APHG REVIEW BOOK IN A NUTSHELL
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Transcript of APHG REVIEW BOOK IN A NUTSHELL
BY ALEX COLEMAN
APHG REVIEW BOOK IN A NUTSHELL
CENTRAL PLACE THEORYDeveloped by Walter Christaller Saw the economic world as a spatial modelCity location and the level of economic
exchange could be analyzed using central places within hexagons which overlapped
ARITHMETIC DENSITYNumber of things per square unit of
distance.
AGRICULTURAL DENSITYNumber of people per square unit of land
actively under cultivation.
DIFFUSION PATTERNSExpansion
Originates in a central places and expands outward.Hierarchal
Originates in a first-order location then moves down to second-order locations and then locally.
RelocationBegins at a point of origin then crosses physical
barrier.Contagious
Begins at point of origin then moves outward to nearby locations
StimulusUnderlying principle diffuses
MAP TYPESTopographic
Contour lines of elevationThematic
Expresses particular subject with no land formsChloropleth
Uses color to show different geography Isoline
Calculate data values between two pointsDot Density
Uses dots to show volume and density Flow Line
Uses lines of different thickness to show movementCartograms
Uses simple geometric shapes to represent places
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODELTheory of how population changes over
time (has predictive capability)Stage 1
Subsistence farming, migration for food, livestock
High BR and DRSierra Leone, Liberia, Botswana
Stage 2Agricultural base for tradeRNI goes up significantlyBR high DR downGhana and Nepal
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (CNT’D) Stage 2 ½
New industrial countryManufacturing beginsBR down DR downMexico and Malaysia
Stage 3Transition to full manufacturingMost First World CountriesBR down DR down because of servicesChina and Brazil
Stage 4Service basedBR and DR as low as possibleZero population growthCanada, the United Kingdom, and the United States
MALTHUSIAN THEORYGlobal population would exceed food
productionDidn’t happen because of agricultural
revolutionsNeo- Malthusians
Sustainability: may be problems keeping up in the long-run
Increasing per capita demand: the amount of food per person has gone of greatly
Natural resource depletion: nonrenewables will run out like wood, minerals, and energy
POPULATION PYRAMIDSPopulation structures based on agesShapes
TriangleFast growing
Extended TriangleModerate growth
ColumnSlow growth
Reduced pentagonShrinking
GapsWar
Older on top
VON THUNEN’S MODEL OF THE ISOLATED STATE
LAND RENT CURVE
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL
SECTOR MODEL
MULTIPLE-NUCLEI MODEL
GALATIC CITY MODEL
LATIN AMERICAN CITY MODEL
GRAVITY MODELMathematical model that is used in a
number of different types of spatial analysis.
Used to calculate transportation flow between two points.
Determine the area of influence of a city’s business
Estimate the flow of migrants to a particular place
Location1 Population x Location 2 Population/Distance²
GIS, GPS, AND REMOTE SENSINGGIS
Data layers that show different geographic features
GPSUses satellites to show your position on Earth
Remote SensingArial photography used for GIS.
BIRTH RATETotal number of infants born living counted
in a year Live births/ (Population/1000)
Higher birth rates in LDCsLower birth rates in MDCs
DEATH RATEThe number of deaths per year divided by
1000.Deaths/(Population/1000)
High death rates in LDCsLow death rates in MDCsAdvances in technology have increased life
expectancy
RATE OF NATURAL INCREASE (RNI)Difference in the amount of population
changeBR-DR/10
Possible to be negative
DOUBLING TIMEHow long it would take for a country to
double in size70/RNI
NET MIGRATION RATETotal migration(Number of Immigrants/(Population/1000))-
(Number of Emigrants/(Population/1000))Can be negative
THE DEMOGRAPHIC EQUATION((BR-DR)+NMR)/10= Percentage Rate
TOTAL FERTILITY RATEAverage number of children born to each
woman age 15 to 45Number of children/Number of women
CENTROIDGeographic center of a country
MIGRATION Inter-regional or internal
One region of a country to another Transnational
One country to another Step migration
People move up in hierarchy of location for work or other reasons Chain migration
Pioneers establish a new place which is a foothold for more migration Periodic movement
Annual or seasonal movement Push factors
War Environmental hazards High cost of land
Pull factors Employment Services
LANGUAGELinguistic region
A place where a language is spokenCan have different dialects within the region
Lingua francaBridge language like English or French
ANATOLIAN VS. KURGAN THEORYAnatolian
Group of Indians migrated from India to Turkey and brought their language and then to Europe
KurganGroup of Indians went from India to Central
Asia then across the Eurasian steppe to Western Europe.
