparently or in fact, neglected; and thus I see no other way of gettingcloser to some extent to these many people, except through the Press. For myscientific friends – who, after all constituted the main contingent for this festi-val – this old archive, which for more than fifty years has been our commonmeans of friendly communication with each other, may well fulfill this functiononce more. Its wide circulation – across the whole world – grants me the cer-tainty that my words will not die away wholly unheard.

When the thought emerged of celebrating my eightieth birthday, my closerfriends reduced my disinclination to a public celebration with the assurance thatany influence of mine on such a celebration was out of the question. Indeed,when the festive days approached, they

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treated me like a patient whose doctors have prescribed a regime of activity suchthat he must renounce making any arbitrary interference. Thus I was able tofind out only piece-meal what they had in store for me. The committee – andparticularly its chairman, so experienced in such tasks, and my dear friend andcolleague Waldeyer, and his always ready and skillful executive Posner – was ableto transform my inner excitement into such a state of calm that I abandoned allresistance. In this state, I entered the festival without being able to foresee all theconsequences, and indeed – as I may assume – without the ring leaders them-selves being able to have any picture as to what dimensions this festival wouldtake on.

Since then, the festival has taken place, and the Press has ensured that news ofit has gone out everywhere. I restrain myself therefore, from giving yet anotherdescription of it here.A survey of the addresses and testimonials which reachedme will perhaps be printed later: their number is so large that even listing thevarious categories at this point would be too cursory. The number of telegramsalone amounts to nearly eight hundred. Their content is so various that theyhave unrolled before me a mirror image of my entire, very restless, life and there-fore to anyone else, they may well appear to be confusing. This comes from thefact that – in the course of time – I have taken very many different directionsin research and activity, and that not merely the site of my professional workhas changed, but also that I have undertaken long journeys through the whole ofEurope, and have visited important parts of Asia and Africa. Personal relation-ships from each of these places have remained intact, and in point of fact, forthe most part, the really close relationships are maintained by excellent people.Here, I would like to remember only Dürkheim in Rhine Palatinate. But also,almost all these places gave me the opportunity to open up new areas of knowl-edge for myself, and of devoting to them scientific works of my own. No littlecontribution to this has been made in no small measure by the fact that my fre-quent participation

in periodic scientific gatherings – whether national or international and partic-ularly the German Society for Natural Scientists and Doctors, and the Societyfor German Anthropologists – compelled me directly into practical involvement.Thus the course of my researches has not only brought these various lands andtheir inhabitants into my ambit, but in each case – according to prevailing circum-stances – I have made the objects of my studies Medicine and the NaturalSciences, also Anthropology and Archaeology, and occasionally too the literature,philosophy, politics and social conditions (of those regions).

This mixture was not undertaken arbitrarily or indeed in any tendentious way.Decisive here was a mission with which I was entrusted at the beginning of 1848by the then Prussian Minister of Health. It involved an investigation of thesevere epidemic of so-called “hunger typhus” which had broken out in UpperSilesia. In discussing the causes of this epidemic, I reached the conviction that

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the worst reasons of it were to be found in the wretched social conditions, andthat the fight against these miserable circumstances could only be carried outthrough by profound social reforms. My report aroused much displeasure, but Ifind consolation for this in the fact that the government very soon, took the pathof reforms and that thereby, most beneficial results were achieved. Even moream I pleased by the feeling that my procedure has not only had significance forUpper Silesia, but that gradually, one region after the other has undertaken ona similar course of action (of improvement of social conditions). Subsequentlyour own region had repeated evil experiences of famine. Almost immediatelyafter my move to Bavaria (i.e. Würzburg) in 1849, I was commissioned there tostudy the neediness in the Spessart district. In the following years, the hungerepidemic in Prussia too worsened considerably: I dealt with East Prussia in aspecific essay, and as doctor in charge in the Charité, I twice saw my sectioncompletely filled with patients who were suffering from spotted fever (infec-tious typhus). From one of these epidemics, one of my Assistenten, Dr Ober-meyer discovered the microscopic

blood parasite Spirillum.e1 This opened the way to knowledge of the ever-growingnumber of dangerous blood parasites. I won’t speak of cholera, of smallpox, andother evil epidemics which increased movement (of humans) or the privations ofwar have brought to us. My only concern is to remind us once again of howunavoidable it is to place practical medicine in direct relationship to politicallegislation – something which I tried to do in the past in “Medical Reform”(1848–1849). Since public hygiene has become an integral (integrirender) com-ponent of general welfare, the reproach: “that a doctor is also a politician” haslost all meaning. Certainly, even now it is not easy to acknowledge the right of(the inclusion of) medical judgment in large questions of the lives of the people.Anyone who has continuously followed the discussions in recent years on acclima-tization and colonisation will know how dangerous it is – when assessing the cir-cumstances of the peoples’ lives – simply to ignore the scientific fundamentalsor to judge them superficially.

Sanitary conditions in the cities are relevant here. It was in Würzburg that Icarried out my first experiments towards scientific statistics of local illnesses.Even before the question as to the spread of tuberculosis had become fashion-able, I had carried out the first (and still perfectly valid) surveys of deaths due tophthisis in an entire metropolitan population. In following up these surveys, Iattempted for years to investigate the nature of tubercle and of consumption,and I am of the opinion that my principle points – derived at that time – havenot lost their significance, although I did not then know the tubercle bacillus.On the other hand, knowledge of this bacillus is not the “alpha and omega” ofthe tubercle theory, as has been very recently shown in the study of the bovinetuberculosis in cattle. This disease too, I first studied thoroughly when I was inWürzburg. My very accurate data did not prevent this being called tuberculosis,

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and even being denoted as the main source of human tuberculosis. Only the mostrecent data from a definitely unimpeachable witness, Mr Robert Koch, has stirredup the question again as to whether bovine e1 This was in 1873 (reference is on p 168 in Dhom, 2001). Relapsing (“recurrent”) fever is causedby strains of Borrelia recurrensis, spread by lice. Otto Obermeyer (now usually spelled “Obermeier”)was clinical Assistant in Virchow’s ward at the Charité (Köhler, 2005). The European type of thedisease is called ‘Obermeyer’s relapsing fever’ (Lefebvre and Greenier, 1994).

tuberculosis is different from human tuberculosis. e2 But it is to be hoped thatit will be a permanent warning, not to admit a mixing of the causes of disease withthe nature of disease without thorough prior studies in pathological anatomy.

I cannot leave this topic without reminding us of the great sanitary improve-ments associated with the construction of new human housing and settlements inrecent times; whether they are carried out in towns or in villages. It was also themixture of medicine and social politics which led me to that area in which – thanksto fortunate circumstances – I have been successful in fundamentally changingliving conditions in Berlin. I owe the possibility of collaborating so decisively insuch great changes, in the first instance to the circumstance that I had becomea City Councillor in Berlin, and then (second) to the great and lasting trust myfellow citizens have had in me for almost fifty years. If later, they accorded me theFreedom of the City, I may also point to the fact that since my collaboration, theentire physiognomy of the German capital has been changed. Because the clean-ing-up of the city demanded not only an all-encompassing water supply, a com-prehensive drainage system and extensive sewerage farms, but also a correspon-ding straightening and leveling out of entire streets and building work in everyhouse.That cost hundreds of millions, but my fellow citizens took on the enormousburden in the absolute trust that any sum of money is rewarded by its equivalentin health and longevity. Thus Berlin has become simultaneously one of thecleanest, most beautiful, but also healthiest of the large cities. If in spite of myaccumulated – and at times really overburdening – responsibilities, I still retainsupervision of the sanitation of the city and have even recently taken on againelection as City Councillor, I may indeed presume that this will be attributed notto ambition but to a stern feeling for duty and persistence in following throughgreat tasks.

This semi-political activity is based overall on serious scientific prior study.In particulare2 See in Ackerknecht (1953).

the organization of city sanitation has almost wholly been achieved from com-munal initiative, and I am proud that I was able to collaborate in this and thatnow, the general legislation can advance based on our achievements. Perhaps abetter “system” will still be found, but what has been achieved will certainlyremain – in spite of everything – an ideal model. Here indeed, one may recall

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another very familiar example. I refer to meat inspection. A violent and contin-uing opposition was evoked by our proofs of Trichina in pig meat; and how longdid it take before legislation supported the proposal to prescribe an increas-ingly effective meat inspection system! The City of Berlin very early introducedits laws for this, without any pressure from the State government. But even now,it has not been possible to bring international legislation into accord with thedemands of science, and sometimes, because of this discordance, we were closeto dangerous disputes with North America.The resolution ofe3 so-frequent con-flict between practice and investigative (not merely theoretical) science, pre-supposes (voraussetzen) not only great cold bloodedness (Kaltblütigkeit) andcare, but also great honesty and reliability, such as is scarcely ever beenachieved for daily life without the controls of science. Worst of all here, are thehalf-informed, who in the arrogance of the common laymen, believe that theycan ignore the stern demands of the learned researcher.

Berlin is not the only city to have made me a Freeman, but the only one whichdid this on the basis of actual practical scientific work. There are other citieswhich have conferred the same honour on me.The first was Bologna (1867), theoldest university town in Italy, and the most enduring in its support of scientificwork. With its city authorities – as the recent days have also shown – I haveenjoyed continuous friendly relations. The greatest and most flourishing citiesof my later home in beautiful Franconiae4 – Würzburg and Nürnberg – have inaddition recentlye3 this sentence seems unintelligible without this.e4 northern Bavaria.

named a street after me, as Berlin had already done earlier. Here I must notewith great satisfaction that the Berlin city authorities have given my name tothe largest hospital which has been built in our city. The communal authori-ties of the village of Virchow in Farther Pomerania (Hinterpommern), bymeans of an artistically-executed address, have even recalled the fact that theyhave not forgotten my visit years ago when I wanted to show the place to mysons. I mention these communal honours with particular joy. They are whollywithout ulterior motive, have been accorded as a purely personal honour, andgrant me great satisfaction.

Along with this I gratefully acknowledge the many individual documentswhich have been sent to me principally in praise of my scientific works.Amongstthem, in respect of the magnitude of the birthday gift and warmth of recognitiontakes pride of place the collective gift of the scientific and medical societies ofAustria. In a large precious casket artistically made of onyx and bronze, thereare eighty special – mostly decorated with splendid paintings – addresses, diplo-mas, etc, from the individual states (within Austria) and the learned bodies andsocieties constituted there, from the Vienna Academy right across to the MedicalSocieties of Siebenbürgen, Hungary and Bosnia, Abbazia and Zara. My much-

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honoured friend Toldt delivered it personally. It will remain for me a personallyvalued memory of him and of so many dear and esteemed colleagues.

Closest to this jewel comes a collective address from the Australian doctorssent via Professor Wilson in Sydney. It is a substantial volume whose dedicationpage is decorated with rich miniature paintings, and which contains for everystate (including Tasmania and New Zealand) the addresses of the individualdonors on special cards. It is almost certainly the first time that an entire continenthas unified its homage in one single document and has regarded the occasionas sufficiently important to bear witness of its participation in universal science.

Consonant with its smaller area, and thus its much fewer numbers – but allthe warmer in actual expression – are the representatives of Switzerland. Butthey brought a present which will

always remain dear to me; a splendid oil painting of the Walensee. I am telling thestory about this because of its not-insignificant interest. It was in the days when –commissioned by the German Anthropological Society – I directed the largeschool survey on the colour of hair, eyes and skin, which was first carried out in allGermany, and then in Austria and Switzerland too. When studying the statisticalsheets, I discovered a surprising relationship: in the district of Kerenzen, on thesouthern bank of the Walensee – in an area which we were accustomed to ascrib-ing to Alemannic settlement – the brunette complexion was predominant in theschool children. Since I assumed this to be a mistake, I informed Professor Koll-mann in Basel, who had the Swiss data, and asked for enlightenment. I soonreceived the suggestion that it would be better for me to see for myself; so I stayedwith my family in the charming Suggen valley at the foot of the Black Forest, andin close contact with my Freiburg friends, the Eckers and my dear godchild, sub-sequently Professor Paul Langerhans Jnr.There I received the invitation to go firstof all to Basel for the birthday celebration for W. His. From there I went to themeeting of the Swiss Natural Scientists at Stachelberg in the Canton Glarus.Everything went splendidly.At the conference, I met one of my oldest pupils, DrSchuler von Mollis – who has become factory medical officer for the entire SwissFederation – and the parish priests of the Müllerhorn and the places on the Walen-see. All agreed that the matter must be investigated on the spot. On the sameevening, in spite of it being late at night, I set out with Kollmann, and we reachedour next goal, the village of Obstalden, high above the lake. It may be said inadvance, that the correctness of the school teachers’ data was proved, but we weresimultaneously rewarded by the wonderful situation and view from Obstalden –which in the full light of the following morning – had such an enrapturing influencethat I immediately concluded an agreement for a stay there with my family in thefollowing Autumn. Thus there developed a relationship extending to the local people which since led my family and me there on repeated occasions.The won-derful atmosphere of Nature refreshed us, and later in difficult times, it hasbrought improvement and healing for my closest relatives. But within a few years,

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it has also made this lonely little village into such a sought-after rest-haven formany tourists that Obstalden has become a well-known place. This memory wasdestined to be kept fresh in my mind by the painting (presented to me), and Icannot merely praise this good result, but even more, (I must praise) the graciousfeelings of the donors which this picture specifically attests. From the bottom ofmy heart, I thank the Swiss medical men who presented it to me, and I will notconceal the fact that the thought for it, as I later discovered, originated in a spir-ited woman. Mr Schuler strengthened the gift by collecting a whole sequence ofphotographs of the lake and the various places in the Glarner countryside. Everytime I look at this painting – which now hangs in my house – I am overjoyedand moved by the heartfelt sentiments which fill the donors.

This feeling also emerges in the address of greeting from the Zurich NatureResearch Society and the Bern Medical Faculty, the Board of the Bern HistoricalMuseum, and of Professors in Basel and Bern. I was moved with particular pleas-ure by a letter from the celebrated Egyptologist Nabille whom I had visitedyears ago while he was working in Bubastis.

Gifts which I receive with the sense of greatest honour are from England,Scotland and Ireland.At the peak – from all these countries, the oldest and mostcelebrated societies, personally represented by my great friend Lord Lister – Iname only the Royal Society of London, the Royal College of Surgeons and theRoyal Medical and Surgical Society of England e5; similar institutes in Edin-burgh, Glasgow and London; as well as the Universities of Birmingham andAberdeen, the latter of which recently conferred on me in absentia the title ofDoctor of Laws.

