AP TEST REVIEW PART FIVE

Labelle Époque- WWII

MASS POLITICS: 1850-1914 Historians speak of the rise of mass politics in the

second half of the nineteenth century. Mass politics arose from the Dual Revolution-

1) The ideal of representative

2) The development of transportation and communication technologies as a product industrialization.

Two basic features characterize mass politics in the period 1850-1914:

1. Mass communication- with telegraphs, telephones, radio, and cheap newspapers, governments both responded to and manipulated public opinion.

MASS POLITICS: 1850-1914

2. Increase in conflict- public opinion also sharpened ethnic and class conflict. “Outsiders,” such as women, workers, and ethnic/religious minorities, demanded inclusion in the political process.

LIBERAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY

The nineteenth century marked the high tide of classical Liberalism. Symbols of the Liberal achievement include:

Constitutional government Representative assemblies Free trade Expansion of suffrage (the vote) Guarantees of rights Middle-class influence in government Spread of education and literacy Weakening of established churches

THIRD REPUBLIC OF FRANCE- TENSIONS

By 1878 moderates had succeeded in establishing the basis for a parliamentary democracy. Nonetheless, important groups, such as the Catholic Church and monarchists, never reconciled themselves to the existence of republican government, which they associated with the worst excesses of the French Revolution.

The Dreyfus Affair highlighted the divisions within the Third Republic.

THE DREYFUS AFFAIR In 1894, a French military court found

Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, guilty of treason on very thin evidence. The victim of anti-Semitism, he was sent to Devil’s Island, and the army refused to reopen the case.

French author Emily Zola (1840-1902) condemned his case in his pamphlet J’ Accuse (I Accuse). Eventually the government pardoned Dreyfus, but the fallout continued.

Republicans conducted an anticlerical campaign culminating in the complete separation of church and state in 1905 and the secularization of education by state.

PRE-WWI GERMANY: KULTURKAMPF After its unification, German industrial, political,

and military power soared. Bismarck successfully manipulated democratic

politics and the party system in the Reichstag to enact his policies.

First, Bismarck allied himself with the Liberal Party, which supported his attack on the Catholic Church in Germany. The Kulturkampf (struggle for culture) arose from the complex situation surrounding Italian unification.

Bismarck pushed through the Reichstag laws restricting the powers of the clergy, expelled the Jesuits, and jailed a number of bishops. When the campaign proved unsuccessful, Bismarck abandoned it and formed an alliance with the Catholic Center Party.

PRE-WWI GERMANY: WELFARE STATE Bismarck now moved to restrict the power of

the Social Democratic Party. The SPD operated as a moderate socialist party interested in obtaining benefits for the working class through the exercise of political power.

Bismarck initiated a welfare program (what he called “state socialism”), the first in Europe, of old age, accident, unemployment, and health benefits.]

When Kaiser William II ascended to the throne he soon dismissed Bismarck and embarked on a more conciliatory policy toward the SPD at home and a more aggressive foreign policy abroad

FEMINISM & WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE

Economic developments during the 2nd Industrial Revolution allowed women more freedom. “White-collar jobs” in new economic sectors- like telephone operators- provided women with income and better working conditions.

These jobs led women to push for economic and legal reforms.

In some western European nations between 1850-1914 women gained the right to own property, divorce, and gain custody of their children.

WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE

The suffrage movement was occurring in Europe and the United States.

In England it was led by the Pankhurst family- Emmeline and her daughters.

The Women’s Social and Political Union participated in militant activities- arson, hunger strikes, etc.

Many nations granted women the right to vote after WWI, a recognition to their contributions in the conflict.

JEWS, ANTI-SEMITISM, AND ZIONISM

With the Enlightenment many governments liberated Jews from legal restrictions and ghettos

This led to an assimilation of Jews into business, medicine, and law. Prominent Jews, such as Marx, Freud, and Einstein contributed with backlash.

In the late 19th-century, anti-Semitism took on a racial tone due to Social Darwinism.

Mass politics fed the creation of anti-Semitic politics.

In Russia, organized persecutions called pogroms persisted.

In response, Theodor Herzl founded Zionism, a movement of Jews to Palestine.

LABELLE ÉPOQUE ART: IMPRESSIONISM

Photography altered the purpose of the artist. Now artists no longer relied on patrons, they could sell their works to middle-class customers, and paint based on what they felt/wanted to paint.

The first major artistic trend following the invention of photography was impressionism. They were infatuated with light and shadow, and painted quickly their “impression” of the moment. Ex. Claude Monet or Edgar Degas.

POSTIMPRESSIONISTS

More interested in form and structure, major postimpressionist painters included Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin. They would paint in off colors based on their feelings.

