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Asia-PacificJournal of

Innovation inHospitality and

Tourism

APJIHTVol 6 No 2 2017 (September)

PP 17711/04/2013 (032291)

Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism

(APJIHT)

Vol 6 No 2 2017 pp. 1-90

Abstracted and Indexed in CABI, CIRET, UDL Edge and MyCITE

Published byTaylor’s University Sdn Bhd

Research PapersMapping Zone of Tolerance from Destination Atmospherics 1Arup Kumar BaksiAliah University, India

Corporate Social Responsibility: Exploring SME Owners’ Understanding and Practices 25Pei Yi Beh and Sushila Devi Rajaratnam Taylor’s University, Malaysia

Generation Y Malaysian Women’s Perception Towards Solo Travel 45Toh Jen Ying, Khairil Wahidin Awang & Jamil Bojei University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Local Community Involvement in Wildlife Resorts: Issues and Challenges 55Nagarjuna G and Joby ThomasChrist University, India

Research NotesSatisfaction towards Internship Program and Future Career Development for Students in the Private Higher Education Institutions: A Research Note 69 Ruth Sabina Francis and Elangkovan Narayanan Alagas Taylor’s University, Malaysia

Tying the Knot in Malaysia: The Factors that Motivate Venue Selection and Venue Attributes 75 Shantini Thuraiselvam and Francisca Lo Kiun Yii Taylor’s University, Malaysia

In Search of Greener Pastures? Investigating Filipino Tourism and Hospitality Management Students’ Willingness to Work Overseas 81Richard S Aquino, Gertrude P Tuazon, Tyron W Yap and Ian Bencio M DavidHoly Angel University, Philippines

Vol. 6 No. 2 September 2017

Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism(APJIHT)

Taylor’s University Sdn Bhd

ii Ahmad Rasmi AlBattat, Ahmad Puad Mat Som & Chiang, Li-Ting

APJIHT Vol. 6 No. 2 September 2017

Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and TourismAPJIHT

About the JournalThe aim of the journal is to promote and enhance research development and innovation in the field of hospitality and tourism. The journal seeks to provide an international platform for hospitality and tourism educators, postgraduate student and researchers, to debate and disseminate research findings, facilitate the discussion of new research areas and techniques, and highlight best practices for industry practioners. The articles published in the journal take a multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach to study the marketing, finance, economics and social aspects of hospitality and tourism. Papers dealing with theoretical, conceptual and empirical aspects of the subject matter will be considered for publication.

Article Categories

•Annualreviewoftrends •Managementstyles•Appliedresearch •Methodsandprinciples•Empiricalresearch •Shortresearchnotes•Techniquesandinnovations •Bookreviews

The Review ProcessAll articles are reviewed (double blind) by at least two academic experts in the particular field of the submitted paper prior to acceptance. A maximum of 45 days/1.5 months is envisaged for the completion of the blind review process.

Paper ContributorsPapers are accepted from public and private institutions of higher education, the industry, non-governmental organizations, research centres and associations.

FrequencyIt is a bi-annual journal with the issues being published in March and September of each year.

AssociationThisjournalisofficiallyassociatedwithASEANTourismResearchAssociation(ATRA)since2015.

Sponsor and PublisherThe journal is sponsored by the Center for Research and Innovation in Tourism (CRiT), Faculty of Hospitality, Food and Leisure Management and published by Taylor’s University Sdn. Bhd.

iiiHospitality Emergency Management and The Dirty Twelve:A Dozen Reasons for Failure


Editorial Board

Editor-in-ChiefPaolo Mura, Faculty of Hospitality, Food and Leisure Management, Taylor’s University, Malaysia

Founding Editor-in-ChiefProfessor Muhamad Muda

Board Members

Dimitrios Buhalis, Bournemouth University, UKKaye Chon, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong KongKadir Din, Universiti Utara Malaysia, MalaysiaDogan Gursoy, Washington State University, USAMicheal C.Hall,UniversityofCanterbury,NewZealandAmran Hamzah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MalaysiaPerry Hobson, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaBadaruddin Mohamed, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MalaysiaFevzi Okumus, University of Central Florida, USAJean-Pierre Poulain, University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès, France John Tribe, University of Surrey, UKBihu (Tiger) Wu, Peking University, China

Advisory Members

Nuraisyah Chua Abdullah, Universiti Teknologi Mara, MalaysiaFaizan Ali, Florida State University, USALevent Altinay, Oxford Brookes University, UKNima Azarakhsh, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaNeethiahnanthan Ari Ragavan, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaNorman Au, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong KongFrederic Bouchon, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaAhmet Ozturk Bulent, Central Florida University, USAChristina Geng-Ging Chi, Washington State University, USAChong Li Choo, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaAllan de Guzman, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, PhilippinesYusel Ekinci, Oxford Brookes University, UKSmitha Geetha, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaFaridah Hassan, Universiti Teknologi MARA, MalaysiaSotiris Hji-Avgoustis, Ball State University, Indiana, USA

iv Ahmad Rasmi AlBattat, Ahmad Puad Mat Som & Chiang, Li-Ting


Stanislav Ivanov, International University College, BulgariaChristian Kahl, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaJay Kandampully, Ohio State University, MalaysiaSuresh Kannan, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaWoody Kim, Florida State University, USAAzilah Kasim, Universiti Utara Malaysia, MalaysiaSonia Khan, H.P. University, IndiaCatheryn Khoo-Lattimore, Griffith University, AustraliaCyrille Laporte, University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès, France Emily Ma, Griffith University, AustraliaParikshat Singh Manhas, University of Jammu, IndiaPaul J. McVety, Johnson and Wales University, USAElise Line Mognard, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaSalleh Mohd Radzi, Universiti Teknologi MARA, MalaysiaPaolo Mura, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaHalil Nadiri, EasternMediterraneanUniversity,NorthCyprusPradeep Kumar Nair, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaVikneswaran Nair, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaRuben Mediona Nayve, JR,CouncilofEconomicsEducators,PhilippinesAlexandru Nedelea, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, RomaniaChristy Ng Yen Nee, Institute for Tourism Studies (Macao), ChinaRosmini Omar, Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaNor’ain Othman, Universiti Teknologi MARA, MalaysiaMicheal Ottenbacher, Heilbronn University, GermanyRadesh Palakurthi, University of Memphis, USARamachandran Ponnan, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaSushila Devi S. Rajaratnam, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaSridar Ramachandran, Universiti Putra Malaysia, MalaysiaScott Richardson, Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School, AustraliaHeike Schanze,AucklandUniversityofTechnology,NewZealandRegina Schlüter,UniversidadNacionaldeQuilmes,ArgentinaMohit Shahi, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaAhmad Shuib, Universiti Putra Malaysia, MalaysiaMarianna Sigala, University of the Aegean, GreeceVineetha Sinha,NationalUniversitySingapore,SingaporePimtong Tavitiyaman,SPEED,HongKongToney K. Thomas, Taylor’s University, MalaysiaLaurence Tibere, University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès, FranceMuzaffer S. Uysal, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USAPaul Williams, Staffordshire University, UKAtila Yuksel, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey

vHospitality Emergency Management and The Dirty Twelve:A Dozen Reasons for Failure


Research PapersMapping Zone of Tolerance from Destination Atmospherics 1Arup Kumar Baksi Aliah University, India

Corporate Social Responsibility: Exploring SME Owners’ Understanding and Practices 25PeiYiBehandSushilaDeviRajaratnamTaylor’s University, Malaysia

Generation Y Malaysian Women’s Perception Towards Solo Travel 45Toh Jen Ying, Khairil Wahidin Awang and Jamil BojeiUniversity Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Local Community Involvement in Wildlife Resorts: Issues and Challenges 55NagarjunaGandJobyThomasChrist University, India

Research NotesSatisfaction towards Internship Programme and Future Career Development for Students in the Private Higher Education Institutions: A Research Note 69 RuthSabinaFrancisandElangkovanNarayananAlagasTaylor’s University, Malaysia

Vol. 6 No. 2 September 2017

Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and TourismAPJIHT

vi Ahmad Rasmi AlBattat, Ahmad Puad Mat Som & Chiang, Li-Ting

Tying the Knot in Malaysia: The Factors that Motivate Venue Selection and Venue Attributes 75Shantini Thuraiselvam and Francisca Lo Kiun YiiTaylor’s University, Malaysia

In Search of Greener Pastures? Investigating Filipino Tourism and Hospitality Management Students’ Willingness to Work Overseas 81RichardSAquino,GertrudePTuazon,TyronWYapandIanBencioMDavidHoly Angel University, Philippines


Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and TourismAPJIHT Vol. 6 No. 2 September 2017 pp. 1-23

ISSN 2289-1471

Research Paper

Mapping Zone of Tolerance from Destination Atmospherics

Arup Kumar Baksi Aliah University, India

© The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access by Taylor’s Press.

Abstract: The concept of zone of tolerance is quite complex as it delves deep into the cognitive spread of consumers which determines the level of acceptance or rejection of services. Thus for service marketers, the deterministic impact of zone of tolerance may play a critical role towards acceptance/ rejection of services based on quality, delivery, physical evidence and employee interaction. Research on zone of tolerance thus far has been restricted to the identification of the stretch limit using empirical evidence of retail customers. The subtle variation in the psychological perception of services and vis-a-vis receptivity based on sectoral dimensions has remained inconclusive. Further, zone of tolerance as a pivotal determinant of destination attachment has not been focused either, although the concept is likely to have serious connotations with respect to behavioural consequences of tourists. Destination atmospherics, a major input in tourism-servicescape, is apprehended to be deterministic of zone of tolerance. This paper intends to map the zone of tolerance of tourists from the perspective of destination atmospherics. The findings will lend additional inputs to the theoretical base of travel motivation.

Keywords: Destination atmospherics, zone of tolerance, tourist

Suggested citation: Baksi, A.K. (2017). Mapping zone of tolerance from destination atmospherics. Asia- Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 1-23.

Introduction

World Travel and Tourism Council (WWTC, 2015) in their report, portrayed India as one of the most sought destinations in the world tourism circuit. According to the WTTC, India ranked 9th out of 184 countries in terms of growth and ranked 4th in terms of predicted growth for the period 2015-2025. The direct contribution of travel and tourism for India’s GDP in 2015 rose by 7.6% as compared to 2014 (INR 2478.2 billion) and is projected to grow at a rate of 7.1% per annum till 2025.

Correspondence: Arup Kumar Baksi, Aliah University, India Email: [email protected]


2 Arup Kumar Baksi

The report further projected a growth of 7.4% per annum on leisure travel spending for both inbound and domestic tourists compared to a cumulative spending of INR 5502 billion in 2014. The upsurge in the travel and tourism industry also affects capital investment and it is projected to grow at 6.5% per annum during 2015-2025 (WTTC, 2015).

This in turn, affects employment in the sector which is predicted to climb at a rate of 2% to total employment for the same said period.

This upsurge in tourist flow has serious implications for destination marketing organisations (DMOs) as they need to focus on the issues of tourist satisfaction, repeat visitation, positive advocacy and share-of-wallet to maintain the inbound flow. The facts and figures are encouraging enough to delve into the realms of perceived service-quality enhancement and positive cognitive response thereof. The showcasing of destinations and marketing of tourism products must go hand-in-hand to generate a synergistic pull-effect. This calls for identifying the alluring atmospheric elements of the destination and their impact on the perceived service quality of tourists. The economic buzz rings a bell for the academic fraternity too as research works on identifying factors pertaining to tourist satisfaction, perception of service quality, destination attachment factors etc. The possible contribution of destination atmospherics in shaping human cognition towards accepting or rejecting the bundle-of-services associated with tourism has evoked a number of queries for the researchers.

A broad-spectrum study on the travel and tourism industry, with specific reference to destination marketing and image building, has been observed as a means of addressing service-quality heterogeneity, tourist satisfaction and other behavioural consequences (Riege & Perry, 2000). Service quality, from a tourism perspective, interests not only academic researchers but also practitioners as it has been found to have a profound impact on the behavioural consequences of visitors including the intention to return to the destination and support for the destination. Service quality has been acknowledged as a tool for sustainability (Shemwell, Yavas, & Bilgin, 1998) and the research initiatives of Parasuraman, Berry & Zeithaml (1985, 1988, 1991), Zeithaml, Berry & Parasuraman (1993), Cronin & Taylor (1994) etc. presented the same critical measuring variable in the form of SERVQUAL, SERVPERF etc. Service quality has been linked up with destination attachment (Baksi, 2015a, 2015b) and destination brand building (Balakrishnan, 2009; Pike, 2007a, 2007b). While ‘perception of service quality’ has been accepted as the controlling variable of behavioural response, researchers pondered over the range of accepted service performance in determining favourable behavioural response from tourists. Parasuraman et al. (1994) proposed zone of tolerance (ZOT) which presented a whole new take on the expectation-based service quality measurement. The researchers identified the “adequate” and “desired” levels of service performance which is perceived to limit the acceptability of services. The concept offered a framework to service providers in designing and delivering


Mapping Zone of Tolerance from Destination Atmospherics 3

their offers with acceptable parameters. ZOT, however, has been understudied in the context of tourism, and more specifically, it has not been taken up in conjunction with destination-atmospheric variables.

Atmospherics has been extensively studied in the context of retail services and atmospheric elements were found to generate a cognitive urge in customers which further stimulated their shopping behaviours. Destination-specific atmospherics were never studied from a tourism perspective to assess its deterministic role, if any, in the zone of tolerance. Therefore a comprehensive model combining the elements of SERVQUAL and destination atmospherics may offer a more vivid explanation on parameters and measurability of ZOT of tourists.

Literature Review

Service quality, as the foundation of a cognitive relationship between the provider and customers, assumes paramount importance in terms of cognitive outputs, namely customer satisfaction, customer retention, lowering of costs, profitability and overall sustainable business performance depends on it (Peng & Wang, 2006; Gurau, 2003; Sureshchander, Rajendran, & Anatharaman, 2002; Lasser, Manolis, & Winsor, 2000; Silvestro & Cross, 2000). Service quality, in the context of the tourism and hospitality industry, has also received considerable attention from researchers and practitioners alike as a potent differentiator among tourism establishments (Nadiri & Hussain, 2005) and as a performance enhancer (Lewis, 1993). A number of research initiatives focused on the measurement of service quality and the use of comparisons became pivotal in the same way (Nadiri & Hussain, 2005). Parasuraman et al. (1985, 1991, 1994) observed that customers compare their expected level of service performance with the perceived level as a measure of service quality. However, “expected level of service” as a comparison benchmark remains inconclusive across heterogeneous service transactions (Liljander & Strandvik, 1993) in spite of its significant implications. SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988; 1991) was introduced as a measuring instrument for service quality based on the gap model consisting of five dimensions, namely tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy. However, the suitability of this five-dimension model in different service set-ups has been questioned (Ekinci, Prokopaki, & Cobanoglu, 2003; Karatepe & Avci, 2002; Angur, Natarajan, & Jahera, 1999; Babakus & Mangold, 1992; Babakus & Boller; 1992).

Following the development of measurement instruments, namely SERVQUAL and SERVPERF (Cronin & Taylor, 1994), researchers focused on the heterogeneity that exists in accepting services. In 1994, Parasuraman et al. modified the SERVQUAL model to measure two different levels of service quality:(a) service superiority (MSS) – the gap between perceived and desired service(b) service adequacy (MSA) – the gap between perceived and adequate service


4 Arup Kumar Baksi

The modified model drew criticism about the nature of computation of the perception-expectation gap. Parasuraman et al. (1994) produced three propositions to measure MSS and MSA:(a) the first proposition was a three-column format using three identical scales to

capture ratings regarding perceived, desired and adequate service levels. The proposition was almost identical to that of SERVQUAL except that it did not feature repetition of items

(b) the second proposition was a two-column format using two identical scales to generate direct ratings for service-superiority gap (MSS) and service-adequacy gap (MSA)

(c) the third proposition was a single column format with split questionnaire using repetitive SERVQUAL items generating ratings for both MSS and MSAThe expectation-based comparison process used in SERVQUAL was criticised

(Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993) as expectation was conceptualised as a non-static cognitive state governed by situation and experience. To counter this criticism, Zeithaml et al., (1993) put forward the theory of dual perspectives of service expectation: narrow and broad. The broad perspective of service expectation was observed as a multidimensional construct and was bifurcated into desired and adequate levels. Zeithaml et al. (1993) defined the desired level as the service a customer hopes to receive and is reflective of evaluated service quality. The adequate level was defined as the minimum level of acceptable service performance. The stretch between the desired and adequate level of service was called “zone of tolerance” (ZOT) representing the range of service performance that would be tolerated by customers. The concept of ZOT can be attributed to the expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm proposed by Oliver (1977, 1980). The theory conceptualised a cognitive comparison between expectations and perceived performance with deviations deemed as disconfirmation of beliefs. Positive disconfirmation results from superior perceived performance compared to expectation, while negative disconfirmation is associated with inferior perceived performance. The extent to which customers are willing to accept this variation in service performance is the ZOT. The ZOT also has its roots in the perceived-value theory (Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Monroe, 1990) which describes the net benefits gained by customers in exchange of costs incurred to maximise such gains. Spreng, Andrea & Richard (1993) talked about a cognitive trade-off in which customers accept a transaction based on its future benefits or outcomes. ZOT has the “satisfaction/ dissatisfaction” element embedded in it. In 1990, Hart, Heskett & Sasser examined the impact of service recovery, following a service-failure, on the satisfaction-dissatisfaction polarity and found that satisfactory service recovery may elevate the level of satisfaction, thereby, hinting towards an upward stretch of ZOT. Later, McCollough & Bharadwaj (1992) termed the phenomenon as “service recovery paradox” which was conceptualised as a reinforcement in service satisfaction following an apparent dissatisfaction resulting from service failure. Service



recovery-paradox, yet again, confirmed the situational flexibility in the bandwidth of ZOT. The inherent criticalities in service transaction inhibit homogeneity in terms of delivery and vary across service touch points involving the provider and recipients. ZOT has never been studied from tourists’ point of view; as a result of which, the contribution of social theories explaining the cognitive makeover of consumers was never tested in the context of the same.

Destination attributes are critical inputs of service expectations for tourists. Dann (1977) introduced a “pull-push” framework to understand the considerations for a visitor to choose a destination based on certain exogenous attributes (termed as ‘pull’), namely physical landscape, heritage & culture, religious imperatives, scope of leisure-related activities, recreational value etc. (Klenosky, 2002) and endogenous forces, focusing on the internal desire of tourists, namely escape from monotony, relaxation, rest, experience, social interaction etc. Researchers have also studied the impact of individual destination attributes on the choice and decision making related to specific destinations. Cost (Christie & Crompton, 2001; Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Gooroochurn & Sugiarto, 2003); culture (Smith, 2003; McKercher, 2002); entertainment & relaxation (Formica, 2000); physical landscape (Hu & Ritchie, 1993; Formica, 2000); climatic conditions (Martin, 2005); accessibility (Zhang & Lam, 1999; Crouch & Ritchie, 1999); safety & security (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1996; Dimanche & Lepetic, 1999), attitude of locals (Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Andriotis & Vaughn; 2003) and services (Haber & Lerner, 1998) were found to be critical destination attributes influencing tourists’ decision regarding choice & preference of destination. Further, these destination attributes were found to play a significant role in building the expectation-perception continuum of quality associated with tourism services. Mehrabian and Russel (1974) expanded the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) paradigm to understand an individual’s assessment of physical environment towards framing service expectations. Researchers have empirically tested the effect of emotions evoked from physical environment on behavioural outputs in various settings, namely hotels (Barsky & Nash, 2002), museums and theme parks (Bigne & Andreu, 2004, Bigne, Andreu & Gnoth, 2005; Bonn, Joseph-Mathews, Hayes & Cave, 2007) and festivals (Lee, Lee, Lee, & Babin, 2008). The physical environment or atmospherics (or servicescape) of a destination has been found to have antecedent impact on destination attachment (Baksi, 2015a; Baksi, 2015b). Atmospherics in service environment was observed as triangulation of ambiance conditions, spatial layout and signs and social service environment (Bonn et al., 2007). Richins (1997) found that the prevailing scales capturing cognitive emotions of customers, namely the pleasure-arousal-dominance (PAD) (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) and destination-emotion-scale (Izrad, 1977) are inadequate to map cognitive response to a service performance as the context of service transaction may vary. She developed a consumption emotion set (CES) to measure emotions elicited through service interactions. Researchers


6 Arup Kumar Baksi

working on leisure and tourism have identified atmospheric variables pertaining to destination attachment and satisfaction of tourists (Kyle, Graefe, Manning & Bacon, 2003, 2004a, 2004b) which are perceived to determine zone of tolerance. Varying destination atmospherics tend to alter the preferential orientation of tourists as they bank on their past experience and/ or search for alternatives (Hammitt, Backlund, & Bixler, 2004, 2006; Lee, 2001; Hammitt & McDonald, 1983). Support drawn from past experience often plays an antecedent role in tourist satisfaction and somehow determines the stretch of zone of tolerance. Tourist satisfaction has been used as an assessment tool to evaluate destination atmospherics, travel and shopping experience, recreation setting and decision to return (Alegre & Juaneda, 2006; Bigne et al., 2005; Bramwell, 1998; Ross & Iso-Ahola, 1991). Destination atmospherics, namely crowd level, quality of entertainment, uniqueness of activities, feeling safe, visually appealing sites, affordability, visibility of signages etc. were found to have a profound impact on the expectation level of visitors (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Pritchard, Havitz, & Howard, 1999) and therefore is perceived as forming a critical component of tourists’ zone of tolerance.