RELIGION Universalizing religions accept
Accept followers from everywhere Ethnic religions
Only from specific ethnic groups Animist
Voodoo, Native American Worship nature Migration
Hindu-Buddhist Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
Reincarnation Hindus: caste system, Buddhists: oppose the caste
Abrahamic Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Believe in God to a certain degree Common ancestors of Abraham Jesus Christ was a figurehead Islam: Five Pillars got them to Heaven
NATION AND ETHNICITYNation
Population represented by a single characteristicCulture group is another name
EthnicityGenetic heritage and political allegiance
RaceGenetic heritage and physical characteristics
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISMFriedrich RatzelThe physical geography shapes the culture
POSSIBILISMCarl SaurCultures were partially shaped by the
environment
INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL INDENTITYInternal
Expressing cultural heritage within the area it originated
ExternalExpressing culture where they do not share
the common culture or geographic background
CULTURAL REGIONSHomogeneous characteristics of culture in
an area
CULTURAL HEARTHSOrigin of a given culture
Nile RiverMesopotamiaThe Indus ValleyMesoamericaThe Andean HighlandNortheast ChileWest Africa
SEQUENT OCCUPANCEReplacing dominant cultures over timeLagos, Nigeria going from British control to
Nigerian
ACCULTURATIONFully adopting the culture of the dominant
population
CULTURAL GLOBALIZATIONMedia has combined cultures so much that
the cultures have lost their connection to their heritage and to nature
ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTSEthnic cleansing
People of one ethnic group are eliminated by anotherYugoslavian Croats and Serbs
GenocideLarge scale systematic killing of people of
one ethnic groupHolocaustDarfurRwanda
UNITS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONCountry
An identifiable land areaNation
A population with a single cultureState
A population under a single governmentNation-state
Single culture under a single governmentJapan, Iceland, Ireland
NATIONALISMExisting culture group that desires political
representation or independence
STATELESS NATIONCulture group is not included or allowed to
share in the state political processKurds in Iraq, Iran, and SyriaBasques in northern SpainHmong in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and
southern China
CONFEDERATIONSeveral smaller states make up a federal
governmentUS, Australia, Brazil, Russia
MICROSTATESSovereign states that are smaller but hold
the same position of larger statesDominica, Luxembourg, Malta, Singapore
MULTI-STATE NATIONSSupernationalism
Two or more states align together for a common purposeUN, WTO, WHO, EU, NATO, OPEC, NAFTA
THE EUROPEAN UNIONFree trade unionOpen bordersUniform currencyOne court for international issuesOne parliamentWorld’s largest economyConstitution is not yet ratified
ENCLAVES AND EXCLAVESEnclave
The minority group concentrated inside another countryEthnic neighborhood in Quebec
ExclaveFragmented piece of sovereign territory
separated by land from the main part of the countryAlaska
WATER BORDERS AT SEATerritorial sea:
12 nautical-mile limit to sovereigntyExclusive Economic Zone:
Given country only allowed to exploit economically within 200 miles
High SeasOutside of 12 mile limit
BORDER TYPESPhysical
Natural borders like rivers or mountainsCultural
Estimated boundaries between people groups
GeometricSurveyed along lines of latitude and
longitude
BORDER CONFLICTSFrontier
Open and undefined territoryPeaceful Resolutions
1846 Oregon Treaty, Louisiana Purchase 1804Post-colonial boundary conflicts
Conference of Berlin 1884 making international borders for Africa
Created the “Tyranny of the Map” because they did not consider cultural boundaries genocides in Rwanda were because of these issues
TERRITORIAL MORPHOLOGY Compact
Shape without irregularity Nigeria
Fragmented Broken into pieces Philippines
Elongated Stretched out, long Chile
Prorupt Panhandle Italy
Perforated Has a country inside of it South Africa
Landlocked Has no oceans or seas Switzerland
ANNEXATIONTerritory is added as a result of the land
purchase or when it is claimed through incorporation