From Italy, my much-proven benefactor, Minister Baccelli presented mepersonally – in the name of his government – with a double portrait of Morgagniand me, as also from my pupils there, a golden medal and a beautiful address.Also a similar one came from the Medical Faculty e5 originally the “Medical and Chirurgical Society of London”, became the “Royal Medical andChirurgical Society of London” in 1834, and after merging with other medical societies, became the“Royal Society of Medicine” in 1909.

in Rome, with the announcement of Honorary Doctorate.Scandinavia sent a Gold Medal of the Swedish Doctors Society with an Ad-

dress. In addition, there were addresses from the Swedish Academy in Stock-holm, the Medical Faculty of Upsala and Lund, the Norwegian Doctors ofChristiana and Bergen, and the Medical Faculty in Copenhagen.

From Helsingfors, I received a magnificent address distinguished by its origi-nal binding in birch tree bark, along with which may well be named, as rivalpieces, gifts from the National Museum and the Medical Surgical Society of Riode Janiero, and an address from Chile.

From Paris, came a gold medal from the Anthropological Society with a head-and-shoulders portrait of Broca, and a bronze statuette of Hippocrates by Paul

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Dubois, sent my Mr Languelonne, “Dedicated by French Friends and Scholars”.From Brussels, came a congratulatory address from the Belgian Royal Academy.

From Holland, an address from the Amsterdam Doctors and NaturalScientists, with a large album of “Colleagues and Friends”, delivered in person byProfessor Stokvis; from the Ethnographic Museum in Leyden the deluxe editionof “Wajang Proebwa” – (which is) the beginning of a deluxe work on Phillipineskulls – and a book “Modern Art in the Netherlands” by Mr Kleinmann inHaarlem. Finally there was an address from the Medical Faculty in Leiden.

There were innumerable addresses from Russia, the country in which perhapsI have the greatest number of pupils in the medical profession. Right up to mostrecent days, new addresses arrived from the most distant citiese6 [Baku, Tiflis(Tibilsi), Kutais, Yalta, Odessa, Blagovestschensk, Charkow (Kharkov), Yaroslav,Yekaterinoslav (Ekaterinenburg), Lodz, Kazan, Kars, Kertsch, Kischinev, Kursk,Mohilew (Mogilev), Mitau, Omsk, Orel, Orenburg, Pensa, Polkowa, Nikolajew(Nikolaiev), Rjäsan, Riga, Rostov, Saratov, Simferopol, Stravropol, Tambov,Tomsk, Tula, Vilna (Wilnius), Warsaw, Vladikavkas, Voronezh, Zytomir (Zhito-mir), Kostroma, Moscow, Vologda, Dorpat, Jurjew, Kiew (Kiev)], as also frommedical, anthropological, geographical and historical societies. The Tsar had al-ready conferred a high e6 the alternative spellings in brackets are supplied by the editors.

Order on me, and permitted me to be nominated as honorary member of the medi-cal council, and at the same time, initiated a collection of contributions for theRudolph Virchow Foundation. Notices had arrived from various places to the effectthat the collection of such contributions had begun. From Moscow, I count twenty-six addresses, from Petersburg, twenty-six, from Odessa, twelve; from Kiev andKazan, six each; eight from Kharkov; five from Riga; eight from Jurjew and so on.

As far as the participation from abroad is concerned, I must limit myself to this,in itself, so glittering compilation. It will certainly be added to later. But I willjust note one additional thing: the participation of that country whose friendshipto such a great extent we have gained only in recent years – I mean Japan. Hownumerous are our medical graduates there; how loyally they retain the memoryof their German education and what great help they already have given to us inresearch into difficult scientific problems! News of the celebrations in Tokyoonly reached us here in recent days.The German Ambassador, Count Arco, hadgathered his compatriots with Japanese friends in the embassy (in Tokyo), andI received their collective greetings. But individual scholars too, sent festive greet-ings; even from Kyoto – the newest Japanese University – there came a warmaddress (signed by Fujinami and Nakarai). At the top of the list of men inTokoyo, there was our much honoured compatriot Professor Baelz who hadonly recently returned from his visit home. Under his leadership, we may wellhope that the medical schools of Japan will in the future, fulfill their great cul-tural mission of propagating modern scientific methods in East Asia, and to

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make it firm for a long time, just as has happened in brilliant fashion, in America,thanks to others of our pupils!

I see that I must keep things short, so as not to appear overly conceited.Holding back is doubly difficult for me, because now I have to talk about Ger-many. The task is the more difficult because my gratitude is aroused moststrongly. Because here I should not only have to speak

of the scholars and learned societies, of the most numerous benefactors andfriends – in particular of the many friends in political, local governmental andcommercial spheres – but also and especially, of the great and surprising recog-nition which has been accorded me in the most heartfelt form and unexpecteddegree. It is common knowledge that already before the celebration, his Majestythe Emperor and King, awarded me the highest “scientific” order of Prussia,and thereby gave the impetus to a general sympathy for me.An address of praiseand the conferring of the great Golden Medal for science will keep this gra-cious recognition in permanent memory for me and my family.A dispatch fromthe Imperial Chancellor, at the Hubertusstocke7 of the 12th October, and anaddress from the State Secretary for the Ministry of the Interior confirmed myinterpretation in the most friendly form. The Royal Prussian Ministry of Edu-cation presented a marble bust of me – executed by Hans Arnold – to the newPathological Museum, the erection of which realized my earliest academic am-bitions. This bust was unveiled by his Excellency the Minister of Educationhimself, with a laudatory address at the beginning of the celebrations. Throughits secretary, the Academy of Sciences delivered its most flattering congratula-tions, accompanied by a bronze medallion, which the Academy had commissionedfrom B. Kruse. The Silesian Museum for the Applied Arts and Antiquities inBreslau presented a gold plaquette by E. Kempfer. The Imperial Leopold-Caroline German Academy of Natural Scientists presented an address togetherwith their Gold Medal. The committee of the German Doctors’ Associationbrought a splendidly-executed illuminated homage.

Everything of precious gifts in my honour, and artistically-presentedaddresses which have reached me, I passed on to Professor Lessing for publicexhibition at his request. This took place in the beautiful Lichthofe8 of theMuseum of Applied Arts. It aroused general admiration.

I cannot close without expressing my particular gratitude to some eminentroyal persons e7 a Hunting lodge of the Emperor, on Lake Werbellin, about 50 km north-east of Berlin.e8 a naturally-lit courtyard; may refer to the building now part of the Technical University of Berlin.

who have been friendly to me for a long time; and who have indicated the con-tinuation of their interest by their telegrams at this celebration too. These werePrincess Theresa of Bavaria, Dukes Johann Albrecht and Georg of Mecklen-burg, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, and the Duke of Ratibor.

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In the face of these really unusual honours accorded to me, I can do nothingmore than repeat my warmest and most heartfelt thanks. The feeling of indebt-edness is too great for me to express in writing, with any words which would dojustice to my feelings. I am also too old to envisage new achievements worthyenough to be regarded as a gift in return. I shall not tire of working as long asmy powers are sufficient. But I cannot promise any more than that I will try tobring a series of larger projects – which I began in earlier years – to a conclu-sion which is also useful for the world at large. For the rest, I can only ask thatmy future works should receive the same benevolent and considerate judg-ment, which I have hitherto enjoyed in rich measure and far beyond all expec-tation. The benevolent – I may perhaps say the loving – reception which I haveencountered at these celebrations strengthens me in the wish to carry on work-ing still for some time with the same dedication and independence.

If it were correct that the world is ungrateful, then it would certainly be thegreatest ingratitude if I were to apply this experience to myself too, and wishedaccordingly to regard it as a general characteristic of humanity. No one couldexpect to find, or certainly to claim, greater friendly support than that which Ihave encountered in all circles of our people and even amongst those belong-ing to foreign nations. I did not demand such devotion – it was voluntarily ac-corded me – neither did I expect it, but I thereby become all the more pleasantlysurprised and deeply indebted. Whoever of the comrades of my youth, in somecases even of my childhood, who are still alive; and whatever of those thingswhich have remained to me from the manifold

campaigns of earlier years; – all those people and things have come back to meagain on this occasion, personally or by letter. Compatriots from Pomerania –the memory of whom I was able to renew only with some effort – announcedthemselves; in particular my old Schivelbein friends, have, as always, come con-fidently in order to bear witness to the permanence of their feelings. The facultyof the Gymnasium at Köslin where once upon a time I, as a pupil, enjoyed mypre-education, assured me anew of their loyal memory. Every city in which Ionce lived was busy in doing something special and particularly pleasant. Butthat does not merely apply to the past. If I look around then, alongside acquain-tances from earlier times, I always see numerous friends from the present time,and it seems to me that specifically the sympathetic participation of present-day people, must signify for me a reliable indication of real loyalty and constancy.A small anecdote from the last few days has as I see, found wide and strikinglyrapid circulation throughout the daily press. When I returned home from oneof these celebrations late at night, I found to my greatest surprise that my littlestreet, the Schellingstrasse, was brightly and completely illuminated. I had hadno idea that my neighbours wished to receive me so kindly. But the street wasalso completely full of children, including quite small ones. I had to find myway to the door of my house through a real avenue of children, and the cries of

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jubilation from the little ones only ended when I had disappeared inside thehouse. But however often I now show myself in the street, the little ones cometowards me with outstretched hands saying “Good morning Mr Virchow”!

Thus from day to day, this feeling is passed on from child to child, and itshould not surprise one if it stirs too, amongst the adults and even amongst theold people. The finest evening which I experienced at this time was a quite inti-mate celebration of our Manual Workers Society. Years ago, I myself had beena co-founder, and had followed its early stages with advice and deed. That wasat a time when the then Crown Prince Friedrich still had leisure to concern him-self with questions of the education of adults among the people at large.

How often did he – and sometimes accompanied by his wife, the recently-deceased Empress Friedrich – come to our Manual Workers Society in order tosee its progress for himself. And when finally we had got so far as to completea building of its own for the Club, how he, much to our joy, participated in it!Then came the time when our Manual Workers Society became the model forsuch organizations; when our young members went out into the world as apos-tles and founded Manual Workers’ Societies everywhere.There were such groupsfrom Riga to Lisbon, and for our traveling members, it was everywhere as if ahome had been prepared for them. The vitally encroaching wave of Socialismhas in large part annihilated these creations. In spite of this, the Berlin ManualWorkers Society has remained alive, and when I appeared recently at the cele-bration offered to me; when the old songs sounded forth; when I myself againgave a speech, then all hands reached out towards me like those of the childrenfrom Schellingstrasse. That is the gratitude of the people, and therefore I maysay to every one; trust the people and work for them; then your reward will notbe lacking, even if the demolition of numerous institutions, the disappearanceof many people, the complete re-shaping of public life, brings the thought ofour mortality very close to us. That is my confession of faith, and I hope to getby with this as long as I live.

The City authorities of Berlin, the committees of all our hospitals, the learn-ed societies and corporations throughout Germany have filled my family archiveswith wonderful addresses and diplomas of honour. Not a few of these societieshave taken me up into the ranks of their members whilst conferring special titlesof honour on me. If I do not go here into further detail, I must ask that this not beregarded as any undervaluation or disrespect vis à vis those not named, but onlyto consider that a complete survey could not be given in this expression of thanks.

Berlin, 15th December 1901.

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Appendix 1c

Some personal remiscences

By Sir Felix Semon

British Medical Journal ii, September 13th: 800–802 (1902)

Editors’ comments

Felix Semon (1849–1921) was born and educated in Germany, but moved to Britain, where hebecame a very successful surgeon. He was a staunch admirer and friend of Virchow from the 1870suntil the latter’s death. Semon’s autobiography was published in 1926.

Editors’ summary of points

P 800, first meeting with Virchow; Virchow’s wide range of interests; his exactness tantamount topedantry; feared by students as a teacher and examiner; 801, Semon’s own experience of this in apractical examination, Schiller quoted; nevertheless generally admired by students; genial at home,amiable at public gatherings, but caustic, ironic and sarcastic in argument; a friend of England; 802English admirers; lack of recreations; unpunctuality; busy daily schedule; elements of his greatness.

Sir Felix Semon, C.V.O., who was a pupil and personal friend of ProfessorVirchow, has kindly contributed the following reminiscences of the great patho-logist: – The Editor of the British Medical Journal has requested me to add tothe tribute paid to the scientific life-work of Rudolf Virchow in these columnsby contributing some personal reminiscences of my great master, and I willinglycomply with his wish.