ZOT at destinations that present heritage, scenic beauty, ethno-cultural experience and festivals as major attractions should not be measured in terms of service providers, namely hotels or logistics companies (as shown by research thus far) only, but should also take into account, atmospheric inputs. Researchers, thus far, have only taken into account destination attributes and tried to correlate them (in terms of antecedent effect) with decision making such as destination choice, destination preference (Baksi, 2015a), travel plan and travel behaviours such as satisfaction (Kyle et al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b), repeat visitation (Alegre & Juaneda, 2006; Bigne et al., 2005), destination attachment (Baksi, 2015a; Baksi, 2015b) and destination loyalty etc. Therefore, only partial understanding about the impact of tourism-service quality and destination-attributes on the behavioural pattern of tourists were observed as they were treated in isolation. Literature remains inconclusive regarding a comprehensive approach to integrate service-atmospherics to map ZOT for tourists. The models, PAD by Mehrabian & Russell, 1974 and DES by Izrad (1977) were also found to be inadequate in explaining the formation of the cognitive bandwidth reflecting acceptance of services. The expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm by Oliver (1977, 1980) tries to explain the expectation-perception continuum in terms of disconfirmation of beliefs but fails to provide a comprehensive model to understand how the acceptance-limits are placed by synthesising services and atmospherics together. This study expands the realm of conventional service-expectation-based measurement of zone of tolerance by integrating cognitive expectations arising out of destination atmospherics. The study also takes into consideration, theories like expectancy-disconfirmation, perceived-value, customer expectation-perception continuum, customer satisfaction etc. to frame the gap in the study.



Methodology

A quantitative research approach was adopted to obtain a measure of ZOT based on destination-atmospheric elements. The methodology is grounded on identification of relevant constructs from past research to propose a theoretical model for empirical examination on the basis of field survey. The study conceptualised TOURZOT, a model to measure zone of tolerance of tourists. The model re-examined the study by Nadiri and Hussain (2005) and expanded it to include destination atmospherics as a measurement criterion. The study also measured the MSS and MSA level of tourists visiting destinations using TOURZOT. The initial measurement constructs of TOURZOT were identified from the studies of Parasuraman et al (1988), Zeithaml et al (1993), Parasuraman et al (1994) and Lovelock and Wright (1999). The desired level of service quality is expected to remain stable over time while the adequate level may change based on destination atmospherics. ZOT is perceived as the difference between these two levels of service quality and is in line with the definition put forward by Zeithaml et al (1993) that ZOT is the reflection of tourists’ cognitive stretch towards acceptance and recognition of the heterogeneity involved in service quality. Dimensions of SERVQUAL were used to test the TOURZOT model. The study initially used three specific constructs for destination atmospherics as proposed by Bitner (1992), namely ambiance conditions, spatial layout and signs, symbols & layouts. Destination atmospherics were further ratified from the studies of Lee et al. (2008), Crompton (2003), Baker & Crompton (2000) and Crompton & Love (1995). Adequate modifications were made in the construct by incorporating destination-specific attributes as suggested by Baker (1986), Christie & Crompton (2001), Dwyer & Kim (2003), Gooroochurn & Sugiarto (2003), Smith (2003), McKercher (2002), Formica (2000), Hu & Ritchie (2003), Martin (2005), Zhang & Lam (1999), Crouch & Ritchie (1999), Pizam & Mansfeld (1996), Dimanche & Lepetic (1999), Andriotis & Vaughn (2003), Haber & Lerner (1998) and Baksi (2015a; 2015b). The major destination attributes that are considered to provide destination atmospherics include physical landscape, culture & heritage, safety & security, relaxation, scope of leisure and other activities, accessibility, services, local hospitality and climatic condition. A total of 27 items were used to assess the dimensionality of destination atmospherics.

Considering the nature of the study and the universe to be incorporated, the convenience sampling method was used to generate responses from tourists visiting Santiniketan, West Bengal, India. The cross-sectional data were collected in two phases, namely July to December, 2015 and January to June, 2016 covering two specific festivals, namely the Poush-Mela (winter fare) and Basantotsav (spring-fest) apart from the regular inflow of tourists. The study was restricted to domestic tourists only. The survey instrument, a structured questionnaire, was used for the purpose of collecting primary data. The questionnaire was designed to measure “service expectations”


8 Arup Kumar Baksi

and “service perceptions” using SERVQUAL items (Parasuraman et al, 1991). The questionnaire further incorporated items related to destination atmospherics to identify their role in shaping visitors’ ZOT. It provided three columns to capture expected, desired and perceived level of services. The questionnaire was put through the refinement protocol (pilot test using focus group) to get rid of ambiguity and was redrafted to fit the study. The revised instrument was intended to measure ZOT based on service quality and destination atmospherics and hence represented the proposed TOURZOT. A total of 800 questionnaires were distributed out of which 614 were retrieved. 565 questionnaires were found usable thereby providing a response rate of 70.63%. A seven-point Likert scale (Likert, 1934) was used for data collection with “1” being “strongly disagree” and “7” being “strongly agree”.

The theoretical model proposed for testing is represented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. TOURZOT model

Findings

The dimensionality and internal reliability of TOURZOT were tested using exploratory factor analysis (Table 1).TOURZOT was not found to assume all conventional dimensions of SERVQUAL. The significant factor loadings were then renamed into “tangibles”, “intangibles” and “atmospherics”.

Table 1. Results of exploratory factor analysis

Assigned dimension

Scale item Eigenvalue % of variance

Cumulative variance

Factor loading

α

TangiblesThe service providers have modern-looking equipment

2.23 7.16 7.16 .795 0.91



The service providers’ physical facilities are visually appealing

.766

The employees of the service providers are well-groomed

.860

Visual display of takeaway materials are appealing

.703

Intangibles

The service providers comply with the committed time of delivering service

12.65 12.87 20.03

.620

0.95

The service providers insist on error-free records

.699

Employees of the service providers inform about the exact time when the service will be delivered

.840

Employees of the service providers are always willing to help

.910

Employees of the service providers instil confidence

.832

I feel safe regarding transactions with the service providers

.740

Employee of service providers are consistently courteous

.753

Employees of service providers are not too busy to respond to queries

.776

Table 1 (con’t)


10 Arup Kumar Baksi

Employees of service providers are knowledgeable enough to answer my queries

.748

Employees of service providers understand my specific needs

.739

The service providers have employees who give individual attention

.728

Destination atmospherics

The destination has visually appealing decor

15.08 47.86 67.89

.707

0.93

The destination has easy to access parking space

.729

The destination has adequate restrooms

.751

The quality of entertainment associated with the destination is extremely satisfactory

.763

The destination hosts unique festivals and rituals

.949

The destination has heritage & cultural significance

.891

The destination provides opportunities to collect local artefacts & souvenirs

.902

The destination provides quality dining facilities

.867

Table 1 (con’t)



The destination appears to be safe for travelling

.820

The destination ensures cleanliness of the visiting sites

.817

The destination is easily accessible .654

The destination has a serene and tranquil environment

.912

The destination offers adequate engagement opportunities through activities

.818

The destination offers satisfactory local hospitality

.779

The local community at the destination is accommodating and willing to help

.748

The destination offers knowledgeable local forums that act as a guide

.659

The destination offers acceptable crowd level

.682

Extraction method: Principal component analysisRotation method: Varimax with Kaiser normalisationKMO: .947Barlett’s test of sphericity: Chi-square: 4568.327, df: 267, sig: p < 0.000

Exploratory factor analysis with varimax rotation was deployed to assess the dimensionality and internal reliability of the data. The aggregate reliability of the dimensions, namely tangibles, intangibles and atmospherics were also found to be significant as α-values ranged from .872 to .919 (>.700 as per Churchill, 1979; Nunnally, 1978). The three dimensions identified have eigenvalues greater than 1

Table 1 (con’t)


12 Arup Kumar Baksi

and the cumulative variance derived was 67.89%. The items’ factor loadings of >.600 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Grablowsky, 1979) were accepted and the rest were discarded. The Kaiser Meyer-Olkin value of .947 and Barlett’ sphericity statistics (chi-square: 4568.327, df: 267, sig: p < 0.000) were also found acceptable as per Norusis (1985).

ZOT was calculated by obtaining the mean scores of expected, perceived and desired service levels. The perceived service level was found higher than the adequate service level and desired service level was found to be higher compared to perceived and adequate service level (Table 2). This implies that perceived service is within the ZOT continuum of tourists. MSS was found within the zone of tolerance but MSA was found below the zone of tolerance for all the dimensions. It can, therefore, be concluded that TOURZOT effectively measured tourists’ ZOT on the modified SERVQUAL which had been aggregated with destination atmospherics. The internal consistency of the service level was found to be at an acceptable level, >.70 (Churchill, 1979; Nunnally, 1978). A high alpha value also confirmed convergent validity (Parasuraman, 1991).

Table 2. Zone of tolerance for tourists

Mean Standard deviation Cronbach’s α

Adequate service Tangibles

IntangiblesAtmospherics

4.544.654.874.23

0.620.730.710.69

0.91

Desired service Tangibles


6.236.116.525.98

0.580.660.720.77

0.85

Perceived service Tangibles


5.034.915.145.04

0.710.730.820.77

0.90

MSATangibles


-0.49-0.26-0.27-0.81

0.530.610.590.62

0.92

MSS Tangibles


1.201.201.380.94

0.690.770.730.72

0.91



Zone of tolerance Tangibles


1.691.461.651.75

0.520.530.550.54

0.93

The distribution of TOURZOT values were calculated on the basis of “gap-analysis” using a paired sample t-test to assess whether there is a significant difference between the expectation and perception levels of respondents. The dimensional gap-analysis was done using the extended and modified SERVQUAL instrument with two dimensions, namely tangibles and intangibles (confirmed by Nadiri and Hussain, 2005) and atmospherics. The total number of variables used for the comparison was 32. Table 3 captured the results of the paired sample t-test. The results reveal that respondents gave relatively high expectation scores (mean ≥ 5.5) for “destination having unique festivals and rituals”, “destination having heritage significance”, “opportunity to collect souvenirs”, “satisfactory local hospitality”, “quality of entertainment”, “convenient access to visiting sites”, “serene and tranquil environment” and “adequate engagement opportunities in events and activities”. Similarly, high expectation scores (mean ≥ 5.5) were observed for “employees willing to help”, “safety in transactions”, “courteousness of employees” and “timely service”. These results indicate that respondents were relatively more sensitive to atmospherics and intangibles. As far as tangibles were concerned, high expectation score (mean ≥ 5.5) was observed only for “visually appealing physical facilities”.

Perception score were higher compared to expectation scores for “destination having unique festivals and rituals” (mean=6.21), “destination having heritage significance” (mean=5.79), “opportunity to collect souvenirs” (mean=5.81) and “courteousness of employees” (mean=5.62). The perception of respondents did not match their expectations for the remainder of the variables, implying, major shortfall in service quality and representing cognitive dissonance about atmospherics. The largest gap-mean score, confirming cognitive satisfaction (based on atmospherics), favouring perceived service level superior to expected level was displayed for “uniqueness of festival and ritual” (gap-mean=0.61). Similarly, service quality was proven to be superior (i.e. perception score > expectation score) for “courteousness of employees” (gap-mean=0.12). On the other hand, respondents suffered from maximum cognitive setback in terms of “timely delivery of service” (gap-mean= -1.65).

The paired sample t-test was taken up to locate differences between the expectation and perception levels of respondents with regard to service quality and atmospherics. Except for some variables such as “modern-looking equipment”, ‘knowledgeable local forum’ and “error-free records”, all other variables significantly differed in

Table 2 (con’t)


14 Arup Kumar Baksi

terms of expectation-perception continuum. The results (Table 3) confirmed the robustness of the TOURZOT model in substantially identifying tourists’ ZOT and the cognitive gap related to service quality and atmospherics.

Table 3. Comparison of TOURZOT variables across expectation-perception continuum using paired-sample t-test

Variables Expectation Perception Gap mean score

t Sig. (2-tailed)Mean SD Mean SD

The service providers have modern-looking equipment

5.12 0.77 4.88 0.91 -0.24 1.03 .301

The service providers’ physical facilities are visually appealing

5.69 0.73 5.12 0.92 -0.57 5.62 .000

The employees of the service providers are well-groomed

5.37 0.79 4.10 0.94 -1.27 8.78 .000

Visual display of takeaway materials are appealing

4.98 0.80 4.65 0.89 -0.33 6.53 .000

The service providers comply with committed time of delivering service

5.52 0.81 5.01 0.87 -0.51 5.91 .000

The service providers insist on error-free records

5.02 0.76 4.76 0.91 -0.26 1.15 .276

Employees of the service providers inform about the exact time when the service will be delivered

4.67 0.74 3.02 0.90 -1.65 7.66 .000

Employees of the service providers are always willing to help

5.77 0.79 5.41 0.94 -0.36 8.19 .000

Employees of the service providers instil confidence

4.55 0.81 4.32 0.89 -0.23 6.74 .000



I feel safe regarding transactions with the service providers

5.56 0.87 5.38 0.96 -0.18 7.62 .000

Employees of the service providers are consistently courteous

5.50 0.75 5.62 1.09 0.12 7.45 .000

Employees of the service providers are not too busy to respond to queries

5.01 0.73 4.81 1.10 -0.2 7.66 .000

Employees of the service providers are knowledgeable enough to answer my queries

5.43 0.77 5.38 1.07 -0.05 6.89 .000

Employees of the service providers understand my specific needs

4.99 0.78 4.71 0.98 -0.28 7.12 .000

The service providers have employees who give individual attention

4.87 0.82 4.62 0.97 -0.25 7.02 .000

The destination has visually appealing decor

5.12 0.84 4.78 0.92 -0.34 8.19 .000

The destination has easy to access parking space

4.89 0.78 4.32 0.88 -0.57 6.28 .000

The destination has adequate restrooms 4.75 0.79 4.11 0.86 -0.64 7.11 .000

The quality of entertainment associated with the destination is extremely satisfactory

5.72 0.81 5.68 0.92 -0.04 7.81 .000

The destination hosts unique festivals and rituals

5.50 0.72 6.21 0.95 0.71 7.38 .000

Table 3 (con’t)


16 Arup Kumar Baksi

The destination has heritage significance

5.61 0.81 5.79 1.08 0.18 6.65 .000

The destination provides opportunies to collect local artefacts & souvenirs

5.53 0.77 5.81 1.03 0.28 6.45 .000

The destination provides quality dining facilities

5.28 0.74 4.94 1.02 -0.34 9.01 .000

The destination appears to be safe for travelling

5.21 0.79 5.01 1.07 -0.2 8.72 .000

The destination ensures cleanliness of the visiting areas

4.79 0.74 4.55 0.99 -0.24 8.43 .000

The destination is easily accessible

5.64 0.76 5.59 0.91 -0.05 8.38 .000

The destination has a serene and tranquil environment

5.54 0.82 5.33 0.94 -0.21 8.10 .000

The destination offers adequate engagement opportunities through activities

5.50 0.83 5.18 1.04 -0.32 7.88 .000

The destination offers satisfactory local hospitality

5.51 0.80 5.35 1.08 -0.16 7.38 .000

The local community of the destination is accommodating and willing to help

5.42 0.81 5.26 1.03 -0.16 7.62 .000

The destination offers knowledgeable local forums as a guide

4.51 0.78 4.41 1.09 -0.1 1.02 .310

The destination offers acceptable crowd level

4.87 0.79 4.39 1.06 -0.48 6.99 .000

Table 3 (con’t)



The TOURZOT model is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. TOURZOT results

Conclusion

The objective of this study was not limited to assessing the expectation-perception paradigm as an antecedent for ZOT of tourists visiting destinations with specific atmospherics. Instead, it focused on expanding the realm of ZOT by incorporating destination atmospherics as determining factors of the same. The TOURZOT model proposed in the study holds good as the model contributed significantly in mapping not only the ZOT of tourists visiting Santiniketan, a heritage destination in the state of West Bengal, India , but also the MSS and MSA levels. Destination atmospherics were also found to play a significant role in moulding ZOT. The findings concur with previous studies (Nadiri & Hussain, 2005; Karatepe & Avci, 2002) that measurement of service quality spanned across the dimensions of tangibles and intangibles.

The findings reveal that tourists visiting Santiniketan display a moderate zone of tolerance which suggests that service-variations across quality parameters (tangibles and intangibles) would not be tolerated. The observations also revealed that ZOT is shaped by destination atmospherics. Tourists assimilate atmospheric variables to reduce cognitive dissonance and enhance visit experience and hence ZOT assumes a complex range of acceptable service experiences. The findings are also in line with the propositions put forward by Zeithaml et al. (1993) whereby expectation was considered as the comparison standard with polarisation as “desired” and “adequate”.The empirical findings, although, did not favour a positive notion for tourists’ perception regarding service quality across the dimensions of modified SERVQUAL as in most of the cases the gap-mean score for tangibles and intangibles resulted in a negative score. The findings are in agreement with the findings of Nadiri & Hussain (2005). Expectation-based measurement of service quality seemed to be an


18 Arup Kumar Baksi

adequate proposition for the construct of ZOT thereby nullifying the superiority of performance-based scales, namely SERVPERF (Cronin & Taylor, 1994; Boulding et al, 1993). This confirmed the criticism of SERVPERF by Parasuraman et al. (1994). The expectancy-disconfirmation theory (Oliver, 1977, 1981) was reinforced as acceptable levels of transactions were evaluated by incorporating new variables, namely destination atmospherics.

The study expanded to include the unchartered domain of destination atmospherics towards shaping the tourists’ ZOT. The variables show that the “destination atmospherics” are well integrated with the TOURZOT model in explaining the narrow to moderate zone of tolerance of tourists visiting the heritage destination of Santiniketan.

The study has some serious implications for tourism service providers as the perception of service quality and the stretch of zone of tolerance are believed to have a direct impact on the behavioural pattern of tourists. The findings are critical for service providers as the gap-analysis revealed serious negative perceptions of tourists visiting Santiniketan regarding the quality of services rendered. The narrow to moderate ZOT would be a guiding frame for managers to pitch their services at an acceptable level. The intangibles associated with the perception of service quality must be taken care of as they are the dominating variables. The destination atmospherics, to a certain extent semi-controllable in nature, have emerged as critical factors for determining ZOT.

The study had a few limitations. First, it is confined to a particular geospatial location (Santiniketan) that has specific significance and connotations for the visitors. Therefore, to obtain a robust and generalised version of TOURZOT, other destinations with similar specific destination atmospherics, must be considered. Secondly, the study did not consider factors such as “switching cost”, “relationship inertia”, “word-of-mouth” etc. to understand service quality and framing of zone of tolerance. Lastly, the impact of TOURZOT on the behavioural pattern of tourists, namely satisfaction, destination loyalty, destination image perception and advocacy should be examined as well.

Open Access: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY 4.0) which permits any use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited.

