Transformation of Western Civilization: 1450-1715

Section I: Foundations of Western Civilizations: Summarize the chief contributions of each of

the following to Western civilization:

A. Greeks: On a military standpoint they formed alliances and created a navel empire. They

established the foundations of Western philosophy. They influenced western literary and

political terms. They thought of the concepts of rights and duties of citizenship and

democracy. They raised and debated fundamental questions about the purpose of human

existence, the structure of human society, and the nature of the universe.

B. Romans: They produced achievements in language, law, engineering, and government.

They were great builders and passed on aqueducts and roads. Also aspects of Roman

administrative practices survived.

C. Christianity: The church developed an organized government under the leadership of the

pope. It simulated the classical tradition and through its clergy brought Christianized

civilizations.

D. Feudalism/Manorialism: European society was dominated by a landed aristocracy whose

primary function was to fight. These nobles built innumerable castles in the country side.

Lords and vassals seemed forever mired in endless petty conflicts but over time medieval

kings began to exert centralizing authority and inaugurated the process of developing new

kinds of monarchial states.

E. Terms:

1. Babylonian Captivity/ Great Western Schism: The 'Babylonian Captivity' - the

period from 1309 to 1378 when the Popes were based in Avignon, France rather

than Rome - and the Papal Schism of 1378-1417,when French Cardinals

abandoned a Papacy that had returned to Rome in favor of their own French Pope

back in Avignon severely damaged the credibility of the Catholic Church.

2. Conciliar Movement: A Church movement centered on the three general councils

of Pisa, Constance, and Basle. Its original purpose was to heal the papal schism

caused by there being two, and later three, popes at the same time. The movement

was successful, deposing or accepting the resignation of the popes concerned. It

declared the superiority of a general council of the Church over the papacy

3. Wycliffe and Hus: Jon Wycliffe was an English theologian and early proponent of

reform in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. He made an

English translation of the Bible in one complete edition (King James Version) and

is considered a precursor of the Protestant Reformation. Jan Hus was a religious

thinker, philosopher, and reformer. His followers became known as Hussites. The

Roman Catholic Church considered his teachings heretical, and Hus was

excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at

the stake on July 6, 1415.

Section II: Transformation to Modern Society

A. Renaissance: Describe the following movements of the Renaissance era

1. Secularism: the belief that government or other entities should exist separately from religion

and/or religious beliefs.

2. Humanism: The ideal that through education in the sources of classical, and especially

Christian, antiquity, one could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would

bring about a reform of the church and society.

3. Italian Renaissance: The opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change

and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 13th century to about

1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. It was spawned by the

birth of the philosophy of humanism, which emphasized the importance of individual

achievement in a wide range of fields. The early humanists, studied the works of the ancient

Greeks and Romans for inspiration and ideology, mixing the philosophies of Plato and other

ancient thinkers with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Under the influence of the

humanists, literature and the arts climbed to new levels of importance

4. Northern Renaissance: The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance

in northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. Before 1450 Italian Renaissance

humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century the ideas spread around

Europe. After 1500 Renaissance spread around Europe, but Late Gothic influences remained

present until the arrival of Baroque. In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned

Italian artists, and built grand palaces at great expense, beginning the French Renaissance.

B. Modern State: Answer the following questions

1. Describe the general nature and accomplishments of the New Monarchies

They limited the power of the feudal aristocracy while creating efficient, centralized systems

of taxation. They maintained a standing army loyal to the monarch while encouraging some

sense of national identity. They fostered trade, both internally and externally and enforced

religious unity within their countries.

2. Describe the political and economic life in the early modern period in these places:

a. Spain: Spain had absolute monarchy but was controlled by the Holy Roman Empire

(Charles V) around mid-1500s. Their government was strongly tied to the church unlike

most of the Protestant nations. After they found the New World they obtained lots of gold

and silver which caused inflation in their homelands. The Spanish set up sugar and other

cash crop plantations and started the transatlantic slave trade.

b. France: During this period France evolved from a feudal regime to an increasingly

centralized state organized around a powerful absolute monarchy that relied on the

doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit support of the established Church.

It experienced an economic recovery.

c. England: During the early modern period England changed from being series of regional

economies largely isolated from one another, to being an integrated national economy.