Georges Seurat created a related movement named pointillism, after the small “dots” of color, which when combined formed a clear picture of shadow and light. Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte provides a view of the individualistic leisure of the modern city.

CUBISTS

Prior to WWI, the movement of Cubism began. Cubism broke apart scenes to analyzable parts and resembled in unique ways to provide the viewer with simultaneous multiple perspectives. Pablo Picasso is the most famous Cubist painter.

WORLD WAR I (1914-1918)

The war was sparked by the shooting of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, but the shooting was only a catalyst.

All of the elements leading to war had been in place for most of the 20th century. The shooting just provided an immediate cause.

The causes can be remembered by using the acronym MAIN

M= MILITARISM Militarism: Europe had been experiencing an

arms race ever since the unification of Germany, driven by mass production and the 2nd Industrial Revolution. Major naval rivalries existed between Germany &

England. Never before or since have greater percentages

served in their nations armies. Government leaders associated national

greatness with a strong military.

Germany began to work on the Schlieffen Plan, designed to fight a two front war against France and Russia.

MORE UNDERLYING CAUSES

Alliance systems: These led nations to take rash actions, knowing that their allies would come to their aid. Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, and Austria-

Hungary Originally called the Three Emperors League

(Germany, Russia, Austria), it ended when Russia withdrew, due to rivalries with Austria over the Balkan region.

Triple Entente: Russia, France, and England.

I= IMPERIALISM

Imperialism: Colonial rivalries between the major European powers created hatred and hostility that led to war.

1905: First Moroccan Crisis: Germany tried to take over Tangiers (Morocco) and called an international conference (Algiciris) to settle its ownership. Germany was humiliated & France kept Morocco.

1911: Second Moroccan Crisis: The Germans sent the gunboat, Panther, to Agadir (Morocco) to protest French occupation of the region. This caused England and France to join together to draw up war plans against the Germans. Germany withdrew after gaining a piece of the French Congo.

N= NATIONALISM Nationalism: This force brought about WWI in a

variety of ways: Nationalism spawned the unification of Italy &

Germany and caused a major shift in the balance of power.

Nationalism caused the great powers to pursue expansionist policies.

Nationalism on the part of ethnic minorities in Austria drew Austria and Russia into the conflict.

NATIONALISM IN THE BALKANS

1908: Balkan Crisis (Bosnian Crisis):Both Austria & Serbia wanted to expand in the Balkans. When Serbia protested the Austrian annexation of Bosnia, Russia sided with Serbia. Russia threatened to declare war, but Germany sided with Austria and Russia backed down.

Balkan War of 1912 & Balkan War of 1913

The important thing to note about these wars is that they were localized conflicts & to note the nationalist issues revolving around the Balkans.

THE ASSASSINATION & WAR

June 28, 1914: Sarajevo: The Austrian Archduke was assassinated by Gavrillo Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black Hand.

The Black Hand was a terrorist group, who wanted Bosnia freed from Austria.

Austrian Ultimatum: Austria blamed Serbian nationalists for the shooting and demanded a free hand in their own investigation of the crime.

Serbia’s Reply: Serbia accepted most of the ultimatum, but rejected parts that would destroy her sovereignty.

THE CRISIS LEADS TO WAR German Actions: On one hand, Germany offered

Austria a “blank check” of support. Russian troops moved to mobilize along the

German border July 28, 1914: Germany invaded Belgium and

Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany swept through Belgium, causing England

and France to declare war. Germany then declared war on Russia, who

declared war on the central powers.

THE WAR IN THE WEST

The Triple Entente became the Allies and the Triple Alliance became the Central Powers.

Europe did not get the war it expected. What was supposed to be over by Christmas turned into a stalemate by the end of 1914.

Military tactics lagged behind the technology, so trench warfare developed on the Western Front.

THE WAR IN THE EAST

Russia initially held off the limited number of German troops on the eastern front, but when German strength increased and Austria and Turkey became involved, the war was a complete disaster for Russia.

Russian losses were enormous and led to the collapse of the Russian gov’t by 1917.

Treaty of Brest Litovsk: 1917: Russia out of the war.

THE WAR AT SEA

The war at sea was almost more important than the land aspect of the war.

British naval strength was superior to that of the Germans, but German U-boats inflicted great damage and were one factor in the entrance of the US in the war.

THE WAR ENDS

Despite temporary German victories, largely caused by the use of poison gas, the allied victory over Germany at the Battle of Verdun turned the tide of war.

The revolutions that took place within Germany and Austria also added to the military victory of the Allies.

Eventually, British, French, Italian, and American armies, led by French Marshall Foch ( leader of the Vichy Regime during WWII) broke German lines and led to the armistice on Nov. 11, 1918.