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ISSN 2289-1471

Research Paper

Corporate Social Responsibility: Exploring SME Owners’ Understanding and Practices

Pei Yi Beh and Sushila Devi Rajaratnam Taylor’s University, Malaysia


Abstract: This paper explored small and medium enterprise (SME) food retail owners’ understanding on corporate social responsibility (CSR) and identified their CSR practices. Limited research has focused on CSR in SMEs despite their economic and social significance in many countries, including Malaysia. The study attempted to narrow this gap. Semi-structured interviews were held with eight SME food retail owners in the Klang Valley, an area with a high density of SME food retail businesses. Interviewees were selected using purposive and snowball sampling and interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and thematically analysed. The general understanding among SME food retail owners is that CSR benefits customers, employees and the community and is synonymous with financial contributions from large organisations. However, a negative perception is that large organisations engage in CSR either to gain publicity or evade taxation. Nine CSR practices were identified and themed into six dimensions: stakeholder, economic, sociocultural, philanthropic, environmental and legal. The economic, legal, philanthropic, environmental and stakeholder dimensions are consistent with the CSR models proposed by Carroll (1979) and Dahlsrud (2008). However, the dimension classified as sociocultural does not exist in both Carroll’s and Dahlsrud’s models and emerged from the findings of this study. Hence, sociocultural is a new dimension. Though this study provides some significant findings, it focused on independent owner-operated food retail outlets, in one area and sought only owners’ perceptions. Future studies can focus on other important stakeholders, particularly employees and customers, to obtain more balanced findings. Moreover, instead of using only a qualitative research design, future studies can employ both qualitative and quantitative research design to obtain more robust findings.

Keywords: Corporate social responsibility, small and medium enterprises, food retail owners, hospitality, Malaysia

Suggested citation: Pei Y.B. and Rajaratnam, S.D. (2017). Corporate social responsibility: Exploring SME owners’ understanding and practices. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 25-43.

Correspondence: Peh Yi Beh, Taylor’s University, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]


26 Pei Yi Beh and Sushila Devi Rajaratnam

Introduction

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has gained prominence in many industries, including the hospitality industry. Though hotels and restaurants have implemented various environmentally friendly business practices, more studies have focused on the hotel sector than the food service sector (Kucukusta, Mak & Chan, 2013). Moreover, research attention has generally concentrated on large hospitality and tourism organisations compared to small and medium enterprises or SMEs (Tamajon & Aulet, 2013). The research focus on large organisations is evident even in the context of other industries, despite small and medium enterprises (SMEs) constituting the bulk of businesses in many countries (Coppa & Sriramesh, 2013).

In Malaysia, SMEs play a dominant role in the country’s economic growth as they contributed 35.9% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 65% to total employment and 17.8% to total exports in 2014 (SME Corp. Malaysia, 2016). According to the 2011 Economic Census, 90% of SMEs are in the services sector which include food and beverage services (SME Corp. Malaysia, 2016) and their contribution to GDP is expected to increase to 42% by 2020 (“SMEs are important”, 2015). In tandem with their growing importance, SMEs in Malaysia have been involved in various CSR initiatives, though many of them do not identify them as CSR (Nejati & Amran, 2009). This may be due to the lack of understanding on what CSR is and the specific CSR activities in Malaysia (Lu & Castka, 2009). This paper attempts to contribute to the CSR literature by focusing on SMEs, an under-researched area. The paper explores SME food retail owners’ perception of what CSR is and the specific CSR practices they undertake, in the context of Malaysia. SMEs in food and beverage services accounted for 25% of the service sector in 2010 (SME Corp. Malaysia, 2016) and play a prominent role in the country’s economic development. Therefore, any social or environmental initiative that SMEs undertake makes a vital contribution to society. In view of this, investigating SME food retail owners’ perceptions on CSR will enhance understanding on the concept and practices of CSR, specifically in the context of an emerging country. The two research questions that guided this study are:

1) What do SME food retail owners understand about the concept of CSR? 2) What are the CSR practices of SME food retail owners?

Conceptualisation of CSR

In spite of gaining significant popularity over the last three decades, there are many different definitions for CSR (Drebes, 2014) put forward by various scholars (Garay & Font, 2012, Taghian, D’Souza & Polonsky, 2015; Khunon & Muangasame, 2013; Ho Kang, Seoki & Huh, 2010). Nevertheless, the common stance of these definitions is that organisations should contribute back to society (and other stakeholders) voluntarily. This stance is also reflected in the CSR definition in Malaysia. Bursa


Corporate Social Responsibility: Exploring SME Owners’ Understanding and Practices 27

Malaysia (formerly known as Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange) defines CSR as “open and transparent business practices that are based on ethical values and respect for the community, employees, the environment, shareholders and other stakeholders. It is designed to deliver sustainable value to society at large” (Haron, Ismail & Oda, 2015, p 82). This definition provides a guide for CSR practices undertaken by Malaysian public-listed companies but does not apply to SMEs that are not publicly listed.

The different definitions of CSR have highlighted multiple dimensions of social responsibility. These dimensions underline the various CSR practices and may be equally relevant for large as well as small and medium business organisations. Carroll’s CSR model, widely acknowledged as making an influential contribution to CSR knowledge (Pino, Amatulli, De Angelis, & Peluso, 2016), identified four basic dimensions, namely economic, legal, ethical and discretionary (philanthropic) responsibilities (Carroll, 1979). The four dimensions were presented as a pyramid with the economic dimension at the base of the pyramid since the economic responsibility is the foundation upon which the other three responsibilities are based (Carroll, 1991). According to Carroll (1991), the economic responsibility of business is to provide goods and services to consumers and make profit. Economic responsibility is the basis for the other three responsibilities. Legal responsibility mandates a business to comply with the relevant laws and regulations established by the government, while ethical responsibility involves practices related to the environment, civil rights and consumerism, that are either expected or prohibited by stakeholders (Carroll, 1991). Finally, philanthropy consists of discretionary activities to promote quality of life of the community and include contributions such as financial resources or time. In contrast to the mandatory economic, legal and ethical responsibilities, organisations that do not fulfil their philanthropic responsibility are not considered unethical (Carroll, 1991). Carroll later modified the CSR pyramid developed in 1991 to include application of CSR to global stakeholders (Carroll, 2004).

Dahlsrud’s (2008) conceptualisation of CSR was based on five dimensions, developed through a content analysis of CSR definitions in the existing literature. The five dimensions are: social, voluntariness, economic, stakeholder and environmental. Dahlsrud (2008) described these dimensions broadly. The social dimension refers to the relationship between business and society and involves practices that contribute to a better society. Voluntariness implies that business organisations should perform beyond legal requirements, while the stakeholder dimension refers to how businesses interact with their stakeholders. The environmental dimension integrates environmental concerns in business operations and the economic dimension refers to achieving financial success (profitability) and economic development. The author asserts that all five dimensions are necessary to understand how CSR is defined.

Recently, the environmental dimension has gained significance due to growing awareness of environmental issues. Empirical studies have focused on environmental



CSR activities in different sectors such as hotels (Khunon & Muangasame, 2013; Azilah, 2004), SME tourism businesses (Tamajon & Aulet, 2013) and SME manufacturing businesses (Ramakrishnan, Haron & Goh, 2015). Two studies (Azilah, 2004; Ramakrishnan et al., 2015) were carried out in Malaysia. In the lodging industry, the majority of CSR practices carried out by hotels focus on environmental management practices such as improving waste management through recycling, energy and water conservation, and buying and selling in a green manner (Kucukusta et al., 2013).

With the exception of the economic dimension, Dahlsrud’s five and Carroll’s four dimensions are labelled differently. However, to some extent, these dimensions are similar in their content. More importantly, Carroll’s and Dahlsrud’s conceptualisation of CSR are based mainly on definitions used in the West, in particular, Europe and America. Therefore, these definitions may be context-specific and may not portray how CSR is understood and practiced in emerging countries such as Malaysia. Nevertheless, as Carroll’s model is more established in the literature due to its applicability to various empirical contexts (Pino et al., 2016), this model was used as the theoretical framework for this study.

Methodology

Based on an interpretive paradigm, this study explored SME food retail owners’ understanding and practices of CSR. SME food retail owners who had between 5 and 75 full-time employees were identified for this study as this is the criteria used to define SMEs in Malaysia (Bank Negara Malaysia, 2013). Purposeful and snowball sampling was used to select interviewees. Purposeful sampling design refers to intentionally selecting individuals to understand the central phenomenon in the study (Miles & Huberman, 1994). This sampling technique was deemed suitable as the sample for this study was limited to a specific target group - SME food retail owners who could provide the desired information. In snowball sampling, subsequent participants are referred by current respondents (Cooper & Schindler, 2008). As this technique is usually used when respondents are difficult to identify and contact (Cooper & Schindler, 2008), its use was considered appropriate for this study. The semi-structured face-to-face individual interviews allowed SME food retail owners the opportunity to express their own opinions and were therefore utilised. Altogether, eight SME food retail owners were interviewed and the duration of each interview averaged between 35 and 45 minutes. No pre-determined number of interviews was set. Rather, the interviews were conducted until data saturation was achieved (Eriksson & Kovalainen, 2008) and in this study, data saturation was achieved with eight semi-structured interviews carried out between November and December 2014. The interviews were confined to the Klang Valley which has the



highest number of food retail outlets in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was used to group and analyse the transcribed data according to the commonality of data, relationship between each variable and differences across the set of data (Gibson & Brown, 2009). The interview excerpts included in this paper retained the original sentences used by the interviewees so as not to alter their meaning.

Ethical procedures were followed during the data collection process. An information sheet was first provided to all interviewees before the interviews were conducted. The information sheet described the purpose of the study as well as information on how the data would be collected and treated. The researcher emphasised the importance of anonymity and that the results would only be used for the purpose of this study. To protect their identity, interviewees are referred to as Interviewee 1, Interviewee 2 and so on until Interviewee 8. Interviewees were then requested to sign a consent form to acknowledge their participation. These steps were crucial to establish a relationship of trust with the interviewees, as many were expressing personal opinions and feelings.

Six of the eight interviewees were male and two were female, aged between 23 and 55 years. All were Malaysians with six Chinese and two Malays. The majority had between one and two years’ experience in the food retail business and only two had been in this industry for twelve years. The food retail businesses sampled included independent cafes, burger joints and small restaurants selling local food. These food outlets employed between 10 and 35 full time employees, in accordance with the criterion used to define an SME.

Findings and Discussions

Understanding on CSR

The findings on interviewees’ understanding with regard to the concept of CSR are categorised into six themes:

Providing quality food and service to customers

Two interviewees believed that food retail businesses have the core responsibility of providing good quality food and service to customers. One interviewee stressed that quality should be taken care of, starting from the procurement of raw food items until their preparation as food ready to be served.

It’s the quality and how we produce the product in a good way, the legitimate way… The chicken must be from a good source, the source has to be clean and then when we grill it, we must use proper utensils (Interviewee 1, male, 28).



While food quality is often prioritised in food service operations, the quality of service delivered is equally important, as highlighted by another interviewee. He ensures that the quality of food and service provided are able to fulfil customers’ needs and make them happy.

Most important is to meet customer needs… the product and service provided to the customers should achieve their satisfaction...We will make sure the food we serve can make customers happy (Interviewee 2, male, 40).

Establishing close relationship with staff/ Bonding with staff

There is no doubt that customers are the main focus of a business. The food retail owners interviewed recognise that besides prioritising customers, good companies have to appreciate and establish a close relationship with their employees. They acknowledge that good service quality comes from service staff who are happy and satisfied in their workplace. Interviewee 3 shared his experience on how he builds good relationship with his employees.

We want to have a good relationship with the team so usually on Monday or sometimes after shift we will hang out or play ball games to build the relationship. We know that as long as our employees are happy, customers can be happy as well as they are the one who serve customers. (Interviewee 3, male, 27).

Interviewee 6 stated if employees praise their employer, then that employer has been successful in establishing good relationship with employees. On the other hand, she added that strict or autocratic management will adversely impact on building good management - staff relationship. This interviewee also believed that:

Human beings [staff] are the greatest asset in any company, some people don’t believe humans are an asset, they believe in control and manage only (Interviewee 6, female, 55).

Enhancing wellbeing of local community/society

Financial contributions are perceived as the common way to help enhance the wellbeing of the local community. Other than financial support, one interviewee shared that his company helps the local community by bringing customers closer to a charity organisation. Another interviewee (Interviewee 4) highlighted that a company has the potential play a more significant role than an individual in



promoting awareness on CSR activities for the community, as shown in the excerpt below:

I do it with my business, it is able to raise better awareness to the people...probably I can promote orphanages which lack funds...so hopefully some big donor will come and say hey, I can support this orphanage, this will make me very happy (Interviewee 4, male, 40s).

In addition, interviewees contribute to the wellbeing of society when they support customers’ self-development by hosting enlightening activities in the restaurant, as stated in the next excerpt:

It is not about [providing] food only but it involves soul and mind development...We provide space for musician and singers to showcase their talent, share life experiences and sell their CD’s after [their] performance. We also hope that customers are able to learn from the life experiences of our performers (Interviewee 7, male, 33).

The findings indicate that there is a varied understanding on the concept of CSR among the SME food retail owners. The different understandings stem from the perception that CSR is targeted towards different stakeholders, and based on this study, the important stakeholders are customers, employees and the local communities in which the SMEs operate. This finding is consistent with existing literature that suggests to perform well, organisations should consider the interests of different parties or stakeholders when making business decisions, and not just shareholders (Kucukusta et al., 2013; Sen & Cowley, 2013).

Voluntary contribution

Interestingly, Interviewee 3 opined that CSR practices should be voluntary and not made mandatory. He disagreed with the word ‘responsibility’ as he feels it implies an obligation or compulsory involvement, as revealed in the subsequent excerpt:

I don’t like the word CSR because of the word of “responsibility” because it feels like that (CSR) is something that must be done. (Interviewee 3, male, 27).

This finding echoes the voluntary stance embraced in many CSR definitions in the existing literature (Sprinkle & Maines, 2010). The voluntary aspect of CSR may have been emphasised due to the commonly held belief that CSR is synonymous with corporate philanthropy and, according to Mescon and Tilson (1987, in Gautier and Pache, 2015), it is the oldest form of social responsibility. Carroll (1991)



conceptualised corporate philanthropy as a purely voluntary CSR practice unlike economic, legal and ethical CSR practices which are considered obligatory.

Financial contribution by large organisations

Among interviewees who were familiar with the term CSR, it was regarded as synonymous with monetary contributions and sponsorships by large companies. It was perceived to benefit the donor in the long run, according to an interviewee who quoted a food and drink company, as an example.

Bigger companies like ......…they sponsor beverage vans for schools and benches in public parks. It gives [them] better return in the long term as well, if you are good at CSR, you will have good relations with the authorities or the government (Interviewee 4, male, 40s).

Publicity/Tax evasion

Despite most interviewees’ opinions that CSR is beneficial to society, the study also unearthed a conventional opinion that CSR is used by large organisations as a publicity tool to enhance their corporate image and avoid paying corporate taxes. This is expressed in the following extract:

Big corporations like to donate money. They can donate [money] because they are big players…to evade from paying taxes and some people just do it because of the glamour and for marketing their business (Interviewee 1, male, 28).

This negative perception may limit interviewees’ involvement in CSR as they may be unaware of the genuine advantages of CSR activities. Scholars acknowledge that companies engage in CSR for altruistic and strategic purposes. The strategic orientation focuses on achieving organisational profits while the altruistic orientation of CSR focuses on genuine philanthropy, irrespective of whether the organisation reaps benefits (Jamali, Zanhour, & Keshishian, 2009). Hence, organisations using CSR as a marketing or publicity tool do so in order to benefit their bottom line. This rationale for engaging in CSR has boosted the importance of CSR among organisations (Lee, Mak & Pang, 2012).

CSR Practices

For the second research question on CSR practices of SME food retail owners, the findings revealed that the interviewees were engaged in various CSR activities or practices. Their understanding on what CSR means is closely associated with their



current CSR practices. A total of nine CSR practices emerged from the findings and were themed as: providing quality food, service and conducive physical environment, motivating staff, ensuring customer happiness, sharing knowledge, encouraging flexible work culture, engaging in non-monetary initiatives, providing employment opportunities, preserving the environment and complying with legal requirements. The nine CSR practices were then categorised into six different dimensions based on their appropriateness. The six dimensions were economic, sociocultural, philanthropic, environmental, legal and stakeholder dimensions.

Economic Dimension

The practices that were identified under the economic dimension are: providing quality food, service and ensuring ...’ a conducive physical environment as well as motivating staff. It is expected that engaging in these practices for their primary stakeholders would enable SME food retailers to reap financial gains and sustain business performance in the long run.

Providing quality food, service and conducive physical environment

Six of the eight interviewees asserted that providing good quality food and service as well as ensuring a conducive physical environment in the restaurant is top priority. They regarded these practices as top priority due to their direct impact on business performance and long-term sustainability. One interviewee clearly articulated this practice as revealed in the following excerpt:

I have always told my staff the three key things that we always need to ensure: q for quality, s for service and c for cleanliness [of restaurant]. So, Q - quality of the food, includes the ingredients and the way you present the food; service would be the way you serve the customers…make sure your customers are always happy... third one is cleanliness; we have to make sure the place is always clean… so our business can be sustained for the long term (Interviewee 4, male, 40s).

Clearly, providing quality food, service and ensuring cleanliness of the place (restaurant) reflect CSR practices that are unique to the food service sector of the hospitality industry; a viewpoint affirmed by Njite, Hancer, & Slevitch (2011).

Motivating staff

Interviewees view staff motivation as an important CSR practice because employees are regarded as the backbone of a company and are crucial for its survival. The food retail industry is a service-based operation which depends largely on staff to prepare



food and serve customers. To motivate staff, benefits such as free meals and incentives such as profit-sharing are established by owners. According to Interviewee 3, the profit-sharing system implemented in his outlet motivated his staff to perform more effectively, as highlighted below:

We have this unique thing called profit-sharing programme, every month we take a certain percentage of sales and divide by the number of people [staff] working and their [working] hours and give them a share of the profit to keep them motivated (Interviewee 3, male, 27).

Besides monetary rewards, it was perceived that empowering staff to do what it takes to make customers happy, would also motivate them. Interviewee 5 provides a flexible working environment to facilitate staff empowerment at her outlet, as shown in this excerpt:

…Normally I let them [my staff] do whatever they want as long as that makes sense to make customers happy. [I tell them]if you think the customer will be happy, then do it! Just do it! (Interviewee 5, female, 23).

Employees are regarded as one of the most important stakeholders (Kim & Scullion, 2013) and their contribution is necessary for the efficient functioning of an organisation (Closon, Leys & Hellemans, 2015). Indeed, prior studies prove that CSR practices motivate employees in their work (Kim & Scullion, 2013). However, contrary to Kim & Scullion (2013) who found that businesses seldom engage in CSR with the main aim of motivating staff, this study does highlight that SMEs engage in CSR practices that are aimed at motivating staff. Interestingly, interviewees recognise that both financial rewards (that is, bonuses, profit-sharing and free meals) and non-financial rewards through empowerment, are important motivators to encourage staff to perform well and provide good customer service.

Sociocultural Dimension

This study uncovered a new dimension categorised as sociocultural. This dimension does not exist in either Carroll’s or Dahlsrud’s CSR models. The sociocultural dimension is revealed in three CSR practices which are: ensuring customer happiness, sharing knowledge and encouraging a flexible work culture or environment.

Ensuring customer happiness

As customers are the main reason why businesses exist, ensuring customer happiness is considered an important CSR practice. Food retail owners realise that if customers



are not satisfied with the service provided, they will not repeat their patronage or alternatively, vent their dissatisfaction through social media. Interestingly, one interviewee stated that ensuring customer happiness in their outlet is a way of giving back to society, in terms of their psychological health:

If customers come here with a pissed off face and they sit, enjoy our food and service then go out with a smile on their face...you make them happy and they will come back again tomorrow (Interviewee 1, male, 28).

Literature affirms that customers positively support organisations with CSR practices. According to Gupta (2011), CSR improves purchase intent and consumers provide greater support for companies that have CSR practices. In addition, Perez and Rodriguez del Bosque (2015) found that customer-centric CSR initiatives positively influenced customer satisfaction, recommendation and repurchase behaviours in banks.

Sharing knowledge

Interviewees believe that sharing knowledge on the quality of food ingredients used in their food outlets with customers, is important. Through such information-sharing, customers would be able to appreciate the taste of, and value the food served. One interviewee explained:

We share with our customers that it is the original taste, slowly we will influence and educate them on how to appreciate the taste of original food (Interviewee 7, male, 33).

