Verbs in English have four basic parts:

Base form -ing form Past tense Past participle

work working worked worked

play playing played played

listen listening listened listened

Most verbs have past tense and past participle in –ed (worked, played, listened). But

many of the most frequent verbs are irregular.

Most verbs have past tense and past participle in –ed ( worked, played, listened). But

many of the most frequent verbs are irregular:

Base form Past tense Past participle

be

begin

break

bring

buy

build

choose

come

cost

cut

do

draw

drive

eat

feel

find

get

give

go

have

hear

hold

keep

know

leave

lead

let

lie

lose

make

mean

meet

pay

was/were

began

broke

brought

bought

built

chose

came

cost

cut

did

drew

drove

ate

felt

found

got

gave

went

had

heard

held

kept

knew

left

led

let

lay

lost

made

meant

met

paid

been

begun

broken

brought

bought

built

chosen

come

cost

cut

done

drawn

driven

eaten

felt

found

got

given

gone

had

heard

held

kept

known

left

led

let

lain

lost

made

meant

met

paid

Base form Past tense Past participle

put

run

say

see

sell

send

set

sit

speak

spend

stand

take

teach

tell

think

understand

wear

win

write

put

ran

said

saw

sold

sent

set

sat

spoke

spent

stood

took

taught

told

thought

understood

wore

won

wrote

put

run

said

seen

sold

sent

set

sat

spoken

spent

stood

taken

taught

told

thought

understood

worn

won

written

We make questions by:

1: moving an auxiliary to the front of the clause:

Everybody is watching >> Is everybody watching?

They had worked hard >> Had they worked hard?

He's finished work >> Has he finished work?

Everybody had been working

hard >>

Had everybody been working

hard?

He has been singing >> Has he been singing?

English is spoken all over the

world >>

Is English spoken all over the

world?

The windows have been

cleaned >> Have the windows been cleaned?

2: … or by moving a modal to the front of the clause:

They will come >> Will they come?

He might come >> Might he come?

They will have arrived by now >> Will they have arrived by now?

She would have been listening >> Would she have been listening?

The work will be finished soon >> Will the work be finished soon?

They might have been invited to

the party >>

Might they have been invited to

the party?

3: The present simple and the past simple have no auxiliary. We make questions by

adding the auxillary do/does for the present simple or did for the past simple:

They live here >> Do they live here?

John lives here >> Does John live here?

Everybody laughed >> Did everybody laugh?

The verb phrase in English has the following forms:

1) a main verb:

Verb

We

I

Everybody

We

are

like

saw.

laughed.

here.

it

the accident

The verb may be in the present tense (are, like) or the past tense (saw, laughed). A verb

phrase with only a main verb expresses simple aspect

2) an auxiliary verb ("be") and a main verb in –ing form:

Auxiliary "be" Verb (-ing)

Everybody

We

is

were

watching

laughing

A verb phrase with "be" and –ing expresses continuous aspect.

3) an auxiliary verb ("have") and a main verb with past participle:

Auxillary "have" Verb (past participle)

They

Everybody

He

have

has

had

enjoyed

worked

finished

themselves.

hard.

work.

A verb with "have" and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A verb with

have/has expresses present perfect, and a verb with had expresses past perfect.

4) an auxiliary verb ("have" + "been") and a main verb in the –ing form:

Auxiliary "have" + "been" Verb (-ing)

Everybody

He

has been

had been

working

singing

hard

A verb with "have" and "been" and the present participle expresses perfect continuous

aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect continuous, and a verb with

had expresses past perfect continuous.

5) a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) and a main

verb:

Modal Verb Main verb

They

He

will

might

come.

come.

6) We can use modal verbs with the auxiliaries "be", "have", and "have been":

Modal Auxiliary Verb

They

He

She

will

might

must

be

have

have been

listening

arrived

listening

There are two tenses in English – past and present.

The present tenses in English are used:

to talk about the present

to talk about the future

to talk about the past when we are telling a story in spoken English or when we

are summarising a book, film, play etc.

There are four present tense forms in English:

Present simple: I work

Present continuous: I am working

Present perfect: I have worked

Present perfect continuous: I have been working

We use these forms:

to talk about the present:

He works at McDonald’s. He has worked there for three months now.

He is working at McDonald’s. He has been working there for three months now.

London is the capital of Britain.

to talk about the future:

The next train leaves this evening at 1700 hours.

I’ll phone you when I get home.

He’s meeting Peter in town this afternoon.

I’ll come home as soon as I have finished work.

You will be tired out after you have been working all night.

We can use the present tenses to talk about the past...

The present tense is the base form of the verb: I work in London.

But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London.

Use

We use the present tense to talk about:

something that is true in the present:

I’m nineteen years old.

He lives in London.

I’m a student.

something that happens again and again in the present:

I play football every weekend.

We use words like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs of frequency) with the

present tense:

I sometimes go to the cinema.

She never plays football.

something that is always true:

The adult human body contains 206 bones.

Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.

something that is fixed in the future.

The school term starts next week.

The train leaves at 1945 this evening.

We fly to Paris next week.

Questions and negatives

Look at these questions:

Do you play the piano?

Where do you live?

Does Jack play football?

Where does he come from?

Do Rita and Angela live in Manchester?

Where do they work?

With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for

the third person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.

We use do and does with question words like where, what and why:

But look at these questions with who:

Who lives in London?

Who plays football at the weekend?

Who works at Liverpool City Hospital?

Look at these sentences:

I like tennis, but I don’t like football. (don’t = do not)

I don’t live in London now.

I don’t play the piano, but I play the guitar.

They don’t work at the weekend.

John doesn’t live in Manchester. (doesn’t = does not)

Angela doesn’t drive to work. She goes by bus.

With the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not

(doesn’t) for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (don’t) for the others.

The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the verb be and the

present participle (-ing form) of a verb:

Use

1. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the present:

for something that is happening at the moment of speaking:

I’m just leaving work. I’ll be home in an hour.

Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.

for something which is happening before and after a given time:

At eight o’clock we are usually having breakfast.

When I get home the children are doing their homework.

for something which we think is temporary:

Michael is at university. He’s studying history.

I’m working in London for the next two weeks.

for something which is new and contrasts with a previous state:

These days most people are using email instead of writing letters.

What sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays? What sort of music are they

listening to?

to show that something is changing, growing or developing:

The children are growing quickly.

The climate is changing rapidly.

Your English is improving.

for something which happens again and again:

It’s always raining in London.

They are always arguing.

George is great. He’s always laughing.

Note: We normally use always with this use.

2. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the future:

for something which has been arranged or planned:

Mary is going to a new school next term.

What are you doing next week?

3. We can use the present continuous to talk about the past:

When we are telling a story:

When we are summarising the story from a book, film or play etc.:

The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past

participle of a verb:

The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the

verb:

Use

We use the present perfect tense:

for something that started in the past and continues in the present:

They’ve been married for nearly fifty years.

She has lived in Liverpool all her life.

Note: We normally use the present perfect continuous for this:

She has been living in Liverpool all her life.

It’s been raining for hours.

for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:

I’ve played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.

He has written three books and he is working on another one.

I’ve been watching that programme every week.

We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past:

They’ve been staying with us since last week.

I have worked here since I left school.

I’ve been watching that programme every week since it started.

when we are talking about our experience up to the present:

Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present:

My last birthday was the worst day I have ever had.

Note: and we use never for the negative form:

Have you ever met George?

Yes, but I’ve never met his wife.

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking:

I can’t get in the house. I’ve lost my keys.

Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.

I’m tired out. I’ve been working all day.

We use the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place and returned:

A: Where have you been?

B: I’ve just been out to the supermarket.

A: Have you ever been to San Francisco?

B: No, but I’ve been to Los Angeles.

But when someone has not returned we use have/has gone:

A: Where is Maria? I haven’t seen her for weeks.

B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She’ll be back tomorrow.

We often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent past:

just; only just; recently;

Scientists have recently discovered a new breed of monkey.

We have just got back from our holidays.

or adverbials which include the present:

ever (in questions); so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives)

Have you ever seen a ghost?

Where have you been up to now?

Have you finished your homework yet?

No, so far I’ve only done my history.

WARNING:

We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is

finished:

I have seen that film yesterday.

We have just bought a new car last week.

When we were children we have been to California.

But we can use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished:

Have you seen Helen today?

We have bought a new car this week.

There are two tenses in English – past and present.

The past tense in English is used:

to talk about the past

to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true.

for politeness.

There are four past tense forms in English:

Past simple: I worked

Past continuous: I was working

Past perfect: I had worked

Past perfect continuous: I had been working

We use these forms:

to talk about the past:

He worked at McDonald’s. He had worked there since July..

He was working at McDonald’s. He had been working since July.

to refer to the present or future in conditions:

He could get a new job if he really tried.

If Jack was playing they would probably win.

and hypotheses:

It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.

I would always help someone who really needed help.

and wishes:

I wish it wasn’t so cold.

In conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk about the past, we

always use the past perfect:

I would have helped him if he had asked.

It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost?

I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite expressions:

Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York.

I just hoped you would be able to help me.

Forms

With most verbs the past tense is formed by adding -ed:

call >> called; like >> liked; want >> wanted; work >> worked

But there are a lot of irregular past tenses in English. Here are the most common

irregular verbs in English, with their past tenses:

infinitive irregular

past

be

begin

was/were

began

infinitive irregular

past

break

bring

buy

build

choose

come

cost

cut

do

draw

drive

eat

feel

find

get

give

go

have

hear

hold

keep

know

leave

lead

let

lie

lose

make

mean

meet

pay

put

run

say

sell

send

set

sit

speak

spend

stand

take

teach

tell

think

understand

wear

win

broke

brought

bought

built

chose

came

cost

cut

did

drew

drove

ate

felt

found

got

gave

went

had

heard

held

kept

knew

left

led

let

lay

lost

made

meant

met

paid

put

ran

said

sold

sent

set

sat

spoke

spent

stood

took

taught

told

thought

understood

wore

won

infinitive irregular

past

write wrote

Use

We use the past tense to talk about:

something that happened once in the past:

I met my wife in 1983.

We went to Spain for our holidays.

They got home very late last night.

something that happened again and again in the past:

When I was a boy I walked a mile to school every day.

We swam a lot while we were on holiday.

They always enjoyed visiting their friends.

something that was true for some time in the past:

I lived abroad for ten years.

He enjoyed being a student.

She played a lot of tennis when she was younger.

we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:

I met my wife a long time ago.

Questions and negatives

We use did to make questions with the past tense:

When did you meet your wife?

Where did you go for your holidays?

Did she play tennis when she was younger?

Did you live abroad?

But look at these questions:

Who discovered penicillin?

Who wrote Don Quixote?

For more on these questions see question forms

We use didn’t (did not) to make negatives with the past tense:

They didn’t go to Spain this year.

We didn’t get home until very late last night.

I didn’t see you yesterday.

The past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the verb:

We use the past continuous to talk about the past:

for something which continued before and after another action:

The children were doing their homework when I got home.

Compare:

I got home. The children did their homework.

and

The children did their homework when I got home.

As I was watching television the telephone rang.

This use of the past continuous is very common at the beginning of a story:

The other day I was waiting for a bus when …

Last week as I was driving to work …

for something that happened before and after a particular time:

It was eight o’clock. I was writing a letter.

Compare:

At eight o’clock I wrote some letters.

In July she was working in McDonald’s.

.to show that something continued for some time:

My head was aching.

Everyone was shouting.

for something that was happening again and again:

I was practising every day, three times a day.

They were meeting secretly after school.

They were always quarrelling.

with verbs which show change or growth:

The children were growing up quickly.

Her English was improving.

My hair was going grey.

The town was changing quickly.

We use the verb had and the past participle for the past perfect:

I had finished the work.

She had gone .

The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the -ing form of the verb:

I had been finishing the work

She had been going.

The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in

the past, not the present.

We use the past perfect tense:

for something that started in the past and continued up to a given time in the

past:

When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years.

She didn’t want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life.

We normally use the past perfect continuous for this:

She didn’t want to move. She had been living in Liverpool all her life.

Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.

for something we had done several times up to a point in the past and

continued to do after that point:

He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager.

He had written three books and he was working on another one.

I had been watching the programme every week, but I missed the last episode.

We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past:

They had been staying with us since the previous week.

I was sorry when the factory closed. I had worked there since I left school.

I had been watching that programme every week since it started, but I missed the last

episode.

when we are reporting our experience and including up to the (then) present:

My eighteenth birthday was the worst day I had ever had.

I was pleased to meet George. I hadn’t met him before, even though I had met his wife

several times.

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting:

I couldn’t get into the house. I had lost my keys.

Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.

We use the past perfect to talk about the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes:

I would have helped him if he had asked.

It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost?

I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

We use the present perfect to show that something has continued up to the present

They’ve been married for nearly fifty years.

She has lived in Liverpool all her life.

… or is important in the present:

I’ve lost my keys. I can’t get into the house.

Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.

We use the present perfect continuous to show that something has been continuing up

to the present:

It’s been raining for hours.