It is now more than thirty years since I was presented to him, and I shallnever forget the occasion of my introduction. Shortly after the end of theFranco-German war I was riding in the Thiergarten of Berlin, when I was hailedby a relative of mine, a member of the Berlin Town Council, returning from ameeting of that body in company with Professor Virchow, who then was, andindeed until a few years ago continued to be, one of the most energetic andinfluential members of the Berlin municipality. My relative presented me to theProfessor, who directly pronounced the horse I rode a thoroughbred, andentered upon a disquisition on its qualities in a manner which fairly took mybreath away. If he had authoritatively spoken about the latest phase of PrinceBismarck’s policy, about the canalization of Berlin, about some recent discov-eries of lake-dwellers’ habitations, or of tumuli in Pomerania, or about a recent


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attack on his cellular pathology – one would have thought it perfectly naturalin view of his well-known universality; but that the Leader of the Radicals inthe German Reichstag and the Prussian Parliament, the Berlin TownCouncillor, the President of the German Anthropological Society, the Professorof Pathological Anatomy in the University of Berlin, and the member of innu-merable learned societies, should be able to discuss with equal authority thepoints of a thoroughbred – was, indeed, more than I had expected. At any rateit filled me at once with profound respect for the universality of his informa-tion, and this feeling deepened as years rolled by, and as I had the privilege ofmore and more frequently and intimately coming into contact with him. Whilsthis knowledge of medical literature of all times and all nations was simplyphenomenal, his acquaintance with all events of the day, with the progress ofgeneral science, with history, geography, general literature, art, was equallyastounding. And what was most impressive was that his knowledge in all thesevarious branches – the complete mastery of any one of which usually is lookedupon as a very creditable achievement – was as thorough as it was general.Virchow, in fact, was nothing if not exact, and it was one of his most character-istic features that he demanded the same exactness in thought and expressionwhich distinguished him from everybody with whom he came in contact. Hiscritical faculties were, so to say, instinctive and ever on the alert. He rarelyallowed an inexact or random statement inadvertently made in his presence topass without correcting it, and when his own work came into question he waspositively inexorable in his demands concerning the absolutely exact renderingof his meaning. I have had some experience of this in connexion with the trans-lation of a few of his addresses into English. As a rule, when invited to give anaddress in this country, he sent his German manuscript for translation sometime before he arrived, and it need not be said that only first-rate men wereentrusted with this responsible task. As a matter of fact all his Englishaddresses known to me were magnificently translated, and the author himself,when first glancing over the translation, was delighted. But he then usuallywithdrew into his room (ever since 1881 when coming to London he did me thehonour of staying with me), and shortly afterwards there was a little knock atmy door. So as soon as I heard that knock I knew what was coming and my mis-givings were rarely falsified. He thought that such and such a phrase did notexactly enough render his meaning, and after he had once embarked upon thatcourse there was no holding him. He grimly insisted on getting exactly what hewanted, and I remember at least two occasions when he was still actually cor-recting his manuscript whilst his audience was already assembling, and when Ihad the greatest difficulty in getting him on to the platform in proper time.Admirable as this was, it cannot be gainsaid, I am afraid, that his love of exact-ness occasionally amounted to a certain degree of pedantry.Thus, how often didhe drive some unfortunate candidate whom he examined into sheer despair,because the youth did not exactly enough describe the colour of a specimen,

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and called it “pink”, whilst he ought to have said “violet!” How often did hesuddenly interrupt himself in the midst of a most interesting pathological lec-ture, in the course of which he had sent round among the audience some illus-trative specimens, and personally apostrophize an unsuspecting student in any-thing but complimentary terms, and at very considerable length, because he hadnoted that that unlucky individual held the glass containing the specimen some-what obliquely, and because he feared that the spirit of wine in which it was pre-served might touch and spoil the varnish by means of which the cover wassealed!

In this connexion, I may say at once that my dear old master never was verygentle with his students, and that, particularly as an examiner, he was terriblyfeared. I have often wondered and never been able to understand why just onthese occasions he should have so much departed from his usual quietdemeanour and have terrorized the innocents to such a degree that many ofthem actually forgot the little they knew. But whatever the explanation, the factremains. The number of anecdotes known in connexion with this peculiarity ofhis is simply legion, and it may not be amiss in a memoir of this character if byway of illustration I related part of my own experiences with him when I passedmy State examination. I ought to premise that on the last occasion on which Ihad seen him, namely, after passing my examination for the M.D. of Berlin, hehad been kindness personified. Well, the day before I was up for the patholog-ical “station” as it is called, of the State examination, I had to deliver a messagefrom the clinic of the late Professor Traube, as one of whose clinical clerks Ithen acted, at the Pathological Institute.Virchow’s assistant was just engaged inmaking a necropsy, and, seeing me, asked whether he was mistaken in thinkingthat I was to be under examination next day. On my confirming his impression,he said, “Well, you had better look at this. It is a thing one does not see everyday, namely, a melanotic sarcoma with numerous metastases. Who knows butthat you may not be examined on that very subject.” I thanked my friend for

his kindness and asked for a little piece of the tumour. My request was willinglygranted, and after my return home I examined the growth under the micro-scope and read up all I had put down on sarcoma in my memorandum bookwhen listening to Virchow’s own lectures on the subject.

Next morning the eight victims about to be immolated appeared at theappointed time – 8 a.m. punctually – in evening dress (such was, and possiblystill may be, the ridiculous fashion) at the Pathological Institute. It was customarythat two of the candidates should begin by making necropsies simultaneously,two should write the protocols of these examinations under their comrades’dictation, two should prepare on the spot microscopic specimens, and the tworemaining ones should be examined viva voce.After a while they all exchangedtheir occupations. In which order they were to begin was left entirely to the exa-miner’s decision, so that nobody knew beforehand what was first in store for him.

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Well, we waited and waited two mortal hours for the arbiter of our destinies.(I shall hereafter have something to say about Virchow’s general unpunctuality.)At last we espied him through the window, rushing up the little incline whichled to the door of the old Pathological Institute. We grouped ourselves in asemicircle and received him with a deep bow. Without deigning to explain by asingle word his late appearance, he immediately and not in the gentlest toneeither, addressed me personally: “I suppose you are waiting for the permissionof a magistrate (obrigkeitliche Erlaubniss) to open your microscope?” Seeingthat I could not have the remotest idea that I should have first to use the micro-scope this was certainly a stunner. I, of course, did not reply, and made mymicroscope ready, whilst he ordered the other candidates about. “The two gen-tlemen who are to make a microscopic examination, to come here! There, sir(addressing me), is something for you.” Oh joy! It was the melanotic sarcoma!I turned round to look for a wooden tray on which to place the piece of tumourheld out to me by the Professor, when I again heard his voice in its most caustictones: “That is quite like your own dear self! Why look afar, when what youdesire is near?” (In German he quoted Schiller:

Warum in die Ferne schweifen?Sieh’ das Gute liegt so nah’!)

“If you had only condescended to look in front of you, you would have seen atray on the table before you.” This was true enough, but certainly not very en-couraging. However, I received my piece of tumour and withdrew to the window,where I had placed my microscope. There I prepared as characteristic a slide ofthe growth as I could and waited for the dreaded moment of his coming to me.Meanwhile he raged about amongst my unfortunate comrades, like furiousAjax amongst the herds of the Achaeans. At last I heard his voice behind me:“What have you got there?” The accumulated experience of many generationshad taught candidates, under no circumstances to begin by giving a diagnosis,and merely to describe appearances. This I did whilst he was attentively exam-ining the preparation under the microscope. When I had finished he looked up,pushed his spectacles up, looked at me straight with his piercing eyes, andasked: “You see that?” Greatly surprised, I answered, “Yes, sir.” “I don’t,” wasthe reply; and next moment he was far away, scolding another candidate. I re-mained behind, much bewildered. Surely it was a sarcoma; surely I had givenhim a correct description? At last it dawned upon me that perhaps my prepa-ration, although I had considered it a beauty, was not good enough for him. SoI sat down again and laboriously fitted up another, which really was most char-acteristic. After about an hour, I heard his voice again behind me: “What haveyou got there?”“The same, sir, that I reported when first you asked me.”“Whatwas that?” I repeated my description. He again looked up when I had finished,again pushed his spectacles up, looked at me again, and said: “You appear topossess an excellent memory, and to have learned by heart the pages of your

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memorandum book.”With this shrewd but enigmatic remark, he ran away again,leaving me this time absolutely nonplussed. I looked at the preparation underthe microscope as he had left it. Surely there was all I had described. What todo now? After some deliberation I decided to do nothing, and simply to wait forthe development of events. After another hour he came up again with the samequestion he had twice before addressed to me. I replied that I could only repeatwhat I had said before, “What do you think it is?” “A melanotic sarcoma, sir.”“You may go home.” And thus ended the first day of my examination in patho-logical anatomy, leaving me absolutely uncertain whether I had passed this partsatisfactorily or whether I had been ploughed in it.After some very tempestuousoccurrences on the second day I ultimately found that I had passed, and verysatisfactorily, too, but I cannot honestly say that these two days were amongstthe happiest of my life.

Although experiences of that kind were for nearly half a century the rule,not the exception, amongst the candidates who presented themselves for exam-ination at Berlin, Virchow, particularly during the last twenty years of his life,when the historical halo had begun to form which so happily surrounded hislast phase of life, was very popular amongst his students.They had sense enoughto see in him one of the greatest personalities of our times, they were happy andproud to be his pupils, and they came to look upon the examination as an un-pleasant but unavoidable elementary necessity.The Festkommerse in his honouron the occasion of his 70th and 80th birthdays eloquently testified to his popu-larity amongst the youngest generations of students; whilst his older pupilscame to be devoted to him with truly filial love. Nothing, for instance could bemore touching than to hear the late Dr.Wilson Fox speak of Virchow. He lookedup to him, fine man though he was himself, as to a superior being.Virchow him-self was very fond and, as he well might be, very proud of his former assistants.To very few men it is given, as it was to him, to educate such a “school” of brilliantmen, as he did; and whenever he spoke of them, it was with paternal pride andaffection. And how could it be otherwise when such men as Cohnheim, vonRecklinghausen, Waldeyer, Ponfick, and Grawitz – to mention but a few – wereamongst them.

Altogether, to see my dear old master in his most gentle and most genial mood,one had to see him in the circle of his family and friends.At great public gather-ings, such as the International Medical Congresses, of which he was a regularvisitor and at which he naturally formed the centre of attraction, he was ami-able and kind enough, although occasionally, when people who had no earthlyclaim upon his time and attention bothered him overmuch, he disposed of themin very curt and peremptory fashion. In the course of political or medical dis-cussions, when his ire had been roused, he was a truly formidable opponent, de-molishing his antagonists whilst hardly ever raising his voice, by the force ofinexorable logic, accurate information, and icy irony; whilst at other occasions,when he disdained to descend into the arena, the mere half amused, half sar-


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castic expression of his face was enough to confound his adversaries. But themost charming side of his character – his love for his family, his indulgence forhis friends, his chivalrous kindliness towards women, were only revealed to afavourite few. His family simply adored him – his wife, his faithful companionfor more than fifty years, had no other thought beside him, and those whom hehonoured by his friendship vied with one another in making his path as smoothas they could.

Of England he was ever a staunch friend. Various circumstances concurredto confirm this predilection. In the first place the liberal institutions of this coun-try appealed to his own political instincts. He was reared at a time when the wholeContinent of Europe suffered from that reaction which followed the Napo-leonic wars, and when England alone was the bulwark of political freedom. He,himself the protagonist of the claims of the educated middle classes towards avery different position and appreciation in the body politic from what wasaccorded to them by the bureaucratic and feudal régime dominant in Prussiabefore 1848; himself a martyr to the convictions he fearlessly expressed afterhaving witnessed the Silesian typhus epidemic of 1846, saw his own ideas ofcivil liberty realized in England, and admired it for this reason. Secondly, familiaras he was with medical literature of all countries and all times, he found muchin the writings of various British medical worthies that was congenial to his ownmode of thought. Thus I well remember how he always held up to his studentsJohn Goodsir as a model of keen and accurate observation; thus many of the

readers of this will remember the eloquent tribute he paid in his Croonian lec-ture to the achievements of Glisson. Thirdly, he had many devoted Englishfriends, whose feeling of personal attachment he warmly reciprocated. I havealready mentioned Wilson Fox; I may further mention Professor Huxley, Sir JamesPaget, Lord Lister, Dr. Pye-Smith. He also had the highest opinion of poor Kanth-ack, whom we have lost much too early, and of Mr. Shattock, whose prepara-tions at St. Thomas’s Hospital Museum he was in the habit of praising veryenthusiastically. With Sir James Paget and his family an almost life-long friend-ship united him, and it was extremely touching when Sir James, who had longretired from all participation in social functions, drove up, shortly before hisdeath to call on Virchow, and when the latter descended into the street to ex-change a few kindly words with his old friend. Equally touching it was when, onthe occasion of the small dinner given by Virchow on the occasion of his 80thbirthday to his family and a few intimate friends, he did such eloquent homageto the greatness of Lord Lister’s work that the latter could hardly restrain hisemotion. Nothing could have been more elevating, more stirring, than this tributeof genuine admiration paid by one great man to another. Finally, as explaininghis particular liking of England, I can testify to the gratitude which Virchow felt,and more than once freely expressed to me, for the warmth of the receptionshe always met with when visiting our shores. It will be in the recollection of many

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readers of this, that his two last visits to this country, namely, when he deliveredthe Croonian and the Huxley lectures, were a real sort of triumphal progress.He cherished the memory of the goodwill and enthusiasm then bestowed uponhim amongst his most valued recollections.

His recreations were few. He never indulged in any form of sport, and heworked hard even during his so-called holidays. Altogether the feeling of dutywas uppermost in him; and even when he had attained the zenith of fame, heconsidered no form of work connected with his duties beneath him.A most char-acteristic fact in this connexion is that for more than fifty years he personally,and most attentively too, read the proofs of every single article published in hisArchiv für pathologische Anatomie. How many editors, I wonder, can say thusmuch for themselves?

I have incidentally mentioned his habitual unpunctuality. At the time whenI was a student at Berlin this used to be made a subject of great complaint, par-ticularly with regard to his professorial duties, and it cannot be denied that itwas very aggravating, when the lecture to which one looked forward mosteagerly in one’s day’s work was often unduly curtailed through the lecturer’slate appearance, or even omitted altogether. But how could it be otherwise withthat unique man’s unique activity? His day was not an ordinary man’s day; hecompressed into it the work of several industrious men!

Let me sketch one such day. He would conduct an examination from 8 to 10,would superintend a microscopic class from 10 to 12, would lecture from 12 to1, would be in the Reichstag from 2 to 5, in the Town Council from 5 to 6, insome committee meeting of the Prussian Parliament from 6 to 7, and preside atthe meeting of the Berlin Medical Society or at the Anthropological Society, ordeliver some popular address, or again do committee work from 7 to 9.Well mayI be asked, But where did his meals come in? Where did all his enormous originaland editorial literary work, his correspondence, his family life come in? Well,that is the wonder of all who had the privilege of coming near him. One of theexplanations of his superhuman activity is that he required infinitely less sleepthan most mortals. When I was a student at Berlin there was a sort of legendthat he never slept more than five hours.When later on I had the great good for-tune of being admitted into his family circle, I asked, whether there was any truthin that legend, and to my surprise learned that often it fell far behind the truth,and that more than once he had, when under – what was for him – exceptionalpressure of work, not gone to bed at all, but worked through the whole night!Honour to a man who thus sacrifices himself for the public weal, and every allow-ance for his unavoidable unpunctuality! Strait-laced people may object that aman ought not to undertake more work than he could punctually fulfil, butwhilst this in the case of ordinary mortals is true enough, the reply in Virchow’scase is that the world in many respects would have been much poorer had thiswonderful man limited himself to the ordinary professor’s work and not shedthe lustre of his personality, of his lofty mind, of his inexorable logic upon politics,


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municipal work, anthropology, ethnology, and a hundred other branches ofhuman thought. If a few details of his routine work necessarily suffered fromphysical inability to be in several places at once, the whole human race benefitedfrom the application of this master mind to so many different human interests.In the description which I gave last year in these columns of the celebration ofhis eightieth birthday particular attention was drawn to the fact that nothing hadbeen more impressive in the homage done by representatives of all civilizednations to this “grand old man of science” than the universality of interests inwhich they agreed that humanity had been benefited by him.