Besides customers, another interviewee (Interviewee 6) educates young volunteers involved in her CSR activities on the importance of having good values such as being thrifty and making decisions that benefit society. The interview’s excerpt highlights this:

One volunteer for my event suggested that I should give him a T-shirt to remember this event. I asked him how many t-shirts he has and told him how much it will cost to print one ... might as well donate that money to a children’s home. This is the thing I share with young people (Interviewee 6, female, 55).

Encouraging flexible work culture

According to the interviewees, a comfortable and flexible work culture is implemented in their food retail outlets. For instance, employees are encouraged to be innovative



in the way they perform their work without having to worry about being blamed for mistakes made. The following excerpt highlights this:

My management style is you can explore and be creative and we can take risk in a way so that we can think outside the box (Interviewee 4, male, 40s).

The sociocultural dimension emphasises SMEs’ primary stakeholders and is aimed towards fostering social and cultural cohesion with customers, employees as well as the local community. Interestingly, the food retailers perceive that customers’ patronage should be reciprocated not only by providing quality food and service and sharing knowledge on food ingredients but also by taking care of customers’ emotional wellbeing during their dining experience. Encouraging a flexible work culture for employees gives employees a sense of responsibility and ownership and subsequently, makes them happy and motivated in their jobs. This motivation would then be translated to providing quality service to customers. The associated practices are thus seen as a mechanism for the SMEs to achieve competitive advantage. Educating young volunteers on good values reflects their commitment towards shaping a caring society.

Philanthropic Dimension

CSR practices that are categorised as philanthropy engage in non-monetary initiatives and provide employment opportunities to the community.

Engaging in non-monetary initiatives

Interestingly, while large organisations contribute in terms of financial donations or sponsorships, the SME food retail owners interviewed prefer to engage in non-monetary initiatives for the local community. An interviewee had sacrificed two days away from operating his business to sponsor and carry out an event that benefitted the local community. His interview extract is highlighted below:

A female chef from Taiwan [requested to] use our kitchen to teach 15 parents and their children within this area about cake making (Interviewee 7, male, 33).

Moreover, the same interviewee used his restaurant as a place to bring people together. As an example, he allowed his food outlet to be used by a violin player to perform for his customers. In doing so, he provided an opportunity for the performer to display his talent as well as to interact with customers.

I wish my customers are not listening to music only but able to understand their life direction… What we do is to touch people’s lives with little acts by



providing them an opportunity [such as] a stage for them to exhibit their talents and allow them to share dreams [to our customers] (Interviewee 7, male, 33).

Interviewee 8 engaged in other CSR activities to help the local community. He set up a running club in his neighbourhood to encourage people to adopt a healthy lifestyle. In addition, he organised and sponsored food donations to the homeless and to members of a religious place of worship. His interview extract is shown below:

We have a proper coach for the jogging activities every Tuesday night and give out isotonic drinks after jogging. It’s for people who want to maintain a healthy lifestyle. I also created a little social group so that we can extend a helping hand to the needy. Every last Wednesday of the month, we pack 400 packets of food. We go all over KL (Kuala Lumpur) to give out free food to the homeless people. We also sponsor some food to the church when there is food fair (Interviewee 8, male, 32).

Providing Employment Opportunities

Interviewee 8 also contributes to the wellbeing of society by employing talented, unemployed individuals:

My business partner will go around Petaling Street and look for buskers. The buskers have talent but no place [opportunity] for them to showcase their talent. So we employ them to perform at our place (Interviewee 8, male, 32).

Community-based CSR practices consist of participating in philanthropic activities that contribute towards improving the local community’s living standards (Ismail, Alias, & Mohd Rasdi, 2015). While involvement in non-monetary corporate philanthropic activities may reflect the interviewees’ personal values and ethics, it is consistent with the widely accepted view that SMEs do not engage in financial philanthropy due to limited resources. Despite philanthropy being regarded as the discretionary aspect of social responsibility (Carroll, 1991) and their limited resources, it is encouraging to note that SME food retailers’ are committed towards making a positive impact on their community’s wellbeing. Furthermore, by serving the needs of the community it is part of, an organisation ultimately benefits from its philanthropic activities and flourishes together with its community (Gautier & Pache, 2015). It is worth noting that a majority of the eight interviewees engaged in CSR practices for their customers and the local community. The prominence of these two groups of stakeholders indicates that the food retailers share strong social



capital ties with their customers and the local community in which they operate their business. Also, it indicates a promising trend to participate actively in the national development.

Environmental Dimension

The environmental dimension comprises of CSR practices that preserve or protect the natural environment.

Preserving/Protecting the environment

An interviewee acknowledged his responsibility to protect the environment since his company’s operations impacted on the environment. Hence, he shows his commitment through reducing waste, reusing and recycling, also referred to as the 3Rs. CSR practices he has implemented include using reusable food containers, reducing waste in the preparation of food and recycling used items as decorations in his restaurant. These practices are highlighted in the following excerpt:

As a lunchbox provider for TEDx event, I have designed a wrapper with a message for the lunchbox tupperware (container). The message is to encourage the event participants to bring the food tupperware home, wash and reuse it. We also make full use of our food ingredients, for example we use all parts of the chicken rather than just use some parts such as chicken breast or thigh for cooking. Most of my restaurant decoration items are recycled ones…for example, my dad’s primary school beg, sofa and antique coffee grinder. This is the uniqueness of our café (Interviewee 7, male, 33).

According to Maloni and Brown (2006), the food industry has adverse effects on the environment. They suggested that in addition to selling environmentally friendly products, food retailers should adopt environmentally responsible practices for their supply chain network. In view of this, existing literature has highlighted that SME owner-managers tend to engage in environmental practices that result in cost reduction as well as have a positive impact on the environment (Cassells & Lewis, 2011).

The finding that only one interviewee focused on environmental friendly practices in his food retail business may reflect the personal attitude of the interviewee. To a certain extent, lack of commitment to improve the environment highlights the lack of importance the natural environment receives with regard to CSR in Malaysia, and this indifference has been pointed out by Darus (2012). As environmental issues are increasingly receiving global attention, more concerted efforts should be undertaken by the local regulatory authorities to ensure that the food industry, including SMEs,



engage in environmentally responsible practices from a supply chain perspective and hence, influence their daily operational activities.

Legal Dimension

Based on the findings of this study, the legal dimension refers to the practice of complying with the government’s requirements in the hiring of foreigners.

Complying with legal requirements

This compliance is important so that SME food retail owners play by the rules of the game in employee recruitment procedures. As foreigners are usually employed for frontline positions in the local food service industry, it is imperative for food service operators to comply with the relevant laws and regulations to ensure that they do not pose a health risk in their workplaces. In this context, one interviewee opined that having foreign employees with valid work permits is important. Her interview excerpt emphasises this:

For the foreign staff, I make sure all of them have work permits… (Interviewee 5, female, 23).

Complying with the regulatory requirements in the hiring of foreigners indicates the legal responsibility a business has towards the government. This CSR practice was only mentioned by one interviewee probably because this is a mandatory obligation and as such, may not be perceived as a CSR practice by the others. As the government is an important regulatory stakeholder, it is imperative that SMEs behave in a legally and socially acceptable manner so as to sustain their business operations (Taghian et al., 2015).

Stakeholder Dimension

This study uncovered a total of nine CSR practices that focused on the interviewees’ internal (employees) and external stakeholders (customers, local community, government and the environment). Since the nine practices emphasise different stakeholders, another dimension referred to as stakeholder, has emerged and this is consistent with Dahlsrud (2008) who explicitly classified the stakeholder as one of the five dimensions in his conceptual model. The nine CSR practices and the six related dimensions are summarised in Table 1.



Table 1. Study findings: Six CSR dimensions based on nine CSR practices and five stakeholder types

Stakeholder Dimension

Economic Dimension

Sociocultural Philanthropic Dimension

Environmental Dimension

Legal Dimension

– Employees– Customers– Local

Community– Government– Environment

– Providing quality food, service & conducive physical environment

– Motivating staff

– Ensuring customer happiness

– Sharing knowledge

– Encouraging flexible work culture

– Engaging in non-monetary initiatives

– Providing employment opportunities

– Preserving/ Protecting the environment

– Complying with legal requirements

Conclusion

With regard to the first research question, the study found that SME food retail owners within the Klang Valley perceived CSR to be beneficial to different stakeholders, namely customers, employees and the community. Despite the generally positive perception towards CSR, the study uncovered a negative perception that large organisations engage in CSR with an ulterior motive, specifically to gain publicity or to evade corporate tax. To answer the second research question, a total of nine CSR practices emerged which were themed into six dimensions. Five dimensions, namely economic, legal, philanthropic, environmental and stakeholder are consistent with the CSR conceptualisations or models proposed by Carroll (1979) and Dahlsrud (2008). However, the dimension classified as sociocultural does not exist in either Carroll’s or Dahlsrud’s model and emerged from the findings of this study. This new dimension implies that SME food retail owners have a caring personality that may be unique to the context of this study as all the interviewees are Malaysians. Hence, the Malaysian culture may have influenced their perceptions.

Interestingly, the findings present a different viewpoint from that of Siwar and Harizan (n.d.). They pointed out that SMEs in Malaysia are more concerned with achieving profitability to sustain their business operations rather than being concerned with how their operations affects their intimate stakeholders (employees, customers and the local community). However, the findings of this study suggest that through their engagement in various CSR practices to benefit stakeholders, SME food retail owners are concerned about how their businesses impact these stakeholders.

The findings of this preliminary study offers some awareness to policy makers that despite Malaysia not having CSR guidelines for SMEs, some SME food retailers undertake CSR practices based on their understanding. In spite of the significant findings, this study focused on a very specific segment of the hospitality industry, independent owner-operated small food retail owners, in one particular area in



Malaysia. Future studies could focus on different types of food retail outlets such as chain restaurants, franchised outlets and kiosks in other areas in Malaysia. The findings from these studies would provide a better understanding on the status of CSR among food retailers in Malaysia. In addition, this study sought the perceptions of only eight food retail owners and this may have limited the findings. Further studies can focus on a larger sample and, include other important stakeholders such as employees and customers to obtain more balanced findings. Finally, instead of using only a qualitative research design, future studies can employ both qualitative and quantitative research designs to obtain more robust findings.


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ISSN 2289-1471

Research Paper

Generation Y Malaysian Women’s Perception Towards Solo Travel

Toh Jen Ying, Khairil Wahidin Awang and Jamil BojeiUniversity Putra Malaysia, Malaysia


Abstract: Global tourism movement has shown an increase over the past years. Historically, global travel is meant to be the prerogative of men but the women and travel phenomenon has slowly started to emerge. This study addresses the cultural values of West and Asia to understand the Asian perspective. Within South East Asia, Malaysia is one of the countries that is expected to have a steady growth in tourism. The specific trait in Generation Y which is technologically savvy makes the experience more enhancing, thus encouraging people to travel. This study investigates gen Y Malaysian women’s perceptions towards solo travelling. The qualitative approach was employed in this study and data were collected from Malaysian women aged 19 to 33 years old. In-depth interviews were used in data collection to identify the perceptions of Malaysian women and solo travelling trends. Findings indicate that the differences of West and Asia values are not a constraint for Malaysian women to travel. Instead, gen Y characteristics encourage women to travel with the convenience of technology advancement. Yet, the main concern of Malaysian women is safety. The implications of the findings are for tourism operators and marketeers getting an Asian perspective, particularly Malaysian women’s, on structuring marketing strategies that cater to the needs of different market segments.

Keywords: Consumer behaviour, decision-making, generation Y, Malaysian women, tourist motivation.

Suggested citation: Toh, J.Y., Awang, K.W. & Bojei, J. (2017). Generation Y Malaysian women’s perception towards solo travel. Asia- Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 45-54.

Correspondence: Toh Jen Ying, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Email : [email protected]


46 Toh Jen Ying, Khairil Wahidin Awang and Jamil Bojei

Introduction

Historically, global travel was meant to be the prerogative of men (Bartos, 1989). During 1970s and 1980s, men experiences were regarded as universal while women experiences were considered to be relatively non-existent. Women experiences were limited to leisure, hence reflecting the dominance of males at that time. The different traits on a biological basis (masculine and feminism) reflect the roles and expectations of society. These ideologies have common attributes in gender norms such as responsibilities and family orientation (Zhang & Hitchlock, 2014). However, typologies have now shifted with regard to the idea of women travelling alone which is perceived as abnormal, and can tarnish the social reputation within Victorian standards (Robinson, 1990). A Booking.com survey (2015) showed that 72% of American women travellers chose to travel alone. On the other hand, TripAdvisor’s Women’s Travel Survey (2015) showed that 60% of the women in Southeast Asia travel alone. Besides that, in the Japanese and Chinese market segments, the number of women who choose to travel alone abroad is increasing (Hashimoto, 2000). The survey indicates that the phenomenon of women solo travel is growing and correspondingly, there has been more attention on women’s leisure activities especially in Asian countries. Increasingly, a number of Malaysian solo women travellers made headlines such as Anita Yusof, the first solo Muslim who rode her bike around the world (The Sun Daily, 2016) and Petrina Thong, who travelled solo by hitchhiking from Kuala Lumpur to Europe (“Meet Petrina,”, 2016). Marketing is unlikely to be successful if a whole generation is targeted because of the vast differences in a lifetime (Glover, 2010). Previous researchers have proposed various categories of motivation (Mahika, 2011). Hence, the changes that occur in tourist motivation determines consumer demands for tourism products. Thus, this study attempts to identify the perspectives of solo travel amongst generation Y. The aim is linked to gender and societal contexts to acknowledge women’s voices in a field where they are not often heard. While the number of gender and tourism studies has increased, most are conducted in the West (Figueroa-Domecq, Pritchard, Segovia-Perez, Morgan, & Villace-Molinero, 2015). Hence, the study draws its strength from its holistic approach to understanding the tourism phenomenon of Asian women particularly, Malaysian women’s experiences in travelling, Asia cultural influences and also women as a dominant gender discourse in the gen Y society. This study employed qualitative method interviews with women who fall under the identified categories.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Studies that revealed the background of women and travelling emerged slowly, especially in the West. Based on the concepts by Schutte and Ciarlante (1998), the


Generation Y Malaysian Women’s Perception Towards Solo Travel 47

cultural values in the West and in Asia were found to be different. Westerners enjoy a clear boundary between work and leisure and also believe in rewarding themselves for their own benefit. As for Asians, having a balance in life and work evokes a sense of guilt. As such, leisure for women and travel are varied based on Western and Asia concepts. The authors highlighted the modification of marketing strategies to penetrate Asian markets. Also, cross-cultural differences are reflected in perceptions, motivations, expressions, verbal and non-verbal behaviour, values and the meaning system (Tsai, 2010). Malaysia is a pluralist country, so the perceptions of young Malaysians would be different from westerners’ perceptions (Mura & Khoo-lattimore, 2012). It demonstrates that Asians are no longer confined to the traditional methods of the role model and as a matter of fact, the Asian and Western perspectives of women travel have converged. Asians in the 21st century acknowledge gender distinction but women can travel freely like men do. Solo women travellers seek fulfilment of adventure, social opportunities, education, self-esteem and confidence. The perception today is that women are not timid; they are bold, confident and gutsy without being dependent on the partner (Wilson, 2004). Therefore, solo travel is a growing trend in the tourism industry and has drawn extensive attention from researchers and marketers, especially concerning women in Asia. Thus, putting entire variables together can give a glimpse into the insights of these women.

The baby boomers (born in 1943-1960) were the primary focus in tourism industry analysis but attention has now shifted towards Gen Y. Gen Y represent an exciting generation as baby boomers have gone through social revolution and grown up without technology advancement. Gen Y is the first generation that have a strong connection with technology (Benckendorf, Moscardo & Pendergast, 2010). They are faced with globalisation and the rapid development of technologies such as mobile phones and internet influences regardless of nationality, social, economic or cultural backgrounds. The specific trait of Gen Y is being tech-savvy, which to an extent reveals gen Y’s travelling patterns. The three key trends of Gen Y travelling are (a) they are empowered to decide on their own itineraries through social network platforms such as travel review sites, blogs, photos and other media (b) channel experience because of the convenience of online purchasing and social experiences through interactions with the global community. All these reviews and advices allow them to eventually make decisions (c) Members of Gen Y have strong opinions on their needs and wants and they are open to ideas and suggestions, because their intention is to experience something different or unique (Amadeus, 2013). The availability of technology allows them to create tourism experiences by providing information through the internet platform and boosting traveller confidence in travelling. Gen Y is exposed to the international community so their travelling patterns differ from other generations. The perspectives of Gen Y in the tourism industry can provide guidelines to connect the tourism industry with current and future markets (Benckendorf et al, 2010). The



ideas and characteristics of Gen Y also help to explain human behaviour motivation in tourism.

METHODOLOGY

This study employed interpretive social science paradigms. The rationale is to allow the researcher to understand women’s voices in regard to their solo travelling patterns. This strategy is viewed to be the appropriate approach because it allows for a rich collection of descriptive and complex data. Women who agreed to be interviewed were encouraged to speak their thoughts in their own words. The purpose was to explore the deeper meaning of women experiences, thus a qualitative research design was deemed suitable to investigate individual’s emotions (Mura & Khoo-lattimore, 2012). A semi-structured interview guide was adopted for this study as the researcher would retain the flexibility of changing direction of probing during interview. The selected women were allowed to speak on their narratives at their own pace and interpret the questions based on their own opinions (Riessman, 2002). The overall aim of the research was to ascertain the perception of Malaysian Gen Y women regarding solo travelling. Thus, a series of open-ended questions were listed in the interview guide to determine their perceptions.

The items used in the interview guide were derived from previous studies (Wilson, 2004; Myers, 2010). The focus of the study was on the interviewees’ lives, their cultural and religious backgrounds, travel history and travel experiences. Besides that, a demographics survey was also distributed before the interview to collect basic information. The researcher used snowball sampling and purposive sampling to select the interviewees. The selection was based on the following criteria (a) must be aged between 19-33 years old (b) must be Malaysian, and currently staying in Malaysia and (c) travels. The interviews were conducted in a quiet environment to capture clear voice recordings. Elwood and Martin (2000, p.649) highlighted the importance of location which can affect the interview. Also, the interview was conducted at the participants’ convenience, day time or night time and on weekdays or weekends. As the subject matter involved Malaysian women of various races including those in West Malaysia, the interviews were conducted in the three major languages of Malaysia which is Chinese, Malay or English, depending on the interviewee’s preference. Initially, three different versions of interview guide were planned to cater to the needs of the interviewees, but since most of them have completed tertiary education and are working, only the English version interview guide was finally prepared. However, the main limitation being multilingual is when Malaysians used “ rojak ” language. This language does not represent Britain English or U.S English.

The interview was carried out over a period of one to two months. The interviews were continued until data saturation was reached. 16 respondents were interviewed in



this study. The data collected were then classified into general categories and themes. Through open coding, categories and themes set up to identify and establish causes, consequences, conditions, interactions, relationships, linkages were structured and formed into core themes. Finally, these core themes were re-examined and rearranged with the aid of field notes. The data were then reduced into major themes and presented as findings and conclusion. All social researchers are concerned with issues of validity and authenticity of human experiences derived from results (Merriam, 1998; Creswell, 1998). It is also important to acknowledge the researcher bias based on the researcher’s worldview (Merriam, 1998, p.204-205). Hence, comments from peers and participants should provide valuable insights to the researcher. The purpose is to ensure that the data were not influenced by the inquirer, but were derived from the interviewee’s own account whereby the researcher acts as an interpreter. In addition, multiple different sources are used to provide data and these are compared for patterns. Confidentiality and anonymity of respondents is a key ethical concern. These issues need to be dealt in a sensitive and ethical manner. Hence, the data and details of respondents would be treated with privacy. The ethical considerations are integrity, relations and responsibilities towards the respondents. All the women who participated in the study were required to sign a confidentiality form to show their consent of participation in this study. Respondents were identified using alphabets such as Respondent A, Respondent B. In addition, the “knowledgeable stranger” mode was adopted for this study as well. The position of the interviewer is usually between “interviewer as friend” and “interviewer as stranger” (Reinharz, 1992). A good relationship between the researcher and respondent will build trust thus making it easier for the respondent to open up in the interview. Before the interview starts, a brief introduction about the research, its purpose and travelling anecdotes were shared to break the ice and also to make interviewees feel comfortable sharing their stories. Also, the researcher had to display good listening skills and attentiveness as a sign of respect and interest for the interviewees’ stories and at the same time, this encouraged them to share more.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 16 respondents from various races took part in this study. One woman is between 19-23 years, four women are between 29-33 years and the rest are between 24-28 years old. The majority of the interviewees have completed their tertiary education and have full-time jobs. This shows that the women interviewees are all equipped with education and considered financially stable. Based on the findings, three themes emerged which are bonding time with friends and family, the inspiration of the women solo traveller and Gen Y information access. The results show that women are able to travel freely with the aid of technology and Gen Y characteristics.