ORGANIZING FOR TOTAL WAR The Great War involved the full mobilization to

the nation’s resources and population. It brought about the following changes: compulsory military training forced employment of men & women in war-industry

jobs restrictions on labor & management for the war

cause. The brought an end to laissez-faire economics.

war planning, regulations, price controls, rationing, & massive propaganda campaigns

To pay for the war governments: raised taxes, depreciated currencies, and borrowed money (from the US).

Many women entered the workforce for the first time. In Russia, women even fought on the front lines. This participation led to women’s suffrage after the war

VERSAILLES CONFERENCE

The Versailles settlement is often compared to the Congress of Vienna regarding their respective uses of collective security and the success of their decisions.

1919: Versailles conference: Big 4 made all important decisions: England, France, Italy, and the US (Wilson).

It was impossible to return Europe to the state it was in before- since 4 empires were toppled- Austria- Hungary, Russia, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire. New states needed to be formed.

WOODROW WILSON’S 14 POINTS

His vision for restructuring Europe and “making the world safe for democracy.”

Wilson declared WWI was the “war to end all wars”

He wanted diplomacy, freedom of the seas, arms reduction, self-determination, and collective security through the League of Nations.

The other members of the Big Four believed all of this was impossible.

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES: FINAL PRODUCT

League of Nations created (US and USSR didn’t join)

Alsace & Lorraine restored to France French exploitation of the Saar valley for 15 years Huge reparations to be paid by Germany Confiscation of German military supplies, and

Germany allowed to have only a 100,000 man militia.

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES: FINAL PRODUCT Demilitarization of the Rhineland War guilt clause blamed Germany for the war

and justified reparations German and Turkish colonies taken over by the

League of Nations who gave overseas colonies to the allies and created mandates in the Middle East.

Restoration of Poland Creation of Yugoslavia (denying Italy the land it

was promised before the war)

TREATY OF VERSAILLES: CONSEQUENCES AND CONFLICTS The Weimar Republic, Germany’s postwar

government, was saddled with what most Germans considered being “stabbed in the back.” Discontent over the treaty was used by the Nazis.

Economist John Maynard Keyes predicted the ruination of the world economy by the Treaty in his Economic Consequences of the Treaty. He was correct.

The treaty caused the isolation of the US and USSR.

Without full commitment to the League of Nations and collective security, Europe would quickly have another world war.

WEAK COLLECTIVE SECURITY

Many in Europe relied on the new League of Nations to ensure collective security. The League lacked enforcement mechanisms. For example, The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions (such as a trade embargo) which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. However, they were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could also hurt the League members imposing the sanctions and given the anti-war attitude following World War I, countries were reluctant to take military action. 

LONG-TERM CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1861-1905 Following Alexander II’s reforms (including

the abolition of serfdom in 1861) Russia appeared to be moving in the right direction.

Former serfs were forced to continue to live on mirs (rural communities) until they paid off their lands.

Russian nobility kept the best land, sticking former serfs with the rest. Rural overcrowding and food shortages led to unrest.

Russia began to industrialize in the later half of the century, with industry in concentrated in Moscow and St. Petersburg. These cities emerged as centers of unrest.

LONG-TERM CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1861-1905

Alexander II was assassinated on the same day he was to make Russia a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III brutally repressed dissent. Two parties were established in response in

secret. The Mensheviks (who wanted a mass-based political party that was Socialist). The Bolsheviks (who claimed to be professional leaders of a revolution).

REVOLUTION OF 1905

Russia’s loss in the Russo-Japanese War produced an economic and political crisis.

Protesters asking for the opportunity to form labor unions, led by Father Gapon, were fired on at the Winter Palace in an event known as Bloody Sunday.

Tsar Nicholas II, issued the October Manifesto allowing for the creation of a legislative assembly. He believed in divine right and was given the veto power. This made the Duma essentially useless.

WWI AND THE FALL OF THE TSAR Although the czar had not followed through on

his promises made after the revolution of 1905, dissatisfied parties in Russia tried to cooperate with the gov’t in the defense of Russia in 1914.

After the armies began to lose, the czar fired competent generals and replaced them himself, at the front. opposition grew more discontented, as a result. Further discontent was centered on the royal

family’s assistant Rasputin, who had great sway over the tsarina and her political decisions while her husband was off at war. She did not inform her husband of the problems.

THE REVOLUTION OF MARCH, 1917 As war losses mounted, food shortages at home

led to rioting in Russian cities. On International Women’s Day, in March of 1917,

a food riot broke out over the high cost of bread. The strike was followed by a mutiny among the

troops and the dissolving of the Duma. The new gov’t that took over was known as the

Provisional Gov’t & it was run by Alexander Kerensky.