He was so fresh, so indefatigable on that occasion, that we all confidentlyhoped he would be spared to us for many years to come in all the wonderfulfreshness of his mind, in the no less wonderful elasticity of his body. The easewith which this octogenarian undertook, during what he was pleased to call his“holiday,” scientific journeys, which took him from Berlin to London and Edin-burgh, from Edinburgh to Transsylvania, from Transsylvania to Breslau, fromBreslau to Switzerland, was no less astounding than the fact that on the occasionof his 80th birthday he delivered, without any notes whatever, an address lastingnearly two hours, brimful of historical dates, in which he gave his views of thedevelopment of medicine and of his relationship to the last phases of this devel-opment.

And now, so soon afterwards, he has been taken from us. We shall not seehim any more in the flesh, as “Spy” has luckily preserved him for us in one ofVanity Fair’s most brilliant and characteristic cartoons: the little, slightly bent,lithe man with the parchment-like, somewhat yellowish, much wrinkled faceand the slightly grizzled hair, which remained practically unchanged during thethirty years I have known him; with the small, piercing eyes covered by specta-cles, which he always pushed up when reading or when about to make one of hiscaustic remarks; with his dry, sarcastic, somewhat monotonous voice; with his rapidgait, with his quiet, unostentatious demeanour – in every respect the best typeof a German professor.

To the world he was a genius and a model; to his science one of the greatestpathfinders; to his country a patriot who fearlessly did what he conceived to behis duty; to his family, his friends, and his pupils the kindest, most considerate,most beloved counsellor and friend.With the deepest sorrow we see him depart,but our consolation is that his work remains behind him, and that his fame, greatas it is amongst his contemporaries, will increase as time goes on to legendarygreatness, his name being ranked, as it deserves to be, with the greatest encyclo-paedic minds the human race has produced. Requiescat in pace, magna anima!

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Figure A.1 (above) Virchow’s funeral cortege.

Figure A.2 (below left) Virchow’s grave (photographed 2006 by Dr Peterson).

Figure A.3 (below right) Grave plaque (photographed 2006 by Dr Peterson).


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Figure A.4 Virchow memorial at the Charité Hospital in Berlin (photographed 2006 by DrPeterson).

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Obituary

Professor Rudolph Ludwig Karl Virchow

The Lancet ii, September 13th: 762–765 (1902)

GERMANY, and with her the entire scientific world, mourns the loss of Pro-fessor Rudolph Virchow who passed away on Friday last (Sept. 5th, 1902) in theeighty-first year of his age. As a man of science he was world-famous, and justlyso, even if his reputation depended on his “Cellular Pathology” alone, for by thisepoch-making work, indebted though he was, in part at least, to the researches ofprevious observers, such as Schwann and his former teacher, Müller, he rescuedthe science of treatment from the stigma of empiricism and established it firmlyupon the basis of a scientific appreciation of ultimate causes. As a democraticpolitician he represented to his countrymen the very spirit of progress and socialreform, and as such his name will remain a cherished memory. So strenuous washis advocacy of his principles and so uncompromising was his language in theopposition to what he considered retrograde measures as to provoke a challengefrom Count von Bismarck on the occasion of the defeat of the Government on anavy vote – a challenge which he happily possessed the courage to decline.

Although over 80 years of age Professor Virchow was in the habit of jumpingon and off the tram-cars whilst they were in motion and on the occasion of theaccident, which occurred to him on Jan. 5th, he slipped on getting down and fellheavily in the road. He lost consciousness for a certain time but on recovering wasenabled to give his name and address to a policeman by whom he was removedto his house. Professor Körte of the Urban Hospital was called in and found thatProfessor Virchow had fractured the neck of his femur.There was a great amountof shock present and for the first few days after the accident a fatal issue wasexpected, but Professor Virchow’s constitution proved to be so excellent that hewas soon in a fair way to recovery. Although advised to abstain from all mentalwork he was not a very tractable patient, and it is reported that he took so muchinterest in his own case that he declared that no osseous union would take placeand that skiagrams which were taken proved the correctness of his opinion.Aftera time, however, he was able to get about on crutches and early in May he wasremoved to Teplitz with a view to try the effects of the hot springs which existhere. He improved so rapidly that after a few weeks’ stay he was able to go toHartzburg.A very inclement summer, however, prevented him from taking dueadvantage of the mountain air. He was nearly always compelled to keep his

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rooms and by-and-by symptoms of bodily and mental debility supervened. Hebecame more and more apathetic, slept for the greater part of the day, and wasunable to leave his chair.About three weeks ago his friends decided to take himhome and although the journey from Hartzburg to Berlin takes only four hoursit had a very bad effect upon him. He became unconscious and never really re-covered from the coma, but expired on the afternoon of the Sept. 5th. The newswas received with the deepest sorrow by every class of the population of Berlin,and the Municipal Council, to which Professor Virchow had belonged since hewent to live in Berlin, held an extraordinary meeting and decided that thefuneral should be of a public character.

Rudolph Ludwig Karl Virchow was born on Oct. 13th, 1821, at the small townof Schivelbein, near Stettin, in Farther Pomerania. Of his early years there is butscant record; he appears to have received his education in the gymnasium atCöslin, where he distinguished himself by his linguistic abilities. In addition tohis knowledge of Latin, Greek, English, and French he was a good Hebrewscholar and selected that language as an optional subject for his Abiturientenexamination at the age of 18 years. He entered at the Friedrich-Wilhelm Institut, atraining college for army surgeons now known as the Kaiser Wilhelm Academie,in 1839, where during the next five years he studied under, amongst others,Müller, Dieffenbach, and Caspar. In 1843 he proceeded to the degree of Unter-arzt (Berlin University), presenting for his inaugural dissertation a thesis entitled,De Rheumate Praesertim Corneae.Although the students of the Friedrich-WilhelmInstitut received their education on the condition of serving in the army,Virchow,during his career there, showed so much skill and intelligence that by order of theGeneral Staff Surgeon he was released from active service and was given theplace of assistant at the Charité Hospital. Selecting the scientific rather than thepractical side of his profession he obtained the following year the post of pro-sector of anatomy to the Charité Hospital, acting as assistant to Robert Froriepwhom he eventually succeeded in 1846. Early in 1847 he became external lec-turer in pathology at the University of Berlin, and shortly afterwards foundedthe well-known Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie, und für kli-nische Medicin in collaboration with Benno Reinhardt. From the time of his col-league’s death in 1852 onward he continued to edit the journal alone and en-joyed the satisfaction of celebrating its jubilee, together with that of himself asa teacher, at a banquet held in the Kaiserhof in December, 1897.

In 1848, an incident occurred which would have proved the undoing of aweaker man. Selected to accompany the medical officer entrusted with the inves-tigation of a severe epidemic of relapsing fever (‘hunger-typhus’) in Silesia, theactual investigation and the preparation of the report thereon devolved uponVirchow, and these duties were carried out in the masterly style characteristic ofthe man. In his Mittheilungen über die in Oberschlesien herrschende Typhus-epidemie he denounced the evils from which the disease resulted, demandedextensive reforms, and concluded by stating that nothing short of the extension

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of the benefits of civilisation to one and a half million living souls would success-fully cope with the epidemic. Such reflections upon the ineptitude of the thenadministration, coupled with the fact that Virchow on his return had allied him-self with the ultra-Radical party and had founded in association with Leu-buscher a medico-political journal, Die Medicinischen Reformen (a paper thatceased to exist when Virchow was appointed to Würzburg), were amply sufficientto ensure his dismissal from all his professional posts in Berlin. His fame as apathologist had, however, already spread beyond the confines of the capital andthe University of Würzburg at once seized the opportunity and offered Virchowthe professorship of pathology and the directorship of the newly-founded Patho-logical Institute.These posts were accepted and for the next seven years Virchowdevoted himself almost completely to research work, contributing many valuablememoirs to the pages of his Archives and founding a school of workers andthinkers the results of whose observations cannot be too fully appreciated. In 1855he commenced the publication of his best-known work, Die Cellularpathologiein ihrer Begründung auf Physiologische und Pathologische Gewebelehre, pro-pounding therein, as the basis of his theories, the now familiar dictum, “Omniscellula e cellula.”

On the death of Professor Hemsbach the Faculty of the University of Berlinpetitioned the Minister of Public Instruction to offer a chair of pathology toVirchow, and in spite of strong and bitter political opposition the appeal wassuccessful and Virchow returned to Berlin. He accepted his appointment on thecondition that a pathological institute should be founded, and the Governmentagreed to his wishes. Soon after his return to Berlin the first complete editionof his Die Cellular Pathologie appeared in 1858. His great work on new growths,unfortunately never completed, also dates from this period. Under his directionthe pathological department, formerly the dissecting-room, of the Charité Hos-pital became a model for similar institutions.With indefatigable zeal he collectedspecimens of pathological conditions and arranged and classified them till hehad got together a collection only to be equalled by the Hunterian Museum inLondon. One of his greatest satisfactions was when two years ago, on the occasionof the rebuilding of the Charité Hospital, he was able to open the PathologicalMuseum where his collection had finally found adequate room and was thereforemade accessible to students and to the public. Besides this pathological museumhe had made a large anthropological collection of his own, consisting mainly ofcrania of the different human races. Notwithstanding his manifold occupationshe delivered his lectures regularly, and his assistants were only allowed to replacehim for the practical work in microscopic anatomy and in making dissections.His lectures were attended not only by students but by medical men from everypart of the world. He was not an orator in the usual sense of the word; his voicewas weak and his speech was simple and without that power of carrying awayan audience which is so common among French speakers, but when he was onceupon the platform of the lecture-room everybody felt that the little man with

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the sharp grey eyes was one to be listened to with the utmost attention. After afew years spent in quiet work Virchow again entered public life as a member ofthe Berlin Municipal Council, with which body he was connected as an activemember for a period of over 40 years. In this capacity his powers of organisationand his conception of the duties of the State with regard to the well-being ofthe people are evidenced by the establishment of the hospitals of Moabit andFriedrichshain and the lunatic asylums of Dalldorf and Lichtenberg. His greatestwork, however, in practical hygiene was concerned with the introduction ofdrainage and in the erection of sewage-farms, hygienic improvements which hewas enabled to carry out despite the opposition and the want of judgment dis-played by a great part of the population and even by the authorities. Some doubtswere expressed whether the soil of Berlin and its neighbourhood were fitted fora system of sewerage and a sewage farm. Experience, however, has shown thatVirchow’s genius was right in insisting upon it, as since the establishment of thesystem Berlin has become one of the healthiest towns on the continent, entericfever scarcely ever prevailing.Virchow’s hygienic work is closely connected withhis political career. He was, as we have already stated, early elected a member ofthe Municipal Council and this position enabled him to carry out in a practicalmanner what he had found by theoretical and statistical studies to be the bestfor the health of the town. In 1862 he took his seat in the Prussian Diet and bysheer ability was soon recognised as the leader of the Radical party.This positionhe resigned, however, in 1878 and in 1880 he became a deputy of the ImperialReichsrath. As leader of the Opposition he did yeoman service for his country,though his frequent conflicts with the Government prevented any of those deco-rations which are occasionally bestowed even upon scientific men falling to his lot.

In 1866 his untiring energy found another outlet in the organisation of theambulance service for the army, both in that campaign and in the succeedingone of 1870–7l. Pathology and politics, however, were insufficient to fill the lifeof this remarkable man. He was President of the German Geographical Societyand the Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (of which he was one of thefounders), and of many others.Archaeology and Egyptology also claimed placein his multitudinous interests, and it may truly be said that in whatever branchof science he worked he became an acknowledged authority. Honours of allkinds were showered upon him. In 1874 he became a member of the RoyalAcademy of Science in Berlin. On the occasion of the centenary of the Institutde France Virchow was made a Commander of the Legion of Honour and in thefollowing year he became a Foreign Associate of the French Academy ofSciences. In 1893 Virchow visited England and delivered the Croonian Lectureof the Royal Society, a full report of which will be found in The Lancet of March18th, 1893, p. 571; it was delivered in English, the subject being, “The Positionof Pathology among the Biological Sciences.” The discourse, which shortlyshowed the steps by which Virchow had felt himself able to give utterance tohis famous dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula, was a masterly exposition of the

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progress of pathology from the time of Harvey. Some six months previously theRoyal Society had honoured both itself and Virchow by awarding him theCopley medal, a distinction of which he himself said, “Its significance far ex-ceeds the distinctions which the changing favour of political powers is accus-tomed to bestow.” It was awarded for his investigations in Pathology, Path-ological Anatomy, and Prehistoric Archaeology.

He visited London again in 1898 and gave the Huxley Lecture at the CharingCross Medical School on the “Recent Advances in Science and their bearing onMedicine and Surgery,” a lecture that impressed his hearers with the fact thatadvancing years had not blunted either his keen enthusiasm or his comprehen-sive grasp of detail.The lecture was delivered on Oct. 3rd and on the 5th Virchowwas entertained at dinner at the Hôtel Métropole by the members of the medicalprofession of Great Britain and Ireland. Lord Lister presided, but Sir John Simon,Sir James Paget, and Sir Thomas Grainger Stewart were unavoidably absent. Ofthese three Sir John Simon alone remains to us, the other two having passedaway. It was upon this occasion that Sir Samuel Wilks, the President of the RoyalCollege of Physicians of London, said that he remembered the time somewhereabout 40 years before when he was beginning to study the subjects which Pro-fessor Virchow had so advantageously taken up. He and his contemporaries weregroping their way in the dark when a light came upon them suddenly from afar –a light which illuminated everything and penetrated into the interior and gavethem a new insight into physiology and pathology. Virchow came to generaliselike another Newton and gave them the Principia of medical science.