Travelling enables bonding and connecting with friends and family

Most of the women shared that travelling enables connecting with people and bonding with friends and family. The notion of women engaging in solo travel is relatively positive. One respondent Y described her solo travelling trip to China for two months as fruitful because she managed to meet new people and get inspired by solo women travellers around the globe. Her statement is supported by respondent A.

They are awesome, they are brave and then they are really independent types of person for me. Because not everyone can be so independent to travel solo especially women. When we travel as a woman, there are lots of factors to consider. (Respondent A, 28).

However, there are some contradictions regarding the perception of solo travel especially for women who prefer to share the moment with others. For example, respondent S who emphasised that values of family and friends’ bonding time is important indicates that the best experience of travelling is strengthening the relationship with loved ones.

Normally I think, what I get is togetherness with friends and family. As I mentioned before, when I was young, my parents were busy working and they worked during night time. When we woke up, they were asleep, and when we finished school or work, they were already at their work. Now we are all working, so travelling together is family bonding time. And for friends, let’s say like primary or secondary or colleague friends, the time to be together is less and it is hard to spend time together after graduation. If travelling with different groups of people, there is bonding. So you get to bond in your travel; this is the benefit that most of us experience. (Respondent S, 26).

The results illustrate that most of the women choose to travel with friends and family to enjoy the moment of togetherness and eventually, strengthen the relationship through travelling. Travelling solo enables meeting up with new people but in terms of relationship, it is slightly weaker as the relationship is not long-term.

Women solo traveller inspires other women to travel

This study focused on the perceptions of women solo travellers. The perception of women about other women who travel solo is positive and amusing. Most of the women interpret this as women who are living out their own lives. Respondent M, aged 25, indicates that gender is not a constraint for leisure: I have been surrounded by many women who travel often. It is supported by respondent Y, aged 25, whose dream



is to travel and the phenomenon encourages her to travel more: makes me want to travel more, experience different things in the world (Respondent Y). In fact, age or generation does not refrain women from solo travelling. For example, respondent I shared a story of her colleague who travelled to Europe solo. This inspired her to want to support her child to do the same: I would ask her (her child) to go and see the world out there, alone (Respondent I).

In contrast, respondent N admires the inspirations of solo women traveller but she has no intention of solo travelling because safety is the most important factor to be considered.

I respect women who always travel, whether they travel with their families or alone la. But I think they have to consider safety (Respondent N).

This evidently shows that women are inspired by solo women travellers but they are concerned about their safety as well. Thus, safety is one of the main elements that is often considered when deciding about leisure.

Generation Y’s ability to access sources globally

Richards (2007) disclosed that the core traits of gen Y travelling pattern relies on technology advancement such as Internet, social media and blogs. As stated in the literature review, gen Y is the first generation who encountered rapid technology advancements. The findings show that gen Y is more likely to get information from the Internet, travel websites, blogs and social media. Respondent J describes her sources of information.

Basically this one will be from other people’s travel blogs or some travel magazines or some go to the online like…there is Tripadvisor right, right now, there are some apps like you compare the hotel prices at Trivago all that. And in the source of information, I think is quite important because you have to make all the arrangements before you travel (Respondent J, 28).

However, the issue of trustworthiness arises as to whether the information is reliable. The respondents also emphasised on the manipulation of information for profit purposes. For example, respondent J, a travel planner who relies on travel websites in her job shared that travel websites tend to be overrated which will give wrong information for the traveller. So even though, online resources are widely used by Gen Y, some respondents remain sceptical about the reliability of information found on the internet.



Through media, sometimes you do check on Agoda, Expedia and anything but this is very commercialised so when it gets too commercialised, too many people book in the same places. Sometimes they misuse Expedia, Agoda, they misuse it, they know there is demand on Expedia, everything they put the price higher. (Respondent J).

This study is focused on Southeast Asia women’s perspective of solo travel. While the positive responses of Malaysian women towards solo travellers is inspiring, the study also found that some have doubts about it. The main concern of Malaysian women is fear. Generally, travelling alone is linked to safety and anxiety concerns in an unfamiliar environment with no familiar support. Additionally, societal perceptions regard Asian women vulnerable and dependent when compared to western women. Thus, they prefer not to travel independently (Zhang & Hitchcock, 2014). These results disrupt the perceived ideologies of Asian female travellers as seen through the lens of societies where it is perceived as not appropriate. Instead, it reveals the enthusiasm of Asian women travellers in leisure. Besides that, the findings also refutes West and Asian ideologies (Schutte & Ciantre, 1998) and instead shows similarities in Asian and Western values. Despite the dissimilarities of Asian and Western cultures, the women in this study did not reflect any differing cultural values on their perceptions of travel solo. Instead, the findings reveal features of contemporary women. The results also indicate that Gen Y is a smart consumer group which relies on online resources (Lee, 2013). The information accessed online is their primary source for references even if they doubt it.

CONCLUSION

Today, women travellers are not a new occurrence anymore. The opportunities available today allow women to lead their own lives and act on their own. Amidst various ways of travelling, women in the West and in Asia are increasingly choosing to travel alone. The popularity of solo travel especially among women in Asia has gained attention in the academic field. The key finding of this study would provide a refreshing insight into the tourism phenomenon especially on the Asian women solo traveller and marketing strategies on gen Y. Gen Y are consistently finding new ways of travelling, so will indefinitely change the travel industry. The findings would prove useful to policy makers, tourism, marketers, destination management and any other related tourism business who want to understand women’s decision-making process in leisure. The marketing power, wealth and the size of the potential Gen Y market for the tourism industry can develop the capacity for consumption behaviour in groups, and predict the impacts on the demands for tourism products and services. Existing research shows that tourism is a versatile and vibrant concept. However, this study is only limited to gen Y Malaysian women who are aged between 19-33



years old, so it cannot represent the generalised opinion of Malaysian women overall. Further research can be conducted on specific demographic factors of Malaysian women and their viewpoints of solo travel which may provide better robust findings.


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ISSN 2289-1471

Research Paper

Local Community Involvement in Wildlife Resorts: Issues and Challenges

Nagarjuna G and Joby ThomasChrist University, Bannerghatta Road Campus, India


Abstract: The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism Article 5 states that tourism should be a beneficial activity for host countries and communities (UNWTO). The code also emphasises on equitable distribution (between host countries and communities) of the economic and sociocultural benefits generated by tourism activities. The tourism resorts and accommodation sector have to involve local communities in socio-economic activities and priority should be given to local manpower. A wildlife resort has vast opportunities to involve local communities in their day to day operation by purchasing local products, promoting local festivals, providing employment opportunities to locals, and involving local communities in decision-making. Wildlife resorts can also promote local culture, create environment awareness among local people, provide educational support to the local children, and support development of infrastructure and medical facilities for the locals. Though local communities can be involved in various activities of wildlife resorts, it is essential to address the issues and challenges that hinder wildlife resorts from doing so. This paper attempts to determine the issues and challenges faced by wildlife resorts in involving local communities in their day to day operations and suggests ways and means to overcome those challenges. The scope of the study covered selected wildlife resorts in Karnataka. The targeted respondents of the research survey were resort managers and data were collected using open-ended questions to understand real-time issues and challenges involving local communities in resort activities. The data were then analysed using thematic text analysis. The findings from the study will help explore means of providing a better framework which will help wildlife resorts overcome issues and challenges involving local communities.

Keywords: Wildlife resorts, local community, sociocultural, issues and challenges

Suggested citation: Nagarjuna G & Thomas, J. (2017). Local community involvement in wildlife resorts: Issues and challenges. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 55-70.

Correspondence: Nagarjuna G, Christ University, India. Email : [email protected]


56 Nagarjuna G and Joby Thomas

Introduction

Over the years, views on tourism have changed from a pleasure-seeking activity to a more economic-based activity. Today, tourism is the major source of income and economic activity for developing countries. It generates employment, foreign exchange earnings, and also supports the development of infrastructure at the destination. Tourism also potentially addresses socio-economic issues through sustainable tourism development. Local community participation in tourism activities has also become one of the major principles of sustainable tourism. Tourism is a major source of employment for local communities by involving them in all kinds of tourism activities. In fact, it can generate economic growth even in remote areas. The cooperation and participation of local communities is of great significance to all industries especially the tourism industry since it deals with the people of different religions, languages, cultures etc. (Joseph & Pakkeerappa, 2009). An optimistic perception and dedication from locals is mandatory for the success of any tourist destination. The true spirit of tourism commends hosts to welcome a stranger and send back a friend to foster the growth of tourism industry, particularly in wildlife and ecotourism (Joseph & Pakkeerappa, 2009).

Community Involvement in Tourism

While considering the involvement of local communities in tourism, it is essential to identify the communities that can be actively engaged in tourism activities. According to Gilmour & Fisher (1991), “a community can be defined as a set of people with mutually recognised interest in the resources of a particular area rather than as people living in that area”. The above definition clearly states that a community, which is living in or adjacent to wildlife areas has to be considered and involved in tourism activities. Table 1 shows ways a local community can be involved in the tourism sector .

Table 1. Different forms of community involvement in tourism

Type of enterprise/Institution

Nature of local involvement Examples

Private business run by outsiders

EmploymentSupply of goods and services

Kitchen staff in a lodge, sale of food, building materials etc

Enterprises or informal sector operations run by local entrepreneurs

Enterprise ownership,Self-employment,Supply of goods and services

Craft sales, food kiosk, campsites, home stays, guiding services, sale of fuel wood, food


Local Community Involvement in Wildlife Resorts: Issues and Challenges 57

Community enterprise Collective ownership, Collective or individual managementEmployment or contributed labour

Community campsite, craft centre, cultural centre

Joint venture between community and private sector

Contractual commitments Share in revenuesLease/investment in resourcesParticipation in decision-making

Revenue sharing form, lodge to local community on agreed terms, community leases land/resources/concessions to lodge, community holds equity in lodge

Tourism planning body Consultation, Representation, Participation

Legal consultation in regional tourism planning, community representatives on tourism board.

Source: IIED

Wildlife Tourism and Community Involvement

Wildlife tourism activities act as catalysts for societal changes because they represent unique and optimistic obligations towards local communities. Social justice concerns are often expressed through various means such as donations to local children’s educational funds. Wildlife tourism promotes stronger ties with local communities, when for example, wildlife resorts purchase local organic produce and encourage fair trade to strengthen local communities. Wildlife tourism operators who employ indigenous people as guides and interpreters add a unique and authentic element to the wildlife tourism experience that is valued by tourists and adds depth to their understanding of wildlife. The involvement of local communities in wildlife tourism also helps protect both the natural and cultural environments that form the basis of the wildlife tourism industry (Mahanta & Rao, 2010). However, there is another side to the coin whereby local communities are not involved in tourism development activities. There may be certain issues and challenges that discourage wildlife resorts and wildlife tour operators from involving local communities. The current study makes an attempt to determine these issues and challenges and attempts to suggest ways and means of overcoming them.

Table 1 (con’t)



Literature Review

Wildlife resorts have always found it difficult to get voluntary and incessant cooperation from the local community in order to boost ecotourism due to social constraints and limited awareness. At times, locals are not well-versed or able to provide clear information regarding different tourism potentials and related facilities available in their area. The lack of safety and security is another threat faced by wildlife resorts due to factors such as communalism and regionalism. In addition, locals may not be able to mingle with tourists due to communication gap, cultural differences and so on (Joseph & Pakkeerappa, 2009).

The lack of trained tourism workforce in many local destinations often forces tourism operators to seek employees from other parts of the country. For the same reason, locals are often hired for low or unskilled jobs that are associated with low wages and harsh working conditions rather than skilled jobs. In order to involve such communities, the tourism industry requires considerable time, money and skills to train them. As the tourism industry has to rely on day to day and season to season decisions, it may not be possible for them to involve local community for day to day complex decisions. Apathy and a low level of awareness in the host community about tourism and its benefits can also sometimes deter local community participation in tourism (Tosun, 1999). Additionally, due to inflation and increase in operational cost, resorts may find it difficult to employ locals on a permanent basis (Sebele, 2010).

As described earlier, there are major barriers which avoid community participation in tourism. Additional operational barriers include lack of coordination between related parties and lack of information made available to the local community during implementation of tourism projects. Structural barriers include attitudes of professionals, lack of expertise and lack of financial resources. Cultural barriers include poor people incapable of handling development effectively, limiting religious beliefs and low level of tourism awareness among local communities (Thomas, 2013).

Language barriers, inadequate experience in tourism, inadequate training among local communities, low education and awareness levels also deter local community’s involvement in tourism activities (Magigi & Ramadhani, 2013).

The lack of knowledge about tourism and local educational levels also restrict the tourism industry from involving local communities. Apart from that, locals who are involved in other forms of occupation such as farming, fishing etc. may not have enough time to participate in training and other tourism-related activities. The perception of tourism as being a seasonal job with low income may also discourage community participation in tourism activities (Kim, Park & Phandanouvong, 2014).



Methodology

Scope of Study

The study focused on selected wildlife resorts in Karnataka because most wildlife reserve areas are shared by or located near villages. Wildlife resorts can provide ample opportunities for local communities who are mutually interested in the resources of that area and improving their livelihood. Due to a lack of expertise in hospitality and tourism among local communities, wildlife resorts may find it difficult to employ them. So, it is essential to understand the issues and challenges faced by wildlife resorts to help them involve local communities in resort activities.

Objectives

• Toidentifyissuesfacedbywildliferesortsininvolvinglocalcommunitiesintheiractivities

• Toidentifychallengesfacedbywildliferesortsininvolvinglocalcommunitiesintheir activities

• Tosuggestwaysandmeanstoovercomethesechallenges

Sample

Using the purposive sampling method, ten wildlife resorts were selected as the sample for the study. The study considered 17 resorts which are managed by state governments and selected 10.

Instrument

Scheduled structured interviews were conducted to meet the needs of the study.

Inclusion Criteria

Interviews were conducted with resort managers to collect data that would enable the study answer the research objectives. As resort managers are responsible for the smooth functioning of the day to day operations, they would the best knowledgeable person on this particular issue.

Procedure

An open-ended questionnaire was developed based on the objectives of the study. Later, an email was sent to selected wildlife resorts seeking permission to conduct the interview. Resort managers were contacted according to the fixed schedule and explained about the focus and objective of the study. Each resort manager was then asked a standard set of six questions in the same order to obtain the relevant data.



Data Analysis

Thematic text analysis is often used to analyse qualitative information to systematically gain knowledge and empathy about a person, an interaction, a group, a situation, an organisation or a culture. Since the interviews were conducted with resorts managers about issues and challenges of involving local community in resort activities, thematic text analysis was used to analyse the data.

Results

Table 2. Thematic text analysis

Global Theme Organising Theme Preliminary Theme

Nurturing of culture and traditional elements

Opportunities for local market

Authentic experience and nurturing of local cultural and traditional elements

Building social support system by using them for business

Authentic experiences sourced from local market, local food and tradition

Indigenous knowledge

Advantage, helps smooth run of resort

Enhancing economic and social growth

Sources of financial improvement for markets and opportunities for employment

Supporting local communities by nurturing education and training program

Nurturing local cultural and traditional elements

Employment Opportunities

Sources for local market as suppliers

Awareness about environment to school children, providing books, training program, support education

Encourage local festivals and tradition

Educational qualification, quality and quantity of product, value of time and cost and impact of training

Employed at operations level due to educational background

Lack of quality and quantity of local products

Quick decisions not possible

Results of training difficult to analyse

Lack of literacy among local communities and employed in menial jobs

Local suppliers fail to meet requirements

It requires more time and money to give training and to involve in decision-making



Communication skills, providing 100% employment opportunities not possible and training programme

Finding the right person for the right job

Difficult to provide employment opportunities to all

Language is major concern in providing training

Exit from job without prior notice

Medium of instruction

Assurance of job

Religious and cultural background, engaged in other forms of occupation, perception and awareness of tourism

Cultural and religious belief of the local community

Employment in farming and fishing

Tourism perceived as seasonal and low-income job

Lack of awareness about tourism

Traditions of the local community

Different occupations

Better income compared to tourism jobs

Benefits of tourism

The involvement of local communities makes business more sustainable as they provide an authentic experience to visitors though their local food, traditions and cultural life. A good relationship with the local community also helps in the smooth running of the resort. Local products sourced from local markets help resorts to minimise cost.

Figure 1. Local community involvement makes overall business more sustainable

Table 2 (con’t)



Local communities can be involved in various activities of the resorts that can enhance their economic and social growth. Wildlife resorts provide employment opportunities and purchases from local markets provide additional income to local communities. Additionally, local art and cultural performances and festivals enrich and promote local culture and traditions. Wildlife resorts can also support education by providing funds to local schools and create awareness about the importance of environment conservation.

Figure 2. Involvement of local communities in resort operations

However, wildlife resorts also face some issues and problems in getting local communities involved with their business. A major issue is the poor educational background which prevents locals from being employed at higher levels and usually landing lower level jobs. Sometimes the local community fails to supply adequate or quality products as required by resorts. It is also quite difficult to involve the local community in any decision-making process as decisions need to be made quickly. In addition, it takes time and money to provide training to the local community to address their aforementioned shortcomings.



Figure 3. Issues deterring involvement of local communities in resort activities

Similarly, resorts also face certain challenges discouraging them from involving local communities in resort activities. Resorts are not able to employ every member of the community since some may lack good communication skills. At times, some might leave their jobs without any prior notice and this affects finding a suitable replacement in such short notice. The medium of instruction used for training is another major challenge since not all locals are well-versed in English. Their proficiency may be limited to their mother tongue language only.

Figure 4. Challenges for local community involvement in resort activities



Another major barrier that discourages local communities from participating in tourism is their limiting religious and cultural beliefs, for example, in Islam, serving pork or alcohol is not permitted. Apart from that, many locals are often employed in other sectors such as farming, fishing etc, disallowing them from participating in tourism activities. Additionally, there is a prevalent perception among local communities that tourism is a seasonal activity and provides low income. Lastly, there is an overall lack of awareness about tourism, its benefits and functionalities.

Figure 5. Barriers for involving local communities in resort activities

Discussion

Community Involvement makes Businesses more Sustainable

Resort managers were asked whether local community involvement makes their business more sustainable. Most of the resort managers agreed that the involvement of local community provides an authentic experience to their visitors through cultural and traditional programmes. Additionally, the indigenous knowledge about the wildlife area helps them carry out resort activities smoothly. Local food is also an added advantage as it provides an opportunity for visitors to experience the local cuisine. It is also evident from the literature review that the involvement of indigenous people adds a unique and authentic element to wildlife tourism experience that is highly valued and much appreciated by tourists.



Involvement of Local Communities in Resort Activities

With regard to the question on how local communities can be involved in resort activities, the interviewees mentioned employment opportunities and source of basic necessities such as vegetables, fruits and daily groceries. Depending on guests’ requests, local artists are often required to perform cultural programmes. In order to create awareness about environmental conservation among local children, resorts organise conservation and educational programmes. They also provide educational support to local schools and promote local festivals. Mahanta & Rao highlighted this,“wildlife tourism promotes stronger ties with local communities, for example, wildlife resorts purchase local organic produce to encourage fair trade practice and also as a means of donations to local educational funds.”

Issues Barring Local Community Participation in Resort Activities

The major barrier for resorts to involve local community is the latter’s poor educational background which makes it quite difficult to provide mid-management level jobs. Naturally, they are only given bottom-level jobs such as housekeeping, drivers, maintenance, etc. This makes them feel degraded and hesitant to join the resort’s workforce. Sourcing products from the local market is another issue because local products may not meet the quality and quantity required by the resorts. It is also difficult to include the local community in decision-making as decisions are made quickly on day to day operations. Providing hospitality training to the local community is another major concern for resorts as it requires considerable time, money and skills to organise and the outcomes are often difficult to assess. The findings concur with Tosun’s research (1999) on community participation in developing countries where it was found that the involvement of the local community was a major issue attributed to lack of trained human resources, training cost, bottom-level jobs, low wages and lack of awareness about tourism amongst the local community.