PROBLEMS FOR THE NEW GOV’T Russians wanted to get out of WWI, because they

were losing so badly, and because supplies were so short on the homefront. Kerensky accepted a bribe and kept Russia in the war.

Hunger was a problem all over Russia. Most Russians wanted land reform. The Prov. Gov’t did nothing to help the distressed

population.

THE SOVIETS Soviets were small workers’ councils which had

been established following the revolution of 1905. The Petrograd Soviet was under the control of

Trotsky and was the most radical group calling for further action. It acted much like the Paris Commune in the French Revolution.

The Soviets called for an immediate end to the war, for peace with Germany, and for the seizure of land by the peasants & workers.

LENIN

April 16, 1917: Germany ships Lenin back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland in a sealed rail car.

Lenin’s April Thesis outlines his changes to traditional Marxism.

1) Against Imperialism2) Small group of professionals (the Bolsheviks) need

to lead the revolution, as opposed to a large Proletariat base.

3) Russia didn’t have to wait for it to industrialize to have a revolution, that could occur after the “dictatorship of the Proletariat”

4) Lenin’s motto: “Peace, Land, & Bread.” This was exactly what the people wanted to hear.

THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION

Nov. 6, 1917: Led by Lenin & Trotsky, Bolshevik leaders, soldiers, and workers quickly took over Petrograd, stormed the winter palace, & arrested the members of the provisional government. Alexander Kerensky escaped and lived in exile.

In January 1918, they recently elected Constituent Assembly (the legislative body) was disbanded. This plunged Russia into a Civil War.

MILITARY & INTERNAL PROBLEMS March 3, 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk took

Russia out of the war and ceded large amounts of territory to Germany. Russia lost about 1/3 of its population.

Civil War was raging between the Reds (Bolsheviks) and the Whites (everyone who opposed the reds). By 1921, the reds won the civil war. The Red Army- led by Trotsky- won because it had a

unifying vision & ruthless tactics During the war, used war communism to allow

workers to run factories. This proved disastrous.

RED TERROR

Once the Bolsheviks secured their power, they engaged in a red terror designed to eliminate “class enemies”

Under the influence of the Cheka (the secret police who later became the KGB) 1000s of former bourgeoisies, gentry, White Army, etc. were shot without a trial. In all over 2 million were killed.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

Though the whites were put down, the Soviet internal situation remained critical in 1921, with the economy being below pre-war levels.

The anarchists and peasants began to revolt in the countryside in an attempt to do something about the starvation & suffering of the masses.

THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP) This was Lenin’s plan to retain control and provide

temporary relief. Under the NEP, peasants were allowed to keep part

of their produce, which they were allowed to sell for cash profit on newly-recreated local markets.

The gov’t kept control of heavy industry & internat’l trade, but light manufacturing and internal trade was returned to private hands.

THE POWER STRUGGLE: STALIN VS. TROTSKY

Lenin had a series of strokes between 1922 & 1924. He finally died in 1924.

Trotsky & Stalin both wanted to be Lenin’s successor. Trotsky was a theorist who had organized the red army and

the Petrograd Soviet. Stalin was an activist who had been instrumental in forcing

the minority republics to unite into the USSR. He also had control of the machinery of gov’t.

When Trotsky publicly criticized Stalin’s foreign policy in 1927, Stalin had him exiled to Siberia.

Trotsky eventually escaped to the west & was assassinated by Stalin’s men in 1941.

STALIN’S FIVE YEAR PLANS When Stalin came to power the NEP ended. Stalin stated “We are 50 or a 100 years behind the

advanced countries. We must make good distance in ten years. Either we do it or we are crushed.”

Five year plans were goals to build a strong base of heavy industry and modern infrastructure of electricity, roads, and factories. The command economy developed, by a central govt.

agency First 5 year plan was successful, in part because they

were so far behind Soviet manufacturing was poor quality, with few

consumer goods.

FORCED COLLECTIVIZATION OF AGRICULTURE

During the NEP a wealthy class of peasants accumulated land, known as the kulaks.

Stalin forced the and all peasants onto collective farms, taking their land.

The kulaks resisted by destroying crops and slaughtering livestock. Millions were killed in the collectivization and millions more died for the forced famine. Estimates are up to 10 million.

PURGES (1934-1938)

From 1934-1938, Stalin directed a series of wholesale purges consisting of trumped-up or false accusations, mock trials, and then suicide or execution. More than 4 million were accused.

Any were sent to gulags, or labor camps. He did away with most of the old Bolshevik leaders

and others who could challenge his power.

1936 CONSTITUTION

Although the constitution called for universal suffrage and appeared to be very liberal, it actually was circumvented by the fact that the party and the gov’t were controlled by the same few persons.

For example, even though the nation had a premier, in practice, the premier was always the comm. party secretary.