With advancing years every occasion was taken of expressing to the Alt-meister the affection and appreciation of contemporaries and pupils alike. Thusin 1891 his seventieth birthday was celebrated and a gold medal was presentedto him by his Emperor in recognition of the immense services which he had ren-dered to science; in 1893, the fiftieth anniversary of his doctorate, and again in1897, the jubilees of his first teaching appointment and of the foundation of theArchiv were made the subjects of sincere and hearty rejoicings; whilst on theoccasion of his eightieth birthday – only last year – delegates from practicallyall the civilised countries of the world assembled in Berlin to do him honour.

In the space at our disposal it is utterly impossible to attempt anything like alist of Virchow’s contributions to scientific literature or of the various honoursof which he was the recipient. Suffice it to say that his active work ceased only withhis death – the world’s appreciation of his worth remains.

We hope next week to refer to the influence of Virchow as a pathologist uponthat science which he has made his own, but we may say here that by his re-searches into the nature and causes of death he has let into the secret chambersof life a certain amount of light. It is to the patient work of men like Virchow andPasteur among the dead, and of Lister, Ehrlich, and Van t’Hof among the living,that we may apply the words of Crookes: “In old Egyptian days a well-knowninscription was carved over the portal of the temple of Isis: ‘I am whatever hath

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been, is, or ever will be; and my veil no man hath yet lifted’. Not thus do modernseekers after truth confront nature – the word that stands for the baffling mys-teries of the universe. Steadily, unflinchingly, we strive to pierce the inmost heartof nature, from what she is to reconstruct what she has been and to prophesywhat she yet shall be. Veil after veil we have, lifted and her face grows morebeautiful, august, and wonderful with every barrier that is withdrawn.”

On Tuesday, Sept. 9th, the body of Virchow was laid to rest in the cemeteryof St. Matthew. The first portion of the burial service was said in the Rathhauswhere the remains had lain overnight.The hall was draped in mourning and overthe platform for the speakers hung a crucifix.The Prussian Ministers of Educationand of Finance were present, together with Professor Mommsen, Professor Har-nack, and Professor von Bergmann. Professor Waldeyer and others deliveredorations and the procession, which was over a mile long, then started on itsjourney to the cemetery.

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Appendix 1e

Obituary

Rudolf Virchow

The British Medical Journal, ii, September 13th: 803 (1902)

RUDOLF VIRCHOW is dead.The hero who for the past twenty years has heldundisputed pre-eminence in the realm of science is now translated to the Valhallaof his peers. His was the last great figure remaining to us of those who carried thetorch of honest inquiry into the dark places of traditional dogma and mediaevalsuperstition.The universal reverence of mankind was his reward.This universal-ity of recognition is the highest of all testimonies to the greatness of the man, forthe ordinary layman is ignorant of the very meaning of the word pathology, oneof the few branches of science which has not been made accessible to him by thefacile effusions, so beloved in England, of the untrained amateur. It is hard indeedfor a medical man, or even an expert pathologist of today, to realize to the fullVirchow’s services to pathology.We owe to him not alone the direction which hisstudy has taken during the last half century, but the very symbols in which itslanguage is written.The first names which the student of the science of medicinehas to learn were coined by Virchow to designate appearances which he eitherdiscovered or was the first to appreciate correctly. But this was only a small partof his work. He it was who recognized that the great laws of biology apply indisease as well as in health. Science is the knowledge of or the attempt to knowthe causes of things; it was Rudolf Virchow’s life-work to show that the causes ofdisease are, equally with the functions of the normal animal, accessible to rigidinquiry.

What qualifications did this great man bring to his work? What qualities en-abled him, alone and unaided, save by the pupils whom he had trained to carrythe banner of pathology from the slough of academical speculation, of “free-cellformation” and the study of “humours” to the firm ground of Science and thebase of the mountain of Truth? First of all absolute honesty. The very truth wasthe primary and the ultimate object of his search. Unprejudiced by the authorityof his predecessors or the doubts of his contemporaries, free in himself from allcramping preconceptions, he set out resolutely to observe and frankly to recordthe biological phenomena of disease.The industry and singlemindedness by whichhe obtained his results was crowned by the definiteness, even the audacity, withwhich he announced them. Virchow was, like so many of the truly great, a sim-ple-minded man, and the unadorned clearness of his literary style reflects his

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character.Add to all these endowments a mind which was to the highest degreeboth capacious and flexible, and a truly indomitable will, and the sources of hisadmitted supremacy will be evident.

The appearance in 1847 of the first number of Virchow’s Archiv marked a newera in pathology, and for fifty-five years their editor and inspiring power “keptthe crown of the causeway” in this branch of science.As he grew older he natur-ally became rather more cautious in the acceptance of new theories, but on thewhole his brain continued to be marvellously elastic, and never led him into anyof those lamentable displays of prejudice which are unfortunately only too fami-liar. The freshness of his Huxley lecture three years ago was not the least of itsstriking qualities.

But it would ill beseem us to devote even this brief appreciation solely to hisachievements in pure science. Virchow was above all one who loved his fellow-men. His political views, which, as is well known, were ardently democratic, donot concern us except that we are bound to record that they were the directoutcome of his experience among the famine and disease-stricken weavers ofSilesia. But it is not too much to say that modern Berlin is a splendid monumentof his zeal in the service of humanity. For three-and-forty years he was the con-sistent advocate of sanitary reform in that city, of the Municipal Council of whichhe was by far the most conspicuous figure. Water supply, disposal of sewage,hospitals and asylums, all were remodelled at his instigation and under this watch-ful eye, and an unhealthy metropolis standing upon an open sewer has, thanksto his consistent energy, become one of the most salubrious among the greatcities of the world. In 1892 Virchow’s Berlin was able calmly and proudly to defythe challenge of cholera knocking at her very gates.

These were his greatest works; but had he not undertaken any of them he hadleft behind him sufficient contributions to anthropology, to natural history, andto a score of other branches of knowledge to ensure an imperishable renown.Wein England will ever remember with gratitude his affection for our island, his ad-miration for many of our institutions, and his generous recognition of our scien-tific workers. As the countrymen of Harvey, of Darwin, and of Francis Balfour,we are proud to share in the universal mourning, and to lay a wreath upon thebier of our departed master.

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Appendix 1f

Virchow as Pathologist

The Lancet, ii, September 20th: 819–20 (1902)

In estimating the influence of VIRCHOW’S work on the evolution of contemporarypathology and in appraising the practical value of his labours in the interpretationof disease it would be unjust to his genius to enumerate merely the roll of hispositive achievements. His victories lay rather in his fearless exposure of themany false premises and conceptions which obscured and paralysed the progressof medical knowledge, in redeeming from all suggestion of mysticism our under-standing of the essential processes of disease, and in establishing for all time onthe firm basis of truth the principles which should guide us in every biologicalinquiry. In organic evolution it is ever interesting to hazard a speculation as towhat might have been the ultimate term of any particular series had any one ofthe factors in the chain of events which produced such a series been differentin kind or in degree.What, for instance, would have eventuated in the evolutionof the animal series had there been no glacial period? Or what would have beenthe ultimate effect on the development of man had some great upheaval of naturedestroyed our first vertebrate ancestor without giving him an opportunity ofstamping his individuality upon succeeding generations? And in like mannerthe speculation is not without interest to consider what would have been thetrend of evolution in pathology had not VIRCHOW arisen with almost superhumanomniscience to knit together the tangled threads of divergent opinion into ahomogeneous fabric of rational medicine? Would progress have advanced alongthe discordant lines of humoral pathology? Would the embittered strife of oppos-ing schools still sap the energy of giants and direct the stream of genius intoprofitless and barren channels? Should we still be seeking for the essence of dis-ease in the Archaeus of PARACELSUS? And would the grosser problems of patho-logy still remain unsolved, tarrying for the unfolding of the secrets of life? However,without indulging further in vain speculations as to the possible fate of present-day pathology had not the genius of VIRCHOW indicated the path which leads tothe haven of truth, we will proceed at once to a consideration of the positive resultsof his investigations and arguments and of his influence in the determination ofthe universal theory of disease which today is accepted in every quarter of thecivilised world.

Concisely stated, this theory is that all disease presupposes life and that lifeis the property of the cell.The activities of the cell are the expression of this life,and they are evoked by stimuli of various kinds which reach the cell from with-out. The activities of cells individually or collectively are called physiological or

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normal as long as the general equilibrium of the organism is not disturbed.They become pathological when they overstep this limit. The conception of theidentity in kind of these two vital processes – physiology and pathology – weowe largely to VIRCHOW. His discovery that all animal tissues which gave phys-iological or pathological evidences of life were composed of individual cellswhich responded to stimulation made it possible to apply this universal law ofdisease to every organ or structure in the body. He proved with the inadequatemeans at his disposal that bones and cartilage and connective tissue wereanatomically constructed on the same cellular plan which applied in the case ofmuscles or secretory glands. He further showed that under the influence ofappropriate stimuli each individual cell was capable of dividing and becomingtwo, and thus he not only explained growth, regeneration of tissue, and tumourformation, but, to use his own words, he was in a position to give utterance tothe dictum, Omnis cellula e cellulâ, and to close the great gap which HARVEY’SOvistic theory had left in the history of animal organisation. The far-reachingapplications of this great truth were probably hardly realised by VIRCHOW atthe time when he formulated his immortal aphorism, and it is possibly nohyperbole of speech to say that even today its significance to a considerablenumber of minds is little more than a denial of the possibility of spontaneousgeneration. The conception of disease as a process and not as an entity isfounded on a recognition of the law that cells respond to stimuli by the mani-festation and transformation of energy, and there is no branch of medicine orpathology which has not been profoundly affected by the application of thisgeneral principle. We can recognise in the protean symptoms of syphilis theconsequences of cell excitation due to the circulation of some intangible poisonwhich we cannot isolate and which we have never seen, but which by the par-ticular application of VIRCHOW’S teaching we know must exist. We can recog-nise in tuberculosis the effects of constitutional poisoning and the formation ofgranulations and cells of distinct morphological structure due to the presenceof living and organised stimuli which indirectly he has enabled us to isolate,recognise, and define. The insistence on the part of VIRCHOW that specific stim-uli produced specific results, that the characters of the pathological lesions aredependent on the specificity of the stimuli – that is to say, on the qualitativerather than on the quantitative properties of the irritant – brought him intodirect antagonism with HUEPPE and his school and exposed him to the satiricaleloquence of that philosopher and bacteriologist. The study of the life-historyof bacteria as occasional causative agents in the production of disease is acomparatively new, albeit a highly fruitful, line of research which in the light ofVIRCHOW’S cellular pathology has been opened up and placed upon a rationalbasis. It is perhaps not too much to say that the development of our knowledgewith regard to immunity to the formation of toxins and antitoxins is foundedon principles which have been directly evolved from the fundamental concep-tion that the cells in the animal body react mechanically and chemically to for-

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Appendix 1f

eign stimuli. On no other physiological basis could their significance be intelli-gible or the part which they play in the determination of disease be logicallyexplained.

In 1858, when VIRCHOW published his “Cellular Pathology,” the work, forwhich his memory will be for ever immortal, was in a sense complete, and it isa curious coincidence that another work, which won its author everlasting fameand was also in itself almost a complete system of biology – namely, DARWIN’S“Origin of Species” – was likewise published about the same time. VIRCHOW,like DARWIN, sprang into fame with startling suddenness; both of them com-menced their illustrious careers by propounding a unitary theory of life whichrevolutionised their respective departments of biology, and both of them spentthe rest of their lives in substantiating details which, though of individual valueand interest, were almost entirely of secondary and subsidiary importance incomparison to the limitless possibilities of the great arguments which were out-lined and unfolded in these monumental volumes. The record of VIRCHOW’Spublished writings has probably never been equalled by any other scientificinvestigator. The mere titles of his contributions to pathology, quite apart fromother subjects, fill more than 20 pages of SCHWALBE’S closely written bibliogra-phy, a volume which was published to commemorate the veteran pathologist’seightieth birthday and which was a complete record of all his published works.Among the more important results of these prolific labours must be includedhis early investigations into the conditions of vascular inflammation and therefutation of the then accepted theory of phlebitis, while our knowledge ofembolism owes its origin and a large measure of its further development to hishistological and experimental researches. In this connexion it is interesting tonote that PAGET, to whom VIRCHOW undoubtedly owed certain inspirations forhis “Cellular Pathology,” should have noticed the same morbid changes in var-ious forms of embolism which VIRCHOW subsequently described and to whichhe attached a true pathological significance. He further indicated the differencebetween leukaemia and pyaemia and paved the way for the brilliant resultswhich have more recently been achieved in the differential diagnosis of kindredconditions by the finer methods of haematology. We further enjoy the fruits ofhis labours in a better understanding of the puerperal condition, of animal pig-ments, of lardaceous disease, of trichiniasis, of syphilis, of leprosy, of cholera, ofdiphtheria, and of tuberculosis; in fact, there is no branch of pathology whichhas not benefited by his labours and by his research, and for the most part thatfavour series of volumes, VIRCHOW’S “Archive,” keeps the record. Like othergreat men, VIRCHOW made his mistakes, but as often as not it was his own handthat led to his own undoing. His view that the cells of connective tissue wereable to take part in the pathological new growth of epithelial cells was based onerroneous observations and his explanation of the deformities and symptomsin cases of cretinism is founded on a pathology which is peculiarly narrow, whilehis opinion that the pathology of chlorosis could be explained on anatomical

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defects in the circulatory system and blood-forming organs is clearly at vari-ance with ascertained facts.

RUDOLF VIRCHOW is destined for ever to be remembered as the father ofrational pathology and the first initiator of a philosophic system of medicine.Although his conception of disease has in no way elucidated the secrets of life orof protoplastic activities it has nailed the interpretation of the grosser phenomenaof disease to the mast of cellular physiology.

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Appendix 2a

Bibliographies of Virchow’s writings

Andree C. (ed.) (1991) On Greece and Troy, Old and Young Scholars, Wives and Children. Lettersof Rudolf Virchow and Heinrich Schliemann 1877–1885 / Über Griechenland und Troja, alte undjunge Gelehrte, Ehefrauen und Kinder: Briefe von Rudolf Virchow und Heinrich Schliemann ausden Jahren 1877–1885 / With an Introduction by the editor. / herausgegeben und eingeleitet vonChristian Andree. Böhlau, Cologne. (In German).

Andree C. (ed.) (1992) Virchow R. Complete Works / Virchow R. Sämtliche Werke.: Peter Lang.4. Abteilung I. Medizin. – Bern. (In German).