Challenges to involve Local Community in Resort Activities

Managers were asked the type of challenges they came across in involving local communities in their activities. One of the managers shared that after employing locals, some of them quit their job without prior notice and it was difficult for them to find suitable replacements. Since most of the local people are only well-versed in their vernacular language, it is quite difficult for resorts to provide training in English. Local suppliers who deliver basic supplies such as fruits, vegetables and other dairy products on a daily basis sometimes were unable to do so due to unforeseen situations. The resorts find this challenging as there is usually no prior notice provided by the local suppliers for non-delivery of products. Communalism and regionalism are some other major challenges that resorts face in trying to involve local communities. Due



to lack of communication skills and cultural differences, local community may not be able to serve guests properly, which at times, leads to conflict or misunderstanding between guests and local employees. The above findings concur with the work of Joseph & Pakkeerappa (2009) and Magigi & Ramadhani (2013).

Barriers that Deter Local Community Involvement in Tourism

The seasonal nature of tourism jobs, language barrier, and cultural beliefs are some of the barriers that discourage local communities from participating in tourism. Some locals also believe that tourism jobs do not yield much income compared to other occupations. Besides, they are often involved in other forms of occupation such as farming, fishing, dairy farming, horticulture etc. Kim, Park & Phandanouvong (2014) in their study also found similar findings such as seasonal nature of job, involvement of local community in other occupations, cultural beliefs and perception about tourism jobs that hindered local community members from participating in tourism.

Implications & Suggestions

In order to overcome the issue of employing local employees at bottom-level jobs, resorts can identify those who make good progress in learning new skills and are experienced to be promoted to mid-management level jobs. In the initial stage, if resorts can introduce living wages to the bottom-level workers, this will also boost their morale to improve their skills.

Resorts can initiate communication with the local market about their day to day requirements on a regular basis so that local suppliers can deliver the right quantity and quality products.

If resorts find it difficult to involve local community in their decision-making process, as an alternative, they can establish committees that act as lobbyists and promote local area linkages, identify needs and opportunities for the local people. Resorts can also allow the local community to access natural resources and infrastructure at the same time without taking away their dignity.

Resorts have to adopt a long-term perspective and invest time and money to train locals. It is also the responsibility of the resorts to utilise the new skills of the employees after their training.

To retain local employees, resorts have to provide them timely incentives in the form of essential commodities that can be used in daily life such as medical benefits, morale and financial support for their children’s education.

While providing training, resorts have to use both the vernacular and English language as mediums of instruction. In order to improve the language skills of local employees, resorts can collaborate with educational NGOs and request them to



provide some basic English classes to their local employees. It not only enhances their language skills but also improves their communication skills.

Resorts can help create awareness amongst local communities about societal evils such as caste, creed and their harm to society so that communalism and regionalism among local communities can be reduced. In the long run, this also helps to secure the safety of the guests.

It is essential to create awareness about the benefits of tourism amongst local communities. Although tourism jobs are seasonal in nature, they provide an alternative income to locals. Those engaged in other forms of occupation can still be indirectly involved in tourism activities by developing rural excursion visits and encouraging tourists to take part in their farming and village activities that reward unique and authentic experiences.

Conclusion

One of the major principles of sustainable tourism is involvement of local communities in tourism activities which will contribute to the socio-economic growth of locals. A wildlife resort which is remotely located has a valuable opportunity to provide socio-economic benefits to the surrounding local communities. Just as every coin has two sides, this particular issue too has two sides to its argument. The involvement of local communities makes businesses more sustainable since their local food and traditions provide authentic experiences to visitors which will differentiate this tourism product in the market. It also helps resorts save cost by sourcing products from local markets and enables to run a smooth operation using indigenous knowledge. At the same time, there are certain issues and challenges as found in the study that deter wildlife resorts from involving local communities in their businesses. Takings cognisance of the issues and challenges that hinder local community involvement, the resorts should initiate dialogue and discussions with them on a regular basis to address and work together towards feasible solutions.

Limitations

Some of the limitations of this study include the sample size being limited to ten wildlife resorts, and data collection confined to resort managers only without including the local communities’ perspectives.

Scope for Further Study

The scope of the research can be extended in the future to include more wildlife resorts to understand a broader perspective of issues and challenges. In addition, interviews with local communities should be included so as to better understand the issues and challenges from their perspective. Lastly, future research can also expand



to include environment and conservation practices to look at problems faced by wildlife resorts in implementing environmental-friendly practices.


References

Ashley, C., & Roe, D. (1998). Enhancing community involvement in wildlife tourism. London: International Institute for Environment and Development

Gilmour, D., A., & Fisher R., J. (1991). Villagers, forests and foresters: The philosophy, process and practices of community forestry in Nepal. Nepal: Sahayogi Press

Joseph, P., & Pakkeerappa, P. (2009). Ecotourism and community involvement: Challenges and strategies. Atna Journal of Tourism Studies, 4, 27-35

Kim, S., Park, E., & Phandanouvong, T. (2014). Barriers to local residents’ participation in community-based tourism: Lessons from Houay Kaeng Village in Laos. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 12, p. 01045). EDP Sciences.

Mahanta, P., K., & Rao, Y., V. (2010). Wildlife tourism entrepreneurs the way a head in attaining sustainability. Atna Journal of Tourism Studies, 5, 60-69.

Magigi, W., & Ramadhani, H. (2013). Enhancing tourism industry through community participation: A strategy for poverty Rrduction in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 1108-1122

Sebele, S., L. (2010). Community-based tourism ventures, benefits and challenges: Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust, Central District, Bostwana. Tourism Management, 31, 136-146

Tosun, C. (1999). Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tourism Management, 21, 613-633

Thomas, Y. (2013). Ecotourism development in Ghana: A case of selected communities in the Brong-Ahafo Region. Journal of Hospitality and Management Tourism, 4(3), 69-79.



ISSN 2289-1471

Research Note

Satisfaction towards Internship Programme and Future Career Development for Students in Private Higher Education Institutions: A Research Note

Ruth Sabina Francis and Elangkovan Narayanan Alagas Taylor’s University, Malaysia


Abstract: In keeping with current trends in the hospitality industry, demands for the young and new generation are rapidly escalating. Internship provides an opportunity for the young generation to be exposed to the hospitality industry and gain relevant experience. Most local institutions that provide hospitality programmes are well-equipped for this purpose. In addition to being a prerequisite for completion of various hospitality degrees, internship training also plays a vital role in providing the relevant learning curve and experience for the graduate in the hospitality industry. This research note looks at factors that influence the satisfaction level of students during their internship at educational institutions that offer hospitality programmes. This research explores the knowledge and skills transfer that takes place towards preparing an industry-ready graduate. With regard to implications, this research identifies effective strategies and methods to facilitate and provide a positive learning experience in internship.

Keywords: Hospitality, tourism, students, internships, satisfaction, learning curve

Suggested citation: Francis, R.S. & Alagas, E.N. (2017). Satisfaction towards internship programmes and future career development for students in private higher education Institutions: A Research Note. Asia- Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 69-74.

Correspondence: Ruth Sabina Francis, Taylor’s University. Email : [email protected]


70 Ruth Sabina Francis & Elangkovan Narayanan Alagas

Introduction

According to World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), international tourist arrivals has shown virtually uninterrupted growth – from 25 million in 1950 to 278 million in 1980, 528 million in 1995, and 1133 million in 2014, and is predicted to grow by 3.3% per year reaching 1.8 billion by 2030 (UNWTO, 2014) and the tourism industry continues to offer limitless potential for any country (Crouch, & Richie, 1999; Rose, 2004). The tourism industry provides many economic benefits through its wide range of services including accommodation. Its rapid growth has increased the average income per capita and not only has it become more diversified by offering various products and services but also has become more revolutionised (WTTC, 2016).

Internships are vital for hospitality students as it allows them to experience actual work situations in a professional capacity, even while still studying (Zopiatis, 2007). The hands-on internship provides students an enriching experience that cannot be imparted through lectures. The bridging of the theory and practical learning happens only during internship (Collins, 2002). Previous studies show that the vast learning exposure gained by students during their internship improves self-confidence and enhances professional growth opportunities (Petrillose & Montgomery, 1997; Gabris & Mitchell, 1989; Downey & DeVeau, 1988; Zopiatis, 2007; Girard, 1999). A capable, educated, and well-trained workforce is always in demand in the competitive hospitality market (Purcell, 1993). Based on recent UNWTO statistics (UNWTO, 2015), 9 out of 11 people are offered employment in the hospitality industry. However, a substantial number of hospitality graduates leave the industry due to low job satisfaction, poor employment conditions and absence of motivational factors (Pavesic & Brymer, 1990) resulting in loss of trained personnel.

The lack of hospitality governing principles (policy) fails to align the market needs with the output of this sector, resulting in a failure to attract professional candidates to meet the expectations of the industry (Ali, Zhou, Hussain, Nair, & Ragavan, 2016). The current situation of mismatch, in the demand of hospitality personnel, results in a number of indirect impacts, including the lack of motivation and confidence for students to pursue their career in this sector (Wu & Wu, 2006). Convincingly, Fox (2001) also stated these issues exist, due to a lack in proper and adequate policies that precisely focuses on designing a structure where internship experience will not turn a young person away from the industry. As a result, industries tend to lose professional workers (Weible, 2009). Cognisant of this, Petrillose and Montgomery (1997) suggested that there is a need to investigate students’ perceptions on internship qualities and whether the experiences could help prepare them for careers in the hospitality industry.



71

Problem Statement

The hospitality industry is one of the major stakeholders of tourism industry as it offers supporting and complementary products and services including accommodation, food and beverage and recreational activities that enhance a memorable tourist experience. Currently, Southeast Asia is one of the world’s fastest emerging tourism market as highlighted by WTO (2014). As the growth potential of the tourism sector is enormous, especially in the context of Malaysia, the need for a well-educated, well-trained, skilled, enthusiastic and committed workforce cannot be underestimated (Okeiyi, Finley, & Postel, 1994). However, when students are posted for internships in some hotels, they tend to experience unfavorable situations, due to a lack of good hotel management policies (Jenkins, 2001). There is a perceived misunderstanding of students’ aspirations and their perceived knowledge acquirement by both the educational institutions and the industry.

Purpose

The purpose of this research note is to identify factors that are associated with the satisfaction of internships amongst hospitality students. The research employed a case study approach with the students of a particular programme in a private institution. The sampling was purposive aiming to understand the relationships between internship, job satisfaction, and confidence about future careers. A principal component analysis will be used to determine the internship elements that make a significant difference in the liaison between supervisor and educational programme including degree of involvement and satisfaction with supervisor, educational programme, environment, administration, and associated relationships with industry partners.

Therefore, the results of this research will prove valuable to hospitality management educators and administrators at various institutions as well as help industry professionals to better understand course development and internship experiences.

Literature Review

There are significant benefits that internship opportunities provide to both the students as well as the hosting institutions (Zopiatis, 2007). Pavesic and Brymer (1990) postulated that internship experience for students from hospitality and tourism programmes can boost their confidence and encourage their intentions of working in the hospitality industry. The experience gained by students during their internship is a strong influence on their decision to continue in the industry (Waryszak, 1999). However, it was also noted that the initial experience is often perceived adversely by interns and this translates into a key decision (whether to work or not) within the hospitality industry after graduating. To meet quality and competitiveness, the hospitality industry needs to address certain internship issues



such as strategic recruitment, retention goals and socially responsive practices (Scott, 1992; Thiel & Hartley, 1997).

One of the current challenges faced by the hospitality industry is attracting and retaining skilled workforce (Finian, 2012). The function of internship in the hotel industry as defined by Finian (2012) is “as a platform to students on a work trial basis, which includes acquiring more knowledge about the reality and requirement of the industry and the job nature of hotel”.

A nurturing and supportive environment will prompt students to perform better in actual work environments (Hill, 2002). A collaborative curriculum designed by academics and practitioners with the right industry experience will provide an opportunity for students to translate their theoretical knowledge into actual working environment (Lam & Ching, 2007; Zhang & Agarwal, 2009). There are many courses that are designed to provide industry experience so that students can learn from their work experience in the hospitality industry (Yiu & Law, 2012).

From a student’s perspective, low pay or sometimes not being compensated for long working hours is one of the many demotivating factors (Busby, 2003; Boger & Lim, 2005). From a positive aspect, students however get to experience the psychology of work place experience and be exposed to the work cultures of the hospitality industry (Boger & Lim, 2005); additionally, Mello (2006) argues that internship is one of the effective ways to secure employment in the hospitality industry. Many studies have shown that it is difficult to retain student satisfaction level as many internship programmes fail to nurture the students’ potential and skills and consequently, when they step into real working life, they find that the industry is not meeting their expectations (Zopiatis, 2007). As a result, the satisfaction level from a student’s perspective fails to enhance their future intention to work as well as their motivation level. Beesley & Cooper (2008) pointed out that while the experience level can be different for interns, it still affects the students which in turn affects their decision on whether to work in this industry or not.

An extensive work published by Ciofalo (1992) on internships: captures 31 papers including the perspectives on learning in internships (Moore, 1983), integrating the traditions of experiential learning in internship education (Wagner, 1983), exploring the relationships between intern job performance, quality of education experience and career placement (Gryski, Johnson & O’Toole, 1987). However, this work focuses on general well-being and not specifically, the hospitality industry. Although internship practices play a significant role in the training of hospitality students, the challenge in developing innovative practices to retain the next generation of hospitality professionals, should be highlighted (Zopiatis, 2007; Yiu & Law, 2012). Thus, based on the extant legitimacy arguments, if internship experience is not up to the student’s expectations, their confidence in the career progression decreases. The discussions from this article are preliminary, but can be expounded further by developing hypotheses and engaging research perspectives and introducing further clarification.



73


References

Beesley, L. G., & Cooper, C. (2008). Defining knowledge management (KM) activities: Towards consensus. Journal of Knowledge Management, 12(3), 48-62.

Boger, E., & Lim, E. (2005). Leadership inventory: The development of internship experience. Consortium Journal of Hospitality & Tourism, 9(1).

Busby, G. (2003). Tourism degree internships: A longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 55(3), 319-334.

Ciofalo, A. (1992). Internships: Perspectives on experiential learning. A guide to internship management for educators and professionals. Melbourne, FL : Krieger Publishing.

Collins, A. B. (2002). Gateway to the real world, industrial training: Dilemmas and problems. Tourism Management, 23(1), 93-96.

Crouch, G. I., & Ritchie, J. B. (1999). Tourism, competitiveness, and societal prosperity. Journal of Business research, 44(3), 137-152.

Downey, J. F., & DeVeau, L. T. (1988). Hospitality internships: An industry view. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 29(3), 18-20.

Finian O’Driscoll. (2012). What matters most? Quality Assurance in Education, 20:3, 237-258.Fox, T. (2001). A sense of place. Caterer and Hotelkeeper, 189(4160), 30-31.Gabris, G. T., & Mitchell, K. (1989). Exploring the relationships between intern

job performance, quality of education experience, and career placement. Public Administration Quarterly, 484-504.

Girard, T. C. (1999). Interns’ perceptions of internships: A look at work, supervision and appraisals. Journal of Cooperative Education, 34(3), 42-48.

Gryski, G. S., Johnson, G. W., & O’Toole, L. J. (1987). Undergraduate internships: An empirical review. Public Administration Quarterly, 150-170.

Hill, R. P. (2002). Managing across generations in the 21st century: Important lessons from the ivory trenches. Journal of Management Inquiry, 11(1), 60-66.

Jenkins, A. K. (2001). Making a career of it? Hospitality students’ future perspectives: An Anglo-Dutch study. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 13(1), 13–20.

Lam, T., & Ching, L. (2007). An exploratory study of an internship program: The case of Hong Kong students. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26(2), 336–351.

Mello, J. A. (2006). Enhancing the international business curriculum through partnership with the United States department of commerce: The “e” award internship program. Journal of Management Education, 30(5), 690-699.

Moore, D. T. (1983). Perspectives on learning in internships. Journal of Experiential Education, 6(2), 40-44.



Okeiyi, E., Finley, D., & Postel, R. T. (1994). Food and beverage management competencies: educator, industry, and student perspectives. Hospitality & Tourism Educator, 6(4), 37-40.

Pavesic, D., & Brymer, R. (1990). Job satisfaction: What’s happening to the young managers? Cornell Hotel And Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 30(4), 90-96. doi:10.1177/001088049003000420

Petrillose, M., & Montgomery, R. (1997). An exploratory study of internship practices in hospitality education and industry’s perception of the importance of internships in hospitality curriculum. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 9(4), 46-51. doi:10.1080/10963758.1997.10685352

Purcell, K. (1993). Equal opportunities in the hospitality industry: Custom and credentials. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 12(2), 127-140.

Rose, A. K. (2004). Do we really know that the WTO increases trade? The American Economic Review, 94(1), 98-114.

Scott, M. E. (1992). Internships add value to college recruitment. Personnel Journal, 71(4), 59-62.Thiel, G. R., & Hartley, N. T. (1997). Cooperative education: A natural synergy between

business and academia. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 62(3), 19.UNWTO. (2015). Retrieved from http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/annual_

report_2015_lr.pdf Wagner, J. (1983). Integrating the traditions of experiential learning in internship education.

Journal of Experiential Education, 6(2), 7-14.Waryszak, R. (1999). Students’ expectations from their cooperative education placements in the

hospitality industry: An international perspective. Education + Training, 41(1), 33-40. Weible, R. (2009). Are universities reaping the available benefits internship programs offer?

Journal of Education for Business, 85(2), 59-63.World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). (2016). Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/-/

media World Trade Organization. (2014) Retrieved from https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/

booksp_e/anrep_e/anrep14_e.pdf Wu, S. C., & Wu, W. C. (2006). The research of interns’ job performance and job satisfaction

in the tourism industry. Journal of Hospitality and Home Economics, 3(4), 473-491.Yiu, M., & Law, R. (2012). A review of hospitality internship: Different perspectives of students,

employers, and educators. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 12(4), 377-402.Zhang, H., & Agarwal, N. C. (2009). The mediating roles of organizational justice on the

relationships between HR practices and workplace outcomes: an investigation in China. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(3), 676-693.

Zhou, Y., Hussain, K., Nair, P. K., & Ragavan, N. A. (2016). Does higher education service quality effect student satisfaction, image and loyalty? A study of international students in Malaysian public universities. Quality Assurance in Education, 24(1), 70-94.

Zopiatis, A. (2007). Hospitality internships in Cyprus: A genuine academic experience or a continuing frustration? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(1), 65-77.



ISSN 2289-1471

Research Note

Tying the Knot in Malaysia: Factors that Motivate Venue Selection and Attributes

Shantini Thuraiselvam and Francisca Lo Kiun YiiTaylor’s University, Malaysia


Abstract: Couples choosing to tie the knot are overwhelmed by a variety of products and services offered in Malaysia to make that special day truly memorable. This research note aims to explore factors that motivate Malaysian couples in choosing their wedding venue and to identify which of these factors are most significant to the Malaysian couples in their decision-making process. The practical implications of the findings would benefit wedding service providers such as wedding planners, hoteliers, caterers and venue owners in designing compatible wedding packages that meet the desires and budget of Malaysian couples. Apart from the hospitality, food and beverage industry players, and event organisers, this area of research may assist the government, particularly the Ministry of Tourism to enhance their efforts in promoting Malaysia as a premier wedding destination.

Keywords: Venue selection, venue attributes, wedding destination

Suggested citation: Thuraiselvam, S. & Lo, F.K.Y. (2017). A research note: Tying the knot in Malaysia: Factors that motivate venue selection and attributes. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 75-80.

Introduction

A wedding, in any culture, is a momentous occasion when a couple plans a celebration that shares their love story with their families and friends, in a wedding venue of the couple’s choice. It is a celebration filled with emotional moments in a memorable way, regardless of ethnic or culture. Wedding tourism is becoming increasingly popular (Major, McLeay & Waine, 2010). Acorn Consulting Partnership Ltd (2008) defined wedding tourism as travelling internationally for the purpose of getting married

Correspondence: Shantini Thuraiselvam, Taylor’s University, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]


76 Shantini Thuraiselvam and Francisca Lo Kiun Yii

or celebrating a wedding. Boden (2001) highlighted that weddings have become a commodity, providing opportunities for each host destination to market itself as a place where a special life event can be commemorated in an unforgettable way.