We’ve been waiting here since six o’clock this morning.

We use the past perfect to show that something continued up to a time in the past:

When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years.

... or was important at that time in the past:

I couldn’t get into the house. I had lost my keys.

Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.

We use the past perfect continuous to show that something had been continuing up to

a time in the past or was important at that time in the past:

Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.

He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager.

We use will with the perfect to show that something will be complete at some time in

the future:

In a few years they will have discovered a cure for the common cold.

I can come out tonight. I'll have finished my homework by then.

We use would with the perfect to refer to something that did not happen in the past but

would have happened if the conditions had been right:

If you had asked me I would have helped you.

I would have helped you, but you didn’t ask me.

You didn’t ask me or I would have helped you.

We use other modals with perfective aspect when we are looking back from a point in

time when something might have happened, should have happened or would have

happened.

The point of time may be in the future:

We’ll meet again next week. We might have finished the work by then.

I will phone at six o’clock. He should have got home by then.

the present:

It’s getting late. They should have arrived by now.

He’s still not here. He must have missed his train.

or the past:

I wasn’t feeling well. I must have eaten something bad.

I checked my cell phone. She could have left a message.

We use the present perfect to show that something has continued up to the present

They’ve been married for nearly fifty years.

She has lived in Liverpool all her life.

… or is important in the present:

I’ve lost my keys. I can’t get into the house.

Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.

We use the present perfect continuous to show that something has been continuing up

to the present:

It’s been raining for hours.

We’ve been waiting here since six o’clock this morning.

We use the past perfect to show that something continued up to a time in the past:

When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years.

... or was important at that time in the past:

I couldn’t get into the house. I had lost my keys.

Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.

We use the past perfect continuous to show that something had been continuing up to

a time in the past or was important at that time in the past:

Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.

He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager.

We use will with the perfect to show that something will be complete at some time in

the future:

In a few years they will have discovered a cure for the common cold.

I can come out tonight. I'll have finished my homework by then.

We use would with the perfect to refer to something that did not happen in the past but

would have happened if the conditions had been right:

If you had asked me I would have helped you.

I would have helped you, but you didn’t ask me.

You didn’t ask me or I would have helped you.

We use other modals with perfective aspect when we are looking back from a point in

time when something might have happened, should have happened or would have

happened.

The point of time may be in the future:

We’ll meet again next week. We might have finished the work by then.

I will phone at six o’clock. He should have got home by then.

the present:

It’s getting late. They should have arrived by now.

He’s still not here. He must have missed his train.

or the past:

I wasn’t feeling well. I must have eaten something bad.

I checked my cell phone. She could have left a message.

Transitive verbs have both active and passive forms:

active passive

The hunter killed the lion. >> The lion was killed by the

hunter.

Someone has cleaned the

windows >> The windows have been cleaned

The passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle:

be past participle

English is spoken all over the world

The windows have been cleaned

Lunch was being served

The work will be finished soon

They might have been invited to the party

We sometimes use the verb get to form the passive:

Be careful with the glass. It might get broken.

Peter got hurt in a crash.

If we want to show the person or thing doing the action we use by:

She was attacked by a dangerous dog.

The money was stolen by her husband.

We can use the indirect object as the subject of a passive verb:

active passive

I gave him a book for his birthday >> He was given a book for his

birthday.

Someone sent her a cheque for a

thousand euros >>

She was sent a cheque for a

thousand euros.

We can use phrasal verbs in the passive:

active passive

They called off the meeting. >> The meeting was called off.

His grandmother looked after

him. >>

He was looked after by his

grandmother.

They will send him away to

school. >> He will be sent away to school.

Some verbs very frequently used in the passive are followed by the to-infinitive:

be supposed to be expected to be asked to

be scheduled to be allowed to be told to

John has been asked to make a speech at the meeting.

You are supposed to wear a uniform.

The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.

We use the to-infinitive:

• to express purpose (to answer "Why...?"):

He bought some flowers to give to his wife.

He locked the door to keep everyone out.

We sometimes say in order to or in order not to:

We set off early in order to avoid the traffic.

They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children

… or we can say so as to or so as not to:

We set off early so as to avoid the traffic.

They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.

• after certain verbs (see verbs followed by infinitive), particularly verbs of thinking

and feeling:

choose, decide, expect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like,

love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love

… and verbs of saying:

agree, promise, refuse

They decided to start a business together.

Remember to turn the lights out.

Some verbs are followed by a direct object and the infinitive(see verbs followed by

infinitive):

advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,

expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like

She reminded me to turn the lights out.

He encouraged his friends to vote for him.

• after certain adjectives.

Sometimes the to-infinitive gives a reason for the adjective:

disappointed

glad

sad

happy

anxious

pleased

surprised

proud

unhappy

We were happy to come to the end of our journey

= We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey

John was surprised to see me

= He was surprised because he saw me

Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:

able

unable

due

eager

keen

likely

unlikely

ready

prepared

unwilling

willing

Unfortunately I was unable to work for over a week.

I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed.

We often use the to-infinitive with these adjectives after it to give opinions:

difficult

easy

possible

impossible

hard

right

wrong

kind

nice

clever

silly

foolish

It’s easy to play the piano, but it’s very difficult to play well.

He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.

We use the preposition for to show who these adjectives refer to:

difficult

easy

possible

impossible

hard

It was difficult for us to hear what she was saying.

It is easy for you to criticise other people.

We use the preposition of with other adjectives:

It’s kind of you to help.

It would be silly of him to spend all his money.

• As a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after abstract nouns like:

ability

desire

need

wish

attempt

failure

opportunity

chance

intention

I have no desire to be rich.

They gave him an opportunity to escape.

She was annoyed by her failure to answer the question correctly.

• We often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun (See

indefinite pronouns):

When I am travelling I always take something to read.

I was all alone. I had no one to talk to.

There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.

We can use the -ing form of the verb:

• as a noun:

I love swimming.

Swimming is very good for your health.

You can get fit by swimming regularly.

-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns

as an adjective:

The main problem today is rising prices.

That programme was really boring.

He saw a woman lying on the floor.

Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the

patterns which follow a verb, for example:

... an object:

I like playing tennis.

I saw a dog chasing a cat.

... or an adverbial:

You can earn a lot of money by working hard.

There were several people waiting for the bus.

... or a clause:

I heard someone saying that.

The -ing noun can be used:

as the subject of a verb:

Learning English is not easy.

as the object of a verb:

We enjoy learning English.

Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:

admit like hate start avoid

suggest enjoy dislike begin finish

as the object of a preposition

Some people are not interested in learning English.

The -ing adjective can come:

in front of a noun:

I read an interesting article in the newspaper today.

We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.

The commonest –ing adjectives used in front of the noun are

amusing interesting worrying shocking disappointing

boring surprising exciting terrifying frightening

tiring annoying

after a noun:

Who is that man standing over there?

The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.

and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.

I heard someone playing the piano.

I can smell something burning.

1. We use the present simple:

to talk about something happening regularly in the present:

The children come home from school at about four.

We often see your brother at work.

to talk about something happening continually in the present:

They live next door to us.

He works for the Post Office.

to talk about things which are generally true:

Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

The Nile is the longest river in Africa.

2. We use the present continuous:

to show that something in the present is temporary:

We are living in a rented flat at present.

My wife usually goes in to the office, but she is working at home today.

for something happening regularly in the present before and after a given time:

I’m usually getting ready for work at eight o’clock.

When I see George he’s always reading his newspaper.

for something happening before and after the moment of speaking:

I can’t hear you. I’m listening to my iPod.

Be quiet. The children are sleeping.

3. We use modal verbs

to talk about the present when we are not sure of something:

I don’t know where Henry is. He might be playing tennis.

Who’s knocking at the door? I don’t know. It could be the police.

1 Talking about past events and situations:

We use the past simple:

when we are talking about an event that happened at a particular time in the past

We arrived home before dark

The film started at seven thirty.

when we are talking about something that continued for some time in the past

Everybody worked hard through the winter.

We stayed with our friends in London.

When we are talking about something that happened several times in the past we use

the past simple:

Most evenings we stayed at home and watched DVDs.

Sometimes they went out for a meal.

… or used to

Most evenings we used to stay at home and watch DVDs.

We used to go for a swim every morning.

... or would

Most evenings he would take the dog for a walk.

They would often visit friends in Europe.

WARNING: We do not normally use would with stative verbs.

We use the past continuous:

when we are talking about something which happened before and after a given time in the past

It was just after ten. I was watching the news on TV.

At half-time we were losing 1-0.

when we are talking about something happening before and after another action in the past:

He broke his leg when he was playing rugby.

She saw Jim as he was driving away.

2 The past in the past

When we are looking back from a point in the past to something earlier in the past we

use the past perfect:

Helen suddenly remembered she had left her keys in the car.

When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home.

They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadn’t saved enough money.

They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.

3 The past and the present:

We use the present perfect:

when we are talking about the effects in the present of something that happened in the past:

I can’t open the door. I’ve left my keys in the car.

Jenny has found a new job. She works in a supermarket now.

When we are talking about something that started in the past and still goes on:

We have lived here since 2007. (and we still live here)

I have been working at the university for over ten years.

4 The future in the past

When we talk about the future from a time in the past we use:

would as the past tense of will

He thought he would buy one the next day.

Everyone was excited. The party would be fun.

was/were going to

John was going to drive and Mary was going to follow on her bicycle.

It was Friday. We were going to set off the next day.

the past continuous:

It was September. Mary was starting school the next week.

We were very busy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.

talking about the future

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1. When we know about the future we normally use the present tense.

We use the present simple for something scheduled or arranged:

We have a lesson next Monday.

The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning.

The holidays start next week.

It is my birthday tomorrow.

We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements:

I’m playing football tomorrow.

They are coming to see us tomorrow.

We’re having a party at Christmas.

2. We use will to talk about the future:

When we make predictions:

It will be a nice day tomorrow.

I think Brazil will win the World Cup.

I’m sure you will enjoy the film.

To mean want to or be willing to:

I hope you will come to my party.

George says he will help us.

To make offers and promises:

I'll see you tomorrow.

We'll send you an email.

To talk about offers and promises:

Tim will be at the meeting.

Mary will help with the cooking.

3. We use (be) going to:

To talk about plans and intentions:

I’m going to drive to work today.

They are going to move to Manchester.

When we can see that something is likely to happen:

Be careful! You are going to fall.

Look at those black clouds. I think it’s going to rain.

4. We often use verbs like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, expect to talk about the

future:

What are you going to do next year? I’d like to go to University.

We plan to go to France for our holidays.

George wants to buy a new car.

5. We use modals may, might, and could when we are not sure about the future:

I might stay at home tonight, or I might go to the cinema.

We could see Mary at the meeting. She sometimes goes.

6. We can use should if we think something is likely to happen:

We should be home in time for tea.

The game should be over by eight o’clock.

7. Clauses with time words:

In clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense

form to talk about the future:

I’ll come home when I finish work.

You must wait here until your father comes.

They are coming after they have had dinner.

8. Clauses with if:

In clauses with if we often use a present tense form to talk about the future:

We won’t be able to go out if it rains.

If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.

WARNING: We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

I’ll come home when I will finish work.

We won’t be able to go out if it will rain rains.

But we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

I will be very happy if you will come to my party.

We should finish the job early if George will help us.

9. We can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or going to for

emphasis when we are talking about plans, arrangements and intentions:

They’ll be coming to see us next week.

I will be driving to work tomorrow.

verbs in time clauses and if clauses

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Verbs in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses

except:

In clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

I’ll come home when I finish work.

You must wait here until your father comes.

They are coming after they have had dinner.

in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

We won’t be able to go out if it is raining.

If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.

I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.

We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

I’ll come home when I will finish work.

We won’t be able to go out if it will rain. rains.

It will be nice to see Peter when he will get home gets home.

You must wait here until your father will come comes.

but we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

I will be very happy if you will come to my party.

We should finish the job early if George will help us.

"if" clauses and hypotheses

Some clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tense forms to talk about the

present and future.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if :

for something that has not happened or is not happening:

He could get a new job if he really tried

= He cannot get a job because he has not tried.

If Jack was playing they would probably win

= Jack is not playing so they will probably not win.

If I had his address I could write to him

= I do not have his address so I cannot write to him.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if:

for something that we believe or know will not happen:

We would go by train if it wasn’t so expensive

= We won’t go by train because it is too expensive.

I would look after the children for you at the weekend if I was at home

= I can’t look after the children because I will not be at home.

to make suggestions about what might happen:

If he came tomorrow we could borrow his car.

If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela.

When we are talking about something which did not happen in the past we use the past

perfect in the if clause and a modal verb in the main clause:

If you had seen him you could have spoken to him

= You did not see him so you could not speak to him

You could have stayed with us if you had come to London

= You couldn’t stay with us because you didn’t come to London.

If we hadn’t spent all our money we could take a holiday.

= We have spent all our money so we can’t take a holiday

If I had got the job we would be living in Paris

= I did not get the job so we are not living in Paris.

If the main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:

If you had seen him you could have spoken to him.