London played a crucial role in this development. The battle of Bosworth marked the end

of the long period of civil war known as the Wars of the Roses and the establishment of

the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII, which brought a greater degree of stable centralized

government to England.

d. Poland: They saw a rise and partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the rise of

strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable nation states.

Economic origins of anti-Semitism began during this period.

e. Holy Roman Empire: The fundamental institutions of the later Middle Ages( the feudal

system, the universal authority of the Pope, the Holy Roman Empire, and the system of

trade regulated by Mediaeval guilds) were all undermined. As a result of large-scale

investment of capital, booming manufacture, and expanding trade and commerce, the

focus of economic life increasingly shifted away from the manorial estates of the feudal

nobility to the newly emerging cities, that enabled their prominence as centers of cultural

culmination.

3. What was the relation of the Ottoman Empire to the development of modern Europe?

The Ottoman Empire failed to impact the development of modern Europe, aside for providing a

place for British capital to be spent during the industrial revolution. The conservative forces and

the janissaries prevented the major military and economic reform the ottomans needed to

survive, and the empire collapsed at the end of World War One.

4. Define and tell the importance of each of the following persons or events:

a. Niccolo Machiavelli: Introduced realism into political theory and thought, replacing

"Idealism", a more theoretical judgement of humanity (in art, judgement ).

b. Thomas Hobbes: He believed humans were guided by animalistic ideals and a ruthless

struggle for self-preservation and that is why all power should be in the hands of a

sovereign authority, preferably a single ruler who served as an executor. He believed

subjects most not rebel and if they do they must be suppressed.

c. John Locke: He believed that humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than

a state of war. He believed everyone had the natural rights of life, liberty, and property.

The government was established to protect these rights and would work as long as the

people would act reasonably toward it. His philosophies helped support the demand for

constitutional governments.

d. Charles V: He was the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and he strongly supported

Catholicism and went to war with the Schmalkaldic League because of their belief in

Lutheranism. After a failed attempt at bring Catholicism back as the only religion in

Germany he stepped down from power.

e. Peace of Augsburg: It was a treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic

League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of

Augsburg. The Peace established the principle Cuius regio, eius religio, which allowed

German princes to select either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they

controlled, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states.

f. Treaty of Westphalia: In 1648, it brought an end to the Thirty Years' War, which had

drowned Europe in blood in battles over religion, defined the principles of sovereignty

and equality in numerous sub-contracts, and in this way became the constitution of the

new system of states in Europe.

C. Reformation: Answer each of the following parts relate to the Reformation

1. Define the causes of the Protestant Reformation

a. Political: Pluralism (Bishops, archbishops, and cardinals took over more than one

office which led to absenteeism

b. Economic: highest positions among the clergy were held by nobles or wealth

members of the bourgeoise

c. Religious: Corruption in the Catholic Church; Papal Courts preoccupation with

finances (Indulgences); Lack of Spiritual Leadership

2. Contrast the thinking in each of the following:

a. Martin Luther- thought humans were not saved through their good works but

through faith in the promises of God (Justification in faith alone). Did not agree

with the Church selling Indulgences.

b. John Calvin- agreed with Martin Luther’s justification by faith alone yet also

believed in predestination.

c. Ignatius Loyola- He formed the Jesuits. Believed in absolute obedience to the

papacy, a strict hierarchical order for society, and the use of education to achieve

glory.

d. Erasmus- emphasized inner piety and de-emphasize the external forms of religion

such as sacraments, pilgrimages, fast, veneration of saints, and relics.

3. Define and tell the importance of each of the following terms:

a. Habsburgs- They were one of the principal dynasties of Europe from the 15th to

the 20th century. The highpoint of Habsburg power came under Charles who

ruled over an empire over 'which the sun never set'. The dynastic division at

Charles death initiated the Spanish Habsburg line (until 1700) and the Austrian

line which ruled the Habsburg possessions in central Europe until 1918.

b. Thirty Years’ War- the conflict began in the German states as a struggle between

Catholicism and Calvinism. Europe’s major powers backed either the northern

Protestant Union or the Southern Catholic League. As the war progressed,

religion receded in importance, replaced by a struggle between the French

Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. War was ended by the Peace

of Westphalia which stated all German States were free to determine their own

religion.

c. Schmalkaldic League-Formed as a result of German Emperor Charles V

demanding that all Lutherans return to the Catholic Church. Eight Lutheran

princes and eleven Lutheran imperial cities formed a defense alliance against

Charles V. The league proved victorious they survived through War. Their actions

helped lead to the Peace of Augsburg which gave Lutherans equal rights in

Germany.

d. Inquisition: It was the "fight against heretics," with the use of torture, by several

institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in

the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy.