The public perception of Malaysia as a wedding destination is usually associated with its rich diverse culture and beautiful natural scenery (Zamri, Darson, Wahab & Lim, 2013). Despite the growth of weddings as a commercial activity in Malaysia, not many studies have examined the decision-making process of couples with respect to venue selection for their wedding ceremony and reception (Lau & Hui, 2010).

In Malaysia, the hotel industry has benefited tremendously from the boost for wedding venues and has become a tourism product in demand. In cognisance, many hotels and resorts now come equipped with attractive facilities and amenities as well as have started providing professional wedding planner services at an affordable price. With these attributes, Malaysia can potentially rise to be a top choice for preferred wedding destination. The purpose of this research note is to explore the perceptions of Malaysian couples in venue selection and attributes for their wedding.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Globally, the popularity of wedding destinations has increased over the past decade and well accepted as a significant market segment for destinations. According to Mintel (2010), a United Kingdom (UK)-based market research firm, one in five UK weddings takes place abroad; between 2005 and 2010, the number of weddings abroad increased by 27%. Statistics New Zealand (2010) reported that the number of couples travelling inbound to get married increased from 800 per year in the 80s (3% of weddings) to approximately 2,000 per year (8-9% of weddings) during the period 2001- 2009. Studies on Japanese consumers also highlighted the growth in the wedding tourism market segment; it was reported that an average of 40,000 Japanese couples have destination weddings each year (Ma, 2011). In India, this niche market has been on the increase by almost 100% annually (Kaul & Khanna, 2011).

In Malaysia, the Tourism Malaysia Board works closely with the Association of Wedding Professionals (AWP) (Tourism Malaysia, 2015). The AWP was formed to increase awareness of wedding services and safeguard the professionalism and credibility of its members in order to improve the quality of services. Malaysia has always been recognised for its vast tourist appeal due to its rich culture, heritage and exotic cuisine. A melting pot of distinct cultures of Malays, Chinese, Indians, Portuguese, Eurasians as well as indigenous people, Malaysia provides the perfect setting for a wedding set in the rich flavour and culture of Asia.


Tying the Knot in Malaysia: Factors that Motivate Venue Selection and Attributes 77

PROBLEM STATEMENT

This research note proposes that the manner in which couples choose their wedding venues can be comparable to how tourists’ choose a travel destination. The tourists’ choice of destination is based on their needs and wants at the particular point in time similar to motivation to travel. Studies on travel motivation are rooted in theoretical frameworks of sociology and social psychology (Hsu & Huang, 2008). A review of literature indicates that travel motivation is regularly examined by motivation’s theory based on push and pull factors (Mohammad & Som, 2010). Although push and pull motivation has been accepted as a useful framework for explaining travel motivation and destination attributes (Bansal & Eiselt, 2004; Fluker & Turner, 2000; Goossens, 2000; Jang & Cai, 2002; Kim, Lee & Klenosky, 2003; Kozak, 2002), most of the empirical studies on travel motivation have focused on North American and European countries (Kim & Prideaux, 2005; Rittichainuwat, 2008) while empirical findings relating to Asian regions remain insufficient (Hsu, Tsai & Wu, 2009). In particular, there is limited theoretical or conceptual framework towards understanding wedding destination choices in terms of venue selection and attributes in Malaysia.

PURPOSE

This research proposes the use of the push and pull motivation factors, common to the tourism industry, to develop a framework for the selection of wedding venue and attributes as presented by Seebaluck, Munhurrun, Naidoo and Rughoonauth (2015). Push factors are defined as the social-psychological needs that urge someone to travel to a specific destination (Crompton, 1979). A large portion of the push components comprise natural and intangible components that push individuals to travel. These social-psychological intentions can be connected to the yearning to get away, rest and relax, experience, popular and social activities. Curiosity too has a heavy influence on travel choice as individuals are pulled to novel and varied things and look forward to visiting new places or doing new things to fulfil their social-psychological needs (Yuan & McDonald, 1990). A component that pushes individuals to travel and which is exceptionally important to wedding tourism is the need to demonstrate belongingness/love (Awaritefe, 2004). Travellers seek anomie and ego enhancement to satisfy their other intrinsic needs (Dann, 1981; Fodness, 1994). This suggests that venue selection is a symbol of social status for couples.

Pull elements are known as external inspirations that emerge as a result of the engaging quality of a destination (Kassean & Gassita, 2013). For wedding tourism, the exoticism of the place itself plays a significant part of the pull factor which incorporates both tangible and intangible components like shorelines, streams, scene, biodiversity, the 3S – sun, sea, sand and other elements (Phillips & House,



2009; Prayag & Ryan, 2012; Seebaluck et al., 2015). Combined with push factors, pull factors such as supply of wedding venues and its attributes will influence a couple’s choice in selecting the ideal venue provider.

Weddings are strongly dependent on the availability of amenities (Uysal, McIellan & Syrakaya, 1996) and man-made pull factors which will influence whether Malaysia’s hotels and resorts are chosen as “the” location to get hitched. These factors range from location, facilities/amenities, cost, quality service and good accommodation (Awaritefe, 2004) and should encompass all vital services and requirements needed to satisfy the client’s travel and wedding experience; resulting in a competitive edge for the venue. While push components are recognised as internal want or need that pushes one to select their desired venue, pull elements are generally external properties or factors that draw people into choosing a certain place as their their wedding venue.

The discussions in this research note are preliminary. An important aspect that needs further studies is the economic contribution of wedding tourism to Malaysia, as this country has all the right attributes such as satisfactory facilities and amenities, ‘sun, sea and sand’ and capacity to meet any budget, similar to other successful wedding destinations such as Hawaii, the Caribbean, Italy, Mexico, Fiji, Maldives, Mauritius, and Bali (Del Chiappa & Fortezza, 2015; Major et al., 2010; Seebaluck et al., 2015). Further studies on the suitability of the push-pull motivation theory needs to be properly presented and supported by literature. This can be done by engaging research perspectives and introducing further clarification.


References

Acorn Consulting Partnership Ltd. (2008). Developing a niche tourism market database for the Caribbean. Retrieved from http://www.onecaribbean.org/wp-content/uploads/NicheMarketsDatabase.pdf

Awaritefe, O. D. (2004). Tourists’ values, activities and motivation for travel to Third World destinations: Case study of Nigeria. Tourism Review, 59(1), 34-43.

Bansal, H., & Eiselt, H. A. (2004). Exploratory research of tourist motivations and planning. Tourism Management, 25(3), 387-396.

Boden, S. (2001). ‘Superbrides’: Wedding consumer culture and the construction of bridal identity. Sociological Research Online, 6(1).

Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424.


Tying the Knot in Malaysia: Factors that Motivate Venue Selection and Attributes 79

Dann, G. M. (1981). Tourist motivation: An appraisal. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(2), 187-219.

Del Chiappa, G., & Fortezza, F. (2015). Wedding-based tourism development: Insights from an Italian context. In A. Correia, J. Gnoth, M. Kozak, & A. Fyall (Eds.), Marketing places and spaces (pp. 61-74). UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Fluker, M. R., & Turner, L. W. (2000). Needs, motivations, and expectations of a commercial white water rafting experience. Journal of Travel Research, 38(4), 380-389.

Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(3), 555-581.

Goossens, C. (2000). Tourism information and pleasure motivation. Annuals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 301-321.

Hsu, C. H. C., & Huang, S. (2008). Travel motivation: A critical review of the concept’s development. In A. G. Woodside & D. Martin (Eds.), Tourism management analysis, behaviour and strategy (pp. 14-27). Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing.

Hsu, T. K., Tsai, Y. F., & Wu, H. H. (2009). The preference analysis for tourist choice of destination: A case study of Taiwan. Tourism Management, 30(2), 288-297.

Jang, S.C., & Cai, L. A. (2002). Travel motivations and destination choice: A study of British outbound market. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 13(3), 111-133.

Kassean, H., & Gassita, R. (2013). Exploring tourists push and pull motivations to visit Mauritius as a tourist destination. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 2(3), 1-13.

Kaul, A., & Khanna, P. (2011). Role of tourism in making India an emerging superpower. Journal of Management Experts, 1(1), 123-127.

Kim, S. S., Lee, C. K., & Klenosky, D. B. (2003). The influence of push and pull factors at Korean national parks. Tourism Management, 24(2), 169-180.

Kim, S.S., & Prideaux, B. (2005). Marketing implications arising from a comparative study of international pleasure tourist motivations and other travel-related characteristics of visitors to Korea. Tourism Management, 26(3), 347-357.

Kozak, M. (2002). Comparative analysis of tourist motivations by nationality and destinations. Tourism Management, 23(3), 221-232.

Lau, C. K. H., & Hui, S.H. (2010). Selection attributes of wedding banquet venues: an exploratory study of Hong Kong prospective wedding banquet. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(2), 268-276.

Ma, S. (2011). Marketing strategies to attract Japanese tourists to the UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site: Xiannü Mountain in Chongqing, China (Unpublished master’s thesis) Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan.

Major, B., McLeay, F., & Waine, D. (2010). Perfect weddings abroad. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 16(3), 249-262.

Mintel (2010). Weddings and honeymoons abroad – UK. Retrieved from http://oxygen.mintel.com/display/479945.



Mohammad, B. A. M. A. H., & Som, A. P. M. (2010). An analysis of push and pull travel motivations of foreign tourists to Jordan. International Journal of Business and Management, 5(12), 41-50.

Phillips, M. R., & House, C. (2009). An evaluation of priorities for beach tourism: Case studies from South Wales, UK. Tourism Management, 30(2), 176-183.

Prayag, G., & Ryan, C. (2012). Antecedents of tourists’ loyalty to Mauritius: The role and influence of destination image, place attachment, personal involvement, and satisfaction. Journal of Travel Research, 51(3), 342-356.

Rittichainuwat, N. (2008). Responding to disaster: Thai and Scandinavian tourists’ motivation to visit Phuket, Thailand. Journal of Travel Research, 46(4), 422-432.

Seebaluck, N. V., Munhurrun, P. R., Naidoo, P., & Rughoonauth, P. (2015). An analysis of the push and pull motives for choosing Mauritius as “the” wedding destination. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 201-209.

Statistics New Zealand. (2010). Wedding tourism: 1980-2009. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved from www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/browse.../wedding-tourism/wed-tour-1980-09.pdf

Tourism Malaysia (2015). Niche Products: Wedding & Honeymoon. Retrieved from http://www.tourism.gov.my/niche/wedding-honeymoon.

Uysal, M., Mclellan, R., & Syrakaya, E. (1996). Modelling vacation destination decisions: A behavioural approach. Recent Advances in Tourism Marketing Research, 5(1/2), 57-75.

Yuan, S., & McDonald, C. (1990). Motivational determinates of international pleasure time. Journal of Travel Research, 29(1), 42-44.

Zamri, M. H., Darson, M. D., Wahab, M. F., & Lim, L. K (2014). Malaysia as a wedding destination: Perception and destination characteristics. In N. Sumarjan, M. S. Mohd Zahari, S. Mohd Radzi, M. Zurinawati, M. H. Mohd Hanafiah, M. F. S. Bakhtiar, Z. Artinah (Eds.), Hospitality and tourism: Synergizing creativity and innovation in research (pp.381-384). London: Taylor & Francis Group



ISSN 2289-1471

Research Note

In Search of Greener Pastures? Investigating Filipino Tourism and Hospitality Management Students’ Willingness to Work Overseas

Richard S Aquino, Gertrude P Tuazon, Tyron W Yap and Ian Bencio M David Holy Angel University, Philippines


Abstract: This paper investigates the factors that affect Filipino tourism and hospitality management (THM) students’ willingness to work overseas, particularly in another Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) country. The influence of THM students’ current financial satisfaction and optimism towards getting employment in the Philippines and in ASEAN countries on their willingness to work in another ASEAN country were examined. Through an online survey, data were collected from a quota sample of 281 THM students enrolled in a private university in the Philippines, and were analysed using logistic regression. Findings show that only the students’ optimism towards getting employment in the Philippines has an effect on their willingness to work in another ASEAN country. Specifically, as students’ optimism in their home country increases, their willingness to work abroad decreases. This paper provides implications for the academia and policy makers in the Philippine tourism and hospitality industry.

Keywords: ASEAN, Filipino students, labour migration, logistic regression, tourism and hospitality management

Suggested citation: Aquino, R.S., Tuazon, G.P., Yap, T.W. & David, I.B.M. (2017). In search of greener pastures? Investigating Filipino tourism and hospitality management students’ willingness to work overseas. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 6(2), 81-90.

Introduction

The Philippines is one of the top sending countries of migrant workers, and remittances from overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) are one of the country’s primary economic contributors (International Organisation for Migration, 2013). In 2015, there were over 2.4 million OFWs, with 23.87% of them working as service labourers (Philippine

Correspondence: Richard S Aquino, Holy Angel University, Philippines.. Email: [email protected]


82 Richard S Aquino, Gertrude P Tuazon, Tyron W Yap and Ian Bencio M David

Statistics Authority, 2016). These OFWs contributed US$24.63 billion to the Philippine economy in the same year (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, 2017). According to the Philippine Overseas Employment Authority (2014), tourism and hospitality industry jobs are in the top 10 work categories for OFWs. This paper investigates Filipino tourism and hospitality management (THM) students’ willingness to work overseas, particularly in another Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) country.

Apart from promoting peace and stability in the Southeast Asian region, ASEAN aims at fostering economic, social, cultural and educational cooperation amongst its 10 member states, namely Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam (Wong, Mistilis, & Dwyer, 2011). To achieve a highly integrated and cohesive ASEAN, the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) was envisioned, and established in 2015. The main characteristic of the AEC is the transformation of ASEAN into a single market and production base that will induce free flow of goods, services, investment, capital and skilled labour (ASEAN, 2008). Recognising AEC’s vision in parallel with the ASEAN Tourism Agreement (ASEAN, 2002), the Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) on Tourism Professionals was created (ASEAN, 2012). The MRA provides a mechanism for agreement on the standardisation and equivalence certification procedures and qualifications across ASEAN member states. Through the cascade of the Common ASEAN Tourism Curriculum to higher educational institutions (HEI), which is regulated and implemented by each member country’s Tourism Professional Certification Board, THM graduates’ eligibility and quality of tourism and hospitality services will be enhanced (ASEAN, 2014). Furthermore, the implementation of the MRA will improve the mobility of tourism professionals within ASEAN.

Tourism and hospitality careers are international in nature, and the AEC is seen to reduce the barriers for migrant workers to work within the Southeast Asian region, especially for Filipinos among whom working overseas is popular (Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies, 2005; International Organisation for Migration, 2013). In relation to this, labour migration studies suggest that economic reasons are the main factors that migrant workers consider (e.g. Kazlauskienė & Rinkevičius, 2006; King, 2012; Krishnakumar & Indumathi, 2014). Using Filipino THM students enrolled in a private HEI in the Philippines as the sample, this study answers the research question, ‘How do Filipino THM students’ financial satisfaction and optimism about getting a job in their home country and the rest of ASEAN countries, affect their willingness to work in another ASEAN country?’

Literature Review

Migration is defined as a “temporary or permanent movement of individuals or groups of people from one geographic location to another for various reasons



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ranging from better employment possibilities to persecution” (Hagen-Zanker, 2008, p. 4). Migration can either be internal or external (Kumar & Sidhu, 2005). To explain the complex nature of this phenomenon, together with the factors and consequences, theoretical frameworks have been developed using perspectives from various disciplines such as sociology, political science, law, economics, demography, geography, psychology and cultural studies (Ciarniene & Kumpikaite, 2011). Primarily, neoclassical economic migration theories are utilised in understanding international labour migration, since it is acknowledged that individuals engage in this phenomenon due to economic reasons (Kazlauskienė & Rinkevičius, 2006; King, 2012; Krishnakumar & Indumathi, 2014; Madrigal & Mayadas, 2006).

One of the theories that has been applied to understand migration is the push-pull migration theory conceptualised by Ravenstein (1885, 1889), which was further developed by Lee (1966), and has been the basis of most migration theories. In international labour migration, this theory explains that the decision to move to another country for work is induced by two complementary factors: push factors (supply) or those that originate from their home country, and pull factors (demand) or those that attract individuals to move to migrant-receiving countries (Krishnakumar & Indumathi, 2014; Kumar & Sidhu, 2005). The push-pull migration theory is recognised as a simplistic model that explains the decision to migrate (King, 2012). The hypotheses of this study are drawn from the general concepts of this theory, illustrated in a conceptual model shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual model

Financial Satisfaction

(FINSAT)

Willingness to Work abroad

(WILACNR)

OptimismASEAN

(OPTAC)

OptimismHome Country

(OPTHCR)



Migrant workers are enticed by the economic benefits that the receiving countries can offer over the sending countries (Hagen-Zanker, 2008). Poor economic conditions, high levels of unemployment, and lack of economic opportunities are viewed as pushing individuals to leave their home countries (Krishnakumar & Indumathi, 2014; Kumar & Sidhu, 2005). In Lithuania, economic factors were found as the main reasons that impel international labour migration of students (Ciarniene & Kumpikaite, 2011), and the country’s macroeconomic status was discovered to influence the migration decisions of highly-skilled migrants (Kazlauskienė & Rinkevičius, 2006). Similarly, poor economic development and financial motivations were discovered to push Colombians to migrate to the USA (Madrigal & Mayadas, 2006). In the case of Filipino health workers, unemployment, low wages and institutional policies are implied as the reasons for overseas employment migration (Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies, 2005). Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1. Financial satisfaction has an effect on Filipino THM students’ willingness to work overseas.

H2. Filipino THM students’ optimism towards getting a job in their home country has an effect on their willingness to work overseas.

In terms of pull factors, it is implied that higher incomes, better employment opportunities and welfare systems raise the motivation of workers to migrate to other countries (Ciarniene & Kumpikaite, 2011; King, 2012). Various studies found that these economic opportunities drive individuals to leave their countries for employment (e.g. Kumar & Sidhu, 2005; Madrigal & Mayadas, 2006). In addition, professional attraction or better opportunities to grow professionally in receiving countries was revealed to have a pull effect on highly-skilled workers (Kazlauskienė & Rinkevičius, 2006). A similar trend applies to Filipino health workers who decided to leave their countries and work abroad (Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies, 2005). It can be proposed that these factors may impact their decision to seek opportunities overseas. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3. Filipino THM students’ optimism towards securing a job in another ASEAN country has an effect on their willingness to work overseas.

Methodology

Survey research methods were utilised in this study, because they measure and simplify complex information, such as individuals’ characteristics, attitudes, and behaviour (Denscombe, 2014). Quota sampling techniques were employed



85

on THM students enrolled in a Philippine HEI. Data were collected during students’ computing classes through an electronic questionnaire that was developed and administered by the Asian Institute of Management1 (AIM). Only those who volunteered to participate were asked to respond to the questionnaire. This online survey2 was designed for students of ASEAN member countries, to measure their awareness, perception, outlook and attitude towards getting employment and travelling within the ASEAN region. The survey collected data on students’ socio-demographic characteristics, and three-point Likert scale items were used to measure their perception and attitude towards the AEC. In this study, students’ financial satisfaction which was based on their family’s current financial situation, optimism and willingness towards employment in the AEC are reported (Table 1).

Table 1. Summary of original and recoded variables for logistic regression

Variables Questions Original values Recoded values

FINSAT

OPTHCR

OPTAC

WILACNR

How satisfied are you with your family’s financial situation?

How optimistic are you in finding employment that is closely related to your degree of specialisation in your home country within a year after graduation?

How optimistic are you in finding employment in another ASEAN country within a year after graduation?

How willing are you to take a job in another ASEAN country that is not related to your degree of specialisation?’

1 = Not satisfied; 2 = Satisfied; 3 = Very satisfied

1 = Not optimistic; 2 = Optimistic; 3 = Very optimistic

1 = Not optimistic;2 = Optimistic; 3 = Very optimistic

1 = Not willing;2 = Willing; 3 = Very willing

1 = Satisfied, very satisfied;

0 = Not satisfied

1 = Optimistic, very optimistic;

0 = Not optimistic

1 = Optimistic, very optimistic;

0 = Not optimistic

1 = Willing, very willing;

0 = Not willing

1 Founded in 1968, AIM is a business and management school located in Makati City, Philippines, that houses multiple research centres including the Dr Andrew L Tan Centre for Tourism (ALT-CFT).