Although women were supposed to gain equal rights, in the 1920s many of their new rights were reversed and they were forced to balance work and family obligations.

TOTALITARIANISM

During WWI states grew in their power to mobilize and employ propaganda to control public opinion.

Communication advances in the interwar period, such as radio and motion pictures provided additional means for controlling the populace.

What distinguishes totalitarianism from an absolute monarchy? Absolute monarchies were still hindered by tradition and geography. Totalitarians, controlled all aspects of society using TECHNOLOGY. Modern communications made it possible to control the entire population.

FASCISM What is fascism?

Fascism is a political philosophy which is anti-democratic, anti-communist, and anti-liberal. The following is a list that explains their ideas.

1) Militarism2) Glorification of the State3) Fuhrer Principle- German for leaders, this ideas is that the voice

of the people is best represented in their leader, rather than a democratically elected body

4) Antidemocracy & One-party rule- democracies were seen as weak. Therefore, elections ended.

5) Anticommunist- they upheld the importance of racial and national identify, which was condemned by communists who believed that all people were equal.

ITALY AFTER WWI

After switching sides to end the war fighting with the allies in WWI, Italy was disappointed in the lack of territorial gain she achieved at Versailles.

The Italian economy was in shambles after WWI, and unemployment was high. Workers engaged in numerous strikes.

Already low in respect, Italy’s democracy sank further.

Following the war, the king, Victor Emmanuel III was a figurehead with virtually no power.

THE RISE OF MUSSOLINI Mussolini organized the 1st fasces group in 1919. In 1920, he founded a paramilitary group called

the Black Shirts (squadristi). He used the Black Shirts in a campaign of terror to

promote fascist ideas. 1921: Fascists were for the 1st time elected to the

parliament. Oct. 1922: March on Rome: Mussolini’s Blackshirts

and thousands of discontented Italians marched on Rome demanding a new government. The king yielded and gave Mussolini constitutional

authority to form a new government, thus giving the fascists political power.

ITALIAN FASCISM To get a majority in Parliament, Mussolini passed the

Acerbo Law, which granted 2/3 of the party seats to the party that gained the most votes. With the tactics of the blackshirts, they gained control of parliament.

Soon after taking power, constitutionally, Mussolini created a fascist dictatorship. He created a fascist militia (out of the Blackshirts) He passed emergency power decrees He revised the electoral system to assure him absolute

control. He eliminated all oppositional political parties He censored the press He called himself Il Duce

CORPORATE STATE

Mussolini controlled the economy by creating what he called the corporate state. The state represented labor in negotiations, in industrial

planning, expansion, etc. The economy was run as 22 separate corporations. State dictated policy and production priorities, but

private property was allowed. The chief economic and social problems remained

unsolved by the Fascists.

THE LATERAN ACCORDS & WOMEN

Mussolini granted independent status to the Vatican in exchange for promises of non-interference from the church in all political, social, economic, and military spheres.

To address declining birth rates, Mussolini provided incentives to larger families. In a fascist state, women were to play the domestic role of rearing strong children.

FOREIGN POLICY

Mussolini sent his fascist troops to intervene in the Spanish Civil War to help Franco take over Spain.

Mussolini, hoping to take over more territory and avenge the 1896 defeat at Adowa, invaded Ethiopia and quickly took it over.

Despite the efforts, Italy was never able to realize the totalitarian state to the degree of the USSR or Nazi Germany.

GERMANY AFTER WWI Nov. 1918: Kaiser Wilhelm was ousted and the

Weimar Republic was created. Nov. 11, 1918: Germany surrendered, ending WWI. Since the Weimar Republic signed the Treaty of

Versailles, it was blamed and was considered weak in comparison to imperial Germany.

The German’s viewed the treaty as the Diktat or “dictated peace.” Hitler and others perpetuated the myth that the German army had been “stabbed in the back” by the “Jews, socialists, communists, and democrats” who wanted a democratic government.

SPARTICIST REVOLT Extremist groups attempted to overthrow the

government immediately. Opposition came from the far left

(Communists/Sparticists) and the far right (Fascists). Sparticist Uprising: Jan. 1919: led by Rosa Luxemberg

and Karl Liebknecht. Put down by the Freikorps (a right-wing army group)

REPARATIONS, THE RUHR, AND HYPERINFLATION

In 1923 Germany fell behind on its reparations payments. In response the French and Belgians invaded the industrial Rhur Valley.

Weimar leaders told workers to passively resist, and to not work. To pay the workers’ benefits and wages, they printed more paper money- causing hyperinflation. Overnight middle-class savings were wiped out.

Since America’s Allies couldn’t pay back their loans without reparations, the US lent Germany the money to pay its reparations through the Dawes Plan (this would later cause Germany’s economy to crash with the US in the Great Depression).