GERRYMANDERINGAttempt to try to stack votes to guarantee
congressional support for one particular party and “fix” elections
ABSOLUTE MONARCHYSupreme ruler runs the country
Present day Saudi Arabia, Brunei, UAE
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHYMonarch can dismiss parliament, appoints
judges, is commander in chief, holds the monarchal estates.Great Britain, Belgium, Japan
COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIESRetain the British monarch as their head of
stateCanada, Jamaica, Australia
FREE-MARKET DEMOCRACY VS. SOCIALISMFree-market does not try to put barriers on
the economy (US and UK)Republics
Free of aristocratic or monarchal controlNeed separation of powers and flexible
constitutionSocialism tries to distribute everything and
centrally run the economy (USSR)Lacked incentive to produce and surplus of
goods
GEOPOLITICSGlobal-scale relationships between
sovereign states.Exam likes to ask about Cold War and
relationships between democracies and Communist countries
CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
CentripetalFactors that hold together social and political
fabric of the stateNationalism, well-liked leader, productive economy,
effective social welfare programs
Centrifugal forcesFactors that tear apart the social and political
fabric of the stateCultural differences or conflicts, political corruption,
failing economy, natural disastersYugoslavia had a good leader who identfied with
everyone and he died and left a power vacuum
BALKANIZATION AND IRREDENTISMBalkanization
When the political landscape goes from a larger state to several smaller statesYugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austro- Hungarian
Empire, USSR
IrredentismWhen a minority group desires to break away
from a multi-ethnic stateOr align itself with another state
Chechnya, Timor, Ossetia
REUNIFICATIONWhen nations were torn apart, but then
come back togetherEast and West Germany, return of the canal
zone to Panama, Yemen
HEARTLAND-RIMLAND MODELHalford MackinderEffort to define the global geopolitical
landscape and determine areas of potential future conflictLargest was Eastern European steppe in Russia
at the time this was called the HeartlandRimland was rest of the continents of Europe
and Asia and parts of Northern AfricaLandwolves
Eager to grab the area from the land (France)Seawolves
Eager to grab the area from the sea (UK and Japan)
SHATTERBELT THEORYSaul CohenChanged the Heartland to “Pivot Area”Changed the Rimland into the “Inner
Crescent”Rest of the world was the “Outer Crescent”
(US)
CONTAINMENT THEORYGeorge KennanSoviet Union would try to capture buffer
statesUS would try to build a containment wallWorked out well at first Communism died in
Greece and IranUS feared domino effect that if one state
fell then many would follow
FARMING PRACTICESIntensive
Lots of labor or small plot of landExtensive
Limited labor or large plot of landPastoralism
Agriculture based on the seasonal movement of animals (nomadic herding)
Plant domesticationPlant cultivatars used plants for food and used it to
make clothingSubsistence farming
Feeding only the producer’s householdExtensive subsistence
Low amounts of labor in less populated areas (South America)
FARMING PRACTICES (CNT’D)Non subsistence agriculture
Cash-cropping to sell goods at marketsPlantation
Domestic consumption and exporting cropsBananas in Brazil, Sugar in Florida, Coffee in
EthiopiaCommunism and agriculture
Communes resulted made of several families
HUMAN ECOLOGYHow humans interact with nature
TYPES OF CROPPINGCrop rotation
One crop is planted on a plot of land and then switched to another plot later
Multi-croppingPlanting one or more than one crop on the same land
Sustainable yieldAmount of crops or animals that can be raised
without endangering environment or too many expenses
Non-food cropsTextiles, animal feed, ethanol, biodiesel
Shifting cultivationSlash and burn in rainforests
NEGATIVES OF CROPPINGExtensive pastoralism
Shifting animal herds between grazing pasturesOvergrazing
Too much grazing has led to dry grassland being eaten away
DesertificationAny human process that turns a vegetated
environment into a desert-like landscapeSoil salinization
Evaporation of water trapping salt on the surface
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONSFirstVegetative planting
