AP & Regents Biology -...

AP Biology

AP Biology

Lab Review

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BIG IDEA 1: EVOLUTION

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Lab: Artificial Selection

Concepts:

Natural selection = differential reproduction

in a populationPopulations change over time evolution

Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

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Description:

Use Wisconsin Fast Plants to perform

artificial selection

Identify traits and variations in traits

Cross-pollinate (top 10%) for selected trait

Collect data for 2 generations (P and F1)

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Sample Histogram of a Population

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Analysis & Results:

Calculate mean, median, standard deviation,

range

Are the 2 populations before and after selection

(P and F1) actually different?

Are the 2 sub-populations of F1 (hairy vs. non-

hairy) different?

Are the means statistically different?

A T-test could be used to determine if 2 sets of

data are statistically different from each other

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Lab: Mathematical Modeling:

Hardy-Weinberg

Concepts:

Evolution = change in frequency of alleles

in a population from generation to

generation

Hardy-Weinberg EquilibriumAllele Frequencies (p + q = 1)

Genotypic Frequencies (p2+2pq+q2 = 1)

Conditions:1. large population

2. random mating

3. no mutations

4. no natural selection

5. no migration

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Hardy-Weinberg

Description:

Generate mathematical models and

computer simulations to see how a

hypothetical gene pool changes from one

generation to the next

Use Microsoft Excel spreadsheet

p = frequency of A allele

q = frequency of B allele

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Hardy-Weinberg

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Hardy-Weinberg

Setting up Excel spreadsheet

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Hardy-Weinberg

Sample Results

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Hardy-Weinberg

Analysis & Results:

Null model: in the absence of random events

that affect populations, allele frequencies

(p,q) should be the same from generation to

generation (H-W equilibrium)

Analyze genetic drift and the effect of

selection on a given population

Manipulate parameters in model:

Population size, selection (fitness),

mutation, migration, genetic drift

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Hardy-Weinberg

Real-life applications:

Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly

Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell

Anemia)

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Lab: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST Evolutionary Relationships

Concepts:

Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math

modeling, computer science to analyze

biological data

Genomes can be compared to detect genetic

similarities and differences

BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool

Input gene sequence of interest

Search genomic libraries for identical or

similar sequences

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Description:

Use BLAST to compare several genes

Use information to construct a cladogram

(phylogenetic tree)

Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary

relatedness of species

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Use this data to construct a cladogram

of the major plant groups

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Fossil specimen in China

DNA was extracted from preserved tissue

Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

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Analysis & Results:

BLAST results: the higher the score, the

closer the alignment

The more similar the genes, the more recent their common ancestor located

closer on the cladogram

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BIG IDEA 2: CELLULAR

PROCESSES: ENERGY AND

COMMUNICATION

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Diffusion & Osmosis

Concepts:

Selectively permeable membraneDiffusion (high low concentration)

Osmosis (aquaporins)Water potential ( )

= pressure potential ( P) + solute potential ( S)

Solutions:

Hypertonic

hypotonic

isotonic

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Diffusion & Osmosis

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Diffusion & Osmosis

Description:

Surface area and cell size vs. rate of

diffusion

Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various

solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt,

glucose, protein)

Identify concentrations of sucrose solution

and solute concentration of potato cores

Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of

salt water)

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Diffusion & Osmosis

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Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of

Sucrose

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Diffusion & Osmosis

ConclusionsWater moves from high water potential ( )

(hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential ( ) (hypertonic=high solute)

Solute concentration & size of molecule

affect movement across selectively

permeable membrane

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AP Biology

Photosynthesis

Concepts:

Photosynthesis6H2O + 6CO2 + Light C6H12O6 + 6O2

Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis:

Production of oxygen (O2)

Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO2)

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Photosynthesis

Description:

Paper chromatography to identify pigments

Floating disk technique

Leaf disks float in water

Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using syringe leaf sinks

Photosynthesis O2 produced bubbles form

on leaf leaf disk rises

Measure rate of photosynthesis by O2 production

Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors

of leaves, pH of solutions

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Plant Pigments & Chromatography

Floating Disk Technique

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PhotosynthesisConcepts:

photosynthesis

Photosystems II, IH2O split, ATP, NADPH

chlorophylls & other plant pigments

chlorophyll a

chlorophyll b

xanthophylls

carotenoids

experimental designcontrol vs. experimental

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Cellular Respiration

Concepts:

Respiration

Measure rate of respiration by:

O2 consumption

CO2 production

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Description:

Use respirometer

Measure rate of respiration (O2 consumption)

in various seeds

Factors tested:

Non-germinating seeds

Germinating seeds

Effect of temperature

Surface area of seeds

Types of seeds

Plants vs. animals

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Conclusions:temp = respiration

germination = respiration

Animal respiration > plant respirationsurface area = respiration

Calculate Rate

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BIG IDEA 3: GENETICS AND

INFORMATION TRANSFER

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Mitosis & Meiosis

Concepts:Cell Cycle (G1 S G2 M)

Control of cell cycle (checkpoints)

Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

Mitosis vs. MeiosisCrossing over genetic diversity

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Mitosis & Meiosis

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Mitosis & Meiosis

Description:

Model mitosis & meiosis (pipecleaners, beads)

How environment affects mitosis of plant roots

Lectin - proteins secreted by fungus

Root stimulating powder

Count # cells in interphase, mitosis

Observe karyotypes (cancer, mutations)

Meiosis & crossing over in Sordaria (fungus)

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Mitosis & Meiosis

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Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

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Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

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Mitosis & Meiosis

Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria)

Arrangement of ascospores

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Sordaria Analysis

% crossovertotal crossover

total offspring=

distance from

centromere

% crossover

2=

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Bacterial Transformation

Concepts:

Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from

surroundings

Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes

Replicates separately from bacteria DNA

Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance

Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO

plasmid

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Conclusions:

Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid)

Ampicillin = Selecting agent

No transformation = no growth on amp+ plate

Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

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Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

Concepts:

Restriction Enzymes

Cut DNA at specific locations

Gel Electrophoresis

DNA is negatively charged

Smaller fragments travel faster

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Description

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Determine DNA fragment sizes

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Conclusions:

Restriction enzymes cut at specific

locations (restriction sites)

DNA is negatively charged

Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than

larger fragments

Relative size of DNA fragments can be

determined by distance travelled

Use standard curve to calculate size

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BIG IDEA 4: INTERACTIONS

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Lab: Energy Dynamics

Concepts:Energy from sunlight drives photosynthesis

(store E in organic compounds)

Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured

But some energy is used for respiration (R)

Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R

Energy flows! (but matter cycles)Producers consumers

Biomass = mass of dry weight

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Pyramid of Energy

Pyramid of Biomass

Pyramid of Numbers

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Description:Brassica (cabbage) cabbage white

butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

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Measuring Biomass:Cabbage mass lost

Caterpillar mass gained

Caterpillar frass (poop) dry mass

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Conclusions:

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Conclusions:

Energy is lost (respiration, waste)

Conservation of Mass

Input = Output

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Lab: Transpiration

Concepts:

Transpiration

Xylem

Water potential

Cohesion-tension hypothesis

Stomata & Guard cells

Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of

transpiration

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Lab: Transpiration

AP Biology

Lab: Transpiration

Description:

Determine relationship between leaf surface

area, # stomata, rate of transpirationNail polish stomatal peels

Effects of environmental factors on rate of

transpiration

Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind),

light intensity

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Analysis of Stomata

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Rates of Transpiration

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Lab: Transpiration

Conclusions:transpiration: wind, light

transpiration: humidity

Density of stomata vs. transpiration

Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

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AP Biology

Lab: Animal Behavior

Concepts:

Experimental designIV, DV, control, constants

Control vs. Experimental

Hypothesis

innate vs. learned behavior

choice chamberstemperature

humidity

light intensity

salinity

other factors

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Description:

Investigate relationship between

environmental factors vs. behavior

Betta fish agonistic behavior

Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior

Pillbug kinesis

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Hypothesis Development

Poor:

I think pillbugs will move toward the wet

side of a choice chamber.

Better:

If pillbugs are randomly placed on two

sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and

allowed to move about freely for

10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be

found on the wet side because they

prefer moist environments.

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Experimental Design sample size

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Data Analysis:

Chi-Square Test

Null hypothesis: there is no difference

between the conditions

Degrees of Freedom = n-1At p=0.05, if X2 < critical value accept null

hypothesis (any differences between observed

and expected due to CHANCE)

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Lab: Enzyme Activity

Concepts:

EnzymeStructure (active site, allosteric site)

Lower activation energySubstrate product

Proteins denature (structure/binding site changes)

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Description:

Determine which factors affecting rate of

enzyme reactionH2O2 H2O + O2

Measure rate of O2 production

catalase

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Turnip peroxidase Color change (O2 produced)

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Conclusions:

Enzyme reaction rate affected by:

pH (acids, bases)

Temperature

Substrate concentration

Enzyme concentration

Calculate Rate of Reaction

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