Groeben C. and Wenig K. (eds) (1992) Anton Dohrn and Rudolf Virchow, Correspondence1864–1902 / Anton Dohrn und Rudolf Virchow: Briefwechsel: 1864–1902. With a historical-scien-tific Introduction by the editors / mit einer wissenschaftshistorischen Einleitung von ChristianeGroeben und Klaus Wenig. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. (In German).

Hermann J. and Maass E. (1990) (eds), in collaboration with Andree C. and Hallof L. (1990)Correspondence between Heinrich Schliemann and Rudolf Virchow 1876–1890 / Korrespondenzzwischen Heinrich Schliemann und Rudolf Virchow: 1876–1890 / bearbeitet und herausgegebenvon Joachim Herrmann und Evelin Maass; in Zusammenarbeit mit Christian Andree und LuiseHallof. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin. (In German).

Jahns, C-M. (ed.) (1983). Rudolf Virchow, 1821–1902: Select Bibiography / Auswahlbibliographie.Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin. (In German).

Morton L.T. (1993) Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (1821–1902): Bibliography. J Med Biogr. 1: 46–7.Rabl M. (ed.) (1907) Virchow’s Letters to his Parents 1839–1864 / Rudolf Virchow Briefe an Seine

Eltern, 1839 bis 1864. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. Translated by L.J. Rather and published in1990; Science History Publications, Canton, MA.

Rather L.J. (1990) A Commentary on the Medical Writings of Rudolph Virchow. Norman Publish-ing, San Francisco.

Schwalbe J. (ed.) (1901) Virchow Bibliography / Virchow Bibliographie 1843–1901. Reimer, Berlin.(In German).

Wenig K. (ed.) (1995) Rudolf Virchow and Emil du Bois-Reymond: Letters 1864–1894 / RudolfVirchow und Emil du Bois-Reymond: Briefe, 1864–1894. Basilisken-Presse, Marburg/Lahn. (InGerman).

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Appendix 2b

A bibliography of writings about Virchow

This list includes items listed on the website of the Institute for Medical History,University of Würzburg, with additions, especially of English-language material,from various other sources. It also includes works which, although not primarilyabout Virchow, contain significant material referring to him. Translations of allnon-English titles are supplied. A brief English language bibliography is to befound at the website “whonamedit.com”.

The reference lists in Schipperges (1983),Andree (2002) and Goschler (2002),and the websiteorganised by Axel W. Bauer “http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/insti-tute/fak5/igm/g47/bauerpa2.htm” provide additional bibliographies of writingsabout Virchow. However, no English translations of the German language titlesare provided in any of these sources.

In the following list, all items with a non-English title printed immediately afterthe English version of that title are written in that non-English language.

Ackerknecht E.H. (1953) Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Politician. Published in German byEnke, Stuttgart; in English by the University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI.

Ackerknecht E.H. (1956/57) Virchow in Würzburg. Reports of the Physical-Medical Society ofWürzburg / Virchow in Würzburg. Berichte der Physikalisch-Medizinischen Gesellschaft zu Würz-burg. Neue Folge 68: 163–165.

Altmann H.W. (1992) Virchow in Würzburg / Virchow in Würzburg. Verhandlungen der DeutschenGesellschaft für Pathologie 76: XLV–LXVI.

Andree C. (1988) Virchow and the Trias / Virchow und die Trias. Symposium Nürnberg. pp 10–11.Andree C. (2004) Rokitansky and Virchow: the giants of pathology in disputation. Wien med. Wo-

chenschr. 154: 458–66.Anon. (1888) Otto von Bismarck and Rudolf Virchow / Otto von Bismarck und Rudolf Virchow. In:

Kohut, Adolph: The book of famous duels / Das Buch berühmter Duelle. Repr. D. Originalausg.Berlin, 1888. pp. 127–134.

Anon. (1891) Collected essays to mark Virchow’s 70th birthday were published in the JohnsHopkins University Circular No xi. Authors included Welch, Chew and Osler. Some essays wererepublished in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal in the same year.

Anon. (1893) Rudolf Virchow: impact on general pathology and pathological anatomy on the occa-sion of the 50th jubilee of his doctorate 1893. Rudolf Virchow: sein Wirken für allgemeinePathologie und pathologische Anatomie; zu seinem 50 jährigen Doctorjubläum am 21. Oct. 1893Enth.: Rindfleisch, E. von: Allgemeine Pathologie und pathologische Anatomie.

Anon. (1901) Report on the celebration of Rudolf Virchow’s birthday on the 13th October 1901 /Bericht über die Feier von Rudolf Virchows 80. Geburtstag: am 13. Okt. 1901. Schumacher,Berlin.

Anon. (1901) Honouring Rudolf Virchow on his 80th birthday / Ehrung Rudolf Virchows zu seinem80. Geburtstage: am 13. Okt. 1901. Berlin.

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Anon. (1902) Obituary: Rudolf Virchow, M.D. British Medical Journal 13. Sept. ii: 795–802. seeAppendix 1e.

Anon. (1902) “Ceremony in Memory of Rudolf Virchow / Gedächtniss-Feier f. Rudolf Virchow.Extraordinary sitting on the 13th October 1902. Verhandl. d. Berliner Ges. f. Anthropologie,Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Verl. A. Asher, Berlin.

Anon. (1903) Committee for the erection of a memorial for Rudolf Virchow: an invitation /Komitee zur Errichtung eines Denkmals für Rudolf Virchow: Aufruf. Berlin.

Anon. (1921) Virchow for his 100th birthday: memorial supplement of the Vossichen Zeitung /Virchow zum 100. Geburtstag : Erinnerungsblatt der Vossischen Zeitung. Vossische Zeitung 482: 1.

Anon. (1922) Virchow Rudolf: Professor of pathological anatomy. / Virchow Rudolf: Professor derpathologischen Anatomie 1821–1902. In “Biographies of Franconia” /. In: Lebensläufe aus Fran-ken; 2. Kabitzsch und Mönnich, Würzburg.

Anon. (1921) Berlin Medical Society, session on 26th October 1921, on the occasion of RudolfVirchow’s Centenary / Berliner Medizinische Gesellschaft: Sitzung vom 26. Okt. 1921: z. 100.Geburtstag von Rudolf Virchow. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 58: 1364–1365.

Anon. (1936) Rudolf Virchow. In: Pommeranian biographies / Rudolf Virchow. In: PommerscheLebensbilder. Hrsg. von der Landesgeschichtlichen Forschungsstelle für Pommern. 2. Bd. Stettin,pp 198–236.

Anon. (1956) 50 years:The Rudolf Virchow Hospital / 50 Jahre Rudolf-Vichow-Krankenhaus. Berlin.Anon. (1974) Virchow’s Egyptian journey 1888. Letters to his wife / Virchow R.Aegyptenreise 1888.

Rudolf Virchows Briefe an seine Frau. Die Waage 13: 1–20.Anon. (1962) Troublesome doctor and politician. Rudolf Virchow, the great pathologist and hygien-

ist died 60 years ago. Without source / Unbequemer Arzt und Politiker. Rudolf Virchow, der großePathologe und Hygieniker, starb vor 60 Jahren. Ohne Quelle. (held by the Institute for MedicalHistory, University of Würzburg).

Anon. (1966) Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (1821–1902) Omnis cellula e cellula. Minn. Med. 49:359–60 contd.

Anon. (2003) Billroth T. Pathology and therapeutics, in fifty lectures. 1871. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res.408: 4–11.

Anon. (1986) Rudolf Virchow: precept and initiator for the DMW / Rudolf Virchow: Vorbild undAnreger für die DMW. In: Staehr, Christian, u.a.: “Looking for Traces” / Spurensuche. Thieme,Stuttgart pp 7–8.

Anon. (1986) Sensitivity to Irritation (Rudolf Virchow and the paradigm shift) / Gereizte Empfind-lichkeit (Rudolf Virchow und der Paradigmenwandel) in: Staehr, Christian: “Looking for Traces”/ Spurensuche. Thieme, Stuttgart u.a. pp 30–33.

Anon. (1986) DMW: For and against Virchow / DMW: Pro und contra Virchow. In: Staehr, Christianu.a. “Looking for Traces” / Spurensuche. Thieme, Stuttgart. pp. 13–15.

Anon. (2002) Death day: medical man and politician in one person / Todestag: Mediziner undPolitiker in einer Person. Ostpreußenblatt 7. Sept.

Anon. (undated) Press reports on the death of Rudolf Virchow / Presseberichte zum Tode RudolfVirchows. (Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg).

Anon. (undated) From the history of the Institute for pathology at the Charité and the history ofthe pathological museum, with pictorial material, e.g. cigar advertisement with Virchow’s picture /Aus der Geschichte des Instituts für Pathologie der Charité und des Pathologischen Museums. Incl.Bildmaterial, z.B. Zigarrenwerbung mit Konterfei Virchows. (Held by the Institute for MedicalHistory, University of Würzburg).

Anon. (undated) German Pathological Society on 13th October 1901; congratulations on his 80th

birthday / Deutsche Pathologische Gesellschaft: Rudolf Virchow zum 13. Oktober 1901: Glück-wunsch zum 80. Geburtstag. (Held by the Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg).

Aschoff L. (1921) Rudolf Virchow: a retrospect / Rudolf Virchow: ein Rückblick. Deut. Medizin.Wochensch. 47: 1185–1188.

Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

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Aschoff L. (1921) Virchow’s teaching of the degenerations (passive processes) and their furtherdevelopment / Virchows Lehre von den Degenerationen (passiven Vorgängen) und ihre Weiter-entwicklung. Virchow’s Archiv 235: 152–185.

Aschoff L. (1940) Rudolf Virchow. Science and Reputation throughout the World. Rudolf Virchow.Wissenschaft und Weltgeltung. Hoffmann und Campe Verl., Hamburg.

Azar H.A. (1997) Rudolph Virchow: not just a pathologist. A re-examination of the report on thehunger-typhus in Upper Silesia. Ann. Diag. Pathol. 1: 65–71.

Baccelli G. (1921) Rudolf Virchow, eighty years, anatomical principles celebrated throughout theworld / Rudolpho Virchowio, octuagesimo anno nato, Anatomes Principi per Orbem celebratis-simo. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1033–1034. In Italian.

Bankl H. (2002) Revolution in the professorial chair / Revolutionär auf dem Lehrstuhl. Mainpost31. 8.

Bauer A. (1982) Virchow in Würzburg / Virchow in Würzburg. In: Bauer, Arnold: Rudolf Virchow.Stapp, Berlin, pp 41–51.

Bauer A. (2000) “Politics are nothing more than medicine on a large scale”: Rudolf Virchow aspathologist, reformer and visionary / „Die Politik ist weiter nichts als Medicin im Grossen“: RudolfVirchow als Pathologe, Reformer und Visionär. Immunologie Aktuell 1: 40–48.

Becher W. (1891) “Rudolf Virchow: a biographical study” / Rudolf Virchow: eine biographischeStudie. Karger, Berlin.

Behr H. (1989) Then the fleas jumped at the Professor’s face / Da sprangen dem Professor die Flöheins Gesicht. Mainpost 2/3: 9.

Beneke R. (1903) Rudolf Virchow: Memorial address / Rudolf Virchow: Gedächtnisrede. Natur-wissenschaftliche Rundschau 18: 25–27; 35–39; 49–50.

Beneke R. (1921) On Virchow’s importance for public health care and welfare / Von VirchowsBedeutung für die öffentliche Gesundheitspflege und Wohlfahrt. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 47:1192–1195.

Beneke R. (1940) Rudolf Virchow in the Robert Koch film / Rudolf Virchow im Robert-Koch-Film.Die Medizinische Welt 14: 584 ff.

Beneke R. (1942) On ‘saving the honour’ of Rudolf Virchow and the German cell researchers: anotice about the work of Paul Diepgens and Erwin Rosner in Virchow’s Arch 307, 1941 / Zur„Ehrenrettung“ Rudolf Virchows und der deutschen Zellforscher: Anzeige der Arbeit PaulDiepgens u. Erwin Rosners in Virchows Archiv 307. 1941. Die medizin. Welt 16: 779 ff.

Bignold, L.P., Coghlan B.L.D. and Jersmann H.P.A. (2007) David Paul Hansemann, Contributionsto Oncology. Birkhäuser, Basel.

Billroth T. (1924) Medical Sciences in the German Universities. (Translator not stated). Macmillan,New York.

Boenheim F. (1957) Virchow: works and impact / Werk und Wirkung. Rütten & Loenig, Berlin.Braun G. (1926) Rudolf Virchow and the chair of pathological anatomy at the University of Zurich /

Rudolf Virchow und der Lehrstuhl für pathologische Anatomie an der Universität Zürich. – 68 S.Züricher Medizingeschichtliche Abhandlungen 8.

Breathnach C.S. (2002) Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) and Die Cellularpathologie (1858). J. Ir. Coll.Physicians Surg. 31: 43–6.

Brinkhous K.M. et al. (1968) Why Virchow became a physician. Arch. Pathol. 85: 331–334.Chiari H. (1902) Memorial address for Rudolf Virchow: Gedenkrede auf Rudolf Virchow. Prager

medizin. Wochenschr. Jg. 27, Nr. 43.Cornil-Paris V. (1901) Memoirs of former times / Souvenirs d’autrefois. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38:

1036.David, Heinz (1931) Rudolf Virchow and the Medicine of the Twentieth Century / Rudolf Virchow

und die Medizin des 20. Jahrhunderts. Eds H. David, W. Selberg und H. Hamm, München:Quintessenz, 1993.

Dettelbacher W. (1999) Transition from the barricades to the Professorial Chair / Von der Barrikadeauf den Lehrstuhl gewechselt. Volksblatt 13. Jan.

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Dhom G. (2001) “History of Histopathology” / Geschichte der Histopathologie. Chapters 7 and 8.Springer, Berlin.

Dhom G. (2003) Traces of Rudolf Virchow’s contribution to medicine one hundred years on. RudolfVirchows Spuren in der Medizin nach 100 Jahren. Pathologe 24: 1–8.

Diepgen P. (1932) Virchow and Romanticism / Virchow und die Romantik. Deut. medizin. Wochen-schr. 58: 1256–1258.

Diepgen P. (1952) The Universality of Rudolf Virchow’s life work / Die Universalität von RudolfVirchows Lebenswerk. Virchows Archiv 322: 221–232.