= You did not see him so you could not speak to him.

You could have stayed with us if you had come to London.

= You couldn’t stay with us because you didn’t come to London.

If you had invited me I might have come.

= You didn’t invite me so I didn’t come.

If the main clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal without

have:

If I had got the job we would be living in Paris now.

= I did not get the job so we are not living in Paris now.

If you had done your homework you would know the answer.

= You did not do your homework so you do not know the answer.

wishes and hypotheses

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Wishes

We use past tense forms to talk about wishes:

We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:

I don’t like my work. I wish I could get a better job.

That’s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.

I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.

We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:

I don’t like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting.

These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.

Everyone wishes they had more free time.

John wishes he wasn’t so busy.

I wish it wasn’t so cold.

We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:

I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.

Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.

I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

Hypotheses (things that we imagine)

When we are talking about hypotheses:

We use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk about the future if we think it is likely to happen:

Those steps are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident.

We should leave home early in case we are late.

We use a past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to suggest something is not likely to happen:

It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.

What if he lost his job. What would happen then?

We use modals would, could for a hypothesis about the future:

We can’t all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.

Drive carefully. You could have an accident.

We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk about the imagined future:

I would always help someone who really needed help.

I would always help someone if they really needed it.

We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the past:

I did not see Mary, or I might have spoken to her.

It’s a pity Jack wasn’t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party.

Why didn’t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.

the verb be

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The verb be has the following forms:

Present simple:

Affirmative

I am You are He/She/It is

We are You are They are

Question form:

Am I? Are you? Is he/she it?

Are we? Are you? Are they?

Negative:

I am not/ I’m not You are not/ aren’t He/She/It is not/ isn’t

We are not/aren’t You are not/aren’t They are not/aren't

Past simple

I was You were He/She/It was

We were You were They were

The past participle:

been.

Present perfect:

has/have been

Past perfect:

had been

The verb be is used in the following patterns:

1. with a noun:

My mother is a teacher.

Bill Clinton was the president of the US.

2. with an adjective:

This soup is very tasty.

The children were good.

2.1 with the -ing form to make the continuous aspect

We were walking down the street.

Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.

2.2 with the -ed form to make the passive voice

The house was built in 1890.

The street is called Montagu Street.

This car was made in Japan.

3. with a prepositional phrase:

John and his wife are from Manchester.

The flowers are on the table.

link verbs

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Some verbs are followed by either a noun or an adjective:

She was a good friend. = N + V + N

She was very happy. = N + V + Adj.

He became headmaster. = N + V + N

He became angry. = N + V + Adj.

These verbs are called link verbs. Common verbs like this are:

be

become appear feel look remain seem sound

She seemed an intelligent woman.

She seemed intelligent.

He looked hungry.

He looked a good player.

After appear and seem we often use to be:

She appeared to be an intelligent woman.

He seemed to be angry.

Some link verbs are followed by an adjective. Common verbs like this are:

get go grow taste smell

He got hungry in the evening.

She grew stronger every day

delexical verbs like have, take, make and give

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Delexical verbs: have, take, make, give, go and do

We often use common verbs like have and take with nouns like a shower, a drink:

I took a shower. = I showered.

She had a drink. = She drank something.

We call these delexical verbs because the important part of the meaning is taken out of

the verb and put into the noun.

We often put adjectives in front of the noun:

I took a cold shower.

She had a nice, refreshing drink.

The verbs used most frequently in this way are:

have take make give

have

We use have with:

Food and drink: a meal, breakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea

Talking: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk

Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub

Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest

Disagreeing: an argument, a dispute, a fight, a quarrel

I had a good breakfast before I left home.

We had a long talk about the problem.

The kids should have a bath before they go to bed.

She generally had a short holiday in July or August.

They had a serious quarrel about their father’s will.

We also use have with nouns formed from verbs:

I think you should have a look at this.

She had a bite of the cake.

I’m thirsty. I’m going to have a drink of water.

I had a listen to that new CD in the car.

They are going to have a swim.

Modal verbs

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The modal verbs are:

can could

may might

shall should

will would

We use modal verbs to show if we believe something is certain, probable or possible (or

not). We also use modals to do things like talking about ability, asking permission

making requests and offers, and so on.

certain, probable or possible ability, permission, requests and advice modals + have can, could and could have may, might, may have and might have can or could will or would will have or would have

certain, probable or possible

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The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.

The modals are used to show that we believe something is certain, probable or possible:

Possibility:

We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the

future, but not certain:

They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)

They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)

If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)

We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was

possible now or at some time in the past:

It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now.

They could have arrived hours ago.

We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:

It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)

You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)

We use the modal could as the past tense of can:

It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)

You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)

Impossibility:

We use the negative can’t or cannot to show that something is impossible:

That can’t be true.

You cannot be serious.

We use couldn’t/could not to talk about the past:

We knew it could not be true.

He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.

Probability:

We use the modal must to show we are sure something to be true and we have reasons

for our belief:

It’s getting dark. It must be quite late.

You haven’t eaten all day. You must be hungry.

We use must have for the past:

They hadn’t eaten all day. They must have been hungry.

You look happy. You must have heard the good news.

We use the modal should to suggest that something is true or will be true in the future,

and to show you have reasons for your suggestion:

Ask Miranda. She should know.

It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon.

We use should have to talk about the past:

It's nearly eleven o'clock. They should have arrived by now.

ability, permission, requests and advice

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The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.

The modals are used to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making

requests, and so on.

Ability:

We use can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:

She can speak several languages.

He can swim like a fish.

They can’t dance very well.

We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or

future:

You can make a lot of money if you are lucky.

Help. I can’t breathe.

They can run but they can’t hide.

We use could to talk about past time:

She could speak several languages.

They couldn’t dance very well.

We use could have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something, but

did not do it:

She could have learned Swahili, but she didn’t have time.

I could have danced all night [but didn't].

Permission:

We use can to ask for permission to do something:

Can I ask a question, please?

Can we go home now.

could is more formal and polite than can:

Could I ask a question please?

Could we go home now?

may is another more formal and polite way of asking for permission:

May I ask a question please?

May we go home now?

We use can to give permission:

You can go home now if you like.

You can borrow my pen if you like.

may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:

You may go home now, if you like.

We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:

We can go out whenever we want.

Students can travel free.

may is a more formal and polite way of saying that someone has permission:

Students may travel free.

Instructions and requests:

We use could you and would you as polite ways of telling or asking someone to do

something:

Could you take a message please?

Would you carry this for me please?

Could I have my bill please?

can and will are less polite:

Can you take a message please?

Will you carry this for me please?

Suggestions and advice:

We use should to make suggestions and give advice:

You should send an email.

We should go by train.

We use could to make suggestions:

We could meet at the weekend.

You could eat out tonight.

We use conditionals to give advice:

Dan will help you if you ask him.

Past tenses are more polite:

Dan would help you if you asked him.

Offers and invitations:

We use can I… and to make offers:

Can I help you?

Can I do that for you?

We can also use shall I …

Shall I help you with that?

Shall I call you on your mobile?

We sometime say I can ... or I could ... or I’ll (I will) ... to make an offer:

I can do that for you if you like.

I can give you a lift to the station.

I’ll do that for you if you like.

I’ll give you a lift to the station.

We use would you like (to) ... for invitations:

Would you like to come round to morrow?

Would you like another drink?

We use you must or we must for a very polite invitation:

You must come round and see us.

We must meet again soon.

Obligation and necessity

We use must to say that it is necessary to do something:

You must stop at a red light.

Everyone must bring something to eat.

You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy.

I’m sorry, but you mustn’t make a noise in here.

We use had to for this if we are talking about the past:

Everyone had to bring something to eat.

We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.

ability, permission, requests and advice

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The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.

The modals are used to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making

requests, and so on.

Ability:

We use can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:

She can speak several languages.

He can swim like a fish.

They can’t dance very well.

We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or

future:

You can make a lot of money if you are lucky.

Help. I can’t breathe.

They can run but they can’t hide.

We use could to talk about past time:

She could speak several languages.

They couldn’t dance very well.

We use could have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something, but

did not do it:

She could have learned Swahili, but she didn’t have time.

I could have danced all night [but didn't].

Permission:

We use can to ask for permission to do something:

Can I ask a question, please?

Can we go home now.

could is more formal and polite than can:

Could I ask a question please?

Could we go home now?

may is another more formal and polite way of asking for permission:

May I ask a question please?

May we go home now?

We use can to give permission:

You can go home now if you like.

You can borrow my pen if you like.

may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:

You may go home now, if you like.

We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:

We can go out whenever we want.

Students can travel free.

may is a more formal and polite way of saying that someone has permission:

Students may travel free.

Instructions and requests:

We use could you and would you as polite ways of telling or asking someone to do

something:

Could you take a message please?

Would you carry this for me please?

Could I have my bill please?

can and will are less polite:

Can you take a message please?

Will you carry this for me please?

Suggestions and advice:

We use should to make suggestions and give advice:

You should send an email.

We should go by train.

We use could to make suggestions:

We could meet at the weekend.

You could eat out tonight.

We use conditionals to give advice:

Dan will help you if you ask him.

Past tenses are more polite:

Dan would help you if you asked him.

Offers and invitations:

We use can I… and to make offers:

Can I help you?

Can I do that for you?

We can also use shall I …

Shall I help you with that?

Shall I call you on your mobile?

We sometime say I can ... or I could ... or I’ll (I will) ... to make an offer:

I can do that for you if you like.

I can give you a lift to the station.

I’ll do that for you if you like.

I’ll give you a lift to the station.

We use would you like (to) ... for invitations:

Would you like to come round to morrow?

Would you like another drink?

We use you must or we must for a very polite invitation:

You must come round and see us.

We must meet again soon.

Obligation and necessity

We use must to say that it is necessary to do something:

You must stop at a red light.

Everyone must bring something to eat.

You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy.

I’m sorry, but you mustn’t make a noise in here.

We use had to for this if we are talking about the past:

Everyone had to bring something to eat.

We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.

can, could and could have

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Questions and negatives:

We make questions by putting the subject after can/could:

Can I …? Can you …? Could I … Could you …? and so on.

The negative form is can’t in spoken English and cannot in written English.

We sometimes say cannot, but it is very emphatic.

The negative form of could is couldn’t in spoken English and could not in written

English.

We sometimes say could not.

We use can and can’t :

To talk about ability:

Maria can speak four languages.

I can’t swim, but my sister can.

To say that something is possible or impossible:

Learning English can be difficult [= Learning English is sometimes difficult.]

Children can be very naughty [= Children are sometimes very naughty.]

It’s still light. It can’t be bedtime.

For requests and refusals of requests

Can I go home now?

You can go whenever you like.

You can borrow the car today, but you can’t have it tomorrow.

To offer to help someone:

Can I help you?

Can I carry that bag for you?

We use could and couldn’t as the past tense of can/can’t:

To talk about ability:

I could run very fast when I was younger.

She couldn’t get a job anywhere.

To say that something was possible or impossible:

Our teacher could be very strict when we were at school. [= Some teachers were very

strict.]

People could starve in those days. [= People sometimes starved.]

You couldn’t use computers in the nineteenth century.

To make a polite request:

Could I go now please?

Could you lend me a dictionary please?

To make a polite offer:

Could I give you a lift?

I could carry that for you.

We use could have:

to show that something is possible now or was possible at some time in the past:

It’s ten o’clock. They could have arrived now.

They could have arrived hours ago.

may, might, may have and might have

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Questions and negatives:

We make questions by putting the subject after may/might:

May I …? Could I … Might I …? Etc.

The negative forms are may not and might not..

We use may:

when we are not sure about something:

Jack may be coming to see us tomorrow.

Oh dear! It’s half past ten. We may be late for the meeting.

There may not be very many people there.

to make polite requests:

May I borrow the car tomorrow?

May we come a bit later?

When we use may not for a refusal it is emphatic:

You may not!

You may not borrow the car until you can be more careful with it.

We use might:

• when we are not sure about something:

I might see you tomorrow.

It looks nice, but it might be very expensive.

It’s quite bright. It might not rain today.

• As the past tense of may for requests:

He asked if he might borrow the car.

They wanted to know if they might come later.

• For very polite requests:

Might I ask you a question?

Might we just interrupt for a moment?

We use may have and might have to show that something has possibly happened now

or happened at some time in the past:

It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now.[= Perhaps they have arrived]

They may have arrived hours ago. [= Perhaps they arrived hours ago.]

can or could

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Possibility

We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:

It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)

You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)

We use could as the past tense of can:

It could be very cold in winter. (=Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)

You could lose your way in the dark. (=People often lost their way in the dark)

We use could to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain:

If we don’t hurry we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)

We use could have to show that something is/was possible now or at some time in the

past:

It’s ten o’clock. They could have arrived now.

They could have arrived hours ago.

Impossibility:

We use the negative can’t or cannot to show that something is impossible:

That can’t be true.

You cannot be serious.

We use couldn’t/could not to talk about the past:

We knew it could not be true.

He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.

Ability:

We use can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:

She can speak several languages.

He can swim like a fish.