Plants grown togetherSeed agriculture
Fertilized seeds were planted togetherAnimal domestication
Breeding of animals for specific purposesSize of farms
Small, mainly subsistenceColumbian Exchange (popular on AP exams)
Maize, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, yucca, tobacco, rubber, peanuts, chocolate, and turkeys to Old World
Wheat, rice, coffee, apples, citrus, horses, cattle, hogs, chickens, sheep, goats, and diseases to the New World
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS SecondMid- 1800s to early 1900sDeveloped
Hybrid plantsFertilizersPesticidesMachines such as trucks, tractors, pumps,
and trailers
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS ThirdImprovements
Genetic engineeringDevelopment of vaccines, antibiotics, and
growth hormonesFactory farming
AgribusinessCorporate agriculture
Large scale extensive farms controlled by one company
Seeing the end of the family farm in America
SPECIALIZED AGRICULTURENatural foods emerging Non genetically modified foods (GMOs)OrganicsHormone-freeGrass-fed beefAlternative livestock
Lamb, bison, llamas, goose, and duckFish FarmingWineries
SECTORS OF PRODUCTIONPrimary
Agriculture, mining, energy, forestry, fisheriesSecondary
Processing of raw materials (manufacturing)Tertiary (services)
Transportation, wholesaling, retailing of the finished goodsQuaternary
Wholesaling, finance, banking, insurance, real estate, advertising, and marketing
Quinary productionRetailing, tourism, entertainment, and
communication, government, or education, and utilities
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT First World
Industrialized and service basedFree marketsHigh level of productivityHigh quality of life
Second WorldCommunist countriesCentrally planned economies
Third WorldMainly agricultural Low levels of productivityLow quality of life
Fourth WorldThird World with economic crisis
Fifth WorldThird World with no government
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIESThird world states that have made a shift
from agriculture to manufacturingMexico, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Nigeria,
China, Vietnam, India
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGECountry has the ability to produce a good
or service at less cost than other states
ASIAN TIGERSOld Asian Tigers
Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, SingaporeDeveloped because of foreign aid during the 50s,
60s, and 70sNew Asian Tigers
China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam
Developed because of foreign direct investment during the 80s and 90s
Growth possible because of cheap land, labor, and resources; and a lack of environmental regulations
ECONOMIC MEASURES OF DEVELOPMENTGDP: total volume of a country’s economy
Good+ ServicesGNI: dollar value of all goods and services
produced in a country plus the value of exports minus importsGoods+ Services+(Exports-Imports)
Trade surplusExports>Imports
Trade deficitExports<Imports
GDP per capitaGDP/Population
GNI per capitaGNI/Population
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEXDesigned by the UN to measure the level of
development of states based onGDP per capita, the adult literacy rate,
average level of education, and total life expectancy
Score is indexed from .0-1.0Intent is to provide a more balanced
measure of development
OTHER MEASUREMENTSThe Gini coefficient
Measures the difference between the rich and the poor population groups on a scale of 0-100
The Gender-Related Development IndexCompares men and women much of the way
that HDI is calculated
ROSTOW’S STAGES OF GROWTHWalter Rostow5 stages of growth
Traditional society: focused on primary productionPreconditions for takeoff: leadership invests in
infrastructure more technology is usedTakeoff: begins to shift focus to industryDrive to maturity: technology advances, industry
grows rapidly, workers become skilledAge of mass consumption: highly specialized
production like cars or energy, technology knowledge high, education levels are high, agriculture mechanized
DEPENDENCY THEORYMost LDCs are dependent on MDCs to
provide employmentPrebisch Thesis
Detailed the dependency of the Third World economy on First World loans and investments to pay for their infrastructure