Diepgen P. and Rosner E. (1941) On saving the honour of Rudolf Virchow and of the German cellresearchers / Zur Ehrenrettung Rudolf Virchows und der deutschen Zellforscher. Virchows Archiv307: 458–489.

Dietrich A. (1921) The development of the theory of thrombosis and embolism since Virchow / DieEntwicklung der Lehre von der Thrombose und Embolie seit Virchow. Virchows Archiv 235: 212–224.

Doerr W. (1978) Jean Cruveilhier, Carl v. Rokitansky, Rudolf Virchow.Virchows Archiv A 378: 1–16.Doerr W. (1958) Rudolf Virchow’s pathology and medicine of our time / Die Pathologie Rudolf

Virchows und die Medizin unserer Zeit. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 83: 370–377.Doerr W., Altmann H.-W. and Götze H. (1971) On Rudolf Virchow’s 150th birthday / Zum 150.

Geburtstag von Rudolf Virchow. Virchows Archiv Abt. B: Zellpathologie 8: I–VIII.Eckart W.U. (2002) I am limping badly and my courage has gone / Es hinkt sich schlecht und mein

Mut ist klein geworden. Süddeutsche Zeitung Nr. 240. 17. October.Eppinger H. (1902) In memory of Rudolf Virchow: speech given at the session of the Styrian

Doctors Society of 17th October 1902 / Erinnerung an Rudolf Virchow: Rede gehalten in der Sit-zung des Vereins der Ärzte der Steiermark am 27. Oct. 1902. Mittheilungen des Vereins der Ärzteder Steiermark, Nr. 11.

Ernst P. (1921) Virchow’s cellular pathology, in the past and in the present / Virchows Cellular-pathologie einst und jetzt. Virchows Archiv 235: 52–151.

Ewing J. (1921) Virchow’s influence on medical science in America / Der Einfluß Virchows auf diemedizinische Wissenschaft in Amerika. Virchows Archiv 235: 444–452.

Falk G. (1921) On the planned summons of Virchow to Giessen, 1849 / Über Virchows geplanteBerufung nach Gießen 1849. Virchows Archiv 235: 31–44.

Fischer B. (1922) What remains in Rudolf Virchow’s life work: on the hundredth anniversary of hisbirthday on the 13th October 1921 / Das Bleibende in Rudolf Virchows Lebenswerk: z. Jahrhun-dertfeier s. Geburtstages am 13. Okt. 1921. Frankfurter Zeitschrift für Pathologie 27: 1–20.

Foa P. (1921) Virchow in Italy / Virchow in Italien. Virchows Archiv 235: 379–384.Froboese K. (1953) Rudolf Virchow, d. 5 9. 1902, a memorial and a word of warning to the present

generation of doctors 50 years after his death / Rudolf Virchow d. 5. 9. 1902: e. Gedenk-und Mahn-wort an die heutige Ärztegeneration 50 Jahre nach seinem Tod. Fischer, Stuttgart.

Gortvay G. and Zoltan I. (1968) Semmelweiss, His Life and Work (chapter 6). Translated by ÉvaRóna, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest.

Gruber G.B. (1939) Robert Koch and Rudolf Virchow / Robert Koch und Rudolf Virchow. Mittei-lungen des Universitätsbundes Göttingen, vol. 20, Heft 1.

Hauptmann S. and Schnalke, T. (2001) Rudolf Virchow’s view of malignant tumours / Rudolf Vir-chows Sicht der malignen Geschwülste. Pathologe 22: 291–295.

Heidland A., Klassen, A., Rutkowski P. and Bahner U. (2006) The contribution of Rudolf Virchowto the concept of inflammation. J. Nephrol. 19 (Suppl 10): 102–109.

Heim W. (1956) In the spirit of Virchow / Im Geiste Virchows. In: 50 Jahre Rudolf-Virchow-Kran-kenhaus 1906–1956. Berlin. pp 24–28.

Heischkel E. (1947) Rudolf Virchow as publicist / Rudolf Virchow als Publizist. Medizinische Rund-schau 1: 230–233.

Hesse E. (1921) Rudolf Virchow and the public health / Rudolf Virchow und die öffentliche Gesund-heitspflege. Virchows Archiv 325: 399–417.

Hiltner G. (1970) Rudolf Virchow / Rudolf Virchow. Freies Geistesleben Verlag, Stuttgart.

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Israel O. (1901) On Rudolf Virchow’s 80th birthday / Zu Rudolf Virchows 80. Geburtstage. ÄrztlicheMonatsschrift, Heft 10.

Israel O. (1903) Rudolf Virchow. Annual Rpt of the Smithsonian Institute for the Year 1902.Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.

Istel W. (2002) Revolutionary and ‘Medical Pope’: on the hundredth anniversary of his death / Re-volutionär und Medizinpapst: zum 100.Todestag von Rudolf Virchow. Gesundheit im Beruf 3: 22–24.

Ivanhoe F. (1970) Was Virchow right about Neandertal? Nature 227: 577–578.Jacob W. (1972) Rudolf Virchow’s contribution to a theory of medicine / Der Beitrag Rudolf Vir-

chows zu einer Theorie der Medizin. Berichte der Physikalisch-Medizinischen Gesellschaft zuWürzburg. Neue Folge 80: 137–142.

Jacob W. (1967) Virchow’s contribution to the “Handbook of Special Pathology and Therapy” /Virchows Beitrag zum Handbuch der speziellen Pathologie und Therapie. In: Jacob W. MedicalAnthropology in the Nineteenth Century / Medizinische Anthropologie im 19. Jahrhundert. Enke,Stuttgart. pp 107–142.

Jacoby A. (1901) Rudolf Virchow and American medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die amerikanischeMedizin. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1046–1047.

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Simon F. (1991) Rudolf Virchow as terminologist / Rudolf Virchow als Terminologe. Medizin-historisches Journal 26: 329–336.

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309

Academy of Art 229Academy of Sciences 20, 168Achorion Schönleinii 111achromatic lens 16Actinomyces 222Administration for the Poor 146Agassiz 29, 39Agricultural Institute 222albuminuria 188alchemy 163Alsace and Lorraine 13Altenstein 35, 120, 132Althoff 253Amphibiae 35amyloid 48, 189anatomicalism 158, 172Ancient Greek terminology 158Andral 16animal magnetism 29, 96, 163 animism 70Anthrax 223Anthropology 8Anwers 236aorta, ligation of 188Arabs 162Aranzi 168Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde 122Aristotle 19, 28, 31, 45, 49Arndt 26Arnim 149Asklepiads 161asthenie 70Aufsee Seminary 125Australian Doctors, collective address from

264Autenrieth 78, 101, 104, 105, 130autopsy 170Axolotl 211

Baccelli 252Bacon 28, 31Baelz 266Bamberg 67, 125, 133Bamberg coins 127Bamberg Library 69, 90, 100, 119, 128

Banks 30Bardeleben 227Barmen 202Bartels 113Basel 108Bassi 111Bauer 131Baum 145, 186Bay of Muggia 41Bayle 172Becker 212, 214Beckmann 1Beer 93Behr 81, 82, 109Bell 34Bellermann 138Berends 113, 140Berlin 257, 263Berlin City Council Vii, 8Berlin Entomological Museum 103Berlin Medical Society 225, 229, 257Berlin School 67Berlin Work House 244Bernstorff 140Bertele 71, 92, 94Berthold 198Bethesda Institution 194Beyme 26Bichat 16, 172Biermer 212biogenic law 19biological view 229Bischoff 27, 198Bishop Julius 72Bismarck Vii, 8, 267Bismarck’s anti-Catholic Policies 8blastema theory 40, 111blood 34, 105Blumenbach 29, 91bodies, disposal of 224Boerhaave 25, 28, 70, 168Bologna 263Bolongaro 108Bonet 170Bonn 30, 31

Index

Index

310

Boyen 26Brandis 27Brendel 81,109Brentano 92Bright’s disease 116, 181Broussais 16Brown 16, 28, 70, 102Brownian System 92Brownianism 70, 71, 91Brücke 179Brüggemann 150Bruno 31Bulls, Papal 121Burckhardt 189Burdach 98Burschenschaft 26, 80, 81, 109Busch 152, 199, 226Buschke-Lowenstein tumour 147

caesarean (section) 203calcific deposits 188Calker 27Canstatt’s Annual Reports Vii, 186, 239, 249Capuchin preachers 122carcinoma, verrucous 147cardiac hypertrophy 188Carlsbad Decrees 26Carlsschule 22caseation 222casket theft 208Caspar 281casts, urinary 188Catholic Church 10, 12, 13, 24, 106, 121, 164Catholic Hospital 115Catholic movement 215Catholic University in Louvain 217cattle plagues 223cauliflower growth 147, 154cell formation, hour-glass theory 218cells, free formation of 218cells, generatio aequivoca 218cell theory 1, 9, 17, 218“Cellular Pathology“ (1858) Vii, 1Celsus 161Charité Annals 181Charité Hospital Vii, 1, 9, 48, 73, 113, 147,

152, 181, 199, 209, 253, 256, 261, 281Charles of Anjou 169Chauliac 173chlorosis 290cholera 8, 118, 181, 182, 201, 290,

chondrin 35chorda dorsalis 38Christianity 121Cicero 161citizens Corps 52cleanliness 143Clemens 92Clement II 68coarseness 119Coblenz 22comparative anatomy 40“Comparative physiology of vision” 49comparative physiology 33Conference of Natural Scientists in Danzig

237Congress of Vienna 12connective tissue 219, 244Conradi 123, 124Constantinus Africanus 164constitution of 1850 8Cook, James 31Cornil 255cretinism 102, 290Croonian Lecture 275Cruveilhier 16crystallization 218, 235Cucumus 81Cullen, William 28, 91Cuvier 16, 22, 25, 35, 80cypress trees 196cytoblastema 218cytoblasts 218

D’Alton 29, 76D’Outrepont 76Däge 145Danzig 237Darwin 234, 290Darwinian Evolution 19de Gruyter 246De Sedibus et Causis Morborum 168, 170Delbrück 27Demme 102Descartes 28, 230Die Medicinischen Reformen 282Dieffenbach 84, 113, 132, 142, 147, 150, 281Diepenbrock 89digitalis 116diphtheria 290diphtheritic angina 204Doctor for the Debtor’s Prison 194

Index

311

Doctor for the Poor 149, 193dogmatics 121Döllinger 29, 74, 76, 87, 91, 95, 96, 109, 115Dömling 95Dorn 69Du Bois-Reymond 19, 179duel 8Dümmler 182Dupuytren 75, 172Dürkheim 260Dutrochet 16dyscrasia 166

Echinodermata 41Eckard 150Eckers 264Ehrenberg 39, 147Eisenmann 67, 68, 80, 81, 104, 105, 109, 239,

249Ekbert 90Elberfeld 202“electors” 10electrotherapy 234Elementa Medicinae 70elephantiasis 116Elizabeth Hospital 193Empress of Russia 114enchondroma 39England, Virchow friend of 275epidemics 237, 238epigenesis 14Ermann 140Escher 107Esenbeck 27, 45Etlinger 103, 104Eustachius 97, 167

Faber 127Fabricius 167facial expression 49Faust 49Favus 51Febronianism 12Felix 247Feuerbach 92Finkelmann 138Forlì 174Formey 145Forster 28, 31Fortschrittspartei 13fossil fishes 41

Fraenkel 254Franco-Prussian War 225, 245Frank 78, 79Frankfurt Parliament 53Franklin 28Franks 93Fredrick II 169French Academy of Sciences 283French Revolution 12, 16Frerichs 118Friedreich 1, 75, 190, 210Friedrich III 57Friedrich Wilhelm III 114, 132Friedrich Wilhelm IV 89, 114Friedrichshain 52Friedrichs-Wilhelm-Institut 1, 281Frommann 247Froriep 1, 40, 117, 281Fuchs 100, 103, 198furuncles 204

Galen 28, 161Galen’s infallibility 165galvanism 28Ganoidea 39Gedicke 145Gegenbaur 211Geheimer Sanitätsrath 149generational (alternating) change 41genitalia 35Gerhardt 185, 212, 252Gerlach 107, 223German Anthropological Society 264German clinic 77, 113German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) 26German Empire 11, 13German Geographical Society 283German Romantic Movement 10German Society for Natural Scientists and

Doctors 260German Society for Surgery 227, 249Germaniabund 81glands 35Glion 215Glisson 275Gluge 40Gmelin 116Goethe 14, 24, 26, 29, 32, 34, 45, 47, 84, 87, 97,

105, 134, 216Goethe’s father 42Goethe’s mother 90

Index

312

goitre 128Goldfuss 27, 198Göller 88, 99Goodsir 275Görres 23, 26, 86, 106, 121, 124,Görres Gymnasium 24Göschen 119Gotthard 69Göttingen Seven 106Graf 123Griesinger 57, 82, 83, 110Grohe 244Grossbendtner 103Grossi 109Gruby 16Guggenbühl 102Gurlt, Ernst Friedrich 249Güterbock 57, 85, 115Guyana 150Gymnasium of the Graues Kloster 138Gymnastic Association 194

Haeckel 1, 185haemato-pathology 167halitus 163Hall 34Haller 28, 35, 37, 234Hambach Festival 81“Handbook of Historical-Geographical

Medicine” 238“Handbook of Physiology” 37“Handbook of Special Pathology and Therapy”

214Hansemann 9Harless 27“Harmonie” 128Harnack 257, 285Hartnack 252Harvey 14, 167, 284Harvey’s ovistic theory 289Häser 103, 105Hasse 189, 190Hauser 92Health Office 223Hecker 52Heffner 108, 118, 124Hegel 10, 31Heidenhain 236“Heimia Society” 145, 195Hein 145, 182Heintz 117

Heller 98, 116Helmholtz 236hematoses 79Hemsbach 282Henle 39, 181Henry III 68Hensler 95Herborn 198Herczegy 119Herder 10Hernandez 127Hernbstädt 140Herwegh 84, 114Herz 118Hesselbach 98Heusinger 95Hewson 34Hippocrates 161, 162Hirschfeld 236His 264histological substitution 14historical method 116Historical-geographical pathology 240Hoffmann 70, 81, 96, 210Hohenlohe 108Holothuria 41, 42, 92, 234Holstein 53Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation 10Holy Roman Empire 169Homeopathic Society 101Hoppe-Seyler 8Horace 196Hormer 107Horn 140, 145Horsch 98Hospitale S. spiritus in Sassia 164hospitals of Moabit and Friedrichshain 283hospitals of the Middle Ages 164Hottinger 107Hueppe 289Hueter 226Hufeland 71, 91, 92, 94, 132, 140Humboldt 29, 32, 114, 235,Humer 88humor cardinalis 167humoral pathology 161humoral theory 14Hunter 73, 75Huschke 247Hüter 210Huxley 275