They can’t dance very well.

We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or

future:

You can make a lot of money if you are lucky.

Help. I can’t breathe.

They can run but they can’t hide.

We use could to talk about past time:

She could speak several languages.

They couldn’t dance very well.

Permission:

We use can to ask for permission to do something:

Can I ask a question, please?

Can we go home now?

could is more formal and polite than can:

Could I ask a question please?

Could we go home now?

We use can to give permission:

You can go home now if you like.

You can borrow my pen if you like.

We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:

We can go out whenever we want.

Students can travel free.

Instructions and requests:

We use could you and as a polite way of telling or asking someone to do something:

Could you take a message please?

Could I have my bill please?

can is less polite:

Can you take a message please?

Offers and invitations:

We use can I … to make offers:

Can I help you?

Can I do that for you?

We sometimes say I can ... or I could ... to make an offer:

I can do that for you if you like.

I can give you a lift to the station.

will or would

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We use will:

to talk about the future – to say what we believe will happen to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do to make promises and offers

would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense it is used:

to talk about the past. to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

Beliefs

We use will

to say what we believe will happen in the future:

We'll be late.

We will have to take the train.

We use would as the past tense of will:

to say what we believed would happen:

I thought I would be late …… so I would have to take the train.

Offers and promises

We use I will or We will to make offers and promises:

I’ll give you a lift home after the party.

We will come and see you next week.

Willingness

to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do:

We’ll see you tomorrow.

Perhaps dad will lend me the car.

We use would as the past tense of will:

to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do:

We had a terrible night. The baby wouldn’t go to sleep. He kept waking up and crying.

Dad wouldn’t lend me the car, so we had to take the train.

to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:

When they were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmother’s at the

seaside. They would get up early every morning and they’d have a quick breakfast then

they would run across the road to the beach.

Conditionals

We use will in conditionals with if and unless to say what we think will happen in the

future or present:

I’ll give her a call if I can find her number.

You won’t get in unless you have a ticket.

We use would to talk about hypotheses, about something which is possible but not real:

to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:

It would be very expensive to stay in a hotel.

in conditionals with words like if and what if. In these sentences the main verb is usually in the past tense:

I would give her a call if I could find her number.

If I had the money I'd buy a new car.

You would lose weight if you took more exercise.

If he got a new job he would probably make more money.

What if he lost his job. What would happen then?

We use conditionals to give advice:

Dan will help you if you ask him.

Past tenses are more polite:

Dan would help you if you asked him.

Phrases with would:

would you…, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:

Would you carry this for me please?

Would you mind carrying this?

Would you mind not telling him that?

would you like ...; would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:

Would you like to come round to morrow?

Would you like another drink?

I would like …; I’d like … (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:

I’d like that one please.

I’d like to go home now.

I’d rather… (I would rather) to say what we prefer:

I’d rather have that one.

I’d rather go home now.

I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite:

It’s very difficult I would imagine.

I would think that’s the right answer.

will or would

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We use will:

to talk about the future – to say what we believe will happen to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do to make promises and offers

would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense it is used:

to talk about the past. to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

Beliefs

We use will

to say what we believe will happen in the future:

We'll be late.

We will have to take the train.

We use would as the past tense of will:

to say what we believed would happen:

I thought I would be late …… so I would have to take the train.

Offers and promises

We use I will or We will to make offers and promises:

I’ll give you a lift home after the party.

We will come and see you next week.

Willingness

to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do:

We’ll see you tomorrow.

Perhaps dad will lend me the car.

We use would as the past tense of will:

to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do:

We had a terrible night. The baby wouldn’t go to sleep. He kept waking up and crying.

Dad wouldn’t lend me the car, so we had to take the train.

to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:

When they were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmother’s at the

seaside. They would get up early every morning and they’d have a quick breakfast then

they would run across the road to the beach.

Conditionals

We use will in conditionals with if and unless to say what we think will happen in the

future or present:

I’ll give her a call if I can find her number.

You won’t get in unless you have a ticket.

We use would to talk about hypotheses, about something which is possible but not real:

to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:

It would be very expensive to stay in a hotel.

in conditionals with words like if and what if. In these sentences the main verb is usually in the past tense:

I would give her a call if I could find her number.

If I had the money I'd buy a new car.

You would lose weight if you took more exercise.

If he got a new job he would probably make more money.

What if he lost his job. What would happen then?

We use conditionals to give advice:

Dan will help you if you ask him.

Past tenses are more polite:

Dan would help you if you asked him.

Phrases with would:

would you…, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:

Would you carry this for me please?

Would you mind carrying this?

Would you mind not telling him that?

would you like ...; would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:

Would you like to come round to morrow?

Would you like another drink?

I would like …; I’d like … (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:

I’d like that one please.

I’d like to go home now.

I’d rather… (I would rather) to say what we prefer:

I’d rather have that one.

I’d rather go home now.

I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite:

It’s very difficult I would imagine.

I would think that’s the right answer.

double object verbs

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1. Some verbs have two objects –an indirect object and a direct object:

Subject Verb Indirect object Direct object

My wife sent me an email

He brought his mother some flowers

He cooked all his friends a delicious meal

These clauses have the structure: V + N (indirect object) + N (direct object)

2. We can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect object:

Subject Verb Direct object Prepositional phrase

My wife sent an email to me

He brought some flowers for his mother

He cooked a delicious meal for all his friends.

These clauses have the structure : V + N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect

object)

3. Common verbs with for and an indirect object are:

book buy get cook keep bring make pour save find

They booked a table for me at the restaurant.

We made toys for all the children.

4. Common verbs with to and an indirect object are:

give

lend offer pass post read sell send show promise tell

He gave his programme to the man sitting next to him.

They sent Christmas cards to all their customers.

5. If the indirect object is a long phrase we normally use to or for:

He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door.

We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.

6. If the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the N + V + N + N pattern:

I poured him another drink.

Their mother read them another story.

phrasal verbs

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Some verbs are two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases). They consist of a

verb and a particle:

grow + up >> The children are growing up.

Often this gives the verb a new meaning:

take + after >> She takes after her mother = She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother.

count + on >> I know I can count on you = I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you.

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) have only one

pattern:

N (subject) + V + p + N (object)

[Note: N = noun; V = verb; p = particle]

N (Subject) Verb Particle N (Object)

She I My father

takes can count comes

after on from

her mother you Madrid

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) are phrasal verbs.

Phrasal verbs have two different patterns:

• The usual pattern is: N + V + N + p

N (Subject) Verb (N) Object Particle

She He We

gave knocked will be leaving

the money the glass our friends and neighbours

back over behind

• But sometimes these verbs have the pattern: N (subject) + V + p + N (object)

N (Subject) Verb Particle N (Object)

She He We

gave knocked will be leaving

back over behind

the money the glass our friends and neighbours

When the object is a personal pronoun,these verbs always have the pattern:

N + V +N + p:

She gave back it >> She gave it back

He knocked over it >> knocked it over

We will be leaving behind them >> We will be leaving them behind

• Phrasal verbs are nearly always made up of a transitive verb and a particle.

Common verbs with their most frequent particles are:

bring: about, along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up

buy: out, up

call: off, up

carry: off, out

cut: back, down, off, out, up

give: away, back, off

hand: back, down, in, on out, over, round

knock: down, out, over

leave: behind, out

let: down, in, off, out

pass: down, over, round

point: out

push: about, around, over

put: across, away, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up

read: out

set: apart, aside, back, down

shut: away, in, off, out

take: apart, away, back, down, in, on, up, over

think: over, through, up

reflexive and ergative verbs

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Reflexive verbs

1 The reflexive pronouns (see pronouns) are:

Singular: myself; yourself; himself; herself; itself

Plural: ourselves; yourselves; themselves

We use a reflexive pronoun after a transitive verb (see Clauses, Sentences and

Phrases) when the direct object is the same as the subject of the verb:

I am teaching myself to play the piano.

Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.

These are the verbs most often found with reflexive pronouns:

cut dry enjoy hurt introduce kill prepare teach

Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as

direct object:

amuse apply busy content behave blame distance express find help see

Would you like to help yourself to another drink?

= Would you like to take another drink?

I wish the children would behave themselves.

= I wish the children would behave well.

He found himself lying by the side of the road.

= He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.

I saw myself as a famous actor. = I imagined that I was a famous actor.

She applied herself to the job of mending the lights.

= She worked very hard to mend the lights.

He busied himself in the kitchen.

= He worked busily in the kitchen.

I had to content myself with a few Euros.

= I had to be satisfied with a few Euros.

The verb enjoy always has an object:

We all enjoyed the party.

I really enjoyed my lunch.

If enjoy has no other object, we use a reflexive pronoun:

They all enjoyed They all enjoyed themselves.

I really enjoyed I really enjoyed myself.

NOTE: We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people

usually do for themselves:

He washed in cold water.

He always shaved before going out in the evening.

Michael dressed and got ready for the party.

We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:

He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.

She’s old enough to wash herself.

Ergative verbs

1. Ergative verbs are both transitive and intransitive:

Peter closed the door Transitive: N + V + N

The door closed Intransitive: N + V

I boiled a pan of water Transitive: N + V + N

The pan boiled Intransitive: N + V

2. Common ergative verbs are:

begin break change close drop crack dry end finish grow improve increase move open shake start stop tear turn

I broke the glass.

I dropped the glass and it broke.

The referee blew his whistle and started the match.

The match started at 2.30.

We grew some tasty potatoes.

The potatoes were growing well.

The wind shook the trees.

The trees shook in the wind.

3. Many verbs to do with cooking are ergative verbs:

bake boil cook defrost freeze melt roast

You should roast the meat at 200 degrees centigrade.

The meat was roasting in a hot oven.

I always defrost meat before I cook it.

I am waiting for the meat to defrost.

Melt the chocolate and pour it over the ice cream.

The chocolate was melting in a pan.

4. Verbs to do with vehicles are often ergative:

back crash drive fly reverse run sail start stop

I’m learning to fly a plane.

The plane flew at twice the speed of sound.

He crashed his car into a tree.

His car crashed into a tree.

5. We use some ergative verbs with only a few nouns:

catch: dress, coat, clothes, trousers etc. fire : Gun, pistol, rifle, rocket. play: guitar, music, piano, violin, CD, DVD etc. ring: bell, alarm

She caught her dress on a nail.

Her dress caught on a nail.

He fired a pistol to start the race.

A pistol fired to start the race.

verbs followed by to + infinitive

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1 Some verbs are followed by the to-infinitive:

I decided to go home as soon as possible.

We all wanted to have more English classes.

Common verbs followed by the to-infinitive are:

Verbs of thinking and feeling:

choose decide expect forget hate hope intend learn like love mean plan prefer remember would like would love

Verbs of saying:

agree promise refuse

Other common verbs are:

arrange attempt fail help manage tend try want

2 Some verbs are followed by a noun and the to-infinitive:

She asked him to send her a text message.

He wanted all his friends to come to his party.

Common verbs with this pattern are:

Verbs of saying:

advise ask encourage invite order persuade remind tell warn *

*Note: The verb warn is normally used with not

The police warned everyone not to drive too fast.

Verbs of wanting or liking:

expect intend would prefer want would like

Other verbs with this pattern are:

allow enable force get teach

3. Passive infinitive

Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive

(to be + past participle):

I expected to be met when I arrived at the station.

They wanted to be told if anything happened.

I don’t like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.

verbs followed by -ing clauses

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Common verbs followed by –ing nouns are:

Verbs of liking and disliking:

detest dislike enjoy hate fancy like love

I love swimming but I hate jogging.

They always enjoyed visiting their friends.

A: Do you fancy going for a walk?

B: I wouldn’t mind

Phrases with mind:

wouldn’t mind (= would like) don’t mind (= I am willing to) would you mind (= will you please…?)

I wouldn’t mind having some fish and chips.

I don’t mind waiting for a few minutes.

Would you mind holding this for me?

Verbs of saying and thinking:

admit consider deny imagine remember suggest

Our guide suggested waiting until the storm was over.

Everyone denied seeing the accident.

Other common verbs are:

avoid begin finish keep miss

practise risk start stop

I haven’t finished writing this letter.

Let’s practise speaking English.

Passive form of -ing

Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by the passive form of -ing: being + past

participle

I don’t like being interrupted.

Our dog loves being stroked under the chin.

Noun + -ing clause

Some verbs are followed by a noun and an -ing clause:

Verbs to do with the senses:

see watch hear smell listen to etc.

We saw everybody running away.

I could hear someone singing.

Other common verbs:

catch find imagine leave prevent stop

I caught someone trying to break into my house.

We couldn’t prevent them getting away.

verbs followed by that clause

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With "that"

We can use clauses with that:

• after verbs of thinking:

think believe expect decide hope know understand suppose guess imagine feel remember forget

I hope that you will enjoy your holiday.

She didn’t really think that it would happen.

I knew that I had seen her somewhere before.

• after verbs of saying:

say admit argue reply agree claim deny mention answer complain explain promise suggest

They admitted that they had made a mistake.

She argued that they should invest more in the business.