Claimed that LDCs could never break the bonds of their dependence because they could never manufacture for themselves or make any extra money
BREAKING THE CYCLE OF DEPENDENCYLDC programs that try to break free from MDC
controlInternalization of economic capital
Requires companies to deposit profits from the factories in LDC banks and reinvest locally
Import substitution Instead of buying First World produced consumer-
products, they would buy from LDC factoriesNationalization of natural resource-based industries
Instead of allowing foreign companies to own resources, local governments would
Profit-sharing agreementsForeign companies agree to share part of the profits they
get with the governmentsTechnology development programs
Use limited funds to invest in technological advances and worker training
OTHER DEVELOPMENT APPROACHESTourism
Brings in a good deal of money from foreigners
Ecotourism has become very popular through rain forests, reefs, and savannahs
Free trade agreementsImprove international trade and boost
economiesFree-market reforms
Allowing people to trade freely from a country, abolishing Communism
THEORY OF LOCATIONAlfred WeberDetermines the optimal factory locations
Bulk-reducing manufacturing: close to the inputs (limestone, coal, and water)
Bulk-gaining manufacturing: close to the consumers (cars)
FORDIST VS. POST-FORDIST PRODUCTIONFordist
Relied on a single company owning all the aspects of production
Post-FordistCompanies now dependent on many different
manufacturers to build parts of cars
RETAIL LOCATION THEORYThreshold
Minimum number of people required to support a business
RangeMaximum distance people are willing to
travel to gain access to the serviceSpatial margin of profitability
Area where local demand for the service maximizes profit
AGGLOMERATION AND DEGLOMERATIONAgglomeration
Concentration of human activities in a cluster or around a central place
Agglomeration economiesFind firms with related or similar products
together and share in the advantages of skilled labor, specialized suppliers, and service providers
DeglomerationWhen a location is overloaded with similar
firms or services
SUBURBAN SPRAWLSprawl
Expansion of housing, transportation, and commercial development to undeveloped land on the urban periphery
Anti-growth movementsPush land laws to limit the growth in
suburban areasGrowth boundaries
Set minimums for lot sizes of homes so they do not become packed in by the growth
EDGE CITIESCBDs that have grown in the suburbs
CITY TYPES Colonial cities
Originated in colonial trade retained their European-style archetecture
Fall-line citiesPorts that were upstream to the point where ocan ships could no
longer navigate (break-in-bulk point): Boston, Albany, Baltamore Medieval Cities
Urban centers that date back to the Renaissance: Rome, Paris, London, Kyoto, Beijing
Gateway citiesPlaces where immigrants have made their way into a country:
New York, Miami, Toronto Entrepot
Port city in which goods are shipped in at one price and shipped out for another
MegacitiesMore than 10 million people: Tokyo, New York, Mexico City
MegalopolisUrbanized area of two or more cities that merge together:
Northeastern US
CITY TYPES (CNT’D)World City
Global center of financeFirst-order: New York, London, TokyoSecond-order: Los Angeles, Washington DC,
Chicago, Frankfort, ParisThird-order: San Francisco, Miami, Sydney
Primate cityLargest city is more than twice the size of the
second largest
RANK SIZE RULEThe nth largest city is 1/n the size of the
country’s largest city
UBRAN SOCIETYSegregation
Ethnic neighborhoods have sprung up: Chinatown
RedliningDesigning homes so that African Americans cannot
buy in that areaRestrictive covenants
Putting “whites only” clauses in home agreementsRacial steering
Real estate agents encouraging African Americans to only buy in certain areas
GENTRIFICATIONThe economic reinvestment in existing real
estateHistorical renovationHas had the negative effect of driving lower-
class citizens out because of higher prices
URBAN SUSTAINABILITYMany problems to address
Balancing taxes and maintaining municipal services
Expensive schoolsTraffic congestionPollution
Mass transit can fix some of these problemsNew downtown housing
Mixed-use buildingsBoth hosing and commercial space (New
Urbanization)