Index

313

Huxley Lecture 284Hygiene 238hypnotism 163

ichorös 196idea of the organism 98Ignorabimus 236Illaire 145imagination images 32, 48impetigines 111infusoria 147Innerlichkeit 10inoculation 223Institut de France 283“Introduction to Medical Chemistry” 245irritability 71Isis 27, 84Israel 255Istituto delle Scienze 168

Jäck 58, 101, 109, 111Jacobs 89, 99Jacoby 255Jäger 110Jahn 103, 195Jesuit Order 12, 80Jewish doctors 162Jolly 236Jordan 235Julius Hospital 72, 75, 80, 92, 131, 213,Jung 201Jüngken 199Junker Administration 12

Kant 10, 28, 69, 87, 90, 96Karamitzas 255Kastner 27Kauffmann 146Kempfer 267kidney fluids 188Kielmeyer 44, 80, 105Kieser 99Kiewisch 154Kilian 91Kirschner 256, 257Kiwisch 118Klotzsch 125Knape 140Koch 262Kölliker 186, 211Kollmann 264

Königsberg, Natural Scientists Conference 155Körte 253Köslin 268Kottmeier 189Krukenberg 77, 152, 179, 192Kühne 245Kultur 194Kulturkampf 8, 13

Lachmann 185, 190ladder of nature 19, 48Ladenberg’s Ministry 181Laennec 16, 70, 71, 75, 77, 172, 206Landtag (Prussian House of Assembly) 8, 12Langenbeck 198, 202, 226, 253Landshut 92Lassalle 208Latin clinic 85Latin 84Lauck 81Lebert 57, 82, 110Legallois 36Lehrs 58, 123, 124Leibnitz 28Leopold-Caroline Academy 97leprosy 290Lessing 10, 267leucin 118leukaemia 290Leutzinger 23Levret 142Leydig 186Lichtenstein 140Lichtenthaler 89Liebreich 258life force 15, 231, 234Lindner 112Link 140Linnaeus 94Linth 107Lister 227, 249, 252, 254, 258, 265, 275, 284Lister’s methods of antisepsis 225Lohndorf 95Louise Lateau 220Löwig 116Lücke 245Ludwig, Crown Prince 106Ludwig I of Bavaria 80Ludwig’s Order 112lunatic asylums of Dalldorf and Lichtenberg 283lung plague 222

Index

314

Maass 226Magendie 36, 208Magnus 104malaria 149Malpighi 35, 167Malpighian bodies 48Manual of Human Physiology 35Manual Workers’ Society 179, 269Marcus 69, 71, 81, 88, 91, 93, 99, 109, 130, 212,

247,Martins 144Marx 189, 198Mayer 26, 105, 132, 181, 185, 194, 198Meckel 14, 19, 29, 35, 39, 47, 73, 140, 169, 234medical fees 146Medical Reform 1, 261Medici 173Medieval “Restoration” 106Megner 130Melanömia 189Mendelssohn 208Mesmerism 73Mesopotamia 162“Metamorphosis of Plants” 97Meyer 57, 85, 253Meyerbeer 115microbiology 9microscopy 16Middeldorp 226Miescher 40Military Academy 39Millenariarism 12Mineralogical Museum 102Minister naturae 83, 194miracles 220Mohr 100, 118Möller 256Mommsen 285Mondino 166, 173Monte Cassino 164Montez 80morbus maculosus Werlhofii et peliosis 117Morgagni 17Morgagni, method of 170morphs 79Most 58Mühler 239Müller 1, 14, 49, 71, 83, 94, 114, 118, 130, 179,

208, 216, 217, 220, 234, 281Müller as no politician 43Müller, oracular manner 49

Müller School 37Müller, shipwreck 43Müllerian duct 19Müller-Strübing 150Munich Academy 98Musardines 111Museum of Applied Arts 267Myxinidae 38

Nabille 265Napoleon 12Nasse 26Natural Historical School 14, 77, 78, 82, 103,

110, 122Natural Historical Society 112natural philosophical school 31, 57, 73, 77, 97,

99, 234, 235Natural Scientists Conference at Königsberg 155Nematode parasites 42nephritis 188nerve 105Nesse 45neuroses 79Neuthor Tower 109Nöggerath 27, 198nosological systematist 110

Obermeyer 9, 261Obstetric Society 152, 154Oken 112Oken 14, 19, 26, 29, 84, 99omnis cellula e cellula 16, 218“On Imagination Images” 33“On the concordance of the theories of

Hippocrates and Brown” 106“On the Revolutionary Spirit in German

Universities” 106“ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” 19ontology 122Order of the Red Eagle 149Orelli 107, 112Ossan 140ossuary of Iphofen 102osteomalacia 203, 222

Pagenstecher 8, 189Paget 275, 290Pallas 30Pander 29, 76, 97Papal Bull of 1302 13Papal Bulls 121

Index

315

Papal Infallibility 13Paracelsus 28, 166, 288Paré 93Parisian School 16, 172Parliamentary Assembly in Frankfurt 200Passow 185Pathological Museum 282“Pathology and Therapy“ 104Patronus Germanorum 168Pätsch 150Paul Langerhans Jnr. 264Pauli 123Pentacrinites 41Pfeufer 75, 82, 98, 99, 100, 101, 118Phasmids 45phlebitis 290phlogiston doctrine 91physiology 32Pickel 94, 115pigs, consumption (TB) in 223Pindar 14, 19Pinel 58Plagiostomata 39plague 240plastic exudate 218plastic materials 219Plücker 198Pneumomycosis aspergillia 214Poland 12Polycystines 41Pomerania 263, 268Pope Innocent III 164Pope Pius IX 13Porrigo lupinosa 111Porrio fungus 111Posadawsky 256Posner 119, 250, 252, 256, 260Preformationism 14Priestleyish 74primum motum 74primum movens 74Prince of Prussia’s Palace 52Prince Wittgenstein 108Prochasca 96Prochaska 34psychology 33Ptolemies 165Purkinje 34, 39Purkinje’s discoveries 40pyaemia 290Pye-Smith 255, 275

Rapp 129Raptschewski 252Raspail 16, 17, 18Raumer 244Rauschenbusch 204Rauschenplatt 108“Reaction“ 107Recchus 127Red Republican 150reflex-actions 34Reichert 19Reichstag 210Reil 39, 78, 79, 91, 113Reimer, Siegfried 146, 152Reimer, Georg 193, 246Reimer Company 1Reinhard 105, 146, 153, 281relapsing (“recurrent”) fever 262Remak 57, 58, 85, 111, 116, 117,Remak, “Diagnostic and Pathogenetic Invest-

igations”, Berlin 1845 116renal cysts 187Retzius 51Reuss 90Revolution of 1848 Vii, 43Rhenish Yearbooks 200Ribcke 140, 142Richter 124rickets 249Riese 179Rindfleisch 102Ringseis “A System of Medicine” 120Ringseis 13, 57, 58, 80, 86, 92, 93, 95, 105, 109,

110, 118, 120, 121, 124,Ritter 29Rockwitz 146Rokitansky 99Röschlaub 69, 71, 72, 79, 92, 94, 106, 120Rosenberg, fortress 67Rosenthal 236Roser 110, 226Rothlauf 89Rothschild 108Rotteck 107Royal Academy of Science in Berlin 283Royal Society of London 258Royal Society of Medicine 265Rp. Spiritus Sancti q.s. detur 119Rudolph Virchow Foundation 266Rudolphi 27, 30, 34-36, 39, 48, 140, 141,Rudolphi senior 141

Index

316

Ruge 146, 152Rühle 207Rumph 88Rust 114, 140Rüttinger 112Ruysch 35

Salerno 164Salomonsen 255sanitary improvements 261, 262Sans Souci 132Sars 41Scarpa 96Schäfer 253Schaper 256Scharlau 58, 123, 124Schelling 15, 29, 71, 91, 92Schenck 102, 170Schenk 186Scherer 239Schervinsky 255Schiek 147Schiller 15Schivelbein 1Schjerning 256Schlegel 27Schleiden 40, 216Schleiden’s “Fundamental Principles of

Scientific Botany” 180, 217Schlemm 36vSchleswig-Holstein 52Schliemann 8Schmidt 127, 152Schöller 199Schomburgk 150Schönlein 1, 13, 77, 128, 199, 209Schönlein as “Dalai Llama of medicine” 85Schönlein as “medical Caesar” 121Schönlein as medical Pope” 121Schönlein, Frau 118Schönlein, paleo-ontological collection 102Schönlein, Philipp 124, 133Schönlein, posthumous papers 130Schönlein’s Assistenten 99Schönlein’s “Clinical Lectures in the Charité

Hospital in Berlin” 115Schönlein’s donations 102Schönlein’s father 68Schönlein’s father-in-law 108Schönlein’s favourite diseases 116Schönlein’s way of life 126

School of Organicism 172Schuler 265Schultes 94Schultze 23, 32, 36Schulze 130, 132Schütz 150, 156Schwalbe 290Schwann 1, 17, 18, 40, 235Schwann’s “Microscopic Investigations” 217Schwerin 52sea cucumbers 41sedes morbi 171Seiler 92seminal corpuscles 52seminium morbi 52Semon Vii, 258Sensburg 102sensory perceptions 230Seufert 80, 81, 107–109, 132Seydel 150Shattock 275Sickingen 22Siebert 86, 100, 115, 119, 122, 123Siebold 69, 91, 92, 94, 140, 141, 152, 153, 198Siebold school 142Siegmundin 140Simon 40, 85, 116, 226Skoda 206, 209Skulls 102“smooth-shark” of Aristotle 39snails, in Holothuria 41, 42Sniadetzky 47Social Democrats 8social relations to the organs 33socialism 52, 269Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and

Prehistory 8Society for German Anthropologists 260Society for Hygiene 239Society for Obstetrics 1Society for Scientific Medicine 1, 182, 193, 195Society of Anthropology and Ethnology 283Society of Berlin Doctors 195Sokoljskenny 104Solbrig 121, 122, 124Sömmering 29, 92soul 49spas 131, 149Spessart 261Spiegelberg 190Spindler 96

Index

317

Spinoza 28, 34Spirillum 261“Spy” 277St Francis of Assisi 90St Gangolf 58, 130Stahl 70, 102, 157, 256,star-fish 41Stark 99Steenstrup 41Steffens 91Stein 27Steinbrück 145Steinbuch 34Stenglein 58, 90Sternberg 102stethoscope 57, 85sthenie 70Stiebel 124Stokvis 255Stolliana 145Stosch 113student corps 52student societies 198Studt 256Sundberg 255Sunderlin 113, 145supernatural forces 163surgery 227Swammerdam 17Swiss data 264syphilis 290

Textor 70, 76, 81, 91The Science of Motion of Animals/De

Phoronomia Animalium 27thermometer 116Thirty Years War 12Thomann 92Thuerheim 91Transsylvania 277transudates 244Traube 57, 58, 85, 116, 132, 188, 202, 272,Traube’s Beiträge 178Treaty of Lunéville 22Trefurt 198Treviranus 29, 39, 47, 198trichinosis 256, 263, 290Troschel 199Troxler 107Troy 8Trüstedt 199

tubercle bacillus 261tuberculosis 184, 290tuberculosis, bovine 262tuberculosis, human 262tumours 39typhus abdominalis 110typhus crystals 83, 110typhus 8, 52, 79, 213, 260, 281typhuses 79, 104tyrosin 118

Ubi est Morbus? Where is the disease? 171ultramontanism 13, 68, 80, 85, 86, 106, 118, 120Unger 111University Library in Würzburg 128University of Berlin 281University of Bonn 27, 198University of Halle 222University of Würzburg 72, 96, 134University of Zürich 81Upper Silesia 260

Valentin 16Valhalla 224Valsalva 169van der Heydt 200van Helmont 28Van Swietenia 145“Vanity Fair” 277Varoli 168vertebral theory of the skull 97Vesalius 28, 166Veterinary School 222, 249Veterinary Studies 223Vierordt 110views of nature 32Villa Frankenhäuser 247Virchow 57Virchow and pedantry 271Virchow and students 272Virchow as examiner 272Virchow’s Archive 177, 287Virchow, gifts on 80th birthday 263Virchow, Grand Old Man of Science 252Virchow-Hirsch Yearbooks 239Virchow on politeness 144, 214Virchow-Stiftung 257vita propria 168vitalism 28, 157, 220, 235vivisection 36Vogel 179

Index

318

Volkmann’s ischaemic contracture 225Voltaism 73von Aschhausen 90von Baer 14, 19, 29, 45, 76, 97von Bergmann 257, 285von Bülow 257von Dalberg 69von Erthal 69, 90von Graefe 202von Grafenberg 170von Haller 73von Humboldt 26von Langenbeck 154von Leuthold 256von Leyden 252von Mollis 264von Nadherny 118von Oettingen-Wallerstein 108von Recklinghausen 245, 258von Rogenbach 245von Savigny 92von Siebold 73von Thielen 256von Walther 26, 71

Wagner 99, 100, 198, 226Waldeyer 236, 252, 255, 257, 260, 285Walther 29, 32, 72, 87, 91, 93, 94, 97, 106, 107,

123, 130War of Liberation 139, 150, 192

Wartburg Festival 26Weber 27, 198Wegscheider 152Weichselbaum 255Welckers 26“Whence and Whither?” (Schönlein’s favourite

question) 116Wiebel 132Wilks 284Wilms 226Wilson 264Wittgenstein 132Wöhler 48, 186Wolff 14, 19, 47, 73, 119, 199Wunderlich 86, 101, 110, 116, 118, 122, 123Würzburg 29Würzburg clinic 100Würzburg Physical-Medical Society 242Würzburg Proceedings 181

Zander 204Zell 131Ziegelstrasse Clinic 181Ziemssen 212Zimmermann 111zoogen 105zoological material 103Zuckerkandl 255Zürich 57, 82, 107, 113Zürich Hochschule 82

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