The children complained that they had nothing to do.

Note: tell and some other verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see

clauses, sentences and phrases):

tell convince persuade inform remind

We tried to tell them that they should stop what they were doing.

The police informed everybody that the danger was over.

• as postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinking or saying:

advice belief claim feeling argument hope promise report guess opinion idea

He made a promise that he would do all he could to help.

I had a funny feeling that something was wrong.

• after some nouns to say more about the noun:

fact advantage effect possibility chance danger evidence problem difficulty

She pointed out the danger that they might be left behind.

There was a chance that we would succeed

Note: We often use a that clause to define one of these nouns after the verb be :

danger problem chance possibility fact

The danger is that we will be left behind.

The fact is that it is getting very late.

• after some adjectives which describe feelings to give a reason for our feelings:

pleased sorry happy unhappy sad excited glad disappointed afraid

I am sorry that you can’t come.

Everybody was pleased that the danger was past.

It is lucky that you were able to drive us home.

No "that"

NOTE: We can always use a clause without the word that:

They admitted [that] they had made a mistake.

The police informed everybody [that] the danger was over.

I am sorry [that] you can’t come.

There was chance [that] we would succeed.

Clause, phrase and sentence

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The basic unit of English grammar is the clause:

[An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000]

[when he left it in the waiting room of a London station.]

[William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother]

[and had just had it valued by a London dealer at £180,000.]

Clauses are made up of phrases:

[An unlucky student] + [almost lost] + [a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000]

[when] + [he] + [left] + [it] + [in the waiting room of a London station.]

[William Brown] + [inherited] + [the 1698 Stradivarius violin] + [from his mother]

[and] [had just had it valued] + [by a London dealer] + [at £180,000.]

We can join two or more clauses together to make sentences.

An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000 when he

left it in the waiting room of a London station.

William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother and had just had

it valued by a London dealer at £180,000.

clause structure

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All clauses in English have at least two parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase:

Noun phrase (subject) Verb phrase

The children All the people in the bus

laughed were watching

But most clauses have more than two parts:

Noun phrase (subject) Verb phrase

The children John All of the girls This soup Mary and the family She

laughed wanted are learning tastes were driving put

a new bicycle English awful to Madrid the flowers

in a vase

The first noun phrase is the subject of the sentence:

The children laughed.

John wanted a new bicycle.

All the girls are learning English.

She put the flowers in the vase.

English clauses always have a subject:

His father has just retired. Was a teacher. He was a teacher.

I’m waiting for my wife. Is late. She is late.

… except for the imperative which is used to give orders:

Stop!

Go away.

… and for "soft imperatives" like invitations and requests:

Please come to dinner tomorrow.

Play it again please.

If we have no other subject we use "there" or "it" as subject. We call this a ‘dummy

subject’:

There were twenty people at the meeting..

There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight.

It’s a lovely day.

It’s nearly one o’clock.

I have toothache. It hurts a lo

clause structure

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All clauses in English have at least two parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase:

Noun phrase (subject) Verb phrase

The children All the people in the bus

laughed were watching

But most clauses have more than two parts:

Noun phrase (subject) Verb phrase

The children John All of the girls This soup Mary and the family She

laughed wanted are learning tastes were driving put

a new bicycle English awful to Madrid the flowers

in a vase

The first noun phrase is the subject of the sentence:

The children laughed.

John wanted a new bicycle.

All the girls are learning English.

She put the flowers in the vase.

English clauses always have a subject:

His father has just retired. Was a teacher. He was a teacher.

I’m waiting for my wife. Is late. She is late.

… except for the imperative which is used to give orders:

Stop!

Go away.

… and for "soft imperatives" like invitations and requests:

Please come to dinner tomorrow.

Play it again please.

If we have no other subject we use "there" or "it" as subject. We call this a ‘dummy

subject’:

There were twenty people at the meeting..

There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight.

It’s a lovely day.

It’s nearly one o’clock.

I have toothache. It hurts a lo

intransitive verbs

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Intransitive verbs have the pattern N + V (noun + verb). The clause is complete without

anything else:

Noun Phrase (Subject) Verb Phrase

John Nothing The baby

smiled happened was sleeping

(John) (smiled).

(Nothing) (has happened).

(The baby) (was sleeping).

transitive verbs

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Transitive verbs have a noun phrase as object:

Noun phrase (Subject) Verb phrase Noun phrase (Object)

John We Some of the children

wanted had been playing are learning

a new bicycle. football. English.

This pattern is N + V + N (noun + verb + noun).

link verbs

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Some verbs are followed by an adjective phrase. The adjective phrase is called the

complement:

Noun phrase (Subject) Verb phrase Adjective phrase (complement)

I Everyone This soup The milk

am feeling looked tastes has gone

hungry very happy awful sour

This pattern is N + V + Adj (noun + verb + adjective phrase).

These verbs are called link verbs.

Some link verbs (for example be; become; seem) can have a noun phrase as a

complement:

Noun phrase (Subject) Verb phrase Noun phrase (complement)

Our neighbour He She

was became seems

a strange man a geologist a nice girl

This pattern is N + V + N (noun + verb + noun).

double object verbs

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Some verbs, like give and bring can have two different patterns after them:

Noun Phrase (Subject) Verb Phrase Noun Phrase (Direct object)

Prepositional phrase

She gave some money to the old man

They brought a lot of food for the animals

>>>> <<<<

Noun Phrase (Subject) Verb Phrase Noun Phrase (Indirect object)

Noun Phrase (Direct object)

She They

gave brought

the old man the animals

some money a lot of food

These verbs are called double object verbs. When we have two noun phrases after the

verb the first noun phrase is the indirect object and the second noun phrase is the direct

object.

verbs with -ing forms

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Some transitive verbs can have a noun phrase as an object:

Everybody likes good food.

George considered the problem.

or the –ing form of the verb:

Everybody likes eating.

George considered starting again.

Note: we suggest that you read about Verbs with to + infinitive before doing this

activity.

- See more at: http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/clause-phrase-and-

verbs with -ing forms

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Some transitive verbs can have a noun phrase as an object:

Everybody likes good food.

George considered the problem.

or the –ing form of the verb:

Everybody likes eating.

George considered starting again.

Note: we suggest that you read about Verbs with to + infinitive before doing this

activity.

reporting verbs with that, wh- and if clauses

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Reporting verbs with that clauses:

Some verbs introduce a report, an idea or a summary. These verbs have the pattern:

N + V + (that) + clause

When we want to say what someone says or thinks we can use a clause with that;

He said that I had to see a doctor.

I thought that he was being silly.

We can leave out the word that:

He said I had to see a doctor.

I thought he was being silly.

With some verbs we can mention the hearer as the object of the verb:

She reminded him that it was time to go.

He told me he was a friend of yours.

These verbs have the pattern;

N + V + N + (that) + clause.

Reporting verbs with wh- and if clauses

Some verbs introduce summaries, reports, questions or problems:

She explained what we had to do.

He asked if I was ready

I didn’t know what to do.

These verbs have the pattern:

N + V + wh- + clause:

She wondered where she was.

or

N + V + if + clause:

Ken asked if we wanted to go.

With some verbs we can mention the hearer as the object of the verb:

She asked me if I was ready.

He told me what I had to do.

These verbs have the pattern:

N + V + N + wh- + clause:

I told them what he was doing.

or

N + V + N + if + clause:

Ken asked us if we wanted to go.

two- and three-part verbs

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Two part verbs

Some verbs consist of two words – a verb and a particle (p). These verbs have a number

of patterns:

Peter came in. (N + V + p)

He took out his diary. (N + V + p + N)

He gave the money back. (N + V + N + p)

Phrasal verbs

Some transitive two part verbs are phrasal verbs. They have two different patterns.

N + V + N + p

She gave the money back

He knocked the vase over

We will be leaving our friends behind

or

N + V + p + N

She gave back the money

He knocked over the vase

We will be leaving behind our friends.

When the object is a pronoun these verbs always have the first pattern N + V +N + p:

She gave it back

He knocked it over

We will be leaving them behind

Three part verbs

Some verbs are made up of three parts – a verb and two particles. They have the

pattern:

N + V + p + p + N:

His girl friend walked out on him.

She soon caught up with the other runners

Children should look up to their parents.

verb patterns - adverbials

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A clause often has one or more adverbial phrases:

The children laughed happily. (N + V + Adv)

All the girls are learning English at school in the second year. (N + V + Adv + Adv)

Last year Mary and the family were driving to Madrid in an old bus. (Adv + N + V + Adv + Adv)

She put the flowers carefully in a vase. (N + V + N + Adv + Adv)

clauses: short forms

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A: Short forms as answers

1. We often use short forms to answer questions. Usually we repeat the first word of

the verb phrase:

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Yes, I can/ No I can’t.

A: Have you seen Jack lately?

B: Yes, I have/No I haven’t.

A: Do you like living here?

B: Yes, I do/ No I don’t.

Sometimes we change the modal verb: (see Verb Phrase)

A: Will you come?

B: Yes, we might.

A: Do you think they might come?

B: Yes, I think they will.

2. We often use verbs like think, suppose, expect and hope, to answer questions.

when the answer is yes we add so (I expect so, I hope so, etc.). if the answer is no we say I don’t think so, I don’t suppose so, etc.. but with hope we say I hope not.

A: Can you come tomorrow?

B: I hope so.

A: Will they be at home?

B: I expect so.

A: Is Amsterdam the capital of the Netherlands?

B: I don’t think so.

A: Do you think it’s going to rain?

B: I hope not.

3. We often use adverbials of probability like perhaps, probably, possibly, maybe,

definitely and certainly as short answers:

A: Do you think it’s going to rain?

B: Yes, possibly.

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Definitely!

When the answer is negative we put not after the adverbial:

A: Do you think it’s going to rain?

B: Probably not.

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Maybe not.

4. We can use short forms to agree or disagree with what someone says. Usually we

use the first word in the verb phrase:

A: It’s a lovely day.

B: Yes, it is.

A: I think they might have missed their train.

B: Yes, I think they might.

A: The children will be coming to see us next week.

B: No they won’t. They are going to their grandparents.

Sometimes we change the modal:

A: The children will be coming to see us next week.

B: Yes, they might.

A: The children might be coming to see us next week.

B: No they won’t. They are going to their grandparents.

We use do/does//don’t/doesn’t to agree or disagree with a statement in the present

simple form:

A: Your grandmother looks very well.

B: Yes, she does.

A: I think Jack lives here.

B: No he doesn’t

…and we use did/didn’t for past simple:

A: Everybody really enjoyed the trip.

B: Yes, they did.

A: The children went to Malaysia last year.

B: No they didn’t. They went to Singapore.

5. We sometimes put a short tag at the end of a comment. We use a Yes/No question

form for the tag. If the comment is affirmative we normally use a negative tag:

A: It’s a lovely day.

B: Yes, it is, isn’t it.

A: Your grandmother looks very well.

B: Yes, she does, doesn’t she.

A: Everybody really enjoyed the trip.

B: Yes, they did, didn’t they.

If the comment is negative we normally use an affirmative tag:

A: They didn’t seem to enjoy the trip very much.

B: They didn’t, did they.

A: It’s not a very nice day.

B: No, it isn’t, is it.

A: They haven’t done much.

B: No, they haven’t, have they.

6. Sometimes we put a tag on the end of a statement:

It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?

Your grandmother looks very well, doesn’t she?

They haven’t done much, have they?

They all seemed to enjoy the trip, didn’t they?

7 We use affirmative tags with so and neither or nor to add to what someone has said.

We use so to add to an affirmative:

A: John is working in Barcelona.

B: And so is Maria [= Maria is working in Barcelona, too.]

A: I love Indian food.

B: So do I = [I love Indian food, too.]

A: They’ve just bought a new computer.

B: Really? So have we. [= We have also bought a new computer.]

We use neither or nor to add to a negative:

A: I don’t smoke any more.

B: Neither do I. [= I also don’t smoke]

A: They haven’t written to us for ages.

B: Nor has Peter. [= Peter hasn’t written to us for ages, too.]

A: We won’t be taking a holiday this year.

B: Neither will we. [= We also won’t be taking a holiday this year.]

A: I never have time for breakfast.

B: Nor have I. [= I am as busy as you]

clauses: short forms

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A: Short forms as answers

1. We often use short forms to answer questions. Usually we repeat the first word of

the verb phrase:

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Yes, I can/ No I can’t.

A: Have you seen Jack lately?

B: Yes, I have/No I haven’t.

A: Do you like living here?

B: Yes, I do/ No I don’t.

Sometimes we change the modal verb: (see Verb Phrase)

A: Will you come?

B: Yes, we might.

A: Do you think they might come?

B: Yes, I think they will.

2. We often use verbs like think, suppose, expect and hope, to answer questions.

when the answer is yes we add so (I expect so, I hope so, etc.). if the answer is no we say I don’t think so, I don’t suppose so, etc.. but with hope we say I hope not.

A: Can you come tomorrow?

B: I hope so.

A: Will they be at home?

B: I expect so.