BEER HALL PUTSCH

During the hyperinflation, the Nazi’s chose to act hoping to overthrow the government.

1923: Munich Beer Hall Putsch: Hitler & led a coup in a Munich Beer Hall and were arrested & imprisoned.

While in jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf and began to plan how he would later take over Germany.

The Nazis realized they needed to work within the government in order to take over Germany.

THE STRESEMANN YEARS

Under Stresemann, the Weimar government achieved some degree of solvency and stability.

The Locarno Pacts: These agreements were signed by most of the European nations. Allowed Germany to join the League of Nations Guaranteed Western, but not E. borders. Germany recognized its permanent loss of the Alsace-

Lorraine

In the “Spirit of Lacarno” culminated with the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which made war illegal amongst 65 nations. Like the League of Nations, it had no way to enforce its decisions.

THE RISE OF HITLER

Although it seemed that Hitler’s chances of gaining power were slim in the 1920’s, the great depression changed the political climate of Germany and caused people to have a reason to listen to his promises.

The Nazi party promised to regain German greatness, provide prosperity, and rise above the disgrace of Versailles.

CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

Strong inflationary pressures- During World War I, governments borrowed money at record rates. Most states depreciated (meaning lowered) their currency rates in an effort to reduce the amount they would pay in debt.

Disrupted Markets- While Europe fought World War I, competitors moved into its world-wide markets. When the war ended, European nations found it difficult to reestablish former trade patterns.

CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

High Tariffs- To protect their home markets most countries enacted high tariff barriers

WWI Reparations Payments- The cycle of world capital flowed from the US to Germany, then from Germany to France and Great Britain, and finally back to the US. This unnatural arrangement disrupted investment, while making world economic activity reliant on American financial conditions.

When the US stock market crashed in October 1929, the economic depression spread throughout the world.

EFFECTS OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

Unemployment reached shocking proportions, strengthening those parities who promised extreme solutions to problems. Germany and the US were hit hardest; as many as 35 percent of workers were unemployed.

British economist John Maynard Keynes introduced an alternative approach to the economic situation. He argued that governments needed to “prime and pump” the economy by cutting taxes, spending on government programs to help the needy, and creating more government jobs. Keynesian economics was used in the US and France. It has become the new type of economics used by nations after 1945.

NAZI “LEGALITY” STRATEGY

The Nazis designed to take advantage of politics to create a mass movement. The Nazi message was simple: Weimar represented rule by the worst- democrats, socialists, Jews-and Germany needed a strong national state based on race.

Germany required Lebensraum (living space) in the East, as part of a new European order around a hierarchy of race.

Members of the S.A. (Brownshirts) provoked street fights with rival political groups.

The party aligned itself with middle-class voters and portrayed themselves and young and dynamic,

HITLER BECOMES CHANCELLOR

Election of 1932: Hindenberg won the Presidency, but Hitler had a lot

of support. The Nazi party gained more seats in the Reichstag,

but still did not have a majority. Jan. 30, 1933: Hindenberg appointed Hitler

Chancellor in a coalition cabinet. Hitler immediately began to consolidate his

power.

HITLER’S CONSOLIDATION OF POWER

1933: Hitler arranged for a fire to burn the Reichstag building. The fire was blamed on the communists and was

used as justification for kicking all of the communists out of the government.

Eventually, Germany became a one-party state. After the Reichstag fire, Hitler invoked the

emergency clause of the constitution and ruled by decree.

Hitler purged the SA leaders by having them killed in the “Night of the Long Knives,” thus ensuring his control of the Nazi party.

USE OF TERROR 1934: Hindenberg died & Hitler became President.

Later he took on the title “Fuehrer.” Internally, a secret police, the Gestapo, arrested

real and imagined opponents, committing thousands to a constellation of concentration camps. Following the S.A. purge, the S.S. (Schutzstaffel) emerged as the primary perpetrators of terror, eventually absorbing control of the Gestapo, running the death camps, and forming the leading edge of a new “Aryan” racial elite.

HITLER’S POLICIES

Hitler began to build up all branches of the military and instituted 4 year plans to step up production and building of war materials, food, and the Autobahn in order to help the economy.

Nazi racial policy touched all areas of life. Boys were enrolled in the Hitler Youth and girls in the League of German Maidens to reinforce traditional gender roles and build a strong racial stock.

Women were expected to fulfill the domestic duties of “church, kitchen, and children,” while their public and economic roles were limited by the state.

HITLER’S POLICIES Anti-Semitic policies fulfilled the Nazi racial

vision. At first, Jews were excluded from the civil service and army. Then the Nuremberg Laws were passed, which stripped Jews of citizenship.