Inquisition practices were used also on offences against canon law other than

heresy.

e. Anabaptist: favored radical reform movements. They felt that the true Christian

church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone a spiritual

rebirth and who had been baptize into the church. Their ideals were attractive to

peasants, miners, an artisans because they could no longer financial afford to stay

part of the Catholic church.

f. French Civil War: Was driven by religious separations. The Huguenots took a

stand against the Catholic Church and French Monarchy. Resentful of the

growing power of monarchial centralization, towns and provinces were willing to

join a revolt against the monarchy.

g. Council of Trent: Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to

Protestant beliefs. It acknowledged supremacy of popes, who had triumphed over

bishops and councils.

h. Huguenots: French Calvinist who were a major opponent in the French Civil War

D. Economic Revolution

1. What was the importance of the opening of the Atlantic?

The Atlantic Ocean acted as a geographical "buffer" that made more deliberate and

effective control over the colonists impractical and difficult, thereby, allowing those

colonists who advocated revolution and freedom to freely nurture their plans and

ambitions and see them come to fruition.

2. What goods were brought to Europe as a result of the opening?

Tobacco, cotton, and sugar were brought to Europe.

3. What is meant by the term “Commercial Revolution”?

It means a fundamental change in the quantity and scope of commerce.

The focus of commerce shifted from Mediterranean to Atlantic ports, chartered

companies were organized and continued improvements in navigation and ship

construction sped long voyages. As a worldwide trade evolved, the principles of

mercantilism were adopted, and local trade barriers were abrogated, stimulating internal

commerce.

4. What were the effect of the Commercial Revolution in Europe

a. Economic: commercial trade brought economic prosperity to Europe leading to

prosperity financed new forms of cultural expression during this period. Inflation

became a problem as a result of the revolution.

b. Social: population increase, the emergence of the middle class, and changes in the

social structure (role of the nobility)

c. Political: Led to mercantilism in Europe.

d. Religious: Religion was losing its grip on Europe, in part because of the religious

wars. As kings wrenched power from the church, especially after the

Reformation, and intellectuals engaged in thinking outside the boundaries of

church theology secularism grew.

e. Intellectual: Led to more geographical education in preparation for voyages across

the world.

5. Define mercantilism

Mercantilism is the thought that the prosperity of a nation depended on a plentiful supply

of bullion (gold and silver).

E. Scientific Revolution

1. Explain the meaning of the term “Scientific Revolution”?

The Scientific Revolution was a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology,

human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had

prevailed starting in Ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages, and laid

the foundation of modern science.

2. How did each of the following contribute to the Scientific Revolution?

a. Francis Bacon: developed a correct scientific method based on inductive

reasoning; proceeded from the particular to the general

b. Nicholaus Copernicus: developed a heliocentric(sun centered) conception of the

universe

c. Johannes Kepler: his 3 laws of planetary motion proved “ Music of the spheres”

& Copernicus heliocentric theory & eliminated he Ptolemaic system

d. Galileo Galilei- 1st European to make systematic observations of the heavens

with the telescope & it was composed of substance similar to the Earth rather than

ethereal substance

e. Isaac Newton- Invented calculus, a means of calculating rates of change;

investigated the composition of light; made the laws of universal gravitation

f. Rene Descartes: emphasized deduction and mathematical logic in his approach to

the scientific method which complemented Bacon’s stress on experiment and

induction; Outlined a new rational-mathematical system

3. What was the impact of the Scientific Revolution on each of the following?

a. Philosophy: Many people began to think in a less restricted manner, and became

more humanistic in their approach to reasoning.

b. Religion: The Reformation led to a weakening of religion. Scientific truths could

be proven while religious truths could not and this led to skepticism in religion.

c. The world of the 17th and 18th centuries:

The scientific revolution led to the enlightenment movement which was a period in which

people were encouraged to use their own intelligence.