A: Is Amsterdam the capital of the Netherlands?

B: I don’t think so.

A: Do you think it’s going to rain?

B: I hope not.

3. We often use adverbials of probability like perhaps, probably, possibly, maybe,

definitely and certainly as short answers:

A: Do you think it’s going to rain?

B: Yes, possibly.

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Definitely!

When the answer is negative we put not after the adverbial:

A: Do you think it’s going to rain?

B: Probably not.

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Maybe not.

4. We can use short forms to agree or disagree with what someone says. Usually we

use the first word in the verb phrase:

A: It’s a lovely day.

B: Yes, it is.

A: I think they might have missed their train.

B: Yes, I think they might.

A: The children will be coming to see us next week.

B: No they won’t. They are going to their grandparents.

Sometimes we change the modal:

A: The children will be coming to see us next week.

B: Yes, they might.

A: The children might be coming to see us next week.

B: No they won’t. They are going to their grandparents.

We use do/does//don’t/doesn’t to agree or disagree with a statement in the present

simple form:

A: Your grandmother looks very well.

B: Yes, she does.

A: I think Jack lives here.

B: No he doesn’t

…and we use did/didn’t for past simple:

A: Everybody really enjoyed the trip.

B: Yes, they did.

A: The children went to Malaysia last year.

B: No they didn’t. They went to Singapore.

5. We sometimes put a short tag at the end of a comment. We use a Yes/No question

form for the tag. If the comment is affirmative we normally use a negative tag:

A: It’s a lovely day.

B: Yes, it is, isn’t it.

A: Your grandmother looks very well.

B: Yes, she does, doesn’t she.

A: Everybody really enjoyed the trip.

B: Yes, they did, didn’t they.

If the comment is negative we normally use an affirmative tag:

A: They didn’t seem to enjoy the trip very much.

B: They didn’t, did they.

A: It’s not a very nice day.

B: No, it isn’t, is it.

A: They haven’t done much.

B: No, they haven’t, have they.

6. Sometimes we put a tag on the end of a statement:

It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?

Your grandmother looks very well, doesn’t she?

They haven’t done much, have they?

They all seemed to enjoy the trip, didn’t they?

7 We use affirmative tags with so and neither or nor to add to what someone has said.

We use so to add to an affirmative:

A: John is working in Barcelona.

B: And so is Maria [= Maria is working in Barcelona, too.]

A: I love Indian food.

B: So do I = [I love Indian food, too.]

A: They’ve just bought a new computer.

B: Really? So have we. [= We have also bought a new computer.]

We use neither or nor to add to a negative:

A: I don’t smoke any more.

B: Neither do I. [= I also don’t smoke]

A: They haven’t written to us for ages.

B: Nor has Peter. [= Peter hasn’t written to us for ages, too.]

A: We won’t be taking a holiday this year.

B: Neither will we. [= We also won’t be taking a holiday this year.]

A: I never have time for breakfast.

B: Nor have I. [= I am as busy as you]

relative clauses

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1. The relative pronouns:

The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possessive

who whom, who whose

which which whose

that that

We use who and whom for people, and which for things.

We use that for people or things.

We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses, which tell us more about people

and things.

2. Relative clauses to postmodify a noun

We use relative clauses to postmodify a noun - to make clear which person or thing we

are talking about. In these clauses we can have the relative pronoun who, which, whose

or that

as subject (see Clauses Sentences and Phrases)

Isn’t that the woman who lives across the road from you?

The police said the accident that happened last night was unavoidable

The newspaper reported that the tiger which killed its keeper has been put down.

WARNING:

The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.

We do not repeat the subject:

*The woman who [she] lives across the road…

*The tiger which [it] killed its keeper …

as object of a clause (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

Have you seen those people who we met on holiday?

You shouldn’t believe everything that you read in the newspaper.

The house that we rented in London was fully furnished.

The food was definitely the thing which I enjoyed most about our holiday.

- Sometimes we use whom instead of who when the relative pronoun is the object:

Have you seen those people whom we met on holiday?

- When the relative pronoun is object of its clause we sometimes leave it out:

Have you seen those people we met on holiday?

You shouldn’t believe everything you read in the newspaper.

The house we rented in London was fully furnished.

The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed most about our holiday.

WARNING:

The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.

We do not repeat the object:

Have you seen those people who we met [them] on holiday?

The house that we rented [it] in London was fully furnished.

The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed [it] most about our holiday.

as object of a preposition. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually put the preposition after the verb.:

You were talking to a woman >>> Who was the woman who you were talking to?

My parents live in that house >>> That’s the house that my parents live in.

You were talking about a book. I haven’t read it. >>> I haven’t read the book which

you were talking about.

- When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually leave it out:

Who was the woman you were talking to?

That’s the house my parents live in.

- Sometimes we use whom instead of who:

Who was that woman whom you were talking about.

- When we use whom or which the preposition sometimes comes at the beginning of the

clause:

I haven’t read the book about which you were talking.

- We can use the possessive form, whose, in a relative clause:

I always forget that woman’s name >>> That’s the woman whose name I always

forget.

I met a man whose brother works in Moscow.

3. Times and places

We also use when with times and where with places to make it clear which time or

place we are talking about:

England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year when we got married.

I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day when the tsunami happened.

Do you remember the place where we caught the train?

Stratford-upon-Avon is the town where Shakespeare was born.

... but we can leave out the word when:

England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year we got married.

I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day the tsunami happened.

4. Giving additional information

We use who, whom, whose, and which (but not that) in relative clauses to tell us more

about a person or thing.

as subject (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

My uncle, who was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas.

I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which is one of the most frightening books ever

written.

WARNING:

The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.

We do not repeat the subject:

My uncle, who [he] was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas.

I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which [it] is one of the most frightening books ever

written.

as object (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed.

My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw in “On the Waterfront”.

- we can use whom instead of who as object:

My favourite actor was Marlon Brando, whom I saw in “On the Waterfront”.

WARNING:

The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.

We do not repeat the object:

We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed [it].

My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw [him] in “On the Waterfront”.

as object of a clause :

He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired.

We are going back to Venice, which we first visited thirty years ago.

We can also use who as the object.

He finally met Paul McCartney, who he had always admired.

WARNING:

The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.

We do not repeat the object:

He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired [him].

We are going back to Venice, which we first visited [it] thirty years ago.

as object of a preposition:

He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, who he had read about in the newspaper.

That’s the programme which we listened to last night.

- We sometimes use whom instead of who:

He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, whom he had read about in the newspaper.

- The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative pronoun whom or which:

He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, about whom he had read in the newspaper.

That’s the programme to which we listened last night.

5. Quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns

We often use quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns:

many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom

some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc.

We can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition.

She has three brothers two of whom are in the army.

I read three books last week, one of which I really enjoyed.

There were some good programmes on the radio, none of which I listened to.

6. Using "which" to give more information

We often use the relative pronoun which to say something about a clause:

He was usually late, which always annoyed his father.

We’ve missed our train, which means we may be late.

reporting: reports and summaries

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Many teachers and learners think that tense forms in reported speech are complex.

In fact, "reported speech" follows exactly the same rules as the rest of the language.

1. When we report what people say or think we use:

clauses with that:

Everybody knew that it was Henry’s birthday tomorrow.

She explained that she would do as much as she could to help.

but we can leave out the word that:

Everybody knew it was Henry’s birthday tomorrow.

She explained she would do as much as she could to help.

wh-clauses (see Wh-clauses) and clauses with if (see note in Wh-Clauses)

He was asked what he had been doing the previous night.

She explained why she went by train rather than by car.

to-infinitives:

We all agreed to do as much as we could.

Who told you to come?

2. We very rarely try to report exactly what someone has said. We usually give a

summary:

Mary: Oh dear, we’ve been walking for hours. I am exhausted. I don’t think I can go

any further. I really need to stop for a rest.

Peter: Don’t worry. I’m not surprised that you’re tired. I’m tired too. I’ll tell you what.

I’ll see if I can find a place to sit down, and then we can stop and have our picnic.

>>>

When Mary complained that she was tired out after walking so far, Peter said they could

stop for a picnic.

3. Tense forms in reports and summaries.

When we are reporting what people say or think in English we need to remember:

that the tense forms in reports and summaries are the same as in the rest of the language:

This is a letter that Andrew Brown wrote ten years ago:

I am twenty-two years old and I am at University studying

engineering. I take my final exams next month and I will finish

university in July.

I want to take a year off and travel round the world. I will need to

make some money while I am travelling so I would like to learn to

teach English as a second language so that I can make some money

while I am abroad. A friend of mine has recommended your course

very highly. She also gave me some details, but I would like to ask a

few more questions.

What courses do you have in the summer and when do they start?

How much do the courses cost? Is there an examination at the end?

I look forward to hearing from you.

Regards,

Andrew Brown.

If you were telling a story about Andrew might write something like this.:

When Andrew was 22 he was an engineering student in his last month at the university. He wanted to travel abroad after he had finished his course at the university, but he would need to earn some money while he was abroad so he wanted to learn to teach English as a foreign language. A friend had recommended a course but Andrew needed more information. So he wrote to the school and asked them when their courses started and how much they were. He also wanted to know if there was an examination at the end of the course.

You would use past tense forms to talk about something that

happened ten years ago.

If you were reporting or summarising what Andrew wrote you might

start off by saying:

Andrew told me that when he was 22 he was an engineering student in his last month…

... and you could go on in the same way. You would use past tense

forms to talk about something which happened ten years ago. So tense

forms in reports and summaries in English are the same as in the rest

of the language.

Sometimes you have to choose between a past tense form and a present tense form. If you are talking about the past but you mention something that is still true you could use a present tense form to show you agree that it is true:

John said he had stayed at the Shangri-la because it is the most comfortable hotel in

town.

Mary said she enjoyed the film because Robert de Niro is her favourite actor.

Helen said she loves visiting New York.

... or a past tense form:

John said he had stayed at the Shangri-la because it was the most comfortable hotel in

town.

Mary said she enjoyed the film because Robert de Niro was her favourite actor.

Helen said she loved visiting New York,

If we are talking about something that everybody knows is true we normally use a present tense:

Michael said he had always wanted to climb Everest because it is the highest

mountain in the world.

Mary said she loved visiting New York because it is such an exciting city.

4. to-infinitives in reports and summaries:

We often use the to-infinitive after verbs of thinking and feeling to report or summarise

actions:

decide - hope - intend

“I think I will start all over again” >>> He decided to start all over again.

“I am going to write to the newspaper about it” >>> She intended to write to the newspaper about it.

… and verbs of saying:

agree - promise - refuse

“I can do the shopping for you if you like” >>> He agreed to do the shopping for me.

I’m sorry. I would love to help you but I’m afraid I can’t >>> She refused to help me.

After some verbs we use a direct object and the infinitive (see verbs followed by

infinitive):

advise - ask - encourage - invite - order - remind - tell - warn -

expect - intend - want - would like - would prefer

“I think you should turn the lights out now” >>> She reminded me to turn the lights out.

“Be very careful, children. The sea can be very dangerous so please don’t go in the water.” >>> She warned the children not to go in the water.

verbs - questions and negatives

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1. Yes/No questions

Yes/No questions are questions to which the answer is Yes or No

Look at these statements:

They are working hard.

They will be working hard.

They had worked hard.

They have been working hard.

They might have been working hard.

We make Yes/No questions by putting the subject, they, after the first part of the

verb:

Are they working hard?

Will they be working hard?

Had they worked hard?

Have they been working hard?

Might they have been working hard?

2. Negatives

We make negatives by putting not after the first part of the verb:

They are not working hard

They will not be working hard

They had not worked hard

They have not been working hard

They might not have been working hard

In spoken English we often reduce not to n’t:

They aren’t working hard.

They won’t be working hard

They hadn’t been working hard

etc.

wh- clauses

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Wh-words are what, when, where, who, which, why and how.

We use clauses with a wh- word:

In wh-questions (see Questions and Negatives):

What are you doing?

Who ate all the pies?

Why did you do that?

after verbs of thinking:

know - understand - suppose - remember - forget - wonder

I know where you live.

She couldn’t remember who he was.

John wondered what was going to happen next.

NOTE: We also use clauses with if

I wonder if we’ll see Peter.

She couldn’t remember if she had posted the letter.

after verbs of saying:

ask - say - admit - argue - reply - agree - mention - explain - suggest

I asked what she wanted.

He tried to explain how the accident had happened.

She wouldn’t admit what she had done.

Did he say when he would come?

tell and some other verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see clauses,

sentences and phrases):

tell - remind

We tried to tell them what they should do.

She reminded me where I had left the car.

after some verbs of thinking and saying we use wh-words and the to-infinitive:

We didn’t know what to do.

We will ask when to set off.

Nobody told me what to do.

Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch?

NOTE: We use the to-infinitive:

-- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb:

He didn’t know what to do >>> He didn’t know what he should do

We will ask when to set off >>> We will ask when we should set off

-- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the person spoken to:

Nobody told me what to do. >>> Nobody told me what I should do.

Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch? >>> Can anyone suggest [to us] where we

should go for lunch.

after some nouns to say more about the noun:

Is there any reason why I should stay?.

Do you remember the day when we went to Edinburgh.

That was the town where I grew up.

We often use a wh-clause after is:

I missed my bus. That’s why I was late.

This is where I live.

That’s what I thought.

Paris – that’s where we are going for our holidays

noun phrase

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Noun Phrases

Often a noun phrase is just a noun or a pronoun:

People like to have money.

I am tired.

It is getting late.

or a determiner and a noun …:

Our friends have bought a house in the village.

Those houses are very expensive.

… perhaps with an adjective:

Our closest friends have just bought a new house in the village.

Sometimes the noun phrase begins with a quantifier:

All those children go to school here.

Both of my younger brothers are married

Some people spend a lot of money.

Numbers:

Quantifiers come before determiners, but numbers come after determiners:

My four children go to school here. (All my children go to school here.)

Those two suitcases are mine. (Both those suitcases are mine)

So the noun phrase is built up in this way:

Noun: people; money

Determiner + noun: the village, a house, our friends; those houses

Quantifier + noun: some people; a lot of money

Determiner + adjective + noun: our closest friends; a new house.

Quantifier + determiner + noun: all those children;

Quantifier + determiner + adjective + noun: both of my younger brothers

The noun phrase can be quite complicated:

a loaf of nice fresh brown bread

the eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop with a pistol

that attractive young woman in the blue dress sitting over there in the corner

prepositional phrases

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A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and a noun phrase. We use

prepositional phrases for many purposes, for example:

- as adverbials of time and place:

We will be back in a few days.

They drove to Glasgow

.- as a postmodifier in a noun phrase:

Helen is the girl in the red dress

We’ve got a new television with a thirty one inch screen.

- to show who did something:

The lion was killed by the hunter

I saw a wonderful painting by Van Gogh

- with double object verbs like give and get:

We gave five pounds to the woman on the corner.

They got a drink for me.

- after certain verbs, nouns and adjectives:

The book belongs to me.

I had an argument with my brother.

I feel sorry for you.

sentence structure

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Simple sentences:

A simple sentence has only one clause:

The children were laughing.

John wanted a new bicycle.

All the girls are learning English.

Compound sentences:

A compound sentence has two or more clauses:

(We stayed behind) and (finished the job)

(We stayed behind) and (finished the job), then (we went home)

The clauses in a compound sentence are joined by co-ordinating conjunctions:

John shouted and everybody waved.

We looked everywhere but we couldn’t find him.

They are coming by car so they should be here soon.

The common coordinating conjunctions are:

and – but – or – nor – so – then – yet

Complex sentences:

A complex sentence has a main clause and one or more adverbial clauses. Adverbial

clauses usually come after the main clause:

Her father died when she was very young

>>>

Her father died (main clause)

when (subordinating conjunction)

she was very young (adverbial clause)

She had a difficult childhood because her father died when she was very young.

>>>

She had a difficult childhood (main clause)

because (subordinating conjunction)

her father died (adverbial clause)

when (subordinating conjunction)

she was very young (adverbial clause).

Some subordinate clauses can come in front of the main clause:

Although a few snakes are dangerous most of them are quite harmless

>>>

Although (subordinating conjunction)

some snakes are dangerous (adverbial clause)

most of them are harmless (main clause).

A sentence can contain both subordinate and coordinate clauses:

Although she has always lived in France, she speaks fluent English because her mother

was American and her father was Nigerian

>>>

Although (subordinating conjunction)

she has always lived in France (adverbial clause),

she speaks fluent English (main clause)

because (subordinating conjunction)

her mother was American (adverbial clause)

and (coordinating conjunction)

her father was Nigerian (adverbial clause).

There are seven types of adverbial clauses:

Common conjunctions

Contrast clauses although; though; even though; while;

Reason clauses because; since; as

Place clauses where; wherever; everywhere

Purpose clauses so that; so; because + want

Result clauses so that; so … that; such … that

Time clauses when; before; after; since; while; as; as soon as; by the time; until

Conditional clauses

if; unless; provided (that); as long as

Adjectives

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We use adjectives to describe nouns.

Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun…:

They have a beautiful house.

We saw a very exciting film last night.

or after a link verb like be, look or feel:

Their house is beautiful.

That film looks interesting.

Adjectives

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We use adjectives to describe nouns.

Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun…:

They have a beautiful house.

We saw a very exciting film last night.

or after a link verb like be, look or feel:

Their house is beautiful.

That film looks interesting.

order of adjectives

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Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun:

He was a nice intelligent young man.

She had a small round black wooden box.

Opinion adjectives:

Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe almost

any noun:

good bad lovely strange

beautiful nice brilliant excellent

awful important wonderful nasty

Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe

particular kinds of noun:

Food: tasty; delicious

Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable

People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly

We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:

Nice tasty soup.

A nasty uncomfortable armchair

A lovely intelligent animal

Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that is

descriptive:

a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains

We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:

a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog

Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:

a nice handsome young man;

a big black American car;

that horrible big fierce dog

It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives.

Adjectives usually come in this order:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

General opinion

Specific opinion

Size Shape Age Colour Nationality Material

We use some adjectives only after a link verb:

afraid alive alone asleep

content glad ill ready

sorry sure unable well

Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb:

annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled

We say:

Our teacher was ill.

My uncle was very glad when he heard the news.

The policeman seemed to be very annoyed

but we do not say:

We had an ill teacher.

When he heard the news he was a very glad uncle

He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman

A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:

north

south

east

west

northern

southern

eastern

western

countless

occasional

lone

eventful

indoor

outdoor

We say:

He lives in the eastern district.

There were countless problems with the new machinery.

but we do not say:

The district he lives in is eastern

The problems with the new machinery were countless.

comparative and superlative adjectives

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We use comparative adjectives to describe people and things:

This car is certainly better but it’s much more expensive.

I’m feeling happier now.

We need a bigger garden

We use than when we want to compare one thing with another:

She is two years older than me.

New York is much bigger than Boston.

He is a better player than Ronaldo.

France is a bigger country than Britain.

When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two

comparatives with and:

The balloon got bigger and bigger.

Everything is getting more and more expensive.

Grandfather is looking older and older.

We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on

another:

When you drive faster it is more dangerous

> The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is.

When they climbed higher it got colder

> The higher they climbed, the colder it got.

Superlative adjectives:

We use the with a superlative:

It was the happiest day of my life.

Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

That’s the best film I have seen this year.

I have three sisters, Jan is the oldest and Angela is the youngest .

intensifiers

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Intensifiers:

(Intermediate)

We use words like very, really and extremely to make adjectives stronger:

It’s a very interesting story

Everyone was very excited.

It’s a really interesting story.

Everyone was extremely excited

We call these words intensifiers. Other intensifiers are:

amazingly exceptionally incredibly

remarkably particularly unusually

We also use enough to say more about an adjective, but enough comes after its

adjective:

If you are seventeen you are old enough to drive a car.

I can’t wear those shoes. They’re not big enough.

Intensifiers with strong adjectives:

Strong adjectives are words like:

enormous, huge = very big

tiny = very small

brilliant = very clever

awful; terrible; disgusting; dreadful = very bad

certain = very sure

excellent; perfect; ideal; wonderful; splendid = very good

delicious = very tasty

We do not normally use very with these adjectives. We do not say something is "very

enormous" or someone is "very brilliant".

With strong adjectives, we normally use intensifiers like:

absolutely completely totally utterly

really exceptionally particularly quite

The film was absolutely awful.

He was an exceptionally brilliant child.

The food smelled really disgusting.

mitigators

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Mitigators are the opposite of intensifiers. When we want to make an adjective less

strong we use these words:

fairly - rather - quite

By the end of the day we were rather tired.

The film wasn’t great but it was quite exciting.

and in informal English: pretty

We had a pretty good time at the party.

We call these words mitigators.

Warning

quite

When we use quite with a strong adjective it means the same as

absolutely:

The food was quite awful. = The food was absolutely awful.

As a child he was quite brilliant. = As a child he was absolutely

brilliant.

Mitigators with comparatives:

We use these words and phrases as mitigators:

a bit - just a bit - a little - a little bit - just a little bit - rather - slightly

She’s a bit younger than I am.

It takes two hours on the train but it is a little bit longer by road

This one is rather bigger.

We use slightly and rather as mitigators with comparative adjectives in front of a

noun:

This is a slightly more expensive model than that.

This is rather bigger one than that.

Adjectives as intensifiers:

We use some adjectives as intensifiers:

absolute

total - complete

utter - perfect

real

We say:

He’s a complete idiot.

They were talking utter nonsense.

… but we do not say:

The idiot was complete.

The nonsense they were talking was utter.

noun modifiers

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We often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else:

the village church; the car door; the kitchen window; the chair leg;

my coat pocket; London residents

Warning

We do not use a possessive form for these things. We do not talk

about:

The car’s door; the kitchen’s window; the chair’s leg

We can use noun modifiers to show what something is made of:

a gold watch; a leather purse; a metal box

We often use noun modifiers with nouns ending in -er and -ing:

an office worker; a jewellery maker; a potato peeler; a shopping list; a swimming

lesson; a walking holiday.

We use measurements, age or value as noun modifiers:

a thirty kilogram suitcase; a two minute rest; a five thousand euro platinum watch; a

fifty kilometre journey;

We often put two nouns together and readers/listeners have work out what they mean.

So:

an ice bucket = a bucket to keep ice in an ice cube = a cube made of ice an ice breaker = a ship which breaks ice the ice age = the time when much of the Earth was covered in ice.

Sometimes we find more than two nouns together:

London office workers; grammar practice exercises

Position of noun modifiers

Noun modifiers come after adjectives:

The old newspaper seller

A tiring fifty kilometre journey

Adverbials

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Why do we use adverbials?

We use adverbs to give more information about the verb.

We use adverbials of manner to say how something happens or how something is

done:

The children were playing happily.

He was driving as fast as possible.

We use adverbials of place to say where something happens:

I saw him there.

We met in London.

We use adverbials of time to say when or how often something happens:

They start work at six thirty.

They usually go to work by bus.

We use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are about something.

Perhaps the weather will be fine. He is certainly coming to the party.

how we make adverbials

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An adverbial can be an adverb:

He spoke angrily.

They live here.

We will be back soon.

or an adverb with an intensifier:

He spoke really angrily.

They live just here.

We will go quite soon.

We will go as soon as possible.

or a phrase with a preposition:

He spoke in an angry voice.

They live in London.

We will go in a few minutes.

where they go in a sentence

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Where do adverbials go in a sentence?

We normally put adverbials after the verb:

He spoke angrily.

They live just here.

We will go in a few minutes.

or after the object or complement:

He opened the door quietly.

She left the money on the table.

We saw our friends last night.

You are looking tired tonight.

But adverbials of frequency (how often) usually come in front of the main verb:

We usually spent our holidays with our grandparents.

I have never seen William at work.

But if we want to emphasise an adverbial we can put it at the beginning of a clause:

Last night we saw our friends.

In a few minutes we will go.

Very quietly he opened the door.

If we want to emphasise an adverb of manner we can put it in front of the main verb:

He quietly opened the door.

She had carefully put the glass on the shelf.

adverbs of manner

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Adverbs of manner are usually formed from adjectives by adding –ly:

bad > badly; quiet > quietly; recent > recently; sudden > suddenly

but there are sometimes changes in spelling:

easy > easily; gentle > gently

If an adjective ends in –ly we use the phrase in a …. way to express manner:

Silly > He behaved in a silly way.

Friendly > She spoke in a friendly way.

A few adverbs of manner have the same form as the adjective:

They all worked hard.

She usually arrives late.

I hate driving fast.

Note: hardly and lately have different meanings:

He could hardly walk = It was difficult for him to walk.

I haven’t seen John lately = I haven’t seen John recently.

We often use phrases with like as adverbials of manner:

She slept like a baby.

He ran like a rabbit.

Adverbs of manner and link verbs

We very often use adverbials with like after link verbs:

Her hands felt like ice.

It smells like fresh bread.

But we do not use other adverbials of manner after link verbs. We use adjectives

instead:

They looked happily happy.

That bread smells deliciously delicious.

adverbials of place

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We use adverbials of place to describe:

Location

We use prepositions to talk about where someone or something is.

Examples:

He was standing by the table. You’ll find it in the cupboard. Sign your name here – at the bottom of the page.

Direction

We use adverbials to to talk about the direction where someone or something is

moving.

Examples:

Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street. The car door is very small so it’s difficult to get into.

Distance

We use adverbials to show how far things are:

Examples:

Birmingham is 250 kilometres from London. We were in London. Birmingham was 250 kilometres away

adverbials of location

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Location

We use prepositions to talk about where someone or something is:

above among at behind below beneath

beside between by in in between inside

near next to on opposite outside over

round through under underneath

He was standing by the table.

She lives in a village near Glasgow.

You’ll find it in the cupboard.

We use phrases with of as prepositions:

at the back of at the top of at the bottom of at the end of

on top of at the front of in front of in the middle of

There were some flowers in the middle of the table.