2 A research project by AIM’s ALT-CFT, this online survey is entitled ‘Asian Barometer Survey’ where the university selected for this study is one of the project’s participating Philippine HEIs.



Statistical data analysis techniques performed in STATA 14 were applied on the 281 usable responses. Frequency analyses were conducted on the socio-demographic variables to describe the profile of the respondents. Descriptive statistics were run to describe students’ financial satisfaction (FINSAT), optimism towards getting a job in their home country (OPTHCR) and another ASEAN country (OPTAC), and their willingness to work in another ASEAN country, except their home country (WILACNR). Thereafter, these variables were recoded as ‘dummy’ variables to prepare them for hypothesis testing through a logistic regression analysis (Table 1). Logistic regression is a statistical technique to estimate the relationships of multiple independent variables on a dependent variable with two possible outcomes (Thrane, 2005), which in this study, pertain to those who are willing (coded 1) and not willing (coded 0) to work in an ASEAN country except the Philippines.

Results

Respondents’ Profile

Of the 281 respondents, 65.8% were female and 34.2% were male. The respondents have an average age of 19.37 years. A majority receive a weekly allowance of US$20 or more (37.4%), followed by those who receive US$5 to US$9 (19.6%), US$10 to US$14 (19.6%), and less than US$5 (10.7%). In terms of civil status, most of the respondents are single (97.5%); the remainder are either married (1.8%) or separated (0.7%).

Descriptive Statistics

In terms of financial satisfaction (M = 2.11, SD = .58), a majority of respondents were either satisfied (64.8%) or very satisfied (23.1%). The remainder were financially not satisfied (12.1%). For students’ optimism towards getting a job in their home country (M = 2.17, SD = .58), 64.1% were optimistic, 26.7% were very optimistic, and only 9.3% were not optimistic. An almost similar trend can be observed on their optimism towards the rest of the ASEAN countries (M = 2.10, SD = .54), where most of them were optimistic (70.1%), very optimistic (19.9%), and a small percentage of them were not optimistic (10%). A majority of the students reported that they were willing (63%) to work in another ASEAN country (M = 1.97, SD = .61). Conversely, a higher percentage was revealed for those not willing (19.9%) compared to those who were very willing (17.1%).

Logistic Regression Model

A logistic regression model was applied to explain the factors that predict students’ willingness to work in an ASEAN country, except the Philippines. The model can be expressed as:

logY = a + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + e (1)



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where Y = 1 pertains to those willing, Y = 0 to those who are not willing, a is the intercept coefficient, β1... β3 are unstandardised regression coefficients, and e is the error term. X1 is the independent variable FINSAT, X2 is OPTHCR, and X3 is OPTAC.

Table 2. Results of logistic regression analysis

Independent variables

β SE z p Hypotheses Decision

FINSAT (X1)OPTHCR (X2)OPTAC (X3)constant

Log likelihood/dfChi-square

.273–2.131.9322.292

–136.038/38.69

.44694311.052441.66734211.155324

0.61–2.031.401.98

0.5420.043*0.1630.047*

0.0352*

H1H2H3

RejectedSupportedRejected

Dependent variable: WILACNR N = 281 *Significance level .05

The results of the logistic regression analysis showed a model with a significant overall fitness (χ2 = 8.59, p < .05); this shows the efficacy of the model to distinguish those who are willing or not willing to work in another ASEAN country. Table 2 presents the coefficients of the three independent variables. Only OPTHCR was revealed to have a significant effect on the dependent variable WILACNR; thus, this supports H2. This means that one unit increase in students’ optimism to get a job in the Philippines decreases their willingness to work in the rest of the ASEAN countries by 2.13. Therefore, the logistic regression equation can be written as:

logY = 2.29 – 2.13(X2) (2)

Furthermore, the above model (2) can be utilised to calculate the probability that Y is equal to 1, by transforming the equation into:

Pr(Y = 1) = e [2.29-2.13(X2)]

1 + e [2.29-2.13(X2)] (3)

where e is the base of natural logarithms. By using this equation (as suggested by Thrane, 2005), two probabilities can be calculated: one for those who are willing, and one for those who are not willing to work abroad. By subsequently substituting X2



with 1 and 0 in equation (3), the analogues probability for those who are optimistic and not optimistic to get a job in the Philippines on their willingness to work abroad can be identified, respectively. Results reveal that there is a 54% probability that an optimistic student is willing to work in another ASEAN country, and a high probability of 90.82% that a non-optimistic student is willing to work in an ASEAN country except the Philippines.

Discussion & Conclusion

The primary aim of this study is to investigate Filipino THM students’ willingness to work overseas, particularly within the ASEAN region. In contrast to the results of past studies (e.g. Ciarniene & Kumpikaite, 2011; Madrigal & Mayadas, 2006), the findings reveal that the students’ satisfaction with their current financial situation did not influence their willingness to leave the Philippines for work. As the frequency analysis shows, most of the respondents are satisfied with their family’s financial status, and almost all of them are single individuals with less financial responsibilities. Moreover, although a majority of the students are highly optimistic that they can obtain employment in other ASEAN countries after graduation, this positive outlook was shown not to impact their willingness to work in these receiving countries. It can be asserted that their almost equal level of optimism towards gaining employment in the Philippines may have countered the effect of the former factor.

Conversely, students’ overall optimism towards getting employment in the Philippines is revealed to affect their willingness to work in another ASEAN country. As supported by previous studies (e.g. Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies, 2005; Kazlauskienė & Rinkevičius, 2006; Kline, 2003), those who are not optimistic towards their home country’s situation in general are highly likely to decide to seek opportunities abroad. Those who are optimistic, however, are less likely to make this decision. An interesting finding to note is the reasonable number of those who are optimistic towards the employment situation in the Philippines (n = 255); these are less likely willing to work overseas. It can also be suggested that these optimistic THM students are more likely to pursue careers related to their chosen field of study in their home country, than the non-optimistic students do. This could be influenced by the general positive outlook towards the Philippine tourism industry. Specifically, the perceived increase in job opportunities that will result from the rising number of tourism and hospitality establishments in the country to meet the increase in tourist numbers may have affected their optimism towards the Philippines.

The findings of this study provide the following implications. Firstly, HEIs in the Philippines should continue to align their curricula with the ASEAN MRA for Tourism Professionals. As the requirements for the workers in this industry will



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be standardised, HEIs should ensure that their graduates are competent and are equipped with the skills required by the various roles in the industry. Secondly, it can be construed that the future supply of tourism and hospitality workers in the country should be met by available job opportunities, as THM students’ optimism towards working in the Philippines was shown to increase. This could be achieved by actively promoting tourism capital and investments in key tourism areas in the country.

This study explained some of the indicators of the willingness of Filipino THM students to work overseas. This study is one of the few studies that examined the willingness to work overseas amongst Filipinos training to be part of the tourism and hospitality workforce, as a majority of studies on OFWs are primarily focused on domestic and health workers. Furthermore, taking the establishment of the AEC as the backdrop, this study provides a timely investigation on the outlook of future Filipino THM professionals. It should be noted that only economic reasons for migration were investigated, and that students’ willingness towards working abroad was only partially explained. The respondents were recruited from one private HEI in the Philippines; thus, the findings may only apply to this sampling unit. Future studies should consider analysing other aspects such as social and political factors, and researching students from other HEIs in the Philippines. To complement the findings of this quantitative research, qualitative methods may be performed to provide deeper insights into the willingness of THM students to work overseas.


References

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Secretariat.ASEAN. (2014). Thinking globally, prospering regionally: ASEAN Economic Community 2015.

Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat.Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. (2017). Overseas Filipinos’ (OF) remittances. Retrieved from

http://www.bsp.gov.ph/statistics/keystat/ofw.htmCiarniene, R., & Kumpikaite, V. (2011). International labour migration: Students viewpoint.

Engineering Economics, 22(5), 527-533.Denscombe, M. (2014). The good research guide: For small-scale social research projects.

Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.Hagen-Zanker, J. (2008). Why do people migrate? A review of the theoretical literature.

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Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies. (2005). Migration of health workers: Country case study Philippines. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.

International Organisation for Migration. (2013). Country migration report: The Philippines 2013. Makati City: IOM

Kazlauskienė, A., & Rinkevičius, L. (2006). Lithuanian “brain drain” causes: Push and pull factors. Engineering Economics, 46(1), 27-37.

King, R. (2012). Theories and typologies of migration: An overview and a primer. Willy Brandt Series of Working Papers in International Migration and Ethnic Relations, 3(12), 1-41.

Kline, D. (2003). Push and pull migration in international nurse migration. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 35(2), 107-111.

Krishnakumar, P., & Indumathi, T. (2014). Pull and push factors of migration. Global Management Review, 8(4), 8-13.

Kumar, N., & Sidhu, A. S. (2005). Pull and push factors in labour migration: A study of brick-kiln workers in Punjab. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2), 221-232.

Lee, E. S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. doi:10.2307/2060063Madrigal, C. R., & Mayadas, N. S. (2006). Push and pull factors: A profile of Colombian

migration to the United States. Social Development Issues, 28(3), 30-42.Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (2014). Top 10 major occupational categories

of OFWs in 2014. Retrieved from http://www.poea.gov.ph/ofwstat/compendium/2014.pdf

Philippine Statistics Authority (2016). 2015 Survey on overseas Filipinos. Retrieved from https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/article/TABLE%20%202.4%20Distribution%20of%20Overseas%20Contract%20Workers%20by%20Major%20Occupation%20Group%2C%20Sex%20and%20Area%20%202015.pdf

Ravenstein, E.G. (1885). The laws of migration – I, Journal of the Statistical Society, 48(2): 167-227.

Ravenstein, E.G. (1889). The laws of migration – II, Journal of the Statistical Society, 52(2): 214-301.

Thrane, C. (2005). How to present results from logistic regression analysis in hospitality and tourism research. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5(4), 295-305.

Wong, E. P. Y., Mistilis, N., & Dwyer, L. (2011). A model of Asean collaboration in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(3), 882-899.

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Reviewers

Appreciation is recorded to the following reviewers for the review of the articles published in APJIHT, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2017.• Toney K. Thomas, Taylor’s University, Malaysia• KandappanBalasubramanian,Taylor’s University, Malaysia• RokhshadTavakoli,Taylor’s University, Malaysia• RupamKonar,Taylor’s University, Malaysia• JeeteshKumar,Taylor’s University, Malaysia• VahidehAbaeian,Independent Scholar• PhilipWongPongWeng,Taylor’s University, Malaysia

122 KashifHussain,NeethiahnanthanAriRagavan&JeeteshKumar


Author Guidelines

Guidelines for Submission

1. ManuscriptssubmittedtoAPJIHTshouldbeoriginalcontributionsandshouldnothavebeenpreviouslypublishednorunderconsiderationforpublicationelsewhere.Individualandmultipleauthorsarewelcometocontribute.

2. Allmanuscripts are refereed throughablind reviewprocessby at least twoacademicexpertsintheparticularfieldofthesubmittedpaper(s)priortoacceptance.Theentirereviewprocessaverages45days/1.5months.

3. ManuscriptsmustbewritteninEnglish.

4. Theabstractshouldsummarizethekeypointsofthepaperwithoutexceeding300wordsand,withamaximumof6keywordsthatdefinethesubjectmatter.

5. Researcharticles shouldnormallynot exceed6,000words, researchnotes shouldnotexceed2,500wordsandbookreviewsshouldnotexceed1,500words.

6. Researchnews(arewelcomesubmission)shouldfeatureindividualswhomakethenewswithbreakthroughresearch,are/havebeeninvolvedinoutstandingscientificendeavorsorconferredwithinternallyrecognizedawards.Categoriesofnewsare:newsmakers,scienceevents,patentsfrom research, commercial products from research and scientific conferences/workshops/symposia(nomorethan750words,and1snapshot).

7. AllcontributionsshouldfollowtheformatandstyledescribedinthePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA,6thedition).

8. AllmanuscriptsshouldbetypedinMSWORDformat,double-spacedwithone-inchmarginsandusing12-pointTimesNewRomanfont(exceptionoftables10-pointTimesNewRoman).

9. Manuscripts should include the following major sections: title page, abstract, mainbodyandreferences.Thetitlepageisthefirstpageandshouldcontainthetitleofthepaper,nameofauthor(s)orauthors’names,institutionalaffiliation,presentpositionandcompleteaddress(includingtelephone/faxande-mail).

10.Themainbodyortextshouldbedividedintoheadingsandsubheadings.Mainheadingsshouldbecenteredonthepageandsubheadingsplacedattheleftmargin.

11. Alltablesandfiguresshouldbepreparedonseparatepagesandgroupedtogetherattheendofthemanuscript,andtheplacewheretheyaretobeincludedmustbeclearlymarkedinthetext(e.g.“InsertFigure1here”).Tablesandfigures(300dpi)shouldbeclearlylabeled,intheformatandstyledescribedinAPA(6thedition)andsuitablefordirectreproduction.

12. ReferencesshouldfollowtheformatandstyledescribedinAPA(6thedition).

13. Author’snameshouldnotappearanywhereexceptonthecoverpageofonly main copyofthemanuscript(topreserveanonymityduringtheblindreviewprocess).

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14. SoftcopyofthemanuscriptintheformofMSWORDfileattachmentmustbesenttothefollowingemail:

Editor-in-ChiefAsia-PacificJournalof InnovationinHospitalityandTourismCentreforResearchandInnovationinTourism,HospitalityandFoodStudies(CRiT)SchoolofHospitality,Tourism&CulinaryArtsTaylor’sUniversity,LakesideCampusNo.1,JalanTaylor’s,47500SubangJay SelangorDarulEhsan,MalaysiaEmail:[email protected]; www.taylors.edu.my/apjiht

Manuscript Preparation

In-text Citations

Reference citations in text are done using parenthetical referencing. Most usually, thisinvolves enclosing the author’s surname and the date of publication within parentheses,separatedby a comma, generally placed immediately after the reference or at the endofthesentenceinwhichthereferenceismade,e.g.“Severalreasonscanbegivenforthelackofinterest intheradioasamedium(Caldwell&Richardson,1995).”However, it isalsocommonfortheauthorstobethesubjectorobjectofasentence.Insuchacaseonlytheyearisinparentheses,e.g.“CaldwellandRichard(1995)arguethatthereareseveral….”.Inallcasesofcitation,authornames(s)arealwaysfollowedbytheyear,andyearsareneverpresentedwithoutauthorname(s)immediatelyprecedingit.Inthecaseofaquotation,thepagenumberisalsoincludedinthecitation.

Reference List

TheAPAstyleguideprescribesthattheReferencesection,bibliographiesandotherlistsofnamesshouldbeaccumulatedbysurnamefirst,andmandatesinclusionofsurnameprefixes.Forexample,“MartindeRijke”shouldbesortedas“Rijke,deM.”and“SaifAl-Falasi”shouldbe sorted as “Al-Falasi, S.”Fornames innon-English languages, follow the capitalizationstandardsofthatlanguage.

Print Sources

Book by one authorTribe,J.(2004).The economics of recreation, leisure and tourism(3rdEd.).Oxford:Elsevier

Book by two authorsMathieson, A. &Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: economic, physical and social impacts. London:Longman

Chapter in an edited bookBuhalis,D.(2000).Trendsininformationtechnologyandtourism.InW.C.Gartner&D.W.Lime

(Ed.),Trends in outdoor recreation, leisure and tourism(pp.47-61).Oxon:CABInternational



Article in a journalKaratepeO.M.&Avci,T.(2002).Measuringservicequalityinthehotelindustry:Evidence

from northernCyprus. Anatolia:An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research,13(1),19-32

Churchill,A.G.(1979).Aparadigmfordevelopingbettermeasuresofmarketingconstructs.Journal of Marketing Research,16(1),64-73

Article in a journal with DOIKling,K.C.,Hyde, J.S.,Showers,C.J.&Buswell,B.N. (1999).Genderdifferences in self-

esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 470-500. Doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.470

Article in a weekly magazineHenry,W.A.,III.(1990,April9).Makingthegradeintoday’sschools.Time,135,28-31

Article in a weekly magazine with DOIHoff, K. (2010,March 19). Fairness in modern society. Science, 327, 1467-1468. Doi:

10.1126/science.1188537

Article in a print newspaperWrong,M.(2005,August17).“Nevergonnagiveyouup,”saysmayor.Toronto Sol,p.4.

Dissertation(PhDormasters)MacDonalds, A. (1991). Practical dissertation title (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).

UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,FL.

Electronic Sources

For electronic references,websites and online articles,APA style asserts some basic rules,includingto(i)directreadersspecificallytothesourcematerialusingURLswhichwork;(ii)includeretrievaldateONLYwhencontentislikelytochange(e.g.,wikis);and(iii)includeallotherrelevantAPAstyledetailsforthesource.

Online article based on a print source, with DOi (e.g., a PDF of a print source from a database)Krueger,R.F.,Markon,K.E.,Patrick,C.J.&Iacono,W.G.(2005).Externalisingpsychopathology

inadulthood:Adimensional-spectrumconceptualizationanditsimplicationsforDSM-V.Journal of Abnormal Psychology,114,537-550.Doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.537

Online article based on a print source, without DOI, without issue no. (e.g., a PDF of a print source from a database)Marlowe,P.,Spade,S.&Chan,C.(2001).Detectiveworkandthebenefitsofcolourversus

blackandwhite.Journal of Pointless Research,11,123-127.

Article in an Internet-only journalMcDonald,C.&Chenoweth,L.(2009).Leadership:Acrucialingredientinunstabletimes.

Social Work & Society,7.Retrieved15March2012fromhttp: //www.scowork.net/2009/1/articles/mcdonaldchenoweth

125Reviewers


Article with no author identified (the title moves to the “author” position)Britainlaunchesnewspaceagency.(2010,March24).Retrievedon15March2012from

http://news.ninemsn.com.au/technology/1031221/britain-launches-new-space-agency

Article with no author and no date identified (e.g., wiki article)HarryPorter.(n.d.).InWikipedia.Retrievedon15March2012fromhttp://en.wikipedia/w/

index.php?title=Harry_Porter&oldid=380786432

Entry in an online dictionary or reference work, no date and no author identifiedVerisimilitude. (n.d.) InMerriam-Webster’s online dictionary (11th Ed.). Retrieved from

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/verisimilitude

E-mail or other personal communication (cite in text only)Monterey,personalcommunication,September28,2001



ASEAN TOURISM RESEARCH ASSOCIATION (ATRA)ATRAorAseanTourismResearchOrganization aims to support theASEAN integrationpoliciesthroughtourismresearchandinnovation,enhancecollaborationontourismfortheacademiaandresearcherswithinandoutsideASEANbyestablishinganetworkoftourismresearchclustersinInstitutionsofHigherlearningfromtheregion.

Mission and Vision• Establishing a network of

Tourism research clusters inASEANUniversities.

• Developing links betweenASAEANresearchers in tourismwithcommonprojects.

• Providingarecognizedmulti-siteresourceandexpertiserelatedtoASEANTourism.

• Contributingtothedevelopmentof theTourismHumancapacityforASEANCountries.

• Supporting the ASEANintegrationpolicies.

Scope of ActivitiesInpursuanceoftheaimsandobjectivesdefinedabovetheAssociationshall:• CarryoutresearchrelatedtotourisminASEAN.• Organizeseminars,forums,symposiums,exhibitions,workshopsandconferences,carry

outstudies,researchandraiseissuesinaccordancewiththeobjectivesoftheAssociation.• Integrate, publish and disseminate materials, such as books, research reports and

periodicalsrelevanttothetourismindustryinASEANandotheractivitiespertainingtothepromotionoftheobjectivesstatedabove.

• MaintainadatabaseoftourismresearchexpertisewithafocusonASEAN.• Assistmembers of the association to find the right expertise and clusters for research

collaborationsincompliancewiththeobjectivesoftheassociation.• Accept and raise grants, endowments and financial support from available legitimate

sourcesinsupportofitsprogrammesandactivities.• CollaboratewithotherrecognizedassociationsorbodieswithinoroutsideASEAN,which

subscribetotheassociationsobjectives.

Objectives

127Reviewers


Center for Research and Innovation in Tourism, Hospitality and Food StudiesAsia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism

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