Nazi policies turned violent with the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) of November 1938, in which synagogues were burned, businesses destroyed and hundreds of Jews killed or arrested.

To further the goal of a pure Aryan race, the Nazis also engaged in campaigns of sterilization for the “mentally unfit” and euthanasia for the terminally ill, insane, and physically deformed.

MID-WAR ENGLAND

England faced a wide variety of problems between the wars. These problems included economic crises, political instability, disputes over the future of Ireland, and colonial difficulties.

Of all the industrial nations, Great Britain depended the most on trade. World War I and the Great Depression both struck a blow against Britain’s dominant position. Its overseas trade destroyed, the nation was deeply in debt, its factories were outdated. In 1920, over 2 million people were unemployed.

MID-WAR ENGLAND

Welfare legislation enacted before the war eased some of the burden to the unemployed. Despite the negative economic conditions, workers were reluctant to surrender gains made in wartime. Conflicts in industry led in 1926 to a General Strike, which was eventually squashed by government intervention.

Politically, the Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party and, after gaining power in 1924 and again in 1929, extended the rights of workers.

The problems of a poor economy, diminished world status, and political tension place Britain in a weakened position to confront Nazi aggression.

MIDWAR FRANCE

France suffered enormous casualties in the war, and in the destruction of nearly one quarter of its economy.

France had borrowed money during the war and relied on German reparations to help spur its economy. The inability of Germany to make these payments led to a steady decline in the franc.

France’s actions in the Ruhr were attacked by the US and Britain- further isolating France.

MIDWAR FRANCE

In foreign policy, their chief concern was securing its borders against Germany. They built a line of fortifications along its western boundaries called the Maginot Line.

Failure because it did not cover the Belgian border, and because all the guns were fixed facing Germany.

The Great Depression came late to France. It brought an unstable political scene. In 1933, five coalition governments were formed and fell in rapid succession. In 1934, pro-Fascists rioted and threatened to overthrow the republic.

MIDWAR FRANCE

In 1936, the Communists, Socialists, and Radicals formed an alliance- the Popular Front- and united behind Leon Blume. Inspired by Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, he encouraged social reform, complete with paid vacations, and 40-hour work-weeks. Blum was forced out by conservatives.

Overall, the instability of the French government made it difficult for it to confront Nazi aggression.

HITLER’S GOALS IN WORLD WAR II

Hitler sought to 1) regain those lands lost at Versailles2) to subdue France and bring Britain3) to turn east and conquer Slavic Europe as a

vast farmland and slave labor force4) to eliminate “culture destroyers” such as

Jews and Gypsies.

POLICY OF APPEASEMENT Dictators and militarists in Italy, Germany, and

Japan took aggressive actions, which other European countries met with the policy of appeasement – giving into the aggressor’s demands in order to keep out of war.

France was demoralized from World War One and Great Britain believed that Hitler was justified in violating the Versailles treaty because it was too harsh.

Appeasement was also based on the following concerns: 1) lack of preparation for war due to budget constraints caused by the Great Depression 2) a greater fear of Soviet communism and 3) the horrors brought about by World War I.

THE ROAD TO WAR

1931: Japan invades Manchuria 1933: Hitler withdraws Germany from

the League of Nations. 1935: Mussolini invades Ethiopia.

Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia protests to the League, but nothing is done.

1936: Rejecting the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler remilitarizes the Rhineland. France and Britain do nothing, convincing Hitler of their weakness.

THE ROAD TO WAR: SPANISH CIVIL WAR

1936: General Francisco Franco and his fascist supporters begin a revolt against the government of Spain starting the civil war.

Hitler and Mussolini aid Franco. Nazis use Spain as a dress rehearsal to test

their new weapons and blitzkrieg warfare. In 1939, Franco gains control of Spain and

keeps control in a fascist dictatorship until his death in 1975.

ROAD TO WAR 1938: Hitler invades Austria on the grounds that all

German-speaking people belong together (Anschluss). Anschluss violates the World War One peace treaties. Western powers continue to do nothing.

September, 1938: Hitler demands the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia. At Mussolini’s suggestion, a conference is held at Munich. Neville Chamberlain, who became prime minister of England, believed that it was silly to get involved in quarrels with people “Whom we know nothing about.” The Munich Conference ceded the Sudetenland to German. Stalin is convinced the western democracies are too weak to confront Hitler.

ROAD TO WAR

March 10-16, 1939: Violating the Munich Agreement, Hitler takes all of Czechoslovakia.

1939: Hitler signs the Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin. They agree not to fight each other. This protects Germany against a two-front war, as in World War One. A secret protocol provides for the division of Poland, the Baltic States, and Finland. A week later, both Hitler and the Soviet Union invade Poland to begin World War II.