Sign your name here – at the bottom of the page.

I can’t see. You’re standing in front of me.

We can use right as an intensifier with some of these prepositions:

He was standing right next to the table.

There were some flowers right in the middle of the table.

There’s a wood right behind our house.

adverbials of direction

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Direction

We also use prepositional phrases to talk about direction:

across along back back to down into

onto out of past through to towards

She ran out of the house.

Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street.

We also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction:

abroad away anywhere downstairs downwards

everywhere here indoors inside nowhere

outdoors outside somewhere there upstairs

I would love to see Paris. I’ve never been there.

The bedroom is upstairs.

It was so cold that we stayed indoors.

We often have a preposition at the end of a clause:

This is the room we have our meals in.

The car door is very small so it’s difficult to get into.

I lifted the carpet and looked underneath.

adverbials of direction

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Direction

We also use prepositional phrases to talk about direction:

across along back back to down into

onto out of past through to towards

She ran out of the house.

Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street.

We also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction:

abroad away anywhere downstairs downwards

everywhere here indoors inside nowhere

outdoors outside somewhere there upstairs

I would love to see Paris. I’ve never been there.

The bedroom is upstairs.

It was so cold that we stayed indoors.

We often have a preposition at the end of a clause:

This is the room we have our meals in.

The car door is very small so it’s difficult to get into.

I lifted the carpet and looked underneath.

adverbials of direction

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Direction

We also use prepositional phrases to talk about direction:

across along back back to down into

onto out of past through to towards

She ran out of the house.

Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street.

We also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction:

abroad away anywhere downstairs downwards

everywhere here indoors inside nowhere

outdoors outside somewhere there upstairs

I would love to see Paris. I’ve never been there.

The bedroom is upstairs.

It was so cold that we stayed indoors.

We often have a preposition at the end of a clause:

This is the room we have our meals in.

The car door is very small so it’s difficult to get into.

I lifted the carpet and looked underneath.

adverbials of time

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Adverbials of time

We use adverbials of time to say:

• when something happened:

I saw Mary yesterday.

She was born in 1978.

I will see you later.

There was a storm during the night.

• for how long :

We waited all day.

They have lived here since 2004.

We will be on holiday from July 1st until August 3rd.

• how often (frequency):

They usually watched television in the evening.

We sometimes went to work by car.

We often use a noun phrase as a time adverbial:

yesterday last week/month/year

one day/week/month

last Saturday

tomorrow next week/month/year

the day after tomorrow

next Friday

today this week/month/year

the day before yesterday

the other day/week/month

time and dates

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We use phrases with prepositions as time adverbials:

• We use at with:

clock times: at seven o’clock - at nine thirty - at fifteen hundred hours

mealtimes: at breakfast - at lunchtime - at teatime

… and in these phrases:

at night - at the weekend - at Christmas - at Easter

• We use in with:

seasons of the year: in spring/summer/autumn/winter - in the spring

/summer/autumn/winter

years and centuries: in 2009 -in 1998 - in the twentieth century

months: in January/February/March etc.

parts of the day: in the morning - in the afternoon - in the evening.

• We use on with:

days: on Monday/Tuesday/Wednesday etc - on Christmas day - on my birthday.

dates: on the thirty first of July - on June 15th

Note: We say at night when we are talking about all of the night:

When there is no moon it is very dark at night.

He sleeps during the day and works at night.

but we say in the night when we are talking about a short time during the night:

He woke up twice in the night.

I heard a funny noise in the night.

We use the adverb ago with the past simple to say how long before the time of

speaking something happened:

I saw Jim about three weeks ago.

We arrived a few minutes ago.

We can put time phrases together:

We will meet next week at six o’clock on Monday.

I heard a funny noise at about eleven o’clock last night.

It happened last week at seven o’clock on Monday night.

how long

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We use for to say how long:

We have been waiting for twenty minutes.

They lived in Manchester for fifteen years.

We use since with the present perfect or the past perfect to say when something

started:

I have worked here since December.

They had been watching since seven o’clock in the morning.

We use from …to/until to say when something starts and finishes:

They stayed with us from Monday to Friday.

We will be on holiday from the sixteenth until the twentieth

how often

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The commonest adverbials of frequency are:

always never normally occasionally often

rarely seldom sometimes usually

We usually put adverbials of frequency in front of the main verb:

We often spend Christmas with friends.

I have never enjoyed myself so much.

but they usually come after the verb be:

He was always tired in the evening.

We are never late for work.

We use the adverbial a lot to mean often or frequently. It comes at the end of the

clause:

We go to the cinema a lot.

but before another time adverbial:

We go to the cinema a lot at the weekend.

We use much with a negative to mean not often:

We don’t go out much. (= We don’t go out often)

We use how often or ever to ask questions about frequency. How often comes at the

beginning of the clause:

How often do you go to the cinema?

How often have you been here?

ever comes before the main verb:

Do you ever go to the cinema at the weekend?

Have you ever been there?

Longer frequency phrases, like every year or three times a day usually come at the end

of the clause:

I have an English lesson twice a week.

She goes to see her mother every day.

already, still, yet and no longer

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We use still to show that something continues up to a time in the past present or future.

It goes in front of the main verb:

The children still enjoyed playing games.

They are still living next door.

We will still be on holiday.

… or after the present simple or the past simple of be:

Her grandfather is still alive.

They were still unhappy.

We use already to show that something has happened sooner than it was expected to

happen. Like still, it comes before the main verb:

The car is OK. I’ve already fixed it.

It was early but they were already sleeping.

… or after the present simple or past simple of the verb be:

It was early but we were already tired.

We are already late.

We use yet in a negative or interrogative clause, usually with perfective aspect

(especially in British English), to show that something has not happened by a

particular time. yet comes at the end of the sentence:

It was late, but they hadn’t arrived yet.

Have you fixed the car yet?

She won’t have sent the email yet.

adverbials of probability

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Adverbials of probability

We use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are about something. The

most frequent adverbials of probability are:

certainly - definitely - maybe - possibly

clearly - obviously - perhaps - probably

maybe and perhaps usually come at the beginning of the clause:

Perhaps the weather will be fine.

Maybe it won’t rain.

Other adverbs of possibility usually come in front of the main verb:

He is certainly coming to the party.

Will they definitely be there?

We will possibly come to England next year.

but after am, is, are, was, were:

They are definitely at home.

She was obviously very surprised.

comparative adverbs

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We can use comparative adverbs to show change or to make comparisons:

I forget things more often nowadays.

She began to speak more quickly.

They are working harder now.

We often use than with comparative adverbs

I forget things more often than I used to.

Girls usually work harder than boys.

Intensifiers:

We use these words and phrases as intensifiers with these patterns:

much - far - a lot - quite a lot - a great deal - a good deal - a good bit - a fair bit

I forget things much more often nowadays.

Mitigators:

We use these words and phrases as mitigators:

a bit - just a bit - a little - a little bit - just a little bit - slightly

She began to speak a bit more quickly

superlative adverbs

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We can use superlative adverbs to make comparisons:

His ankles hurt badly, but his knees hurt worst.

It rains most often at the beginning of the year.

Intensifiers:

When we intensify a superlative adverb we often use the in front of the adverb, and we

use these words and phrases as intensifiers:

easily - much - far - by far

Nouns

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This Nouns section brings together information about

Nouns - count nouns Nouns - uncount nouns Nouns - count/uncount nouns - common problems Nouns - Proper nouns

count nouns

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Count nouns have two forms: singular and plural.

Singular count nouns refer to one person or thing:

a book; a teacher; a wish; an idea

Plural count nouns refer to more than one person or thing:

books; teachers; wishes; ideas

Singular count nouns

Singular count nouns cannot be used alone. They must have a determiner:

the book; that English teacher; a wish; my latest idea

Plural forms

We usually add –s to make a plural noun:

book > books; school > schools; friend > friends

We add -es to nouns ending in –ss; -ch; -s; -sh; -x

class > classes; watch > watches; gas > gases; wish > wishes; box > boxes

When a noun ends in a consonant and -y we make the plural in -ies...

lady > ladies; country > countries; party > parties

…but if a noun ends in a vowel and -y we simply add -s:

boy > boys; day > days; play > plays

Some common nouns have irregular plurals:

Man > men; woman > women; child > children; foot > feet;

person > people

Plural count nouns do not have a determiner when they refer to people or things as a

group:

Computers are very expensive.

Do you sell old books?

uncount nouns

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Some nouns in English are uncount nouns.

We do not use uncount nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite

article, a/an.

We ate a lot of foods > We ate a lot of food

We bought some new furnitures > We bought some new furniture

That’s a useful information > That’s useful information

We can use some quantifiers with uncount nouns:

He gave me some useful advice.

They gave us a lot of information.

Uncount nouns often refer to:

Substances: food; water; wine; salt; bread; iron Human feelings or qualities: anger; cruelty; happiness; honesty; pride; Activities: help; sleep; travel; work Abstract ideas: beauty; death; fun; life

Common uncount nouns

There are some common nouns in English, like accommodation, which are uncount

nouns even though they have plurals in other languages:

advice baggage equipment furniture homework information

knowledge luggage machinery money news traffic

Let me give you some advice.

How much luggage have you got?

If we want to make these things countable, we use expressions like:

a piece of... pieces of... a bit of... bits of... an item of... items of...

Let me give you a piece of advice.

That’s a useful piece of equipment.

We bought a few bits of furniture for the new apartment.

She had six separate items of luggage.

but we do not use accommodation, money and traffic in this way.

common problems with count/uncount nouns

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1: Uncount nouns used as count nouns

Although substances are usually uncount nouns...

Would you like some cheese?

Coffee keeps me awake at night.

Wine makes me sleep.

... they can be also used as count nouns:

I’d like a coffee please. = I’d like a [cup of] coffee.

May I have a white wine. = May I have a [glass of] white wine.

They sell a lot of coffees. = They sell a lot of [different kinds of] coffee.

I prefer white wines to red. = I prefer [different kinds of] white wine to red.

They had over twenty cheeses on sale. = They had over twenty [types of] cheese on sale.

This is an excellent soft cheese. = This [kind of] soft cheese is excellent.

2: Some nouns have both a count and an uncount form:

We should always have hope.

George had hopes of promotion.

Travel is a great teacher.

Where did you go on your travels?

3: Nouns with two meanings

Some nouns have two meanings, one count and the other non count:

His life was in danger.

There is a serious danger of fire.

Linguistics is the study of language.

Is English a difficult language?

It’s made of paper.

The Times is an excellent paper.

Other words like this are:

business death industry marriage power property

tax time victory use work

4: Uncount nouns that end in -s

Some uncount nouns end in -s so they look like plurals even though they are singular

nouns.

These nouns generally refer to:

Subjects of study: mathematics, physics, economics, etc.

Activities: gymnastics, athletics, etc.

Games: cards, darts, billiards, etc.

Diseases: mumps, measles, rabies, etc.

Economics is a very difficult subject.

Billiards is easier than pool or snooker.

5: Group nouns

Some nouns, like army, refer to groups of people, animals or things, and we can use

them either as singular nouns or as plural nouns.

army audience committee company crew enemy

family flock gang government group herd

media public regiment staff team

We can use these group nouns either as singular nouns or as plural nouns:

My family is very dear to me. I have a large family. They are very dear to me. (= The members of my family…)

The government is very unpopular. The government are always changing their minds.

Sometimes we think of the group as a single thing:

The audience always enjoys the show. The group consists of two men and three women.

Sometimes we think of the group as several individuals;

The audience clapped their hands. The largest group are the boys.

The names of many organisations and teams are also group nouns, but they are usually

plural in spoken English:

Barcelona are winning 2-0. The United Oil Company are putting prices up by 12%.

6: Two-part nouns

A few plural nouns, like binoculars, refer to things that have two parts.

glasses jeans knickers pincers pants pliers

pyjamas scissors shorts spectacles tights trainers

trousers tweezers

These binoculars were very expensive

Those trousers are too long.

To make it clear we are talking about one of these items, we use a pair of …

I need a new pair of spectacles.

I’ve bought a pair of blue jeans.

If we want to talk about more than one, we use pairs of … :

We’ve got three pairs of scissors, but they are all blunt.

I always carry two pairs of binoculars.

proper nouns

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Names of people, places and organisations are called proper nouns. We spell proper

nouns with a capital letter:

Mohammed Ali; Birmingham; China; Oxford University, the United Nations

We use capital letters for festivals:

Christmas; Deepawali; Easter; Ramadan; Thanksgiving

We use a capital letter for someone’s title:

I was talking to Doctor Wilson recently.

Everything depends on President Obama.

When we give the names of books, films, plays and paintings we use capital letters for

the nouns, adjectives and verbs in the name:

I have been reading ‘The Old Man and the Sea’.

Beatrix Potter wrote ‘The Tale of Peter Rabbit’

You can see the Mona Lisa in the Louvre.

Sometimes we use a person’s name to refer to something they have created:

Recently a Van Gogh was sold for fifteen million dollars.

We were listening to Mozart.

I’m reading an Agatha Christie.