MOBILIZATION DURING THE WAR

World War Two required an even higher level of mobilization and sacrifice among civilians than WWI. Many governments centralized production & rationed programs.

Germany: Germany did not mobilize effectively for wartime production. Hitler was reluctant to promote women in the workforce or call on German citizens to sacrifice consumer goods, recognizing the collapse of the war effort in 1917-1918.

MOBILIZATION OF GERMANY

Nazi Germany relied extensively on slave labor from conquered and occupied territories for armaments production. Only in 1944, when the war was nearing its end, did Germany move toward full mobilization, closing down popular amusements and rationing goods. German women never did enter the workforce in large numbers.

MOBILIZATION IN THE SOVIET UNION

For the Soviet Union the conflict was known as the Great Patriotic War. Over 20 million Soviet citizens perished in the war. Once the Nazis had captured some of the best agricultural lands and threatened key industrial cities, the Soviets moved entire factories inland

There was supercentralization of the economy around the war effort and reduced the production of consumer goods.

Women also served in the armed forces, unique among the combatants, as with the famous “Night Witches” fighter pilots protecting Stalingrad.

MOBILIZATION IN GREAT BRITAIN

Almost every adult assisted the war effort-women went into armament production and older citizens joined the Home Guard.

The government created ministries to oversee and distribute fuel, food, and war supplies.

Citizens develop self-sufficiency in food production, as with “Dig for Victory” gardens. Citizens received ration books with coupons and received only those war goods assigned to them.

WWII

Very little happened in the fall of 1939. Winter War: 1940: USSR vs. Finland US still remained neutral, but began to follow “cash

& carry policies” for allies. June 1940: France fell to the Nazis: Vichy France

created under Marshall Petain. US started Lend-Lease

Dec. 7, 1941: Pearl Harbor bombed US enters WWII

THE RUSSIAN FRONT

June 1941: Germany invaded the USSR and headed for Moscow. This action was eventually halted due to the

terrible winter conditions and the scorched earth policy of the Russians.

June 1942: German offensive aimed at capturing S. Russia. Very successful, at first. Finally stopped at the Battle of Stalingrad

THE BATTLE OF STALINGRAD The Battle of Stalingrad was the turning point in

the Eastern front of the war. After this battle, the Russians were on the

offensive and never lost another major battle to the Germans.

Russia captured over 300,000 German soldiers who became Russian prisoners of war.

The Allies had been attacking Germany from the West, after D-Day and their attack at Normandy.

The Russians entered Berlin in April, 1945.

THE ATLANTIC CHARTER

Atlantic Charter: August 1940: FDR & Churchill met in the Atlantic and issued a

statement by which peace would eventually be established.

It called for self-determination of liberated areas after the war

They agree to start the United Nations following the war

It stated that neither the US nor Britain were interested in territorial gain, as a result of the war.

THE TEHERAN CONFERENCE

The Teheran Conference: Dec. 1943: The Big Three: FDR, Churchill, & Stalin met to

coordinate war plans in Europe. The W. allies agreed to open a 2nd front in

Europe, but did not do so until June, 1944. This caused great animosity on the part of Stalin

who was valiantly fighting off the Germans in the Southern USSR.

THE YALTA CONFERENCE Yalta Conference: Feb. 1945:

Big three: Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin Final decisions were made by the Allies concerning

the impending defeat of Germany. Agreed to allow the USSR to liberate Berlin. Agreed on the division of Germany after the war. Agreed that liberated areas would be allowed to hold

free elections to choose a new gov’t after the war. Agreed to hold the post-war Nuremberg trials.

THE POTSDAM CONFERENCE

Potsdam Conference: July-August 1945 Big Three: Stalin, Truman, & Churchill/Atlee Agreed to the actual terms of the division of Germany Agreed to adjust the borders of Germany & Poland to

the USSR’s favor. Agreed to reparations for USSR using industry in East

Germany The USSR agreed to enter the Pacific war. This is the start of the Cold War.

DECOLONIZATION Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires. Between 1947 and 1962,

almost every colonial territory gained independence. Causes: Modern nationalism and belief in self-determination and racial

equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in virtually every colonial territory after WWI. Decline of European prestige; destruction of Europe during WWII. After 1945, European powers more concerned about rebuilding; let colonies go

Great Britain- favored the “partition and run” for its colonies and mandates, encouraging contending political groups to sort out a settlement.

France- To reestablish prestige after its poor showing in WWII France was determined to hold onto its colonial empire. It soon faced communist opponents in French Indochina. This caused them to withdraw in 1954. In Algeria France was fighting French settlers, colons. The war produced a crisis for the government, bringing down the 4th republic, despite opposition from the army President deGaulle ended the imperialism of Algeria in 1962.